See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/333582923

syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes

Conference Paper · November 2014

CITATIONS READS
0 3,731

1 author:

Sawsan Amer
October 6 University
4 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Sawsan Amer on 03 June 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic axes and the Style of Lighting
By: Sawsan Mohammed Ezzat Ibrahim Ammer
A lecturer at the Faculty of Applied Arts – 6 of October University, Egypt
Department of Photography, Cinema and Television
dr.sawsanamer@gmail.com

Abstract

Metz thinks that there is a danger that semiotics of the cinema will tend to develop the syntagmatic rather than along
the paradigmatic axis. It is not that there is no filmic paradigm: At specific points along the chain of images the
number of units liable to occur is limited, so that, in these circumstances, the unit that does appear derives its
meaning in relation to the other members of the paradigm. This is the case with the “fade-dissolve” duality within
the framework of the “conjunction of two sequences” (Metz, 99). Also when Metz deals with the image and more
specifically with lighting, he talked about the automatic recording process which has no organization (the previously
cited statement, “the denoted meaning is secured entirely through the automatic process of photochemical
reproduction”). This attitude creates great problems for him when he attempts to situate lighting in a system of
denotation and connotation (Russell, 32). With this point of view Metz did not refer to the light as an important unit
of the film could be studied with the linguistic terms, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, denotation and connotation.
Because of the power that semiotic coding exerts on an audience response, cinematographers have to think carefully
about choices of lighting (equipment’s and technics) made within a film. The linguistic idea of the syntagmatic and
paradigmatic axes helps evaluating these decisions. That is what the study is going to discusses, clarification the
important of the two axes in lighting study.

Introduction

Some of the most critical decisions affecting the films look concern lighting. In the hands of skilled
cinematographers lighting becomes a powerful, almost magical tool. As Todd Rainsberger said: “Just as no two
artists use the same brush strokes, no two cameramen control light in exactly the same manner. The angle, quality,
and intensity of light can vary in an infinite number of ways. Recording a scene on film is thus not a copy of a single
unchanging reality, but the selective recording of a filmic reality which is the unique result of a particular choice of
light sources.” (Rainsberger, 75). The intensity, direction, and character of light affect the dramatic effectiveness of
an image. The director and cinematographer together plan the look they want for lighting. Then the cinematographer
assumes the primary responsibility for the lighting, using his elements to create his own style of lighting.
(Boggs,103). This research is studying the possibilities of the cinematographer (lighting) within terms of linguistics.
The research is going to discuss and clarifies the important of the two axes for the study of light. Lighting becomes
stylistic when the denotation and connotation appears. Axes of paradigm and syntagm allow analysis method for
cinematic lighting by the terms of denotation and connotation.

1. Saussure's Paradigms and Syntagms

Saussure was concerned exclusively with three sorts of systemic relationships: that between a signifier and signified,
those between a sign and all of other elements of its system, and those between a sign and the elements which
surround it within a concrete signifying instance(Silverman,10). He emphasized that meaning arises from the
differences between signifiers, these differences are of two kinds: syntagmatic (concerning positioning) and
paradigmatic (concerning substitution). These two dimensions are often presented as “axes”, where the horizontal
axis is the syntagmatic and the vertical axis is the paradigmatic. The plan of the syntagm is that of the combination
of 'this-and-this-and-this' whilst the plane of the paradigm is that of the selection of 'this-or-this-or-this'. Whilst

1

syntagmatic relations are possibilities of combination, paradigmatic relations are functional contrast – they involve
differentiation (Chandler,84).

2. Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic axes in Cinema

Film become a discourse, Metz argued, by organizing itself as narrative and thus producing a body of signifying
procedures: “It was precisely to the extent that the cinema confronted the problems of narration that….it came to
produce a body of specific signifying procedures.” While no image entirely resembles another image, most narrative
films resemble one another in their principal syntagmatic figures, those units which organize spatial and temporal
relations in various combinations,...., By moving from one image to two, film becomes language. Both language and
film produce discourse through paradigmatic and syntagmatic operations. Language selects and combines phonemes
and morphemes to form sentences; film selects and combines images and sounds to form syntagmas, i.e. units of
narrative autonomy in which elements interact semantically (Stam,37). The following chart is an illustration of the
syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes that emerged out of Saussure's work on semiotics.

Sophia Kisses James

Loren McAvoy
Keira Mocks Ewan paradigmatic
Knightley McGregor
Cate Slaps Daniel
Blanchett Craig

Syntagmatic
Chart 1: syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes in cinema (Etherington-Wright and Doughty,66)

The paradigmatic axis

The paradigmatic axis should be read vertically. Paradigmatic relations are concerned with substitution. In chart 1, a
production team can make a choice by selecting an element from each column. First an actress should be chosen,
then the action she takes needs to be decided upon and finally an actor must be agreed on to interact with the
sequence of events. These decisions are paradigmatic and any element could be substituted for an appropriate
vertical alternative. The film industry makes many paradigmatic decisions that relate to other aspects of film
production (not just concerning narrative choices), for example: who directs?, which actors are hired?, which
character is played by whom?, which camera angles are used for each shot?, which technical crew is hired?, where is
film shot? (Etherington-Wright and Doughty, 66).

The syntagmatic axis

The syntagmatic axis should be read horizontally. Syntagmatic relations are concerned with sequences. Once the
paradigmatic choices have been made and fixed, the way in which all these decisions interact from a syntagmatic
chain. Returning to chart 1, Sophia Loren slapping Ewan McGregor is an example of a syntagmatic sequence. The
chain would be very different if she had kissed him or if he had kissed by Keira Knightley. Due to the age difference
between Loren and McGregor, the audience may presume that there is generational conflict (a mother/child
relationship). Alternatively, if Knightley slapped McGregor the audience might read it as a lovers' tiff. This is
because each paradigmatic decision affects and informs the syntagmatic outcome (Etherington-Wright and
Doughty,67).

3. filmic lighting syntagmatic and paradigmatic axies

Lighting in the presignifying act

2

Metz said “The semiotics of the cinema can be conceived of either as a semiotic of connotation or as a semiotic of
denotation. Both directions are interesting. The study of connotation brings us closer to the notion of the cinema as
an art (the “seventh art”)” (Metz, 96).

Light exists in relation to the object in the profilmic before the actual act of filming takes place, but, except for
natural light situations. Thus the primary aspect of the job of the cinematographer occurs in what might be called a
presignifying act which establishes the signified for the act of filming. There is no linguistic analogy for the status of
the visual message at this point in the communication process. It is not thought because it is already the result of a
thought process. Yet the object is no longer exists as a real thing but rather as the potential image, and it has a
temporal existence which precedes the act of filming. The cinematographer must regard the lighting as a bi-facial
entity at this point, thinking of light both in regard to the object and its interaction with it (brightness, shadows) and
the reaction of light with those factors related to the camera and the film. This is the creative moment in the
cinematographer's work and it is also the period when the denotative and connotative potentialities of light in the
image are established. Thus even though no real sign is produced this is a signifying instant with proper signifiers
and signified and signifieds. The signified in this instance is the object as it exists in reality, whether it be a studio
set or a real street (Barthes,45). The signifier is the lighting system as established by the cinematographer
illuminating the object, including not only light but also reflectors, screens, gobos, etc., which may alter or modify
the direction or intensity of the light, the lighting ratios, and the relative harshness or softness of the image. The
substance of the signifier is the actual (and measurable) amount of light which is reflected from the object. The form
of the signifier is the substance manifesting itself according to those sets of rules which govern the optical, physical
properties of light which set the boundaries within which individual choice may be exercised. The signified form a
union which is transmitted by light to the camera (Russell,35,36).

Controversial point of view:

In this stage we can find the paradigmatic axis (selection of 'this-or-this-or-this) where the cinematographer creates
his thoughts by choosing specific lighting sources to have a specific lighting effect. It’s an individual choice. Most
of cinematographers believe that film lighting has three universal functions. The first thing is to cast a shadow, the
light that casts the shadow could be: tiny pinpoint source –or- a big soft source –or- anything in between. That is the
paradigmatic axis, where the cinematographer has to choose from several light sources. The shadow can be a hard
shadow with a hard edge –or- a soft shadow with an edge that just trails off into nothing –or- one can also opt for no
shadow at all. The second thing they do in lighting is to create separation, to introduce a three-dimensional quality.
That could be done by creating areas of light against dark,- or- dark against light. The third thing is to add fill, which
gives the image a mood. The cinematographer has many of choices to have the relation between key and fill light. In
this stage we have also the syntagmatic axis (combination of 'this-and-this-and-this), because the cinematographer
has to think about the relation between all of his choices together, to have a specific mood or style.

The actual exposure

The next stage of this process is the actual exposure of the film to light, the actualization of the potential image. The
process of actualization is not a staggered system, as that exemplified by the connotative/denotative relationship, but
an overlay which adds new signifiers and signified to the potential image. Much of what occurs at the moment of
filming constitutes new signifying systems which, although transmitted by light and recorded through the interaction
of film and light, can be considered quite apart from it. Thus film speed, camera motion, framing, and camera angles
have their own signifier and signifieds which are, of course, contained within the final projected image. The
projection of the image is the moment of its transmission to the receiver. At this point the image no longer exists as a
single unit. It is part of an image chain and is usually accompanied by a soundtrack (Russell, 37).

Controversial point of view:

3

In this stage the syntagmatic axis appears clearly. Each image can still be considered a sign, but at this point it must
also be considered in its relationship with the other signs that surround it. The relation of light to the image has also
altered, once the image is recorded and processed. The signified is the image as projected. The signifier is the light
as reproduced. Her is the actual birth of connotation, and her is also the actual birth of style (it also could be found in
the postproduction process).

4. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic in style of lighting

There is a kind of grammar in using light. Light has every possibility with its structure and modification from direct
light, bounce light and diffusion light to all the different moments the daytime with natural light, aurora, dawn,
morning, day, afternoon, sunset, dusk. Each one has its own meaning. Each one has a specific emotion.

Any discussion of lighting style, must take into account the amount of codification and organization inherent in the
reproductive process. Style is not the creation of order out of chaos, but it works in a manner analogous to that of
style in literature. And the attitude toward the denotative level of the image must be expanded to include these
concepts. By applying semiotic analysis to the nature of the sign, and concepts of denotation and connotation to
light, an organization can be formulated (Russel, 34). Today's cinematographers strive for a very natural effect in
there lighting. Scenes often look as though the cinematographer used no supplemental light at all. Vilmos Zsigmond,
one of the great current cinematographers, describes his philosophy in this way:” I try to light so that it feels as if it
comes from natural sources. That's why I like to have window in my shots-windows, or candles or lamps. Those are
my true light sources. Studying the Old Masters, Rembrandt, Vermeer, de la Tour, I found that they painted their
best works relying on light effects coming from realistic sources.”. Master cinematographer Nestor Almendros also
stressed the important of naturalness:” I use a minimum of artificial light…Days of Heaven was shot with very little
light. Rather than create an artificial moment, I'd wait for the real one to happen.” (Boggs, 105). While Hora is
penchant for going against the grain. “I have always liked to do something that's not the formula. I often violate the
rules; sometimes that requires a little time, and im not allowed to do it. But I always try to reach for something that
is above just lighting the scene. If I can't figure out what make a scene look good with the lights where theryre
supposed to be, I'll try it completely differently. If the lights are on the ceiling. I might say, 'Maybe we should light
this completely from the floor.` If it looks dull lit from within the room, I might say, let' bring all the light from
outside.” (Bergery, 37). In an interview with Storaro he said: “ I try to be totally open when approaching a new film.
I try to develop a look or style which fits the concept of what the director is trying to achieve. It doesn’t matter to me
what the style of cinematography is, classic or realistic lighting or whatever. Once you find a style that works for
that film, you develop the look one scene at time. It's like a book with many pages. It’s the book that counts, not the
individual pages. With todays cameras and fast lenses, the negative film that we have, and other equipment, we can
write with light in any way we choose.” (Zone,11).

Content analysis of a scene on the chase sequence in hallways of Seven (1995)

Director: Aavid Fincher. Stars: Morgan Freeman, Brad Pitt. Director of photography: Darius Khondji. Darius
Khondji is a French cinematographer who has established himself as a poetic and highly original artist. The study of
syntagmatic and paradigmatic axis in the presignifing act needed using of quotations from the book Reflection,
chapter 24. Which has information from the cinematographer himself about lighting technics he used in Seven.

Cinematographer Style:” I proposed that we shoot the good things about the location in a documentary style –which
involves everything I’m usually against. I was so seduced by the natural light in this place –the truth of the hallways-
that I tried to reproduce it by doing very little lighting. We shot the sequence in a pretty realistic manner”, said
Khondji (Bergery, 221).

4

 Presignifing The actual exposure postproduction
Shot (1,2,3,4)
Paradigmatic axis + Syntagmatic axis Paradigmatic axis +
Syntagmatic axis Syntagmatic axis
Denotation connotation Denotation connotation denotation connotation

Shot 1,2 (choosing from unique Overlapping stunning Silver The images
many lighting mood of reflections visual treatment have a

sources, effects mystery. of orange+ richness + (Bleach- unique,
and colors) green supporting bypassed) almost
(choosing the using of +daylight the realism tactile
style) green of location texture,
-Documentary emanated with strong
style, realistic from his contrasts

manner. observation + + and deep

-need for color

-enhance the
of the
locations
Smoke Diffusion
of light that
blacks

color – natural increases

saturation qualities with

distance
+ +
Reflective Bounce
stickers on
the hallways
light on the
characters
ceilings below
+ false + source of
windows+ diffused
Bit green or daylight
orange gel
(to the
sources)

+
dimmers +
Warming

up the
orange
light even
further

Shot 3 Yellow light Yellow
shade
creates a

gleam that
backlights
Mills
silhouette

Shot 4 More Hazy
evident background
smoke Confusion

Blue ceiling and sense
lights+ of mystery
orange Blue play
sconces off orange
+distant and

5

 daylight daylight

• paradigmatic axis: in the presignifing act, Knodji decided which style of light he wants. To have the mood
he decided from many lighting sources, effects and colors, to serve his aim and show his style.
• Syntagmatic axis: reflections of green + orange sconces + blue day light + smoke+ reflective stickers+ false
window+ green/orange gel+ dimmer+ Bleach-bypassed.

Results

- There is a syntagmatic axis in the stage of the presignifing act it is only understood in the mind of the
cinematographer who choices and decide which lighting elements he is going to use for specific meaning
and mood. This kind of choice or uniting determines the lighting style of the cinematographer which he is
going to use.
- At the presignifing act he also has to think about the visualize of the relationship between the light, the
object, and the rest of the image formation process (film stock, film speed, lens camera speed, camera
motion, filters-on the first level of reproduction; processing, pushing or flashing of film in the development
stage; and print stocks, timing, and filtering in the production of the release print) that is a work in the
paradigmatic axis.
- The syntagmatic axis appears clearly in the stage of the actual exposure, where the connotation of the total
image is done by the combination in the paradigmatic axis between the light, the object, and the rest of
image formation process. Her we can find the cinematographic lighting style.
- Style of light extends over both the denotation and connotation of the image because intervention is
possible on both levels. Stylistically the image can be produced in many different ways, ways which affect
both connotation and denotation. The very nature of the sign itself makes it impossible to deny the
intervention of style at all levels of signification.

References:

§ Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology (trans. Annette Lavers), New York: Hill and Wang, 1977.
§ Bergery, Benjamin. Reflaction: Twenty-One Cinematographers At Work. Hollywood: ASC Press, 2002.
§ Boggs, Joseph M. The Art of Watching Films. London: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1996.
§ Chandler, Danial. Semiotics The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2005.
§ Christian, Metz. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema (trans. Michael Taylor). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1991.
§ Etherington-Wright and Doughty, Ruth. Understanding Film Theory. New York: Palgrave Macmillan
Press, 2011.
§ Russel, Sharon A.. Semiotics and lighting: A Study of Modern French Cameramen. Michigan: UMI
Research Press, 1981.
§ Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
§ Stam, Robert et.al. New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics: Structuralism, Post-structuralism and Beyond.
London: Routledge Press, 1992.
§ Todd Rainsberger, James Wong Howe: Cinematographer, New York :A.S. Barnes,1981.
§ Zone, Ray. Writer of light: The Cinematographer of Vittorio Storaro. Hollywood: ASC Press, 2001.

View publication stats