GoaPedia

GoaPedia is a compiliation of articles from the Wikipedia, dealing with Goa. This has been
compiled by hundreds – if not more – of volunteers worldwide (including some from Goa
itself). This shareable information is being compiled within the covers of an ebook, to make it
accessible and useful to readers who might have use for it.
The photos are from the Wikimedia Commons (credits below).
The aim is to both dip into these useful share-able resources, and also to help build the same
by working on more topics use from a regional perspective. --Frederick Noronha
fredericknoronha2@gmail.com +91-9822122436.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

All text material is sourced from the Wikimedia.

Photographs are from the following sources (front cover):
TRADITIONAL POTTERY Author Fredericknoronha
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goa,_India_--_Traditional_pottery.jpg

AT THE HARDWARE STORE: Author Fredericknoronha

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:At_the_hardware_store,_Panjim,_Goa,_circa_2018_10.jpg

FORTRESS REIS MAGOS AND CHURCH AT BETIM Author Kamat Milind

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goa_Reis_Magos_Fort_Igreja_Year_1913.jpg

VILLAGE SCENE,
GIRL AT A BEACH SUNSET and
CALANGUTE ROAD
all contributed by Fredericknoronha

(back cover):
From the work of Dr Jose Pereira, uploaded by Alisha Carvalho.
English: A map of Goa in Rashtrakuta script adorning a wall at the Central Library Goa
Date 25 September 2017, 13:38:20
Author Alisha Nicole Carvalho
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Goa_in_Rashtrakuta_script,_Central_Library_Goa.jpg
 Coordinates: 15.50°N 73.83°E

Goa
Goa (/ˈɡoʊə/ ( listen)) is a state on the southwestern coast of India
within the Konkan region, geographically separated from the Deccan Goa
highlands by the Western Ghats.[8][9] It is located between the Indian
State
states of Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and south,
with the Arabian Sea forming its western coast. It is India's smallest
state by area and its fourth-smallest by population. Goa has the
highest GDP per capita among all Indian states,[3][10] two and a half
times as high as the GDP per capita of the country as a whole.[11]
The Eleventh Finance Commission of India named Goa the best-
placed state because of its infrastructure, and India's National
Commission on Population rated it as having the best quality of life in
India (based on the commission's “12 Indicators”).[11] It is the third-
highest ranking among Indian states in the human development
index.[4]

Panaji is the state's capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city.
The historic city of Margão in Goa still exhibits the cultural influence
of the Portuguese, who first voyaged to the subcontinent in the early
16th century as merchants, and conquered it soon thereafter,
whereupon Goa became an overseas territory of the Portuguese
Empire, part of what was then known as Portuguese India, and
remained as such for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in
1961.[12][13] Goa's official language, which is spoken by a majority
of its inhabitants, is Konkani.

Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists

each year because of its white-sand beaches, active nightlife, places of
worship, and World Heritage-listed architecture. It also has rich flora
and fauna because it lies very close to the North Western Ghats
rainforests, one of the rare biodiversity hotspots of the world.

Contents Clockwise from top: Palolem Beach, Church

and Convent of St. Francis of Assisi, Basilica
Etymology of Bom Jesus, Shanta Durga Temple, Our
History Lady of the Immaculate Conception Church,
Goa and Gallery de Fontainhas
Prehistory
Early history
Portuguese period
Contemporary period
Geography and climate
Geography
Climate
Emblem
Subdivisions
Motto(s): 
Government and politics Sarve Bhadrāṇi Paśyantu Mā Kaścid
Government Duḥkhamāpnuyāt
(May everyone see goodness, may none
Flora and fauna suffer any pain)
Economy
Demographics
Population
Languages
Religion
Tourism
Historic sites and neighbourhoods
Museums and science centre
Culture
Dance and music
Theatre
Konkani cinema
Food
Architecture
Location of Goa in India
Media and communication
Sports
Education
Transportation
Air
Road
Rail
Sea
Sister states
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

Etymology
After the Bahmani-Bijapuri city of Goa was captured by Afonso de Map of Goa
Albuquerque in 1510, and made the capital of the Estado da Índia, the Coordinates (Panaji): 15.50°N 73.83°E
city gave its name to the contiguous territories. Country India

The origin of the city name Goa is unclear. In ancient literature, Goa Formation of 30 May 1987
was known by many names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, state
Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem, and Gomantak.[14] Capital Panaji (Panjim)
Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Largest city Vasco da Gama
Mahassapatam.[15] Districts 2
Government
History  • Body Government of Goa
 • Governor P. S. Sreedharan Pillai
 • Chief Minister Pramod Sawant (BJP)
 • Legislature Unicameral (40 seats)
Prehistory
 • Parliamentary Rajya Sabha 1

constituency Lok Sabha 2

Rock art engravings found in Goa are one of the earliest known traces  • Chief Secretary Parimal Rai, IAS[2]
of human life in India.[16] Goa, situated within the Shimoga-Goa
Greenstone Belt in the Western Ghats (an area composed of Area
metavolcanics, iron formations and ferruginous quartzite), yields  • Total 3,702 km2 (1,429 sq mi)
evidence for Acheulean occupation.[17] Rock art engravings  • Rank 28th
(petroglyphs) are present on laterite platforms and granite boulders in
 Usgalimal near the west Population (2011)
flowing Kushavati river  • Total 1,458,545[1]
and in Kajur.[18] In  • Rank 26th
Kajur, the rock Demonym(s) Goan, Goenkār
engravings of animals,
GSDP (2020–21)[3]
tectiforms and other
designs in granite have  • Total ₹0.815 trillion
(US$11 billion)
been associated with
 • Per capita ₹472,285 (US$6,200)
what is considered to
be a megalithic stone Time zone UTC+05:30 (IST)
circle with a round PIN 403XXX
Usgalimal rock engravings granite stone in the Area code(s) +91 0832
centre.[19] Petroglyphs, ISO 3166 code IN-GA
cones, stone-axe, and Vehicle GA-
choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in various registration
locations in Goa, including Kazur, Mauxim, and the Mandovi-Zuari HDI (2019) 0.763[4] (high)
basin.[20] Evidence of Palaeolithic life is visible at Dabolim, Adkon, Sex ratio 973 ♀/1000 ♂ [5]
Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, and
Aquem-Margaon. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock Literacy 88.70% (3rd)
compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period.[21] Official language Konkani[6]
Website www.goa.gov.in (http://w
Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo-Aryan and ww.goa.gov.in)
Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, forming
Symbols of Goa
the base of early Goan culture.[22]
Emblem Emblem of Goa

Early history

In the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by Motto सर्वे भद्राणि पश्यन्तु मा कश्चिद्
the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the दुःखमाप्नुयात्
foundation of Buddhism in Goa. Between the 2nd century BC and
the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. Chutus of Sarve bhadrāṇi
Karwar also ruled some parts as feudatories of the Satavahanas of paśyantu mā kaścid
Kolhapur (2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD), Western duḥkhamāpnuyāt
Kshatrapas (around 150 AD), the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra,
(May everyone see
Bhojas of the Yadav clans of Gujarat, and the Konkan Mauryas as
goodness, may none
feudatories of the Kalachuris.[23] The rule later passed to the suffer any pain)
Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and Mammal Gaur (Bos gauru)
later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963. From 765 to
1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories
of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.[24] Over the next few Bird Flame-throated bulbul
centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the (Pycnonotus gularis)
feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. They patronised Jainism in
Goa.[25]
Fish Grey mullet/Shevtto in
In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The Konkani (Mugil cephalus)
kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to
surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara Empire. The
Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469 when it was Flower Jasmine (Plumeria
rubra)
appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After that dynasty
crumbled, the area fell into the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur,
who established as their auxiliary capital the city known under the Fruit Cashew
Portuguese as Velha Goa (or Old Goa).[26]
Tree Matti Terminalia
crenulata

^* Konkani in Devanagari script is the sole

official language but Marathi and English are
 also allowed to be used for any or all official
purposes.[6][7]

The Mahadev Temple, attributed

to the Kadambas of Goa; in what
is today Bhagwan Mahaveer
Sanctuary and Mollem National
Park.

Gold coins issued by the Kadamba

king of Goa, Shivachitta
Paramadideva. Circa 1147–1187
CE.

Portuguese period

In 1510, the Portuguese defeated the ruling Bijapur sultan Yusuf Adil Shah with
the help of a local ally, Timoji, a privateer.[27] They set up a permanent settlement
in Velha Goa. This was the beginning of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa that
would last for four and a half centuries, until its annexation by India in 1961. The
Goa Inquisition, a formal tribunal, was established in 1560, and was finally
abolished in 1812.[28]

From the latter decades of the eighteenth century, the territory of Goa was
The Se Cathedral at Old Goa, built-in
composed of two segments: the central nucleus of the Velhas Conquistas (Old
1619, is an example of Portuguese
Conquests) - Bardez, Ilhas de Tiswadi, and Salsete, which territories had been
architecture and is one of the largest
under Portuguese administration since the sixteenth century; and the Novas
churches in Asia.
Conquistas (New Conquests) - Bicholim, Canacona, Pernem, Quepem, Sattari,
Sanguem - territories which had been successively added through the eighteenth
century.

In 1843, the Portuguese moved the capital to the Cidade da Nova Goa, today known as Panaji, from Velha Goa. By the
mid-18th century, Portuguese expansions lost other possessions in India until their borders stabilised and formed the Goa,
Daman and Diu which included Silvassa prior to the Annexation, it was known as Estado da Indìa in Indo-Portuguese,
that is the "State of Portuguese India".

Contemporary period

After India gained independence from British rule in 1947, India requested that Portuguese territories on the Indian
subcontinent be ceded to India. Portugal refused to negotiate on the sovereignty of its Indian enclaves. On 19 December
1961, the Indian Army invaded with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation of Goa, and of Daman and Diu islands
into the Indian union. Goa, along with Daman and Diu, was organised as a centrally administered union territory of
India.[29] On 16 January 1967 a referendum was held in Goa, to decide the future of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman
and Diu. It was the only referendum to have been held in independent India. The referendum offered the people of Goa a
choice between continuing as a union territory or merging with the state of Maharashtra and the majority chose the
former.[30][31][32] On 30 May 1987, the union territory was split, and Goa was made India's twenty-fifth state, with
Daman and Diu remaining a union territory.[33]

Geography and climate

Geography

Goa encompasses an area of 3,702  km2 (1,429  sq  mi). It lies

between the latitudes 14°53′54″ N and 15°40′00″ N and
longitudes 73°40′33″ E and 74°20′13″ E.

Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan,

which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of
mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The
highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167 metres
(3,829 ft). Goa has a coastline of 160 km (99 mi).

Goa's seven major rivers are the Zuari, Mandovi, Terekhol,

Picture of coastline of
Chapora, Galgibag, Kumbarjua canal, Talpona and the Sal.[34]
Vasco da Gama, Goa,
The Zuari and the Mandovi are the most important rivers, Goa coastline at Dona
taken from an aircraft's Paula
window. interspaced by the Kumbarjua canal, forming a major estuarine
complex. [34] These rivers are fed by the Southwest monsoon
rain and their basin covers 69% of the state's geographical
area.[34] These rivers are some of the busiest in India. Goa has more than 40 estuarine, eight marine, and about 90 riverine
islands. The total navigable length of Goa's rivers is 253 km (157 mi). Goa has more than 300 ancient water tanks built
during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over 100 medicinal springs.

Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the River Zuari is considered one of the best natural harbours in South Asia.

Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites rich in ferric-aluminum oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and
along the riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to
agriculture. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa's
border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by
rubidium isotope dating. A specimen of the rock is exhibited at Goa University.

Dudhsagar Falls at Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park

Dudhsagar Train passing next to the Lower half of

Waterfalls in Dudhsagar Falls. Dudhsagar
August. Falls.

Climate
Goa features a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near
the Arabian Sea, has a hot and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is usually the hottest, seeing
daytime temperatures of over 35 °C (95 °F) coupled with high humidity. The state's three seasons are Southwest monsoon
period (June–September), post-monsoon period (October–January), and pre-monsoon period (February–May).[34] Over
90% of the average annual rainfall (3,000 mm or 120 in) is received during the monsoon season.[34]

Climate data for Goa

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average 31.6 31.5 32.0 33.0 33.0 30.3

28.9
28.8
29.5 31.6 32.8 32.4 31.3
high °C (°F) (88.9) (88.7) (89.6) (91.4) (91.4) (86.5) (84.0) (83.8) (85.1) (88.9) (91.0) (90.3) (88.3)

Daily mean 26.0 26.3 27.7 29.3 30.0 27.6

26.7
26.4
26.9 27.9 27.6 26.6 27.4
°C (°F) (78.8) (79.3) (81.9) (84.7) (86.0) (81.7) (80.1) (79.5) (80.4) (82.2) (81.7) (79.9) (81.4)

Average low 19.6 20.5 23.2 25.6 26.3 24.7

24.1
24.0
23.8 23.8 22.3 20.6 23.2
°C (°F) (67.3) (68.9) (73.8) (78.1) (79.3) (76.5) (75.4) (75.2) (74.8) (74.8) (72.1) (69.1) (73.8)

Average
0.2
0.1
1.2
11.8 112.7
868.2 994.8 512.7 251.9
124.8
30.9 16.7 2,926

precipitation
(0.01) (0.00) (0.05) (0.46) (4.44) (34.18) (39.17) (20.19) (9.92) (4.91) (1.22) (0.66) (115.2)
mm (inches)

Average
precipitation 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.8 4.2 21.9 27.2 13.3 13.5 6.2 2.5 0.4 90.1
days

Mean
monthly
313.1 293.8 291.4 288.0 297.6 126.0 105.4 120.9 177.0 248.0 273.0 300.7 2,834.9
sunshine
hours

Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[35]

Source 2: Hong Kong Observatory [36] for sunshine and mean temperatures

Subdivisions
The state is divided into two districts  —  North Goa and South Goa. Each district is
administered by a district collector, appointed by the Indian government.

Panaji is the headquarters of North Goa district and is also the capital of Goa.

North Goa is further divided into three subdivisions  —  Panaji, Mapusa, and Bicholim;
and five talukas (subdistricts)  —  Tiswadi/Ilhas de Goa (Panaji), Bardez (Mapusa),
Pernem, Bicholim, and Sattari (Valpoi).

Margao is the headquarters of the South Goa

district.

South Goa is further divided into five

Idyllic scenery in Salcete
Mapusa, Ponda, Bicholim, and Valpoi.
subdivisions  —  Ponda, Mormugao-Vasco,
Margao, Quepem, and Dharbandora; and seven
talukas  —  Ponda, Mormugao, Salcete (Margao), Talukas of Goa. Talukas in
Quepem, and Canacona (Chaudi), Sanguem, and green shades belong to
Dharbandora. (Ponda taluka was shifted from North Goa district, and
North Goa to South Goa in January 2015). orange denote South Goa
district.
Goa's major cities are  —  Panaji, Margao, Vasco,

Panaji has the only Municipal Corporation in Goa.

There are thirteen Municipal Council — Margao, Mormugao (including Vasco), Pernem, Mapusa, Bicholim, Sanquelim,
Valpoi, Ponda, Cuncolim, Quepem, Curchorem, Sanguem, and Canacona. Goa has a total number of 334 villages.[37]
Government and politics

Goa Assembly

The politics of Goa are a result of the uniqueness of this region due to 450 years of Portuguese rule, in comparison to
three centuries of British rule experienced by the rest of India. The Indian National Congress was unable to achieve
electoral success in the first two decades after the State's incorporation into India.[38] Instead, the state was dominated by
the regional political parties like Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party and the United Goans Party.[39]

Government

Goa has two members of parliament (MP) elected from each district representing the state in the Lok Sabha (House of the
People), the lower house of the national Parliament of India. It is also has one member of parliament in the Rajya Sabha
(Council of the States), the upper house of the Indian parliament.

Goa's administrative capital is based in Panaji, often referred as Panjim in English, Pangim in Portuguese& Ponjê in
Konkani, the official language of the state. It lies on the left bank of the Mandovi river. The seat of the Goa Legislative
Assembly is in Porvorim, across the Mandovi from Panaji. The state's highest judiciary is the Goa Bench of the Bombay
High Court, a branch of the Bombay High Court permanently seated at Panjim in Goa. Unlike other states, which follow
the model of personal laws framed for individual religions introduced in the days of British Raj, the Portuguese Civil
Code of Goa and Damaon, a uniform code based on the Napoleonic code was retained in Goa as well as the union
territory of Damaon, Diu& Silvassa.

Goa has a unicameral legislature, the Goa Legislative Assembly, of 40 members, headed by a speaker. The Chief Minister
heads the executive, which is made up of the party or coalition elected with a majority in the legislature. The Governor,
the head of the state, is appointed by the President of India. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years up to
1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years
between 1990 and 2005.[40]

In March 2005, the assembly was dissolved by the Governor and President's Rule was declared, which suspended the
legislature. A by-election in June 2005 saw the Indian National Congress coming back to power after winning three of the
five seats that went to polls. The Congress Party and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are the two largest parties in the
state. In the assembly poll of 2007, the INC-led coalition won and formed the government.[41] In the 2012 Vidhan Sabha
Elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party along with the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party won a clear majority, forming the
new government with Manohar Parrikar as the Chief Minister. Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party,
the Nationalist Congress Party.[42]

In the 2017 assembly elections, the Indian National Congress gained the most seats, with the BJP coming in second.
However, no party was able to gain a majority in the 40 member house. The BJP was invited to form the Government by
Governor Mridula Sinha. The Congress claimed the use of money power on the part of the BJP and took the case to the
Supreme Court. However, the Manohar Parikkar led Government was able to prove its majority in the Supreme Court
mandated "floor test".[43][44][45]

Flora and fauna

Equatorial forest cover in Goa stands at 1,424  km2 (549.81  sq  mi),[14] most of which is owned by the government.
Government-owned forest is estimated at 1,224.38 km2 (472.74 sq mi) whilst private is given as 200 km2 (77.22 sq mi).
Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most
of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity
hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of National Geographic
Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and the Congo basins for its rich
tropical biodiversity.

Goa's wildlife sanctuaries boast of more than 1512 documented species of plants,
over 275 species of birds, over 48 kinds of animals and over 60 genera of
reptiles.[46]

Goa is also known for its coconut cultivation. The coconut tree has been
Coconut palm trees are a ubiquitous
reclassified by the government as a palm (like grass), enabling farmers and real
symbol of Goa
estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions.

Rice is the main food crop, and pulses (legume), Ragi (Finger Millet), and other
food crops are also grown. Main cash crops are coconut, cashew nut, areca nut, sugarcane, and fruits like pineapple,
mango and banana.[14] Goa's state animal is the Gaur, the state bird is the Flame-throated bulbul, and the state tree is the
Matti (Asna).

The important forest products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks, and
the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of
Goa barring the elevated regions. A variety of deciduous trees, such as teak, Sal
tree, cashew, and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruit, mango,
pineapple, and "blackberry" ("podkoam" in the Konkani language). Goa's forests
are rich in medicinal plants.

Foxes, wild boar and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The
avifauna (bird species) includes kingfisher, myna and parrot. Numerous types of
fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crab, lobster, shrimp,
Rice paddies are common in rural
Goa.
jellyfish, oysters, and catfish are the basis of the marine fishery. Goa also has a
high snake population. Goa has many famous "National Parks", including the
renowned Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary on the island of Chorão. Other wildlife
sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife
Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary.

Goa has more than 33% of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38 km2 ) of which about 62% has been
brought under Protected Areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under
private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations, the total forest and tree cover constitutes
56.6% of the geographic area.

Economy
Goa's state domestic product for 2017 is estimated at $11  billion at current Gross State Domestic Product (in
prices. Goa is India's richest state with the highest GDP per capita – two and a millions of Rupees)[47]
half times that of the country  – with one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23% Year GSDP
(yearly average 1990–2000).[48]
Tourism is Goa's primary industry: it gets
1980 3,980
12%[49] of foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons:
winter and summer. In winter, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come, and 1985 6,550
summer (which, in Goa, is the rainy season) sees tourists from across India. 1990 12,570
Goa's net state domestic product (NSDP) was around US$7.24  billion in
1995 33,190
2015–16.[50]
2000 76,980
The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores, and mining forms
2010 150,000
the second largest industry. Iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone, and
silica are mined. The Mormugao port handled 31.69  a million tonnes of cargo
in 2007, which was 39% of India's total iron ore exports. Sesa Goa (now owned by Vedanta Resources) and Dempo are
the lead miners. Rampant mining has been depleting the forest cover as well as posing a health hazard to the local
population. Corporations are also mining illegally in some areas. During 2015–16, the total traffic handled by Mormugao
port was recorded to be 20.78 million tonnes.
Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part-time employment to a
sizeable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew, and coconut. Fishing
employs about 40,000 people, though recent official figures indicate a decline in the importance of this sector and also a
fall in the catch, due perhaps, to traditional fishing giving way to large-scale mechanised trawling.

Medium-scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilizers, tires, tubes, footwear, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products.

Currently, there are 16 planned SEZs in Goa. The Goa government has recently decided to not allow any more Special
Economic Zones (SEZs) in Goa after strong opposition to them by political parties and the Goa Catholic Church.[51]

Goa is also notable for its low-priced beer, wine, and spirits prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another
main source of cash inflow to the state is remittance, from many of its citizens who work abroad, to their families. It is said
to have some of the largest bank savings in the country.

In 1976 Goa became the first state in India to legalize some types of gambling. This enabled the state to levy taxes on
gambling, thereby strengthening the economy.

Goa is the second state in India to achieve a 100 percent automatic telephone system with a solid network of telephone
exchanges. As of September 2017, Goa had a total installed power generation capacity of 547.88 MW. Goa is also one of
the few states in India to achieve 100 percent rural electrification.[52]

Train carrying iron ore to Commercial area in

Marmagao Port, Vasco. Panaji.

Demographics

Population

A native of Goa is called a Goan. Goa has a population of 1.459  million Population growth 
residents as of 2011,[53] making it the fourth least populated state of India after Census Population %±
Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. Population density of Goa is 394 per 1951 547,000 —
km2 which is higher than national average 382 per km2 . Goa is the state with
highest proportion of urban population with 62.17% of the population living in 1961 590,000 7.9%
urban areas. The sex ratio is 973 females to 1,000 males. The birth rate was 15.70 1971 795,000 34.7%
per 1,000 people in 2007. Goa also is the state with lowest proportion of 1981 1,008,000 26.8%
Scheduled Tribes at 0.04%.[54]
The migrant, or non-Goan Indian origin, the
population is currently over 50% of the resident population, outnumbering the 1991 1,170,000 16.1%
native ethnic Goan population.[55] 2001 1,347,668 15.2%
2011 1,458,545 8.2%
Languages

The Goa, Daman, and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani in the Devanagari script the sole official
language of Goa, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". Portuguese was the
sole official language during Portuguese colonial rule. The government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to
correspondence received in Marathi.[58] There have been demands for according Konkani in the Roman script official
 status in the state. There is widespread support for keeping Konkani as the sole
official language of Goa.[59] The entire liturgy and communication of the Catholic
church in Goa is done solely in Konkani in the Roman script.

Konkani is spoken as a first language by about 66.11% of the people in the state, but
almost all Goans can speak and understand Konkani. A large population of people
can speak and understand English as well. Other linguistic groups in the state per the
2011 census are speakers of Marathi (10.89%), Hindi (10.29%), Kannada (5.66%),
Urdu (2.83%) and Portuguese language (1%).[60]

Historically, Konkani was neither the official nor the administrative language of the
many rulers of the State. Under the Kadambas (c. 960 – 1310), the court language
Languages Goa was Kannada. When under Muslim rule (1312 - 1370 and 1469 - 1510), the official
(2011)[56][57] and cultural language was Persian. Various stones in the Archaeological Museum and
Portrait Gallery from the period are inscribed in Kannada and Persian.[61] During the
   Konkani (66.09%) period in between the two periods of Muslim rule, the Vijayanagara Empire, which
   Marathi (10.88%) had control of the state, mandated the use of Kannada and Telugu.[61]
   Hindi (7.64%)
   Kannada (5.65%)
Religion
   Urdu (2.82%)
   Others (6.92%) <div style="border:solid
According to the 2011 census, in a population of transparent;position:absolute;width
1,458,545 people, 66.1% were Hindu, 25.1% height:0;
were Christian, 8.3% were Muslim and 0.1%
were Sikh.[53]

According to the 1909 statistics in the Catholic

Encyclopedia, the total Catholic population in
Portuguese controlled Goa was 293,628 out of a total
population of 365,291 (80.33%).[62] Since the 20th
Hindu-Christianity Unity century, the Christian population of Goa has been facing
Memorial at Miramar continual decline. This is caused by a combination of
Beach. permanent emigration of Christian Goans from Goa to Religion in Goa (2011)[53]
cosmopolitan Indian cities (e.g. Mumbai, Bangalore) and
foreign countries (e.g. Portugal, United Kingdom)[63]    Hinduism (66.08%)
with the immigration of non-Christians from the rest of India since 1961.[64]    Christianity (25.10%)
   Islam (8.33%)
The Catholics in Goa state and Daman and Diu union territory are served by the
   Sikhism (0.10%)
Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, the primatial see of
   Other or not religious (0.39%)
India, in which the titular Patriarchate of the East Indies is vested.[65]

Tourism
Tourism is generally focused on the coastal areas of Goa, with lower tourist activity inland. In 2010, there were more than
2 million tourists reported to have visited Goa, about 1.2  million of whom were from abroad.[66] As of 2013, Goa was a
destination of choice for Indian and foreign tourists, particularly Britons and Russians, with limited means who wanted to
party. The state was hopeful that changes could be made which would attract a more upscale demographic.[67]

Goa stands 6th in the Top 10 Nightlife cities in the world in National Geographic Travel.[68] Notable nightclubs in Goa
include Chronicle, Mambos and Sinq.

One of the biggest tourist attractions in Goa is water sports. Beaches like Baga and Calangute offer jet-skiing, parasailing,
banana boat rides, water scooter rides, and more. Patnem beach in Palolem stood third in CNN Travel's Top 20 Beaches
in Asia.[69]

Over 450 years of Portuguese rule and the influence of the Portuguese culture presents to visitors to Goa a cultural
environment that is not found elsewhere in India. Goa is often described as a fusion between Eastern and Western culture
with Portuguese culture having a dominant position in the state be it in its architectural, cultural or social settings. The state
of Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples.[70] The Bom Jesus Cathedral, Fort Aguada and a new
 Indian and foreign tourists at beaches in Goa. Ships can be seen in the background in the top image, while hills can be seen in
the background in the center image and Bogmalo beach near Goa airport in the bottom image.

wax museum on Indian history, culture and heritage in Old Goa are other tourism destinations.

Historic sites and neighbourhoods

Goa has two World Heritage Sites: the Bom Jesus Basilica[71] and churches and convents of Old Goa. The basilica holds
the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa (the patron of the
Archdiocese of Goa is actually Saint Joseph Vaz). These are both Portuguese-era monuments and reflect a strong
European character. The relics are taken down for veneration and for public viewing, per the prerogative of the Church in
Goa, not every ten or twelve years as popularly thought and propagated. The last exposition was held in 2014.[72]
 Tourist Arrivals[73]
Year Total Arrivals % Change
1985 775,212
1990 881,323 13.3
1995 1,107,705 23.7
2000 1,268,513 13.8
2005 2,302,146 66.3
2010 2,644,805 13.9
Our Lady of Immaculate Conception
2015 5,297,902 76.4
Church in Panaji

Goa has the Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz in Sancoale. Pilar monastery
which holds novenas of Venerable Padre Agnelo Gustavo de Souza from 10 to 20 November yearly. There is a claimed
Marian Apparition at the Church of Saints Simon and Jude at Batim, Ganxim, near Pilar, where Goans and non-resident
Goans visit. There is the statue of the bleeding Jesus on the Crucifix at the Santa Monica Convent in Velha Goa. There are
churches (Igorzo), like the baroque styled Nixkollounk Gorb-Sombhov Saibinnich Igorz (Church of the Our Lady of
Immaculate Conception) in Panaji, the Gothic styled Mater Dei (Dêv Matechi Igorz/ Mother of God) church in Saligao
and each church having its own style and heritage, besides Kopelam/ Irmidi (chapels).

The Velhas Conquistas regions are known for Goa-Portuguese style architecture. There are many forts in Goa such as
Tiracol, Chapora, Corjuem, Aguada, Reis Magos, Nanus, Mormugao, Fort Gaspar Dias and Cabo de Rama.

In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo-Portuguese style architecture still stand, though, in some villages,
most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter, showcasing the life,
architecture and culture of Goa. Influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa's temples, notably the
Shanta Durga Temple, the Mangueshi Temple, the Shri Damodar Temple and the Mahalasa Temple. After 1961, many of
these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style.

Museums and science centre

Goa has three important museums: the Goa State Museum, the Naval Aviation Museum and the National Institute of
Oceanography. The aviation museum is one of three in India (the others are in Delhi and Bengaluru). The Goa Science
Centre is in Miramar, Panaji.[74] The National Institute of Oceanography, India (NIO) is in Dona Paula.[75] Museum of
Goa is a privately owned contemporary art gallery in Pilerne Industrial Estate, near Calangute.[76]

Culture
Having been a Portuguese territory for over 450 years, Goan culture is an
amalgamation of both Eastern and Western styles, with the latter having a more
dominant role. The tableau of Goa showcases religious harmony by focusing on
the Deepastambha, the Cross, and Ghode Modni followed by a chariot. Western
royal attire of kings is as much part of Goa's cultural heritage as are regional
dances performed depicting a unique blend of different religions and cultures of
this State. Prominent local festivals are Christmas, Easter, Carnival, Diwali,
Shigmo, Chavoth, Samvatsar Padvo, Dasara etc. The Goan Carnival and
Christmas-new year celebrations attract many tourists. Shanta Durga temple at Kavlem.

The Gomant Vibhushan Award, the highest civilian honour of the State of Goa, is
given annually by Government of Goa since 2010.[77][78]

Dance and music

Traditional Goan art forms are Dekhnni, Fugdi, Corridinho, Mando, Dulpod and Fado.[79] Goan Catholics are fond of
social gatherings and Tiatr (Teatro). As part of its Portuguese history, music is an integral part of Goan homes. It is often
said that "Goans are born with music and sport". Western musical instruments like the piano, guitars and violins are
widely used in most religious and social functions of the Catholics.

Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian classical singers hail from Goa, including
Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki and Pandit Prabhakar Karekar.

Theatre

Natak, Tiatr (most popular) and Jagor are the chief forms of Goa's traditional
performance arts. Other forms are Ranmale, Dashavatari, Kalo, Goulankala, Lalit,
Kala and Rathkala. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with
more modern social subjects are narrated with song and dance.[80][81]

"Jagor", the traditional folk dance-drama, is performed by the Hindu Kunbi and
Christian Gauda community of Goa, to seek the Divine Grace for protection and
prosperity of the crop. The literal meaning of Jagor is "jagran" or wakeful nights.
The strong belief is that the night-long performance awakens the deities once a
Goan-chumar-chitram
year and they continue to remain awake throughout the year guarding the village.

Perni Jagor is the ancient mask dance – drama of Goa, performed by Perni
families, using well crafted and painted wooden masks, depicting various animals, birds, super natural power, deities,
demons, and social characters.

Gauda Jagor is an impression of social life, that displays all the existing moods and modes of human characters. It is
predominantly based on three main characters, Gharasher, Nikhandar, and Parpati wearing shining dresses and headgears.
The performance is accompanied by vibrant tunes of Goan folk instruments like Nagara/Dobe, Ghumat, Madale, and
Kansale.

In some places, Jagor performances are held with the participation of both Hindus and the Christian community, whereby,
characters are played by Hindus and musical support is provided by Christian artistes.[82]

Tiatr (Teatro) and its artists play a major role in keeping the Konkani language and music alive. Tiatrs are conducted
solely in the Roman script of Konkani as it is primarily a Christian community-based act. They are played in scenes with
music at regular intervals, the scenes are portrayals of daily life and are known to depict social and cultural scenarios.
Tiatrs are regularly held especially on weekends mainly at Kala Academy, Panaji, Pai Tiatrist Hall at Ravindra Bhavan,
Margao and most recent shows have also started at the new Ravindra Bhavan, Baina, Vasco. Western Musical Instruments
such as Drums, Bass, Keyboards, and Trumpets. are part of the show and most of them are played acoustically. It is one of
Goa's few art forms that is renowned across the world with performances popular among Goans in the Middle-East,
Americas and Europe.

Konkani cinema

Konkani cinema is an Indian film industry, where films are made in the Konkani
language, which is spoken mainly in the Indian states of Goa, Maharashtra and
Karnataka and to a smaller extent in Kerala. Konkani films have been produced in
Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala.[83]

The first full-length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo, released on 24 April
1950, and was produced and directed by A. L.Jerry Braganza, a native of
Mapusa, under the banner of ETICA Pictures.[84][85] Hence, 24 April is
celebrated as Konkani Film Day.[86]
India Goa Film Festival

Since 2004, starting from the 35th edition, the International Film Festival of India
moved its permanent venue to Goa, it is annually held in the months of November
and December.[87]

Konkani film Paltadcho manis has been included in the world's best films of 2009 list.[88]
Konkani films are eligible for the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani. The most commercially
successful Konkani film (as of June 2011) is O Maria directed by Rajendra Talak.[89]

In 2012, the whole new change was adopted in Konkani Cinema by introducing Digital Theatrical Film "The Victim"
directed by Milroy Goes.[90]

Some old Konkani films are Sukhachem Sopon, Amchem Noxib, Nirmonn, Mhoji Ghorkarn, Kortubancho Sonvsar, Jivit
Amchem Oxem, Mog ani Moipas, Bhuierantlo Munis, Suzanne, Boglantt, Padri and Bhogsonne. Ujwadu is a 2011
Konkani film directed by Kasargod Chinna and produced by KJ Dhananjaya and Anuradha Padiyar.

Food

Goan prawn curry, a Pork vindaloo is a Chamuças, Goan Traditional Goan fish curry
popular dish throughout popular Goan curry dish samosas
the state. in the state and around
the world.

Rice with fish curry (xit koddi in Konkani) is the staple diet in Goa. Goan cuisine is famous for its rich variety of fish
dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil are widely used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers,
spices, and vinegar, used in the Catholic cuisine, giving the food a unique flavor. Goan cuisine is heavily influenced by
Portuguese cuisine.

Goan food may be divided into Goan Catholic and Goan Hindu cuisine with each showing very distinct tastes,
characteristics, and cooking styles. Pork dishes such as Vindalho, Xacuti, chouriço, and Sorpotel are cooked for major
occasions among the Goan Catholics. A mixed vegetable stew, known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the
celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike. Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and special
Goan spices that add to the aroma.

Sannas, Hitt, are local rice cakes and Polle, Amboli, and Kailoleo are rice pancakes; all are native to Goa. A rich egg-
based, multi-layered baked sweet known as bebinca is traditional at Christmas.

The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni. Cashew feni is made from the double distillation of the fermented
fruit juice of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the double distillation of the fermented sap of toddy palms.
Urrak is another local liquor prepared from the single distillation of the fermented cashew fruit juice. In fact the bar culture
is one of the unique aspects of the Goan villages where a local bar serves as a meeting point for villagers to unwind.[91]
Goa also has a rich wine culture due to Portuguese rule.[92][93]

Architecture


The House of the Seven Velha Goa Galeria, in

Gables in Margao. Panaji.

The architecture of Goa is a combination of Goan, Ottoman and Portuguese styles. Since the Portuguese ruled and
governed for four centuries, many churches and houses bear a striking element of the Portuguese style of architecture.
Goan Hindu houses do not show any Portuguese influence, though the modern temple architecture is an amalgam of
original Goan temple style with Dravidian, Hemadpanthi, Islamic, and Portuguese architecture.[94] The original Goan
temple architecture fell into disuse as the temples were demolished by the Portuguese and the Sthapati known as Thavayi
in Konkani were converted to Christianity though the wooden work and the Kavi murals can still be seen.[95]

Media and communication

Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of
Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has
two free terrestrial channels on air.[96]

DTH (Direct To Home) TV services are available from Dish TV, Videocon D2H, Tata Sky & DD Direct Plus. The All
India Radio is the only radio channel in the state that broadcasts on both FM and AM bands. Two AM channels are
broadcast, the primary channel at 1287 kHz and the Vividh Bharati channel at 1539 kHz. AIR's FM channel is called FM
Rainbow and is broadcast at 105.4  MHz. A number of private FM radio channels are available, Big FM at 92.7  and
Radio Indigo at 91.9 MHz. There is also an educational radio channel, Gyan Vani, run by IGNOU broadcast from Panaji
at 107.8 MHz. In 2006, St Xavier's College, Mapusa, became the first college in the state to launch a campus community
radio station "Voice of Xavier's".[97]

Major cellular service operators include Bharti Airtel, Vodafone Essar, Idea Cellular(merged with Vodafone in 2018),
Telenor, Reliance Infocomm, Tata DoCoMo, BSNL CellOne and Jio.

Local publications include the English language O Heraldo (Goa's oldest, once a Portuguese language paper), The
Gomantak Times and The Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and The Indian Express are also
received from Mumbai and Bangalore in the urban areas. The Times of India has recently started publication from Goa
itself, serving the local population news directly from the state capital. Among the list of officially accredited newspapers
are O Heraldo, The Navhind Times and The Gomantak Times in English; Bhaangar Bhuin in Konkani (Devanagari
script); and Tarun Bharat, Gomantak, Navprabha, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot and Lokmat (all in Marathi).
All are dailies. Other publications in the state include Planet Goa (English, monthly), Goa Today (English, monthly),
Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vauraddeancho Ixtt (Roman-script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Vasco Watch,
Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari-script Konkani).[98]

One electronic mailing list that is based in Goa is Goanet.[99][100]

Sports
Normally other states are fond of cricket but association football is the most popular sport in Goa and is embedded in
Goan culture as a result of the Portuguese influence.[101] Its origins in the state are traced back to 1883 when the visiting
Irish priest Fr. William Robert Lyons established the sport as part of a "Christian education".[101][102] On 22 December
1959 the Associação de Futebol de Goa was formed, which continues to administer the game in the state under the new
name Goa Football Association.[101] Goa, along with West Bengal and Kerala[101] is the locus of football in India and is
home to many football clubs in the national I-League. The state's football powerhouses include Salgaocar, Dempo,
Churchill Brothers, Vasco, Sporting Clube de Goa and FC Goa. The first Unity World Cup was held in Goa in 2014. The
 state's main football stadium, Fatorda Stadium, is located at Margao and also hosts
cricket matches.[103] The state hosted few matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World
Cup in Fatorda Stadium.[104]

A number of Goans have represented India in football and six of them, namely
Samir Naik, Climax Lawrence, Brahmanand Sankhwalkar, Bruno Coutinho,
Mauricio Afonso and Roberto Fernandes have all captained the national team.
Goa has its own state football team and league, the Goa Professional League. It is
probably the only state in India where cricket is not considered the most important
Fatorda Stadium of all sports. Goan's are avid football fans, particularly of the football teams from
Portugal (Benfica, Sporting), and Brazil especially during major football events
such as the 'European Cup' and the 'World Cup' championships. The Portuguese
footballer Ronaldo and Brazilian Neymar, are revered superstar football players in Goa.

Goa also has its own cricket team. Dilip Sardesai remains the only Goan to date to play international cricket for India.[105]

India (Goa) is a member of the 'Lusophony Olympic Games' which are hosted every four years in one of the Portuguese
CPLP member countries, with 733 athletes from 11 countries. Most of the countries competing are countries that are
members of the CPLP (Community of Portuguese Language Countries), but some are countries with significant
Portuguese communities or have a history with Portugal. This event is similar in concept to the Commonwealth Games
(for members of the Commonwealth of Nations) and the Jeux de la Francophonie (for the Francophone community).

Education

Goa University Carmel College for Goa Medical College,

Women is affiliated to previously called
Goa University. It was Escola Médico–
established more than Cirúrgica de Goa.
50 years to aid in
closing the education
gender gap.

Goa had India's earliest educational institutions built with European support. The Portuguese set up seminaries for
religious education and parish schools for elementary education. Founded circa 1542 by Saint Francis Xavier, Saint Paul's
College, Goa was a Jesuit school in Old Goa, which later became a college. St Paul's was once the main Jesuit institution
in the whole of Asia. It housed the first printing press in India and published the first books in 1556.

Medical education began in 1801 with the offering of regular medical courses at the Royal and Military Hospital in the old
City of Goa. Built-in 1842 as the Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de (Nova) Goa (Medical-Surgical School of Goa), Goa
Medical College is one of Asia's oldest medical colleges and has one of the oldest medical libraries (since 1845).[106] It
houses the largest hospital in Goa and continues to provide medical training to this day.

According to the 2011 census, Goa has a literacy rate of 87%, with 90% of males and 84% of females being literate.[107]
Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. Private schools are preferred over
government-run schools. All schools come under the Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education, whose
syllabus is prescribed by the state education department. There are also a few schools that subscribe to the all-India ICSE
syllabus or the NIOS syllabus. Most students in Goa complete their high school with English as the medium of
instruction. Most primary schools, however, use Konkani and Marathi (in private, but government-aided schools). As is
the case in most of India, enrolment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favor of English medium
education. Per a report published in The Times of India, 84% of Goan primary schools were run without an administrative
head.[108]

Some notable schools in Goa include Sharada Mandir School in Miramar, Loyola High School in Margao and The King's
School in São José de Areal. After ten years of schooling, students join a Higher Secondary school, which offers courses
in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law, and Commerce. A student may also opt for a course in vocational studies.
Additionally, they may join three-year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree
programme. Goa University, the sole university in Goa, is located in Taleigão and most Goan colleges are affiliated with
it.

There are six engineering colleges in the state. Goa Engineering College and National Institute of Technology Goa are
government-funded colleges whereas the private engineering colleges include Don Bosco College of Engineering at
Fatorda, Shree Rayeshwar Institute of Engineering and Information Technology at Shiroda, Agnel Institute of
Technology, and Design (AITD), Assagao, Bardez and Padre Conceicao College of Engineering at Verna. In 2004, BITS
Pilani one of the premier institutes in India, inaugurated its second campus, the BITS Pilani Goa Campus, at Zuarinagar
near Dabolim. The Indian Institute of Technology Goa (IIT Goa) began functioning from its temporary campus, located in
Goa Engineering College since 2016. The site for permanent campus was finalised in Cotarli, Sanguem.[109]

There are colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentistry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts,
commerce and science. There are also two National Oceanographic Science related centres: the National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research in Vasco da Gama and the National Institute of Oceanography in Dona Paula.

Goa Institute of Management located at Sanquelim, near Panaji is one of India's premier business schools.

In addition to the engineering colleges, there are government polytechnic institutions in Panaji, Bicholim and Curchorem,
and aided institutions like Father Agnel Polytechnic in Verna and the Institute of Shipbuilding Technology in Vasco da
Gama which impart technical and vocational training.[110]

Other colleges in Goa include Shri Damodar College of Commerce and Economics, V.V.M's R.M. Salgaocar Higher
Secondary School in Margao, G.V.M's S.N.J.A higher secondary school, Don Bosco College, D.M.'s College of Arts,
Science and Commerce, St Xavier's College, Carmel College, The Parvatibai Chowgule College, Dhempe College,
Damodar College, M. E. S. College of Arts & Commerce, S. S. Samiti's Higher Secondary School of Science and Rosary
College of Commerce & Arts. As the result of renewed interest in the Portuguese language and culture, Portuguese at all
levels of instruction is offered in many schools in Goa, largely private ones. In some cases, Goan students do student
exchange programs in Portugal.

Transportation

Air

Goa International Airport, is a civil enclave at INS Hansa, a Naval airfield located
at Dabolim near Vasco da Gama.[111] The airport caters to scheduled domestic
and international air services. Goa has scheduled international connections to
Doha, Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah and Kuwait in the Middle East by airlines like Air
Arabia, Air India, GoAir, Indigo, Oman Air, SpiceJet and Qatar Airways.
Though night operations were not permitted till recently, the military now allows
civil airlines to fly during the night.
A greenfield airport is under construction at Goa International Airport, new
Mopa in Pernem taluka.[112]
It is expected to be completed by 2022.[113] terminal building

Road

Goa's public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government-run
buses, maintained by the Kadamba Transport Corporation, link major routes (like the Panaji–Margao route) and some
remote parts of the state. The Corporation owns 15 bus stands, 4 depots and one Central workshop at Porvorim and a
 Head Office at Porvorim.[114] In large
towns such as Panaji and Margao, intra-
city buses operate. However, public
transport in Goa is less developed, and
residents depend heavily on their own Most of Goa is well connected by
transportation, usually motorised two- roads.
wheelers and small family cars.

Goa has four National Highways passing

Government-run Kadamba buses at through it. NH-66 (ex NH-17) runs along
a bus station in Goa India's west coast and links Goa to
Mumbai in the north and Mangalore to the
south. NH-4A running across the state
connects the capital Panaji to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan.
The NH-366 (ex NH-17A) connects NH-66 to Mormugao Port from Cortalim.
The new NH-566 (ex NH-17B) is a four-lane highway connecting Mormugao
Port to NH-66 at Verna via Dabolim Airport, primarily built to ease pressure on Motorcycle Taxi or "Pilots"
the NH-366 for traffic to Dabolim Airport and Vasco da Gama. NH-768 (ex NH-
4A) links Panaji and Ponda to Belgaum and NH-4. Goa has a total of 224  km
(139  mi) of national highways, 232  km (144  mi) of state highway and 815 kilometres (506 miles) of district highway.
National Highways in Goa are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the
state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres
(148 feet) wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a
minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access-controlled expressways.[115][116]

Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. Another form of transportation in
Goa is the motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots". These vehicles transport a single pillion
rider, at fares that are usually negotiated. Other than buses, "pilots" tend to be the cheapest mode of transport.[117] River
crossings in Goa are serviced by flat-bottomed ferry boats, operated by the river navigation department.

Rail

Goa has two rail lines – one run by the South Western Railway and the other by
the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Western Railway was built during
the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama, Goa with Belgaum,
Hubli, Karnataka via Margao. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during
the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting major cities on the western coast.

Sea
Margao railway station
The Mormugao Port Trust near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum,
coal, and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and
ores from Goa's hinterland. Panaji, which is on the banks of the Mandovi, has a minor port, which used to handle
passengers steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s. There was also a short-lived catamaran service linking
Mumbai and Panaji operated by Damania Shipping in the 1990s.

Sister states
Hawai'i, United States of America[118]

See also
Portuguese Civil Code of Goa and Damaon
Goa, Daman and Diu
Konkan
Outline of Goa
 Portuguese Goa and Damaon

References
1. "Indian Districts by Population, Sex Ratio, Literacy 2011 Census" (http://www.census2011.co.in/district.ph
p#). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110611224943/http://www.census2011.co.in/district.php#)
from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
2. Rai, Parimal (18 December 2018). "New Chief Secretary assumes charge" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/n
ews/archive/chandigarh/parimal-rai-transferred-to-goa-as-chief-secretary-700096). Tribune India.
3. "MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of
India" (http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xl
s). 15 March 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
4. "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab" (https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/IND/?levels=
1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0). hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 14 July
2021.
5. "Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban)" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180127163347/http://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/Databoo
kDec2014%20307.pdf) (PDF). planningcommission.gov.in. Planning Commission, Government of India.
Archived from the original (http://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec201
4%20307.pdf) (PDF) on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
6. "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20160708012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf) (PDF).
Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. p. 113. Archived
from the original (http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf) (PDF) on 8 July 2016.
Retrieved 26 December 2014.
7. "The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987" (http://www.daman.nic.in/acts-rules%5CHindi-de
partment%5Cdocuments/Official%20Language%20Act.pdf) (PDF). daman.nic.in. U.T. Administration of
Daman and Diu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130508141416/http://daman.nic.in/acts-rules/Hi
ndi-department/documents/Official%20Language%20Act.pdf#) (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2013.
Retrieved 17 May 2015.
8. "Goa - state, India" (https://www.britannica.com/place/Goa). Britannica. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
9. Henn, Alexander (2014). Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa: Religion, Colonialism, and Modernity (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=cFZ_BAAAQBAJ&q=google+book+Hindu-Catholic+encounters+in+Goa
+:+religion,+colonialism,+and+modernity+karnataka&pg=PA5). Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University
Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780253013002. OCLC 890531126 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890531126).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190215160118/https://books.google.com/books?id=cFZ_BAAA
QBAJ&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=google+book+Hindu-Catholic+encounters+in+Goa+:+religion,+colonialis
m,+and+modernity+karnataka&source=bl&ots=BLS4SQqRFv&sig=ACfU3U15ylxdpquFrc3aItJzKOJZiT1
ztg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-9OLXwL3gAhWRiHAKHWBtCrQQ6AEwC3oECAQQAQ#v=snippet&
q=karnataka&f=false) from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
10. Kincaid, John; Aroney, Nicholas (2017). "The Supreme Court of India". Courts in federal countries :
federalists or unitarists?. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 225. ISBN 9781487514662.
OCLC 982378193 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/982378193).
11. Reports of the finance commissions of India: First Finance Commission to the Twelfth Finance
Commission: the complete report. India. Finance Commission. Academic Foundation. 2005. p. 268.
ISBN 978-81-7188-474-2.
12. "Liberation of Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928203647/http://gpp.nic.in/Liberation.html).
Government Polytechnic, Panaji. Archived from the original (http://gpp.nic.in/Liberation.html) on 28
September 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2007.
13. Pillarisetti, Jagan. "The Liberation of Goa: an Overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070809202539/ht
tp://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html). The Liberation of Goa:1961. bharat-
rakshak.com. Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html)
on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2007.
14. "Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081218193633/http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st_goa.php). National
Informatics Centre(NIC). Archived from the original (http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/st_goa.php) on 18
December 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
15. Sakshena, R.N. (June 2003). Goa: Into the Mainstream (https://books.google.com/books?id=7kUE7TV3Z
WEC&pg=PA5). p. 5. ISBN 9788170170051. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161021094358/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=7kUE7TV3ZWEC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse) from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
16. Indian Archaeological Society (2006). Purātattva, Issue 36. Indian Archaeological Society. p. 254.
17. The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia : inter-disciplinary studies in archaeology,
biological anthropology, linguistics and genetics. Petraglia, M. D. (Michael D.), Allchin, Bridget.
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. 2007. p. 85. ISBN 9781402055621. OCLC 187951478 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/oclc/187951478).
18. Chakravarty, Kalyan Kumar (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Bednarik, Robert G., Indirā
Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava Saṅgrahālaya. (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 34.
ISBN 9788120814646. OCLC 38936967 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38936967).
19. Chakravarty, Kalyan Kumar (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Bednarik, Robert G., Indirā
Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava Saṅgrahālaya. (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 70.
ISBN 9788120814646. OCLC 38936967 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38936967).
20. C. R. Srinivasan; K. V. Ramesh; S. Subramonia Iyer (2004). Śrī puṣpāñjali: Recent Researches in
Prehistory, Protohistory, Art, Architecture, Numismatics, Iconography, and Epigraphy: Dr. C.R. Srinivasan
commemoration volume, Volume 1. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 469 pages (see page4).
ISBN 9788180900563.
21. Sakhardande, Prajal. "7th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries:
Session V" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110724025433/http://www.nio.org/index.php?option=com_eve
ntdisplay&task=view&tid=4&eid=32). Heritage and history of Goa. NIO Goa. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.nio.org/index.php?option=com_eventdisplay&task=view&tid=4&eid=32) on 24 July 2011.
Retrieved 30 March 2011.
22. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 BC – 1352 AD. Ramesh Anant
S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 100–150).
23. De Souza 1990, p. 9 (https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PA9&dq=bhojas+goa&lr
=#v=onepage&q=bhojas%20goa&f=false)
24. De Souza 1990, p. 10 (https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PA10&dq=bhojas+goa
&lr=#v=onepage&q=bhojas%20goa&f=false)
25. De Souza 1990, p. 11 (https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PA11&dq=bhojas+goa
&lr=#v=onepage&q=bhojas%20goa&f=false)
26. Dobbie, Aline (2006). India: The Elephant's Blessing. Melrose Press. pp. 253 pages (see page 220).
27. Roger Crowley (1 December 2015). Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire. Random
House. pp. 262–264. ISBN 978-0-571-29090-1.
28. Anant Kakba Priolkar (1961). The Goa Inquisition: Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the
Inquisition in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=toz9yHz5XikC). Bombay University Press. p. 3.
29. "The day India freed Goa" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-42390008). 19 December 2017.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190910190732/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-423
90008) from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2019.
30. "What is Goa's 'Opinion Poll Day'?" (https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-goas-opinion-pol
l-day-asmitai-dis-5543720/). Indian Express. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
31. Faleiro, Valmiki. "What a Monumental Shame !" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070303095040/http://ww
w.colaco.net/1/ValmikiMonumentalShame.htm). The Goan Forum. Archived from the original (http://www.c
olaco.net/1/ValmikiMonumentalShame.htm) on 3 March 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
32. Prabhudesai, Sandesh. "THE HISTORIC OPINION POLL" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008072014072
7/http://www.goanews.com/opinion.htm). p. 1. Archived from the original (http://www.goanews.com/opinio
n.htm) on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
33. Poddar, Prem (2 July 2008). Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures - Continental Europe and
its Empires (https://books.google.com/books?id=peOqBgAAQBAJ&q=Goa+was+made+India's+twenty-fift
h+state&pg=PA454). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748630271.
34. Hiremath, K. G. (2003). Recent advances in environmental science. Discovery Pub. House. p. 401.
ISBN 9788171416790. OCLC 56390521 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56390521).
35. "Weather Information for Goa" (http://www.worldweather.org/066/c00528.htm). Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20120702052414/http://www.worldweather.org/066/c00528.htm#) from the original on 2 July
2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
36. "Climatological Information for Goa, India" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120120084100/http://www.weat
her.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/goa_e.htm). Hong Kong Observatory. 15 August 2011.
Archived from the original (http://www.weather.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/goa_e.htm) on
20 January 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
37. "DIRECTORATE OF PLANNING, STATISTICS & EVALUATION" (http://www.goadpse.gov.in/Goa%20Ec
onomy%20in%20Figures%202017.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073156/h
ttp://www.goadpse.gov.in/Goa%20Economy%20in%20Figures%202017.pdf#) (PDF) from the original on
4 April 2018.
38. Rubinoff, Arthur G. (1 January 1998). The construction of a political community : integration and identity in
Goa. Sage Publications. p. 18. OCLC 38918113 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38918113).
39. Rubinoff, Arthur G. (1 January 1998). The construction of a political community : integration and identity in
Goa. Sage Publications. p. 19. OCLC 38918113 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/38918113).
40. Odds stacked against Parrikar (http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/31/stories/2005013104051100.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070313090814/http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/31/stories/200501
3104051100.htm#) 13 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Anil Sastry, The Hindu, 31 January 2005,
verified 2 April 2005
41. Banerjee, Sanjay (6 June 2007). "Congress set to rule Goa again" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/artic
leshow/2101667.cms). The Times of India. Times Internet Limited. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20090114130238/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2101667.cms#) from the original on 14
January 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2007.
42. "North Goa District website" (http://northgoa.nic.in/). northgoa.nic.in. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20111219223718/http://northgoa.nic.in/#) from the original on 19 December 2011. Retrieved
16 December 2011.
43. "Congress Asks Why Is BJP Invited To Form Government in Goa" (http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/congr
ess-asks-why-is-bjp-invited-to-form-government-in-goa-1669004). ndtv.com. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170328105200/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/congress-asks-why-is-bjp-invited-to-form-go
vernment-in-goa-1669004#) from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
44. "Supreme Court to hear Congress plea against Goa governor's invitation to BJP" (http://timesofindia.india
times.com/elections/assembly-elections/goa/news/supreme-court-to-hear-congress-plea-against-goa-gov
ernors-invitation-to-bjp/articleshow/57621978.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170318151748/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/goa/news/suprem
e-court-to-hear-congress-plea-against-goa-governors-invitation-to-bjp/articleshow/57621978.cms#) from
the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
45. "Goa's BJP-led government wins floor test with support from 22 legislators" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.
com/elections/assembly-elections/goa/news/goas-bjp-led-government-wins-floor-test-with-support-from-2
2-legislators/articleshow/57665849.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0319040934/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/goa/news/goas-bjp-led-gov
ernment-wins-floor-test-with-support-from-22-legislators/articleshow/57665849.cms#) from the original on
19 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
46. "Wildlife Sanctuaries in Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080720010519/http://www.goahub.com/wildl
ife-sanctuaries-in-goa/index.html). Archived from the original (http://www.goahub.com/wildlife-sanctuaries
-in-goa/index.html) on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2008.
47. "Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060413232217/htt
p://mospi.nic.in/mospi_nad_main.htm). Archived from the original (http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_nad_main.ht
m) on 13 April 2006. Retrieved 7 September 2006.
48. Mohan, Vibhor (16 September 2008). "Chandigarh's per capita income is highest in India" (http://timesofin
dia.indiatimes.com/Chandigarhs_per_capita_income_highest_in_India/articleshow/3487128.cms). The
Times of India. Archived (https://www.webcitation.org/684W8KCgm?url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiati
mes.com/2008-09-16/chandigarh/27901061_1_capita-income-constant-prices-industrial-growth#) from
the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
49. Economy of Goa (http://goenkar.com/book/print/112) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20050329161
315/http://goenkar.com/book/print/112#) 29 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine, from goenkar.com (htt
p://goenkar.com/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20050402083621/http://www.goenkar.com/#) 2
April 2005 at the Wayback Machine verified 2 April 2005.
50. "About Goa: Tourism, Industries, Economy, Growth & Geography Information" (https://www.ibef.org/states/
goa.aspx#login-box). ibef.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161129122956/http://www.ibef.or
g/states/goa.aspx#login-box#login-box) from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 6 February
2018.
51. "Goa not to have any more SEZs" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Business/India_Business/Goa_not_
to_have_any_more_SEZs_Digamber_Kamat/rssarticleshow/2538932.cms). The Times of India. 13
November 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081011132502/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.co
m/Business/India_Business/Goa_not_to_have_any_more_SEZs_Digamber_Kamat/rssarticleshow/2538
932.cms#) from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
52. "Goa Budget 2017" (https://www.goa.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Budget-Speech-2017.pdf)
(PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180206190344/https://www.goa.gov.in/wp-content/upload
s/2017/03/Budget-Speech-2017.pdf#) (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2018.
53. "India's religions by numbers" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-201
1-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece). The Hindu (published 26 August 2015). 29 March 2016.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious
-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece#) from the original on 10 January
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
54. "Scheduled Casts & Scheduled Tribes Population" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/In
dia_at_glance/scst.aspx). Census Department of India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200811181
50630/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/scst.aspx#) from the original
on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
55. Menezes, Vivek (15 May 2021). "Who belongs to Goa? This question resurfaces as the State battles the
raging pandemic" (https://www.thehindu.com/society/who-belongs-to-goa-this-question-resurfaces-as-the
-state-battles-the-raging-pandemic/article34554870.ece). The Hindu.
56. "C-16 Population By Mother Tongue - Goa" (https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STM
T-MDDS-3000.XLSX). census.gov.in. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
57. "Language – India, States and Union Territories" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_2506
2018_NEW.pdf) (PDF). Census of India 2011. Office of the Registrar General. pp. 13–14. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20181114073412/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_
NEW.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
58. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities. "42nd report: July 2003 – June 2004" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
071008113359/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm). p. para 11.3. Archived from the original (htt
p://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm) on 8 October 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
59. "Solving the Language Imbroglio" (http://www.navhindtimes.com/story.php?story=2008083147). Navhind
Times. Archived (https://www.webcitation.org/65CYoDDnd?url=http://www.navhindtimes.com/story.php?st
ory=2008083147#) from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
60. "Census of India – DISTRIBUTION OF 10,000 PERSONS BY LANGUAGE" (http://www.censusindia.gov.
in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm). censusindia.gov.in. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20121011050151/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_
Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm#) from the original on 11 October 2012. Retrieved 17 March
2012.
61. Thomaz, Luís Filipe F. R. (1 October 2016). "The Socio-Linguistic Paradox of Goa" (https://doi.org/10.151
5%2Fhssr-2016-0021). Human and Social Studies. 5 (3): 15–38. doi:10.1515/hssr-2016-0021 (https://doi.
org/10.1515%2Fhssr-2016-0021).
62. Ernest Hull (1909). "Archdiocese of Goa". Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company.
63. Saldhana, Arun (2007). Psychedelic White: Goa Trance and the Viscosity of Race. University of
Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4994-5.
64. Rajesh Ghadge (2015). The story of Goan Migration.
65. "Archdiocese of Goa e Damão" (http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dgoae.html). Catholic-
Hierarchy.org. 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080518044155/http://www.catholic-hierarch
y.org/diocese/dgoae.html#) from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 31 July 2008.
66. "Tourist Arrivals (Year Wise)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100827214441/http://www.goatourism.gov.i
n/About%20DOT/tourist_arrivals.htm). Department of Tourism, Government of Goa website. Archived
from the original (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/About%20DOT/tourist_arrivals.htm) on 27 August 2010.
Retrieved 3 August 2010.
67. Gethin Chamberlain (31 August 2013). "Why Goa is looking to go upmarket – and banish Brits and
backpackers: As visitor numbers dip, the Indian state wants to rid itself of budget tourists – but its rubbish
mountains and beach gangs are putting off the rich" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/01/goa
-banish-brits-backpackers). The Observer, The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013090
1214731/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/01/goa-banish-brits-backpackers#) from the
original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
68. National Geographic Society (22 January 2015). "Top 10 Nightlife Cities – National Geographic Travel" (h
ttp://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/nightlife-cities/). National Geographic. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160812134753/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/nightlife-cities/#)
from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
69. "20 idyllic beach getaways" (https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/asia-best-beaches/index.html). CNN. 12
July 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180322015247/https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/a
sia-best-beaches/index.html#) from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
70. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180406163934/http://travelfiver.com/5-best-beaches-in-g
oa/). Archived from the original (http://travelfiver.com/5-best-beaches-in-goa/#) on 6 April 2018. Retrieved
6 April 2018.
71. "Basilica of Bom Jesus, Old Goa | Goa Jesuits" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140615151313/http://goaj
esuits.in/bomjesus/). goajesuits.in. Archived from the original (http://goajesuits.in/bomjesus) on 15 June
2014. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
72. "Pilgrims flock to Goa to see Saint Francis Xavier remains" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30160
195). BBC News. bbc.co.uk. 22 November 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014112419292
1/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30160195#) from the original on 24 November 2014. Retrieved
22 November 2014.
73. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - Tourist Arrivals (Year Wise)" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180210213317/http://goatourism.gov.in/statistics/225). goatourism.gov.in. Archived
from the original (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/statistics/225) on 10 February 2018. Retrieved 30 January
2018.
74. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091203114538/http://www.nehrusciencecentre.org/GSC
P/gscp.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.nehrusciencecentre.org/GSCP/gscp.htm) on 3
December 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2010., Nehru Science Centre website. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
75. NIO website (http://www.nio.org/index/title/HOME) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010081902421
8/http://www.nio.org/index/title/HOME#) 19 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 August
2010.
76. Ray, Kunal (15 October 2015). "Artist Subodh Kerkar's Museum of Goa aims to provide a cultural
experience for the Goans" (http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/art/artist-subodh-kerkar-s-mus
eum-of-goa-aims-to-provide-a-cultural-experience-for-the-goans/article7765909.ece). The Hindu.
Retrieved 7 January 2016.
77. "R A Mashelkar conferred Gomant Vibhushan award" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/R-A-Ma
shelkar-conferred-Gomant-Vibhushan-award/articleshow/20358039.cms). The Times of India. 31 May
2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151002163259/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/
R-A-Mashelkar-conferred-Gomant-Vibhushan-award/articleshow/20358039.cms#) from the original on 2
October 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
78. "Goa's highest civilian award to Charles Correa" (https://archive.today/20120701155312/http://articles.tim
esofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-19/goa/30533988_1_charles-correa-goa-chief-minister-digambar-kam
at). The Times of India. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatim
es.com/2011-12-19/goa/30533988_1_charles-correa-goa-chief-minister-digambar-kamat) on 1 July 2012.
Retrieved 16 August 2014.
79. "The Fate of Fado" (http://www.mid-day.com/lifestyle/2012/mar/180312-The-fate-of-Fado.htm). Mid-Day.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121213041639/http://www.mid-day.com/lifestyle/2012/mar/1803
12-The-fate-of-Fado.htm#) from the original on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
80. "Tiatr folk drama of Goa" (http://www.goablog.org/posts/tiatr-folk-drama-of-goa/). Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20081123053722/http://www.goablog.org/posts/tiatr-folk-drama-of-goa/#) from the original
on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
81. Smitha Venkateswaran (14 April 2007). "Konkan goes Tiatrical" (http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/arti
cleshowarchive.cms?msid=1907414). The Economic Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009
0111191718/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshowarchive.cms?msid=1907414#) from the
original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 14 December 2008.
82. "17 States and Six Central Ministries to Showcase their Tableaux in Republic Day Parade – 2016" (http://
pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=135726). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160531171
642/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=135726#) from the original on 31 May 2016.
Retrieved 25 May 2016.
83. Kerala / Kochi News: A Konkani cinema from the youth (http://www.hindu.com/2011/04/17/stories/201104
1760220500.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121110004647/http://www.hindu.com/2011/0
4/17/stories/2011041760220500.htm#) 10 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. The Hindu (17 April
2011). Retrieved 28 July 2013.
84. Panaji Konkani Cinema – A Long Way to Go (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=5925
6&n_tit=Panaji%3A+Konkani+Cinema+-+A+Long+Way+to+Go) Archived (https://www.webcitation.org/6A
C5jFC0P?url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=59256#) 26 August 2012 at
WebCite. Daijiworld.com. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
85. Yahoo! Groups (https://groups.yahoo.com/group/gulf-goans/message/31478). Yahoo!. Retrieved 28 July
2013.
86. Konkani Cinema Day – Some Reflections (http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/konkani-cinema-day-so
me-reflections) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120610122109/http://www.navhindtimes.in/panor
ama/konkani-cinema-day-some-reflections) 10 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Navhindtimes.in (23
April 2011). Retrieved 28 July 2013
87. ANI (18 September 2014). "Goa becomes permanent venue for IFFI" (http://www.business-standard.com/
article/news-ani/goa-becomes-permanent-venue-for-iffi-114091800110_1.html). Business Standard India.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180206190317/http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-
ani/goa-becomes-permanent-venue-for-iffi-114091800110_1.html#) from the original on 6 February 2018.
Retrieved 6 February 2018.
88. Dearcinema.com (http://dearcinema.com/news/man-beyond-bridge-release-canada) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20140223110252/http://dearcinema.com/news/man-beyond-bridge-release-canada)
23 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
89. Celebrating Konkani cinema |iGoa (http://www.navhindtimes.in/iwatch/celebrating-konkani-cinema).
Navhindtimes.in (26 April 2011). Retrieved 28 July 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014022
8210554/http://www.navhindtimes.in/iwatch/celebrating-konkani-cinema) 28 February 2014 at the
Wayback Machine
90. "Konkani movie 'The Victim' hits screens on September 14 (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/201
2-09-12/mangalore/33788875_1_konkani-film-karwar-manohar-parikkar) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20131113024735/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-09-12/mangalore/33788875_1_
konkani-film-karwar-manohar-parikkar) 13 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine" – Times of India.
Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com (12 September 2012). Retrieved 28 July 2013.
91. Joseph Zuzarte (14 March 2013). "The Rise of Cashew Feni" (http://goastreets.com/goa-news/the-heady-
rise-of-cashew-feni/). goastreets.com. Goa Streets. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201306010533
45/http://goastreets.com/goa-news/the-heady-rise-of-cashew-feni/#) from the original on 1 June 2013.
Retrieved 2 June 2013.
92. Sheetal Wadhwa Munshaw (July 2012). "A Date With Port" (http://www.verveonline.com/110/life/scapes-
wine.shtml). verveonline.com. Verve. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130708160840/http://verve
online.com/110/life/scapes-wine.shtml#) from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
93. Ashiqa Salvan. "Wine and dine in Goa" (http://www.thewineclub.in/special_feature/1211/wine-and-dine-i
n-Goa). thewineclub.in. The Wine Club. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130515022437/http://w
ww.thewineclub.in/special_feature/1211/Wine-and-dine-in-Goa#) from the original on 15 May 2013.
Retrieved 2 June 2013.
94. Mankekar, Kamla (2004). Temples of Goa. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Govt. of India. pp. 99 pages(see pages 1–17). ISBN 9788123011615.
95. Kamat, Krishnanand. Konkanyali Kavikala. Panaji: Goa Konkani Akademi.
96. "Doordarshan Goa – Welcome to Doordarshan Kendra, Panaji, Goa, India" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0180321193135/http://doordarshangoa.gov.in/). doordarshangoa.gov.in. Archived from the original (http://
doordarshangoa.gov.in/) on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
97. "Goa Radio Stations on FM and mediumwave" (http://www.asiawaves.net/india/goa-radio.htm).
asiawaves.net. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180322015239/http://www.asiawaves.net/india/g
oa-radio.htm#) from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
 98. "Goa Newspapers and News Sites" (https://www.w3newspapers.com/india/goa/). w3newspapers.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180321192743/https://www.w3newspapers.com/india/goa/#)
from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
99. "10 useful Goa websites |" (https://goastreets.com/10-usefull-goa-website/). goastreets.com. Retrieved
16 June 2021.
100. Rajan, Nalini (7 March 2007). 21st Century Journalism in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=VvaH
AwAAQBAJ&dq=goanet&pg=PP1). SAGE Publications India. ISBN 978-81-321-0118-5.
101. Mills, James (Summer 2001). "Football in Goa: Sport, Politics and the Portuguese in India". Soccer &
Society. 2 (2): 75–88. doi:10.1080/714004840 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F714004840).
S2CID 143324581 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143324581).
102. "Goan football has little cause to look back" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928191006/http://www.go
a-fa.com/node/45). Goa Football Association. Archived from the original (http://www.goa-fa.com/node/45)
on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 19 July 2007.
103. "Nehru stadium" (http://content-www.cricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58301.html). ESPNcricinfo.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090221025415/http://content-www.cricinfo.com/india/content/gro
und/58301.html#) from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2007.
104. "FIFA U-17 World Cup: Goa stadium handed over to FIFA" (http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/football
-fifa-u17-world-cup/fifa-u-17-world-cup-goa-stadium-handed-over-to-fifa-4859596/). The Indian Express.
25 September 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180321192703/http://indianexpress.com/art
icle/sports/football-fifa-u17-world-cup/fifa-u-17-world-cup-goa-stadium-handed-over-to-fifa-4859596/#)
from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
105. "[Goanet] Goa Govt. institutes award in memory of Dilip Sardesai" (http://www.mail-archive.com/goanet@l
ists.goanet.org/msg15601.html). Mail-archive.com. 8 August 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20130513065907/http://www.mail-archive.com/goanet@lists.goanet.org/msg15601.html#) from the
original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
106. "MEDICAL EDUCATION CELL-GMC- BAMBOLIM GOA" (http://www.gmcmec.gov.in/). gmcmec.gov.in.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160109164022/http://gmcmec.gov.in/#) from the original on 9
January 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
107. "District-specific Literates and Literacy Rates, 2001" (http://educationforallinindia.com/page157.html).
Education for all in India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070709081028/http://www.educationfor
allinindia.com/page157.html#) from the original on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
108. Malkarnekar, Gauree (6 April 2009). "No Administrative head" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/8
4-Goa-schools-without-heads/articleshow/4363801.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090902072435/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/84-Goa-schools-without-heads/artic
leshow/4363801.cms#) from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
109. "Cotarli land for IIT Goa gets Centre's approval" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/cotarli-land-f
or-iit-goa-gets-centres-approval/articleshow/64725207.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180720134236/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/cotarli-land-for-iit-goa-gets-ce
ntres-approval/articleshow/64725207.cms#) from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
110. "Diploma institutes and courses" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130118223125/http://dtegoa.gov.in/diplo
ma.html). Archived from the original (http://dtegoa.gov.in/diploma.html) on 18 January 2013. Retrieved
4 January 2013.
111. "Goa airport requests shift in Navy's flying sorties to reduce rush" (https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/i
ndustry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/goa-airport-requests-shift-in-navys-flying-sorties-to-reduce-rush/a
rticleshow/55289748.cms). The Economic Times. 7 November 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20190328132512/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/goa-
airport-requests-shift-in-navys-flying-sorties-to-reduce-rush/articleshow/55289748.cms) from the original
on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
112. "After a year, SC allows resuming construction of airport at Goa's Mopa" (https://www.livemint.com/news/i
ndia/after-a-year-sc-allows-resuming-construction-of-airport-at-goa-s-mopa-11579159037159.html). Live
Mint. 16 January 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
113. "Goa's Mopa airport delayed by a year" (https://www.livemint.com/news/india/goa-s-mopa-airport-delayed
-by-a-year-1563248353607.html). The Indian Express. 16 July 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
114. "Economic Survey 2011–2012" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130525135649/http://www.goa.gov.in/pdf/
goa-esurvey-2010-2011.pdf) (PDF). Government of Goa. Archived from the original (http://www.goa.gov.i
n/pdf/goa-esurvey-2010-2011.pdf) (PDF) on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
115. Goa, Goa Breaking News (http://www.digitalgoa.com/ca_disp.php?id=1428) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20140304100727/http://www.digitalgoa.com/ca_disp.php?id=1428) 4 March 2014 at the
Wayback Machine. DigitalGoa.com (31 August 2010). Retrieved 28 July 2013
116. Highway authority projects hit road block in Kerala, Goa, Bengal (http://www.business-standard.com/articl
e/economy-policy/highway-authority-projects-hit-road-block-in-kerala-goa-bengal-112031100019_1.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131104061816/http://www.business-standard.com/article/econo
my-policy/highway-authority-projects-hit-road-block-in-kerala-goa-bengal-112031100019_1.html#) 4
November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Business Standard (11 March 2012). Retrieved 28 July 2013
117. Abram, David (1 January 2004). The Rough Guide to Goa (https://books.google.com/books?id=GGZRtj4
OnccC&pg=PA35) (5 ed.). Rough Guides. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-84353-081-7. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20130527190325/http://books.google.com/books?id=GGZRtj4OnccC&pg=PA35) from the
original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
118. "Hawaii's Sister-States" (https://invest.hawaii.gov/international/sister-states/). State of Hawai'i. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20201016200107/https://invest.hawaii.gov/international/sister-states/) from
the original on 16 October 2020.

Sources
de Souza, Teotonio R. (1989). Essays in Goan history (https://books.google.com/books?id=ruTu9oaUgUg
C). Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-263-7. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
de Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C). Goa University publication. Vol. 2. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-
81-7022-259-0. Retrieved 25 August 2009.

Further reading
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de
Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London.
Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.

External links
Government

Government of Goa (https://web.archive.org/web/20170128023528/https://www.goa.gov.in/index.php)

Department of Tourism (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/)

General information

Goa (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/India/Goa/) at Curlie

Geographic data related to Goa (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/1997192) at OpenStreetMap

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa&oldid=1084780106"

This page was last edited on 26 April 2022, at 15:05 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using this site, you
agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.
Goans
Goans (Konkani: गोंयकार, Romi Konkani: Goenkar,
Portuguese: Goeses) is the demonym used to describe the
Goans
people native to Goa, India, who form an ethno-linguistic Goenkar, Goeses
group resulting from the assimilation of Indo-Aryan,
Dravidian, Indo-Portuguese, and Austro-Asiatic ethnic and/or
linguistic ancestries.[2][3] They speak different dialects of
Konkani natively. Goanese is an incorrect usage for Goans.[4]
Jaime Rangel Chris Perry Lourdino
Barreto

Contents
Language
Narana António Vamona
Religion Coissoró Rodrigues Navelcar
Christianity
Hinduism
Islam
Others
Sebastião Vimala Devi Braz
Geographical distribution Dalgado Fernandes
Migrations prior to 1550
Migrations from 1550-1700s (First Phase)
Migrations from 1800s-1950s (Second Phase)
Migration from 1960s-Present (Current Phase) Joseph Vaz Charles Frederika
Professions Correa Menezes

Goans in Karachi (Some notable Goans)

Some notable
Goans (including those of ancestral
See also
descent)
References
Regions with significant populations
Goa 450,000
Language Maharashtra 150,000
Rest of India 200,000
Goans are multilingual, but mainly speak the Konkani Outside Republic of India >600,000[1]
language, a Prakrit based language belonging to the Southern Languages
group of Indo-Aryan Languages. Various dialects of Konkani
spoken by the Goans which include Bardezkari, Saxtti, Primary:

Pednekari and Antruz. The Konkani spoken by the Catholics Goan Konkani, Indo-Portuguese &
is notably different from those of the Hindus, since it has a lot Mahratti

of Portuguese influence in its vocabulary.[5] Konkani was Additional:

suppressed for official documentation use only not for Bombay Mahratti & Hindi-Urdu
unofficial use under the Portuguese governance, playing a Religion
minor part in education of the past generations. All Goans
were educated in Portuguese in the past when Goa was an Global Predominance:
overseas province of Portugal. A small minority of Goans are Christianity (Roman Catholicism)*

 descendants of the Global Minority:

Portuguese, speak Hinduism*, Islam and others

Portuguese and are of Luso-
Related ethnic groups
Indian ethnicity,[6] however
a number of native Christians Other Konkani people,

also used Portuguese as their Bombayites, East Indians, Basseinites,

first language prior to 1961. Mangaloreans & Luso-Indians

Goans use Devanagari *Due to mass emigration of people (mainly

(official) and Latin script
(liturgical and historical) for
education as well as
Geographic Distribution of
communication (personal,
Native Konkani Speakers formal and religious).
within India However the entire liturgy of
the Catholic church is solely
in the Latin script. In the past
Goykanadi, Modi, Kannada and Persian scripts were also used
which later fell into disuse owing to many social, political and
Goan Catholics) from Goa, as well as mass
immigration from mainland India, since 1961,
the Ethnic, Religious and Cultural
Demographics of Goa State have been
severely altered. This exchange of population
has made the natives a virtual minority in their
homeland.[1]
Note: This article is for information on the

religious reasons.[7][8] ethnic Goan people (many in diaspora),

and not residents living within the Indian
Portuguese is still spoken as a first language by a number of State of Goa
Goans, though it is mainly restricted to upper-class Catholic
families and the older generation. However, the annual number of Goans learning Portuguese as a second
language has been continuously increasing in the 21st century.[9]

The Marathi language has played a significant role for Hindus near the northern borders of Goa close to
Maharashtra and parts of Novas Conquistas. This is due to the influx of ethnic Marathi people since the
20th century.[10]

Religion
Ethnic Goans are predominantly Christians followed by Hindus and a small Muslim community. As per the
1909 statistics, the Catholic population was 293,628 out of a total population 365,291 (80.33%).[11] Within
Goa, there has been a steady decline of Christianity due to Goan emigration, and a steady rise of Hinduism
and Islam, due to non-Goan immigration. Conversion seems to play little role in the demographic change.
According to the 2011 census, in a population of 1,458,545 people, 66.1% were Hindu, 25.1% were
Christian, and 8.3% were Muslim.[12]

Christianity

The Catholics display Portuguese influence, due to over 451 years of direct rule by, and interaction with,
the Portuguese people as an overseas province.[13] Portuguese names are common among the
Christians.[14] The caste system is still followed, but to a lesser degree as compared to other Indians. There
are some distinct Bamonn, Chardó, Gauddo and Sudir communities in Goa that are mainly
endogamous.[15] Most Catholic families also share Portuguese ancestry, and some openly count themselves
as 'mestiço' or mixed-race. This has resulted in an ethnicity that is unique and culturally different from the
people around them.[16]
Hinduism

Goan Hindus refer to themselves as Konkane (Devanagari Konkani: कोंकणे), meaning the residents of an
area broadly identified as Konkan.[17] Hindus in Goa are divided into many different castes and sub-castes,
known as Jatis. They use their village names to identify their clans, some of them use titles. Some are
known by the occupation their ancestors have been practising; Nayak, Borkar, Raikar, Keni, Prabhu,
Kamat, Lotlikar, Chodankar, Mandrekar, Naik, Bhat, Tari, Gaude are examples.

Islam

Only a small number of native Muslims remain and are known as Moir, the word is derived from the
Portuguese Mouro, which means Moor. Muçulmano was the word later used in Portuguese to identify
them.[18]

Others

There are minuscule numbers of the Goan diaspora now converted to Sikhism and Buddhism, as well as a
few atheists.

Geographical distribution
Goans have been migrating all along the Konkan region and across the Anglosphere, Lusosphere and
Persian Gulf countries for the last six centuries because of socio-religious and economic reasons. The
Indian diaspora have been assimilated with other Konkani people of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
Many overseas Goans have settled in the erstwhile British Empire and the United Kingdom (UK), as well
as the former Portuguese territories and Portugal itself. Goans across the globe refer to the publication,
Goan Voice (http://www.goanvoice.org.uk/) for news about members from their community.

Migrations prior to 1550

There are no definitive records of Goan migration prior to the Portuguese conquests in the region of Goa.
One reason being that the Goan people were not a distinct ethnic group as yet.

Migrations from 1550-1700s (First Phase)

The first recorded instances of significant emigrations of Goans could be traced back to the arrival of the
Portuguese in Goa. Sizable numbers of Goan Hindus in 17th-18th centuries fled to Mangalore and Canara,
in order to flee from the conversion efforts. They were soon followed by some newly-converted Goan
Catholics, who fled the Goa Inquisition.[19] There were flights from Goa to escape the Maratha Invasion of
Goa (1683), taxation as well as epidemics during the same time period.[20] It was also during the latter part
this period, when Goan Catholics started traveling overseas. Though minuscule, there were migrations of
Goan Catholics to other parts of the global Portuguese Empire, such as Lisbon, Ormuz, Muscat, Timor,
Brasil, Malaca, Pegu, and Colombo. 48 Goan Catholics permanently migrated to Portugal in the 18th
century.[21] Goan Hindus did not travel to foreign countries, due to the religious prohibition imposed by the
Dharamasastras, which states that crossing salt water would corrupt oneself.[22]
Migrations from 1800s-1950s (Second Phase)

During the Napoleonic Wars Goa was occupied by the British Raj, and many of their vessels were
anchored in the Morumugão harbour.[23] These ships were serviced by native Goans, who then left for
British India once the ships had moved on.[22] The Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1878 played an important
role in speeding the emigration of Goans in the latter half of the 19th Century, since it gave the British the
authority to construct the West of India Portuguese Railway, which connected the Velhas Conquistas to the
Bombay Presidency. They primarily moved to the cities of Bombay (now Mumbai), Poona (now Pune),
Calcutta (now Kolkata)[24] and Karachi.[25] The Goans who moved to mainland India were of both,
Christian as well as Hindu, origin.[26]

A small number of Goans moved to Burma, to join the already established community in Pegu (now
Bago). Another destination for mainly the Catholic community, was Africa. Most of the emigrants hailed
from the province of Bardes, due to their high literacy rate, and the Velhas Conquistas region in general.[24]
Immigration into Africa came to end after the Decolonisation of Africa, during the 1950-60s.

In 1880, there 29,216 Goans who left Goa.[27] By 1954, this number rose to 180,000.

Migration from 1960s-Present (Current Phase)

After the Annexation of Goa in 1961 by the Republic of India, there has been a steep rise in the number of
emigrants of Goan origin. Many had applied and were granted Portuguese passports in order to obtain a
European residence. The educated class found it difficult to get jobs within Goa due to the high influx of
non-Goans into Goa, and this encouraged many of them to move to the Gulf states.[19]

Until the early 1970s there were substantial populations of Goans in the Middle East, Africa and Europe.
There have also, historically, been Goans in former British colonies of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, and
Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola. The end of colonial rule brought a subsequent process of
Africanisation and a wave of expulsion of South Asians from Uganda (1972) and Malawi (1974) forced
the community to migrate elsewhere.[26]

Currently it is estimated that there are around 600,000 Goans living outside India.[28]

Professions

Since the Second Phase of migrations, the Goans have had a variety of professions. In British India they
were personal butlers or physicians to the English and Parsi elite in India. On the Ships and Cruise liners
they were sailors, stewards, chefs, musicians and dancers.Many have also been working on oil rigs.Many
Goan doctors worked in African colonies of Portugal. Goan doctors were also active in British India.[29]

Goans in Karachi
Portuguese Goan community played a vital role in the Karachi’s history and development. Portuguese
Goan community started migrating to Karachi in the 1820s as traders. The majority of the estimated
100,000 who came to Pakistan are primarily concentrated in Karachi.[30]

In 1886 the Goa-Portuguese Association was established, with L.C. Gomes as the first President.
Cincinnatus Fabian D'Abreo was instrumental in starting the Association. In 1936 the name of the Goa-
Portuguese Association was changed to the Karachi Goan Association (KGA) with C.M. Lobo as its first
President.[30]

In 1886, Cincinnatus Fabian D'Abreo, helped found ILACO (formerly Indian Life Assurance Co) in
Karachi. In 1926, Cincinnatus and other pioneering Goans also established Karachi's first township namely
"Cincinnatus Town" (later to be called Garden East).[30]

Manuel Misquita, twice served as President of the Karachi Goan Association, first from 1941 to 1942 and
then again in 1954. In 1946, Manuel Misquita was Mayor of Karachi under the British Raj and many
Goans were councilors in the Karachi Metropolitan Corporation (KMC). Many roads in Karachi --
including Britto Road, Pedro D'Souza Road, D'Cruz Road, D'Abreo Street, Nazareth Street, and DeSilva
Street -- were named after pioneering Goans.[30]

Population of Goans in Karachi stood at some 6,000 Goans, down from around 15,000 Goans in the 1950s
and 60s, as per Menin Rodrigues, the author of ‘Goans of Pakistan – Footprints on the Sands of Time,’ .[30]

See also
Goan Catholics
Goan Muslims
Caste system in Goa
Goan cuisine
Konkani people
List of people from Goa
Goans in cricket
Goans in football
Luso-Asians
Eurasian (mixed ancestry)

References
1. Rajesh Ghadge (2015), The story of Goan Migration.
2. Pereira, José (2000). Song of Goa: mandos of yearning. Aryan Books International. pp. 234
pages. ISBN 9788173051661.
3. Cabral e Sá, Mário (1997). Wind of fire: the music and musicians of Goa. Promilla & Co.
pp. 373 pages(see page 62). ISBN 9788185002194.
4. Pinto, Cecil (2003-11-07). "Goanese & non-Goans" (http://goanet.org/post.php?name=News
&list=goanet&info=2003-November/thread&post_id=007022). Goa Today magazine. Goa
Publications. Retrieved 2008-07-04.
5. Anvita Abbi; R. S. Gupta; Ayesha Kidwai (2001). Linguistic structure and language
dynamics in South Asia: papers from the proceedings of SALA XVIII Roundtable. Motilal
Banarsidass, 2001 – Language Arts & Disciplines -. pp. 409 pages (Chapter 4 Portuguese
influence on Konkani syntax). ISBN 9788120817654.
6. "Publications" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0045-8732(03)90031-3). COSPAR Information
Bulletin. 2003 (156): 106. April 2003. Bibcode:2003CIBu..156..106. (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/2003CIBu..156..106.). doi:10.1016/s0045-8732(03)90031-3 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fs0045-8732%2803%2990031-3). ISSN 0045-8732 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/004
5-8732).
7. National Archives of India. Vol. 34. National Archives of India. p. 1985.
 8. Kamat, Krishnanand Kamat. "The origin and development of Konkani language" (http://www.
kamat.com/kalranga/konkani/konkani.htm). www.kamat.com. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
9. "1.500 pessoas estudam português em Goa" (https://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-5
00-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/). Revista MACAU. 2 June 2014.
10. Malkarnekar, Gauree (14 August 2019). "After Karnataka & Maha, UP gives Goa the most
migrants" (https://m.timesofindia.com/city/goa/after-ktaka-maha-up-gives-goa-the-most-migra
nts/articleshow/70666598.cms). Times of India.
11. Hull, Ernest (1909). Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
12. "India's religions by numbers" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communitie
s-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece). The Hindu (published 26 August
2015). 29 March 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.t
hehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/artic
le7582284.ece#) from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
13. da Silva Gracias, Fatima (1997). "The Impact of Portuguese Culture in Goa: A Myth or
Reality". In Charles J. Borges (ed.). Goa and Portugal: Their Cultural Links. New Delhi:
Concept Publishing Company. pp. 41–51.
14. Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC). Sahitya Akademi. p. 24. ISBN 81-7201-
664-6.
15. Gomes, Olivinho (1987). Village Goa: a study of Goan social structure and change. S.
Chand. pp. 78–79.
16. McPherson, Kenneth (1987). "A Secret People of South Asia. The Origins, Evolution and
Role of the Luso-Indian Goan Community from the Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries".
Itinerario. 11 (2): 72–86.
17. Kulakarṇī, Indian Council of Historical Research, A. Rā (2006). Explorations in the Deccan
history Volume 9 of Monograph series. Pragati Publications in association with Indian
Council of Historical Research. pp. 217 pages(see page 129). ISBN 9788173071089.
18. Śiroḍakara, Mandal, Pra. Pā,H. K. ,Anthropological Survey of India (1993). People of India:
Goa Volume 21 of People of India, Kumar Suresh Singh Volume 21 of State Series, Kumar
Suresh Singh. Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 283 pages. ISBN 9788171547609.
19. F, da Silva (1997). "F da Silva GRACIAS, The Impact of Portuguese Culture on Goa – A
Myth or a Reality?". Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
20. de Souza, Teotónio (1979). Teotónio de Souza (1979), Medieval Goa. New Delhi: Concept
Publishing Company. p. 116.
21. Disney, Anthony (1996). Anthony Disney (1996), The Gulf Route from India to Portugal in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Actas do XII Seminário Internacional de História
Indo-Portuguesa. p. 532.
22. da Silva GRACIAS, Fatima (2000). Fatima da Silva GRACIAS (2000) Goans Away From
Goa : Migration to the Middle East. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 432.
23. Fernandes, Paul (2017). "Dona Paula's forgotten British cemetery gets a new lease of life"
(https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dona-paulas-forgotten-british-cemetery-gets-a-n
ew-lease-of-life/articleshow/58485876.cms). The Times of India. Retrieved 12 September
2020.
24. Pinto, J. B. (1962). J. B. Pinto (1962), Goan Emigration. Panjim.
25. Khan, Haward R. (1980). Haward, R. Khan, 1980, 'An Urban Minority: The Goan Christian
Community in Karachi'. London: University of London.
26. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1989). Essays in Goan history. Concept Publishing Company.
pp. 219 pages(see pages 187–190). ISBN 9788170222637.
27. Paco Patriarcal (Patriarchal Archives), Rois de Cristandade : Rois de Ilhas, 1870-1889. Rois
de Ilhas. 1870–1889.
28. Pereira, José (2000). Song of Goa: mandos of yearning. Aryan Books International. pp. 234
pages. ISBN 9788173051661.
29. Fatima da Silva Gracias (1994). Health and Hygiene in Colonial Goa, 1510-1961 (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=DxZE03zaHKwC&pg=PA11). Concept Publishing Company.
pp. 199, 225–226. ISBN 978-81-7022-506-5.
30. "Celebrating Karachi's Goan connection | The Express Tribune" (https://tribune.com.pk/story/
2352894/celebrating-karachis-goan-connection). tribune.com.pk. 2022-04-16. Retrieved
2022-04-24.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goans&oldid=1084484297"

This page was last edited on 24 April 2022, at 19:43 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Culture of Goa
This article is about the culture of natives of the Indian state of Goa.

Contents
Religion
Festivals
Education
Cuisine
Architecture
Sports
Science
Arts
Music
Dance
Theatre
Cinema
Literature
Language
Tourism
See also
References
External links

Religion
According to the 1909 statistics in the Catholic Encyclopedia, the total Catholic population was 293,628
out of a total population 365,291 (80.33%).[1] Within Goa, there has been a steady decline of Christianity
due to Goan emigration, and a steady rise of other religions, due to massive non-Goan immigration since
the Annexation of Goa. (Native Goans are outnumbered by non-Goans in Goa.)[2] Conversion seems to
play little role in the demographic change. According to the 2011 census, in a population of 1,458,545
people, 66.1% were Hindu, 25.1% were Christian, 8.3% were Muslim and 0.1% were Sikh.[3]

Festivals
The most popular celebrations in the Indian state of Goa include the Goa Carnival, (Konkani: Intruz), São
João (Feast of John the Baptist),[4] Ganesh Chaturthi (Konkani: Chavoth),[5] Diwali,[6] Christmas
(Konkani: Natalam),[7] Easter (Konkani: Paskanchem Fest), Samvatsar Padvo or Sanvsar Padvo, and
Shigmo.[8] The largest festival in the state is the Feast of St. Francis
Xavier, who is known as Goencho Saib.[9]

Education

Cuisine
Rice with fish curry (Xit kodi in Konkani) is the staple diet in
Goa.[10] Goan cuisine is renowned for its rich variety of fish dishes
cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil is widely
used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers, spices and vinegar
Velha Goa is considered to be the
giving the food a unique flavour. Pork and beef dishes such as
heart of Goan culture and religion.
Vindaloo,[11][12] Xacuti and Sorpotel are cooked for major
occasions among the Catholics. An exotic Goan vegetable stew,
known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike.
Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and special Goan spices that add to the aroma. A
rich egg-based multi-layered sweet dish known as bebinca is a favourite at Christmas. [13] Cashew feni is
made from the fermentation of the fruit of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the sap of
toddy palms.

Architecture
The architecture of Goa shows a distinct Portuguese influence.
Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter,
showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa.[14]

The Churches and Convents of Goa are a group of six churches

that are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[15] The Basilica of Bom
Jesus holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, the patron
saint of Goa.[16] Once every ten years, the body is taken down for
veneration and for public viewing. The last such event was
Our Lady of the Immaculate
conducted in 2014.[17]
Conception Church at Panjim.
Influences from other eras (Kadambas of Goa, Maratha Empire) are
visible in some of Goa's temples, notably the Mahadev Temple[18]
and Saptakoteshwar Temple.[19]

Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Goa,[20] followed by hockey. Cricket, athletics, chess, swimming,
table tennis and basketball are other popular sports in Goa. Fishing is also a popular recreational activity.

Science

Arts
Music

Goan Catholics have been performing Western classical music since the 1500s, because it is an integral part
of the Catholic liturgy. Mando, dekhnni, dulpod and tiatr are traditional Goan musical forms in Konkani
developed from Western Music.

Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian Classical singers hail from
Goa, such as, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki, Prabhakar Karekar.

Dance

Some traditional Goan dance forms are dekhnni, fugdi, corridinho

and dashavatara. Western social dancing is a part of most
celebrations.

Theatre
Fugdi Dancers from South Goa

Goans are very fond of theatre and acting. Kalo and dashavatar
were popular art forms. Marathi Nataks have been very popular
among Hindus in Goa for the past two centuries. Tiatr is the major Goan form of theatre common amongst
Catholics and is the most commercial offering as it has entertained Goans not only in Goa but also in
Mumbai and Pune (which are major cities of India and have a sizeable Goan population) and in the Gulf
regions of UAE, Kuwait and so on.

Cinema

Literature

Language
The majority of Goans speak Konkani as their first language, while the remaining speak other languages,
like Hindi, Portuguese or Marathi as their primary language. However, practically all Goans can speak and
understand Konkani. Konkani is an important part of the Goan identity that binds together all Goans.

Tourism
Goa developed an international reputation in the 1960s as one of the prime stops on the legendary India-
Nepal "hippie trail". In the mid-1960s, several Westerners, including "Eight Finger Eddie" walked over the
hill to Calangute, and decided to create a community for Westerners. In the early years, Calangute and
Baga were the center of this scene, but it grew over the years to include other nearby cities like Anjuna
Beach, which became, and arguably still is, the center of the Western youth culture of Goa. By the mid-
1980s, there were over 8000 Westerners living in Goa, mostly from Western Europe. The scene was
marked by drug culture, trance music and free love. Goa remains today an international center of youth
culture.
Starting in the late 1990s, Goa began to attract a more "upscale" audience, which in turn drove prices up,
which in turn drove many in the "hippie" community to other less-expensive areas. Arambol—the beach
community furthest away from "civilization", like electricity and running water—became the center of a
battle between those wanting to turn Goa into a more traditional upscale resort area, and those wanting Goa
to retain its traditional rustic counterculture appeal.

See also
Goans in Hindi film music composition

References
1. Ernest Hull (1909). "Archdiocese of Goa". Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 6. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
2. Menezes, Vivek (15 May 2021). "Who belongs to Goa? This question resurfaces as the
State battles the raging pandemic" (https://www.thehindu.com/society/who-belongs-to-goa-th
is-question-resurfaces-as-the-state-battles-the-raging-pandemic/article34554870.ece). The
Hindu.
3. "India's religions by numbers" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communitie
s-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece). The Hindu (published 26 August
2015). 29 March 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.t
hehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/artic
le7582284.ece#) from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
4. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - SAO JOAO" (http://www.g
oatourism.gov.in/festivals/christian-festivals/201-sao-joao). www.goatourism.gov.in.
Retrieved 27 November 2018.
5. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - GANESH CHATURTHI
or CHOVOTH" (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/festivals/hindu-festivals/184-ganesh-chaturthi-
or-chovoth). www.goatourism.gov.in. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
6. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - DIWALI" (http://www.goat
ourism.gov.in/festivals/hindu-festivals/185-diwali). www.goatourism.gov.in. Retrieved
27 November 2018.
7. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - CHRISTMAS" (http://ww
w.goatourism.gov.in/festivals/christian-festivals/195-christmas). www.goatourism.gov.in.
Retrieved 27 November 2018.
8. Bravo da Costa Rodrigues, Maria de Lourdes (2004). Feasts, festivals, and observances of
Goa (https://books.google.com/books/about/Feasts_festivals_and_observances_of_Goa.ht
ml?id=Ot6BAAAAMAAJ). Goa: L & L Publications. pp. 43–74.
9. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India - FEAST OF ST FRANCIS
XAVIER" (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/festivals/christian-festivals/203-feast-of-st-francis-xa
vier). www.goatourism.gov.in. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
10. Chowdhury, Arka Roy (14 November 2018). "Food travel: soul-stirring seafood in India" (http
s://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/eating-out/food-travel-soul-stirring-seafood-in-india/as
66630323.cms). Times of India Travel. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
11. Taylor, Anna-Louise (11 October 2013). "BBC Food - Curry: Where did it come from?" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20141211232211/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/24432750). BBC
Food. Archived from the original (https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/0/24432750) on 11 December
2014. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
12. "Indian Classics - Vindalho de Galinha (Chicken Vindaloo)" (http://www.thetiffinbox.ca/2011/
11/vindalho-de-galinha-chicken-vindaloo.html). www.thetiffinbox.ca. Retrieved 27 November
2018.
13. "Goa government readies to brand Feni as heritage brew" (https://www.mid-day.com/articles/
goa-government-readies-to-brand-feni-as-heritage-brew/16890188). Mid-Day. 23 January
2016. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
14. Datta, Sravasti (18 November 2012). "The quiet Goa: Fontainhas" (https://www.thehindu.co
m/features/metroplus/travel/the-quiet-goa-fontainhas/article4105686.ece). The Hindu.
ISSN 0971-751X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X). Retrieved 27 November 2018.
15. Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Churches and Convents of Goa" (https://whc.unesco.org/
en/list/234/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
16. "Casket housing St Xavier relics in Goa to undergo restoration" (https://m.tribuneindia.com/n
ews/archive/nation/casket-housing-st-xavier-relics-in-goa-to-undergo-restoration-687837).
The Tribune (Chandigarh). 23 November 2018.
17. Fernandes, Paul (2 January 2015). "Exposition of St. Francis Xavier's relics ends on
January 4" (https://m.timesofindia.com/city/goa/Exposition-of-St-Francis-Xaviers-relics-ends-
on-January-4/articleshow/45730692.cms). Times of India.
18. Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla (http://www.goa-india-tourism.com/goa-temples/mahadevat
emple.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090107105533/http://www.goa-india-to
urism.com/goa-temples/mahadevatemple.html) 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
19. Esteves, Sarto; de Sousa, Vatsala (1983). This is Goa. p. 19.
20. "Craze for football has doubled since ISL: Aaren" (http://englishnews.thegoan.net/story.php?
id=32509). The Goan. Retrieved 27 November 2018.

External links
Goan culture article (http://www.india-seminar.com/2004/543/543%20pandurang%20r.%20p
haldesai.htm)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Goa&oldid=1085159201"

This page was last edited on 28 April 2022, at 19:50 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 15°20′N 74°05′E

Goa, Daman and Diu

Goa, Daman and Diu (Goan Konkani: Goem, Damanv ani
Diu, Portuguese: Goa, Damão e Diu) was a union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu
the Republic of India established in 1961 following the Goem, Damanv ani Diu
annexation of Portuguese India, with Maj Gen K. P. Candeth (Konkani)
as its first Military Governor. The Goa portion of the territory Goa, Damão e
was granted full statehood within the Indian union on 30 May
Diu  (Portuguese)
1987,[1] Daman and Diu remained separate as a separate
union territory until December 2019, when it was merged 1961–1987
with Dadra and Nagar Haveli and is today the territory of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Coat of arms
The areas of Goa and Damaon are located at southern and
northern edges of the Konkan region, geographically
separated from each other by land and sea, the two areas were
among the many other possessions that were ruled over for
centuries, by the Portuguese.

For the purposes of local administration, the territory was

divided into three districts, Goa, Daman, and Diu, with the
capital in Panjim.[2]

References
1. Goa Vidhan Sabha (http://www.goavidhansabha.go
v.in/addinfo11.php) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20070517171951/http://www.goavidhansabh
a.gov.in/addinfo11.php) 2007-05-17 at the Wayback
Goa, Daman and Diu in India
Machine
Status Union Territory
2. Goa Vidhan Sabha (http://www.goavidhansabha.go
v.in/addinfo11.php) Archived (https://web.archive.or Capital Panjim
g/web/20070517171951/http://www.goavidhansabh
Common languages Portuguese,
a.gov.in/addinfo11.php) 2007-05-17 at the Wayback
Konkani,
Machine Gujarati,
Marathi
Chief Ministers  
• 1963-66 (first) Dayanand
Bandodkar
• 1985-87 (last) Pratapsingh
Rane
Lieutenant  
Governor
• 1961-62 (first) Maj Gen K. P.
Candeth
(Military
Governor)
 • 1984-87 (last) Gopal Singh
History  
• Annexation 19 December
1961
• Statehood for Goa 30 May 1987
Currency Indian rupee

Preceded by Succeeded
by
Portuguese Goa
India Daman
and Diu

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa,_Daman_and_Diu&oldid=1080314502"

This page was last edited on 31 March 2022, at 14:20 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
History of Goa
The history of Goa dates back to prehistoric times, though the present-day state of Goa was only
established as recently as 1987.[1] In spite of being India's smallest state by area, Goa's history is both long
and diverse. It shares a lot of similarities with Indian history, especially with regard to colonial influences
and a multi-cultural aesthetic.

The Usgalimal rock engravings, belonging to the upper paleolithic or mesolithic periods, exhibit some of
the earliest traces of human settlement in India. The Mauryan and Satavahana Empires ruled modern-day
Goa during the Iron Age.

During the medieval period, Goa was ruled by the Kadamba kingdom, Vijayanagara Empire, Bahmani
Sultanate and Bijapur Sultanate.

The Portuguese invaded Goa in 1510, defeating the Bijapur Sultanate. The Portuguese rule lasted for about
450 years, and heavily influenced Goan culture, cuisine, and architecture.

In 1961, India invaded and annexed Goa after a 36-hour battle. The region was incorporated as a union
territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1987, Goa was granted statehood. Goa has one of the highest GDP
per capita and Human Development Index among Indian states.

Contents
Earliest history
Geological origins
Prehistory
Paleolithic and Mesolithic era
Kushavati Shamanic culture
Neolithic period
Iron Age (from 16th century BCE)
The Formations of Gaumkaris and the self rule
The later migrations
The Mauryas (322 – 185 BCE)
The Satavahanas (c. 2nd century BCE to 2nd CE)
Bhojas (c. 2nd century BCE to 4th CE)
Kingdoms to Late Medieval period (1st century CE to 16th)
Table of dynasties (to 16th century)
Shilaharas (755 – 1000)
Kadambas (10th century to 14th)
Port of Goapakapattna (10th century to 1345)
Bahmani Sultanate (1350-70, 1469-92)
Vijayanagar Empire (14th century to 15th)
Bijapur Sultanate (1492-1510)
Portuguese rule (1510–1961)
Portuguese arrival
Alfonso de Albuquerque
The new Goan polity
Christianity in Goa
Relations with neighboring powers
Estado da India: 18th & 19th centuries
Second World War
Independence Movement
Indian annexation of Goa
Post-Annexation (1961 – present)
As a Union Territory (1961-1987)
State of Goa (1987 -present)
See also
Notes
Footnotes
References
Bibliography

Earliest history
There is evidence of the tectonic origins of Goa dating back to 10,000 BC.[2] Further, evidence of human
occupation of Goa dates back at least to the Lower Paleolithic Age, indicated by the archaeological
findings of Acheulean bifaces in the Mandovi-Zuari basin.[3] However, evidence suggesting the region's
ancient foundation is obscured by the legend of Goa's creation by the Hindu sage Parashurama.[2]

Geological origins

Some parts of present-day Goa appear to have been uplifted from the sea due to geological tectonic plate
movement. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by the presence of marine fossils, buried
seashells, and other features of reclaimed topography in the coastal belt.[2] The evidence provided by the
conch shells at Surla village, fossilized marine conch shells discovered in 1863, petrified roots, fossilized
branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the Sahyadri dating back more than
10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen from the seabed as a result of violence
tectonic movements. At the decline of the intensity of pluviation in the last Pleistocenic age around 10000
BC, the bottom of Deccan plateau was lifted up and out of sea-waters by the tectonic movements, formed
the West-coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.[4]

Prehistory

Paleolithic and Mesolithic era

Until 1993 the existence of humans in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly
debated. The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal
on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavati River, has shed light on the prehistory of Goa.[5] The rock
shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might
have served Stone Age man for centuries as a source of water.[6] An anthropomorphic figure of Mother
goddess and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found.[6] This site was discovered by Dr
P.P.Shirodkar. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin, at other sites such as
Keri, Thane, Anjuna, Mauxim, Kazur in Quepem, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points,
bores, cones, etc. A hand axe has also been found at Usgalimal.[7] Further unifacial choppers were
recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar
River.[8] Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and
Mesolithic phases, or to 20,000-30,000 BC.[7] These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had
been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture.
Evidence of
Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar,
Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has
posed a problem in determining the exact time period.[9]

Kushavati Shamanic culture

The prehistoric engravings at Usgalimal were discovered by PP

Shirodkar in the early 1990s and subsequently studied by the
Institute of Oceanography in Goa.[10] More than 125 forms were
found scattered on the banks of river Kushavati in south-eastern
Goa. According to Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan
shamanistic practice. For hundreds of years, the Kushavati rock art
One of the Usgalimal rock
of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram, or
engravings, belonging to the upper
pictures made by cowherds. But people did not know how ancient
Paleolithic or Mesolithic periods.
the works were, nor could anyone interpret them. After thorough
These are some of the earliest
study of these forms, scholars have concluded that these
traces of human settlement in India.
petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper
studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed these
petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature
added to the evidence of prehistoric shamanism.

The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a hunter-gatherer culture with deep knowledge of
local natural resources and processes – water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and
natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so they set up camps
near the streams. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam. Like every culture, its
members confronted the mysteries of illness, death and birth. Kamat believes that this culture dated to 6,000
to 8,000 years ago. On basis of recent DNA-based work on human migration, Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has
ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to arrive in Goa. They
were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans who had descended the
Western Ghats, probably in their search for sea salt on Goa's coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a
Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools.
The entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in
masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.

Neolithic period
Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in
Goa.[11] These axes have been found in Goa Velha.[12] During this period tribes of Austric origin such as
the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of
agriculture since 3500 BC.[11] According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and
Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words
of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their
customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[13] The Negroids were in
a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics
can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[13]

The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan
or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[14]
Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have
been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as
1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[15]

During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The
Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes.
The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit
Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still
continues in Goa.[13]

Iron Age (from 16th century BCE)

The Formations of Gaumkaris and the self rule

The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village-
administration in Goa known as Gaumkari, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The
agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent
was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gaukars. Sumerians view that
the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gaumkari
system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the centre of all the activities.[16] It consisted of
definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social,
religious and cultural interaction. Gaumkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of
Goa itself.[17]

Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gaumkari existed in
Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaumponn (Konkani:गांवपण), and despite the
periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaumponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the
Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were
extraterritorial).[18] This system for governance became further systematised and fortified, and it has
continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the
true sense.[17]

The later migrations

The second wave of migrants arrived sometime between 1700 and 1400 BC. This second wave migration
was accompanied by southern Indians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of Kusha or Harappan people
moved to Lothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on
sea-trade.[15] With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to
revolutionary change in early Goan society.[19]

The Mauryas (322 – 185 BCE)

The history of the Mauryas is almost non-existent. The existing records disclose the names of only three of
the dynasty's kings, namely Suketavarman, who ruled some time in the 4th or 5th centuries BC,
Chandravarman in the 6th century BC, and Ajitavarman in the 7th century BC, who ruled from
Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual
relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the Nagari script in which these
records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly accurately. It is possible to
infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western
Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half
of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in the 2nd century BC its
satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, he founded a dynasty that
ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara. This
dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called Sunaparant by the Mauryas.[20]

Chandragupta Maurya incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta, and the impact of
Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the
formation of early Konkani, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism was
introduced to Goa. Similarly a native Goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali, who traveled to
Sarnath is considered a direct disciple of Buddha, who popularised Buddhism in Goa in the 5th century
BC.[20]

The Satavahanas (c. 2nd century BCE to 2nd CE)

The Satavahana dynasty began as vassals of the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence as the
Mauryan Empire declined. The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the Chutus of
Karwar. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The
Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire from the coastal trade
from Sindh to Saurashtra, from Bharuch to Sopara to Goa, where Greek and Roman ships would halt
during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire.[21] With the fall of the
Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined.[22] Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa
during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa.[23] It can be seen that they
ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced
medieval Konkani to a great extent.[24]

Goa under the Western Kshatrapas

In the year 150AD, Vashishtiputra Satakarni was defeated by his son-in-law, the Kshatrapa King
Rudradaman I who established his rule over Goa.[25] This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD.
Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras[26]

Bhojas (c. 2nd century BCE to 4th CE)

First existing as vassals of the Mauryan Empire and later as an independent empire, the Bhojas ruled Goa
for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa. The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from
Goa dates from the 4th century AD, it was found in the town of Shiroda in Goa. According to Puranik, by
tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the
Mahabharata war.[27] Two Bhoja copperplates grants dating back to the 3rd century BC were unearthed
from Bandora village, written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been
recovered from other places in Goa which date from the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD. Ancient
Chandrapur, modern day Chandor, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa, Belgaum
and North Canara.

From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit and
Prakrit for administration.
According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahmins and Vaishyas
arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north.[28] The Kshatriya Bhojas patronised Buddhism and
employed many Buddhist converts of Greek and Persian origin.[29]

Kingdoms to Late Medieval period (1st century CE to 16th)

Table of dynasties (to 16th century)

Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from circa the beginning of the common era to 1500.
Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties, there was no organised judicial or policing system
in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. There
may have been more order under Muslim rule.[30]
During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular
kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these
kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending
over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.[31]

Dynasties controlling Goa from the 1st century BC to 1500 AD

Name of the ruler Reign
Indo-Parthians 2nd–4th centuries AD
Abhiras, Batapuras, Bhojas 4th–6th centuries
Chalukyas of Badami 6th–8th centuries
Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, Shilaharas 8th–10th centuries
Kadambas 1006–1356
Yadavas of Devagiri 12th and 13th centuries
Vijayanagar Empire 14th and 15th centuries
Bahmani Sultanate 15th century

Shilaharas (755 – 1000)

The Shilaharas of South Konkan ruled Goa from 755 until 1000 AD. Sannaphulla, the founder of the
dynasty, was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas. Their copper-plate inscriptions suggest that they ruled from
Vallipattana (there is no unanimity amongst the scholars regarding identification of Vallipattana, some
identify it with Balli in Goa, or it may either be Banda or Kharepatan in the modern-day state of
Maharashtra), Chandrapura and Gopakapattana.[32] This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. As the
Goa Shilahara power waned during the 11th century, the Arab traders gained increasing control of the
overseas trade. They enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba
King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with
these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their
advantage, the Kadamba King, Shashthadeva II, firmly established his rule in Goa.[32]

Kadambas (10th century to 14th)

The Kadambas ruled Goa between the 10th and 14th centuries. In the beginning, the Kadambas ruled only
Sashti present day Salcette, a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part of Goa, but
the port of Gopakapattana was not included in the early years.[33]

Port of Goapakapattna (10th century to 1345)

Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa, including the ports of Gopakpattana and
Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom. He made Gopakpattana as his
secondary capital. His successor, King Jayakeshi I, expanded the Goan kingdom. The Sanskrit Jain text
Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar,
Bengal, Gujarat and Sri Lanka (mentioned as Zaguva, Gauda, Gurjara, and Simhala in the Sanskrit texts).
The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually
cleansing as well. Because it was a trading city, Gopakapattna was influenced by many cultures, and its
architecture and decorative works showed this cosmopolitan effect. The capital was served by an important
highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath, which linked it with Ela, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more
than 300 years, it remained a centre for intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in
the 14th century, the port was looted by the Khalji general Malik Kafur. The capital was transferred to
Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attack on Chandor.[33]

Guhalladeva III, Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva,

Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in
the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame
of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and
arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their
queens built many Shiva temples as they were devout Shaivites.
They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati, Saptakotisha Ladbha
Varaveera, Gopakapura varadhishva, Konkanmahacharavarti and
The Mahadeva Temple at Tambdi
Panchamahashabda.[34] The Kings had matrimonial relationships Surla, built during the 12th century
with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The CE is one of the few surviving
Kings patronised Vedic religion and performed major fire sacrifices medieval temples in Goa.
like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha. They are also known for
patronising Jainism in Goa.

Though their language of administration was Sanskrit and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi were also
prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local
tongue. Nagari script, Kadamba script, Halekannada script and Goykanadi scripts were very popular.
Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, inscribed a record, dated saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a
Brahmapuri at Gopaka.[35] Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas,
astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other subjects were studied. Such Brahampuris were found in many
places in Goa such as Savoi verem and Gauli moula.

Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years. On 16 October 1345[36] Goa Kadamba King Suriya Deva
was assassinated by Muslim invaders.
Bahmani Sultanate (1350-70, 1469-92)

From 1350 to 1370, Goa was ruled by the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1469 Goa was again conquered by the
Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. This Sultanate broke up in 1492.

Vijayanagar Empire (14th century to 15th)

In 1370, the Vijayanagar Empire had reconquered Goa. Vijayanagar was a resurgent Hindu state
controlling much of south India; its capital was located at modern day Hampi, in Karnataka. The
Vijayanagar rulers then held Goa for nearly a century. During that time its harbours were important ports of
arrival for Arabian horses destined for the Vijayanagar cavalry.

Bijapur Sultanate (1492-1510)

In 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha as its second
capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace. It functioned for the
Portuguese as the official residence of their Viceroys.

Portuguese rule (1510–1961)

Portuguese arrival

Vasco da Gama commanded the first circumnavigation of Africa,

relying on stories and maps from earlier Portuguese voyages. His
fleet of four ships set off from Lisbon in 1497. After island stops at
A breech-loading swivel gun thought
Tenerife and Cape Verde, the ships made landfall on the West
to have been constructed in the 16th
African coast. They then steered southwest into the vast South
century in Goa. It was exported to
Atlantic Ocean. Near Brazil, by making an eastward turn, they
Japan and used in the time of Oda
headed toward the southern cape of Africa which they rounded. Nobunaga.
After passing by the Rio do Infante described earlier by a fellow
explorer, a northward course was set. The ships stopped at the East
African ports of Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi. An Arab pilot, or an Indian, then guided their
remaining course across the Arabian Sea. A year out from Lisbon, de Gama's fleet landed in Calicut, India.
Their arrival signaled the end of Muslim monopoly over the region's maritime trade.

Before the Portuguese ships came to India, the seas to the east had been dominated by the thalassocratic
Chola Empire of the Tamils, followed by their Shailendra dynasty successors and other Indianized
seafaring states of Java and Sumatra. "Indian ship-building had a high reputation at the time". Yet "by the
fifteenth century the navigation of Indian waters was in the hands of the Arabs" both toward the east and
westward toward the Gulf and the Red Sea.[37]

Alfonso de Albuquerque

When Francisco de Almeida arrived to serve as the first Portuguese viceroy of the East (1505-1509),
already there was a regional war on the Malabar coast. In 1505 the Estado da India was established there,
in Cochin considerably south of Goa.[38] Almeida ended his tenure with a naval victory fought off Diu, far
to the north in Gujarat.[39]
The admiral Afonso de Albuquerque became second viceroy (1509-1515). In 1510 Timoji requested the
Portuguese to take over Goa. The offer was welcomed. The city then was quickly seized from Ismail Adil
Shah, ruler of the Bijapur Sultanate, but as quickly lost. Albuquerque, however, returned in force on 25
November.[40] In a day the gunnery of the Portuguese ships, and armed parties landing on shore, regained
possession. Ismail Adil Shah and his Egyptian Mamluk allies formally surrendered Goa on 10 December.
An estimate held that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders died, in the battle on the streets or trying to
flee.[41] Albuquerque gained direct support from the Hindu people, which frustrated Timoji. He had
expected to take autocratic command of the city. Albuquerque appointed him instead chief Aguazil, an
administrative office whose role included being the Hindu representative. Timoji was a learned interpreter
of local customs.[42]

By eliminating the jizya tax, Albuquerque secured his victory. "Most of the population of Goa were
Konkani-speaking Hindus [and] Albuquerque had the good sense to cut their taxes in half".[43] In spite of
frequent attacks by raiders, Goa became the centre of Portuguese India. The conquest drew deference from
several neighboring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies,
offering alliances and local concessions, e.g., to build fortifications.

Albuquerque started a Portuguese mint in Goa. Local merchants

and Timoji had complained about the scarcity of currency. The new
coin served to announce the recent conquests.[44] Its value was
pegged to existing coins.[45][46][47] An additional mint was built in
Portuguese Malacca.
Market Place of Goa (Dutch 1583)
Albuquerque and his
successors left the customs
and constitutions of the
thirty village communities on the island almost untouched,
abolishing only the rite of sati, in which widows were burned on
their husband's funeral pyre. A register of these customs (Foral de
usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most
valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.[48]

Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca in 1511

and Hormuz in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a
naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain
Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-
Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India,
Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf,
Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty
of its Viceroy. By mid-16th century, the area under occupation had
expanded to most of present-day limits. Chapel of St. Catherine, built during
the Portuguese occupation in Old
Goa. [note 1]
The new Goan polity

Civil government, jurisdiction

An initial aim of the rulers of Goa was military security, especially from the threat posed by the Bijapur
sultanate. Goa's head of state, often titled the Viceroy, was appointed directly by the Portuguese King. The
viceroy might consult the finance council, the captain of the armed forces, the fidalgos, the Archbishop of
Goa, the chief of judiciary, the Vereador da Fazenda (superintendent of farming), the merchants, and others
in informal councils. Commercial success was a primary objective, the purchase in quantity of fine spices to
carry back to Europe. Ancillary objectives were creation of a spice-trade monopoly with control over
merchant competitors, and levying duties on the cargoes of merchant vessels. Scores of commercial posts
and stations were established, not only throughout India, but from Mozambique (Africa) and Hormuz (the
Gulf) to Malacca (Malaya) and Macau (China).[49]

Portuguese rule in Goa endured for four and a half centuries. Its
Senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications
with the King and paid a special representative to attend to its
interests at Court. In 1563 the Governor proposed to make Goa the
seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but
this was rejected by the King. Eventually Goa was granted the
same civic privileges as Lisbon.[50]

The Portuguese rulers in Goa were either Viceroys or Governors.

Their original jurisdiction included those possessions of the Christian maidens of Goa meeting a
Portuguese from east Africa to south Asia and east Asia. The first Portuguese nobleman seeking a
viceroy to serve located himself in Kochi to the south of Goa on the wife, circa 1540
Malabar coast; in 1510 this Portuguese seat of government was
then established at Velha Goa.

Control of navigation

Chief among the rivals of Portuguese Goa were the traders of the Zamorin, ruler of Calicut (Kozhikode) on
the Malabar coast (northern Kerala). The Zamorin's merchant ships regularly sailed on the Arabian Sea,
also venturing in the Bay of Bengal. Other formidable sea traders were of Gujarat to the north. Opponents
of the Portuguese in India could then effectively convert their merchant vessels into warships. Early naval
battles were Chaul (1508), and a decisive one off Diu (1509) won by the Portuguese.[51]

Naval combat worked to decide the status of the rivals. The distinct advantage of the Portuguese was the
cannon mounted on their ships. Vasco de Gama's flagship San Gabriel alone carried twenty guns of quality
manufacture. Their mostly Muslim antagonists, lacking ship cannon, could not compete in the sea
battles.[52][53][54][55] Although Babur's invasion of India in 1526 used cannon, their use "on ships at sea
was not known" before the Portuguese. Further, the well-made sailing ships of India had hulls sewn
together not nailed, better in some weather, but unable to absorb the recoil from discharge of onboard
cannon. "India was, on most criteria, one of the advanced countries of the world." Yet regarding naval
cannon, gunnery, ship design, and nautical skill, the Portuguese had the edge.[56][57]

The Ottoman Turks also disputed control of the Indian Ocean. At Suez overland by camel they transported
Mediterranean galleys in pieces for reassembly on the Red Sea, to reinforce their naval forces. From 1538
to 1553 the Turks sent battle fleets against the Portuguese. In several key engagements, however, the
transoceanic caravels and galleons outmaneuvered the Turkish galleys.[58]

Hence, from Goa the Portuguese were able to command the Indian Ocean. They instituted a system to tax
its trade. Portuguese cartazes (permits for navigation) were issued to owners of merchant vessels. The
cartaza obliged the captain to keep to his ship's declared route and stop at the named Portuguese fort to pay
duties on merchandise. "Any ship sailing without their cartas was treated as a pirate and was liable to
capture and confiscation. . . . The Arab sea trade with India... passed into the hands of the Portuguese."[59]
During the sixteenth century "some eight hundred Portuguese galleons" sailed in Indian waters, which
became "virtually a Portuguese monopoly."[60]

The spice trade

Portuguese control of the waters off South Asia enabled them to master the lucrative spice trade during the
16th century. They coordinated and consolidated their operations from their base at Goa. At first their
merchants, called factors, were unfamiliar with the local produce markets, and with appraising the quality
of different spices. They learned how not to overpay for poor quality. For storage until seasonal ships left
for Portugal, they set up warehouses called factories. At strategic positions on many coasts of the Indian
Ocean, the Portuguese established well-guarded, fortified factories.[61]

At the bazaars of Goa, goods from all parts of the East were displayed. Separate streets were designated for
the sale of different classes of goods: Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese
velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago. Fine peppers came from the
nearby Malabar coast. Goa was then called Goa Dourada, i.e., Golden Goa.

Especially the Portuguese enjoyed the great rewards to be made by shipping spice cargoes around Africa to
Lisbon. The ever increasing demand of Europe meant ready buyers willing to pay top prices. "Arab and
Venetian merchants remained in the spice trade throughout the century of Portuguese power in Asia" but
the "trade has shifted dramatically". The middle-merchant carriers had been short-circuited by the ships
direct to Lisbon.[62]

Life in Goa

In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural

splendour of the city. Goa reached the height of its prosperity
between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa
Dourada, i.e., Golden Goa. A Portuguese proverb said, "He
who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon." The houses of the
rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were
built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their
Map of Goa, in Histoire générale des
balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in
Voyages, de la Harpe, 1750.
lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol
of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church;
luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.[63] Nonetheless, according to
Portuguese records there was a Cholera epidemic in 1543, "It is said that deaths from the disposal of the
disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task"[64]

In the main street, African and Indian slaves were sold by auction. Almost all manual labour was performed
by slaves. The common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and even the poor noblemen who
congregated in boarding-houses subscribed for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-
servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper
escort.[63]

In 1583, Christian missionary activity in the village of Cuncolim led to conflicts, culminating in the
Cuncolim Revolt. The first massacre happened when kshatriya villagers killed five Catholic priests
(including an Italian nobleman) and fourteen native Christians. The Portuguese authorities then destroyed
orchards and attacked the Hindu villagers. Cuncolim village had sixteen chieftains, one for each ward or
vado of the village. The sixteen were called to Assolna Fort, ostensibly to discuss a peace pact. At the fort
the Portuguese executed the chieftains, except for one who jumped into the Assolna River and presumably
swam to Karwar. The Hindus of Cuncolim then refused to pay taxes, and the Portuguese confiscated their
land. In 1560 the Goa Inquisition began, ending in 1812. The Hindu villagers who did not want to become
Christian then left their villages with their idols before their temples were demolished. Most of these Hindus
then settled in the neighbouring areas that were ruled by Bijapur, and again had to pay the jizya tax.

Printing press, medical college

In 1556 a printing press was first installed India at Saint Paul's College in Goa. Through publications made
on the printing press, Goa opened a window on the knowledge and customs of Europe.[65][66][67] The
Jesuits brought this European-style, metal movable type technology to Macau in China in 1588 and to
Japan in 1590.[68] The Jesuits also founded the University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines, the oldest
existing European-style university in the Far East.[69] In the same period, Goa Medical College was
established as the first European medical college in Asia.[70]

Garcia da Orta (1501-1568) wrote in Goa a treatise in Portuguese on the medicinal plants of India,
Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India.[71] It was published in 1563 in Goa on the new printing press,
which contained many errors in its type-setting. The author was a physician, an herbalist, a pioneer in
pharmacognosy, and originally a Sephardic Jew. As a Cristão Novo (New Christian) he had escaped the
Inquisition; but one of his sisters was not as fortunate.[72]

Christianity in Goa

The Crown in Lisbon undertook to finance missionary activity; missionaries and priests converted large
numbers of people in all spheres of society, especially in Goa.[73] St Francis Xavier in Goa, pioneered the
establishment of a seminary, called Saint Paul's College. It was the first Jesuit headquarters in
Asia.[74][75][76] St Francis founded the college to train Jesuit missionaries. He went to the Far East,
traveling towards China. Missionaries of the Jesuit Order spread out through India, going as far north as the
court of the great Mughal Emperor Jallaluddin Akbar. Having heard about the Jesuits, he invited them to
come and teach him and his children about Christianity.[77]

From Goa, the Jesuit order was able to set up base almost anywhere in Asia for evangelistic missions,
including the founding of Roman Catholic colleges, universities and faculties of education. Jesuits are
known for their work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits, and for their missionary
efforts. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice and
ecumenical dialogue.; Saint Paul's College Goa was a base for their evangelisation of Macau, and then for
their important missionary campaigns into China and Japan. Macau eventually superseded St Paul's
College, Goa. They built St Paul College in 1594 (now the University of Macau), known in Latin as the
college of Mater Dei.[78] Due to his personal enmity with the Jesuits, the Marquês de Pombal expelled the
order from Portuguese territories in 1762.[79] The Macau university combined evangelisation with
education.[78]

In the year 1600 António de Andrade made the long voyage from Lisbon to Goa, where he pursued his
higher studies at St. Paul's College and was ordained a Jesuit priest. He eventually became rector of the
same college. He made a landmark missionary expedition from Goa, across the length of India and into
Tibet. He overcame incredible hardships in the journey as the first European to cross the Himalaya
mountains into Tibet.[80][81] There he founded churches and a mission in 1625.[82] The body of the co-
founder of the Society of Jesus, Francis Xavier, whose example many Goan missionaries tried to emulate
by engaging in evangelizing work in Asia, was shipped to Goa on 11 December 1553. Goa has also
produced its own saints: the martyrs of Cuncolim; St. Joseph Vaz, whose missionary exploits in Sri Lanka
are remembered with gratitude in that country; and the Venerable Agnelo de Souza.[83]

The 16th-century monument, the cathedral or Sé, was constructed during Portugal's Golden Age, and is the
largest church in Asia, as well as larger than any church in Portugal. The church is 250 ft in length and
181  ft in breadth. The frontispiece stands 115  ft high. The cathedral is dedicated to St. Catherine of
Alexandria and is also known as St. Catherine's Cathedral.[84][85] It was on her feast day in 1510 that
Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Muslim army and took possession of the city of Goa.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within
the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in
Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to
1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is
considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in
India by both Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the
records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that
between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary
abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial. Of
this number, only 57 were sentenced to death and executed; another
64 were burned in effigy. Most were subjected to lesser The Auto-da-fé procession of the
punishments or penances. Inquisition at Goa. The Goa
Inquisition, which was established in
The Inquisition was established to punish New Christians who 1560 and abolished in 1820,
continued practicing their ancestral religion in secret. Many persecuted Hindus, Muslims, and
Sephardic Jews (as falsely-converted Catholics) had immigrated to other religious minorities
Goa from the Iberian peninsula. Due to persecution by the
Inquisition, most left and migrated to Fort St. George (later
Madras/Chennai) and Cochin, where the English and the Dutch allowed them to be openly Jewish.

In Goa the Inquisition also scrutinised Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have
returned to their original ways. It prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance
of Hindu or Muslim rites, or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism.
Goan Inquisition was abolished in 1812.

Relations with neighboring powers

Bijapur

When the Portuguese arrived in Goa, they encountered the established regime of the Sultanate of Bijapur
under Yusuf Adil Shah (1450-1510). The Adil Shah (written Hidalcão by the Portuguese) controlled Goa
(and significant territory of the Sultanate) from his distant, inland capital. Led by Alfonso de Albuquerque,
in alliance with Timoji, their 1510 attack ended in Portuguese victory. Bijapur lost Goa, but continued as a
large, local power.[86][87] In 1565 Bijapur and other Deccan Sultanates in a jihad destroyed the capital of
the Hindu Empire Vijayanagar, an ally of the Portuguese. From the spoils Bijapur doubled its size.[88][89]
In 1571 Bijapur in an alliance of mostly Muslim sultanates (Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Calicut, Aceh) launched
determined attacks on Goa, which failed. The defeat of this siege of Goa proved decisive.[90][91][92]

Kanara

The Kanara coastal regions lay immediately south of Goa. Many small principalities, largely autonomous,
were under Vijayanagar, then Bijapur. Timoji, who played a role in the 1510 capture of Goa, was from
Kanara, e.g., Honavar. Goa traded with various Kanara rulers, which was an important source of rice for
domestic consumption; other goods were pepper for export and timber for ships building. The Portuguese
had built a fort and ran a factory in Kanara, and were often in effective local control. The Nayak rulers of
the Keladi ruling family, however, began to dispute with Goa over the prices paid for trade goods, and
other issues. Goa was not able to pay the increases demanded. A series of treaties were nonetheless
negotiated. Then hostile Dutch influence increased and Arabs from Muscat began to compete with Goa for
the Kanara trade.[93][94]

Mughal
When Akbar (r. 1555–1605) ruled the Mughal Empire, he endeavored to harmonize the empire's
conflicting religions. At Akbar's court, rival Muslim clerics had heated debates. At his new capital Fatehpur
Sikri, meetings at his Ibadat Khana [House of Worship] more variously included "Muslim scholars, Hindu
pandits, Parsi mobeds, and Jain sadhus". Akbar "invited Jesuits from Goa" but no Buddhists were in
proximity. Conferring privately with Jesuits, Akbar discussed Christianity and Abrahamic theology.[95] In
1682 Akbar promulgated a syncretic Din-i-Ilahi [Divine Faith].[96] "The crucial question about Akbar's
religious activity is whether he established a new religion or new spiritual order." Either way, his efforts
came to nought.[97][98][99]

Goa enjoyed a flourishing trade with Gujarat, when Akbar annexed it in 1573. Agreeable relations were
worked out, however, allowing the Portuguese at Diu to continue to issue cartazes and collect duties on the
sea trade. In 1602 the English arrived in Asia and pirated a loaded Portuguese merchant ship off Malacca.
In 1608 with 25,000 pieces of gold an English captain arranged for rights at Surat, the Mughal Empire's
principle trading port. This led to a two-year war between the Mughals and the Portuguese, ending with a
feckless treaty in 1615. The Mughals, then dominate in India but weak at sea, began to play the Europeans
off against each other. Under Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the Muhgals became frustrated by their
war against the Marathas. Goa remained neutral, but once praised Shivaji's valor.[100][101][102][103]

Dutch

In 1595 there first appeared in Indian waters ships of the Dutch United East India Company (Dutch:
Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie).[104] Until then, for almost a century, the Portuguese had managed to
keep secret their "more detailed information about India," especially their "priceless Portuguese navigation
maps". Yet Jan Huygen van Linschoten, who had worked in Goa, in 1592 came away with the coveted
knowledge which "taught the Dutch how to use the monsoon winds to their best advantage."[105] Also
unfortunately for Portugal, Spain had initiated the Iberian Union, which united the two countries.
Additionally, the Dutch and the Spanish were then fighting their Eighty Years' War. In 1600 against Goa
the Dutch allied with regional Muslim forces (the Sultanate of Bijapur); then the Dutch made war on Goa.
The long-term result of these hostilities was the undoing of Portuguese naval dominion in the Indian Ocean
and a loss of its preeminence in sea trade.[106] In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets,
though never captured.

Vijayanagar

The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646) ruled vast lands in South India when the Portuguese arrived in Goa.
The empire's rise as a great power was said to encompass a "mission of upholding the Hindu cause against
Islam." Vijayanagar had earlier governed Goa; its ruler Vira Narasimha Raya (r. 1505–1509) contemplated
retaking it, but soon died. Krishna Deva Raya (r. 1509–1529) then succeeded as ruler, said to be the
empire's best. The Portuguese then were aggressively establishing control of maritime trade routes and
coastal ports in Cochin and Goa. The regional political rivalries developed so that Vijayanagar and Goa
remained aligned as friendly powers. The Portuguese supplied Vijayanagar with Persian horses.[107] A
Portuguese engineer improved irrigation for lands of Krishna Deva Raya.[108] Vijayanagar was ultimately
defeated in 1646 by an alliance of Deccan sultanates. So vital was this alliance to Goa, that Goa lost much
of its importance after the fall of Vijayanagar.[109][110][111][112]

There began a gradual drop in Goa's prosperity. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic. Jean de
Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, and Fryer in 1675 described Goa in decline.

Maratha

The Maratha Empire (1674-1818) to the north grew steadily in strength, far surpassing that of tiny Goa.
After his escape from Aurangzeb in Agra, the Maratha ruler Chhatrapati Shivaji (1627-1680) started a
counterattack to recoup lands lost to the Mughals through the Treaty of Purandar (1665). Against Goa,
Chhatrapati Shivaji mounted an invasion that subdued the region
adjoining the Old Conquestas. He captured Pernem, Bicholim,
Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem and Canacona. Sawantwadi
Bhonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.

The Maratha Chhatrapati Sambhaji (1657-1689), the son of C.

Shivaji, tried in 1683 to conquer all of Goa. Chh. Sambhaji almost
ousted the remaining Portuguese, but suddenly a Mughal army
appeared which prevented the Maratha from completing their
conquest. In 1739-1740 the territory of Bardez in north Goa was Basilica of Bom Jesus
attacked by the Marathas, in order to pressure the Portuguese at
Vasai. The plan of conquest, however, was forestalled with "the
payment of a large war indemnity."[113][114]

In June 1756 a Maratha Army invading Goa killed in action Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de
Alva), the Portuguese Viceroy. The Marathas, however, soon met defeat in the distant north when
confronting an Afghan invasion, at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The Maratha Peshwa's overall
control slackened.[115] The Portuguese then defeated the Rajas of Sawantwadi and the Raja of Sunda to
reconquer an area that stretched from Pernem to Canacona. This territory formed the Novas Conquistas,
within the boundaries of present-day Goa.

English

The long Dutch war described above led Portugal to seek an alliance with the English, which proved
costly. The Dutch war did finally end in 1663.[116] In 1665 the English demanded in payment the cession
of Bombay. Officially it was part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her ill-starred marriage to
Charles II. Though at first active rivals in India after the English East India Company arrived in
1601,[117][118] the two latter attempted to coordinate against common enemies. The Maratha-derived
"pirate" fleet led by the independent Kanhoji Angre inspired such an uneasy alliance. The 1721 Anglo-
Portuguese naval attack on Culaba, the Angria stronghold, was repulsed. It was a fiasco that then
embittered the partnership.[119]

Estado da India: 18th & 19th centuries

In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree, developed by his minister Marquês de Pombal, granting
Portuguese citizenship to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies, with the right to be represented in the
Portuguese Parliament. Pombal (1699-1782), an anti-Catholic Freemason, served the King as the de facto
leader of Portugal, 1750–1777.[120] The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became
collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa. The first election was held in Goa on 14 January
1822. Three local citizens were elected as members of the Portuguese parliament.[121] From their first
arrival, the Portuguese intermarried among the converted natives of Goa. They produced Luso-Indian
offspring, who were also Catholic.[122][123]

In 1787, some disgruntled priests attempted a rebellion against Portuguese rule. It was known as the
Conspiracy of the Pintos.

Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812 and 1815 in line with the Anglo-Portuguese
Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.

The viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa),
today's Panaji. In 1843 this was made the official seat of government; it completed a move that had been
discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans
moved to the new city. Old Goa has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its
history and architecture.[124]

The Goa civil code was introduced in 1869 after Portuguese Goa and Damaon were elevated from being
mere Portuguese colonies to the status of a Província Ultramarina (Overseas possession).

Second World War

Goa was neutral during the conflict like Portugal. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis
ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German
merchants ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in
the port of Mormugao. The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the U-boats operating in
the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

But the British Royal Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's
stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of SOE backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta
Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light
Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they
sunk the Ehrenfels. The British then sent a decrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the
territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British
forces.

The raid was covered in the book Boarding Party by James Leasor. Due to the potential political
ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the
book was published in 1978.[125] In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring
Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore.

Independence Movement

When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under

Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru
demanded that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese
holdings, be turned over to India. However, Portugal refused due to
Goa being an integral part of Portugal since 1510. By contrast,
France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably
Puducherry), surrendered all its Indian possessions relatively
quickly.[126][127]
Play media
In 1954, a horde of armed Indians flooded into and took over the In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians,
tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. This incident the Satyagrahis, demonstrated
led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the against Portugal. At least twenty-two
International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement of them were killed by Portuguese
on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to gunfire.
the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal
access to the enclaves over Indian territory.

In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis, demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two
of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.
Later the same year, these non-Goan Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag.
They were driven out of Goa by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the
Indian consulate in Goa was closed using this incident as an excuse; Nehru declared that his government
would not tolerate the Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão,
and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese,
the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa, to overcome the blockade.

Indian annexation of Goa

On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations
about the future of Portuguese colonies in India.[128] Portugal asserted that its territory on the Indian
subcontinent was not a colony but part of metropolitan Portugal and hence its transfer was non-negotiable,
and that India had no rights to this territory because the Republic of India did not exist at the time when
Goa came under Portuguese rule.[129] On 18 December 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa
and annexed it. Operation Vijay involved sustained land, sea and air strikes for more than thirty-six hours; it
resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December 1961.[130]

A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United
Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but it was vetoed by the USSR.[131] Goa celebrates
Liberation Day on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.[132]

Post-Annexation (1961 – present)

As a Union Territory (1961-1987)

The territory of Goa, Daman and Diu was a union territory of India
from 19 December 1961 to 30 May 1987. Its official language was
declared to be Marathi, much to the anger of the majority of the
native Goans.

After a brief period of military rule, on 8 June 1962, military rule The Goa University was established
was replaced by civilian government when the Lieutenant in 1985, although its affiliated
Governor Kunhiraman Palat Candeth nominated an informal colleges date back to as early as the
Consultative Council of 29 nominated members to assist him in the 17th century.
administration of the territory. Dayanand Bandodkar of the
Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party was elected as the first Chief
Minister of Goa, Daman and Diu. He attempted to merge Goa with Maharashtra by importing Marathi
immigrants from the neighbouring state (Goa's population increased by almost 35% in the 1960s due to
heavy immigration of Marathi people), but his plans were foiled by the Goa Opinion Poll.

State of Goa (1987 -present)

In February 1987, the Indian government finally recognized Konkani as the official language of Goa. Goa
was later admitted to Indian statehood in May 1987. Pratapsingh Rane, who had previously served as Chief
Minister of Goa, Daman and Diu, was elected as the first Chief Minister of the newly formed state.

Goa has a high GDP per capita and Human Development Index compared to most Indian states.[133]
See also
Portuguese conquest of Goa
Goa Inquisition
Goan Catholics under the British Indian Empire
History of Goan Catholics
Timeline of Goan history
Battle of Goa (1638)
Annexation of Goa

Notes
Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979) Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa
(Goa)
Nayak, K.D (1968) Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan [in Marathi] (Margao: Gomant Vidya
Niketan)

Footnotes
1. Not to be confused with the Cathedral of Santa Catarina, also in Old Goa.

References
1. Poddar, Prem (2 July 2008). Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental
Europe and its Empires (https://books.google.com/books?id=peOqBgAAQBAJ&q=Goa+was
+made+India%27s+twenty-fifth+state&pg=PA454). Edinburgh University Press.
ISBN 9780748630271.
2. Fonseca, José Nicolau da (1878). An historical and archaeological sketch of the city of Goa :
preceded by a short statistical account of the territory of Goa (http://purl.pt/17211). Bombay:
Thacker & Co. p. 115.
3. Goudeller, Luther D; Korisettar, Ravi (1993). "The first discovery of Acheulian bifaces in Goa:
implications for the archaeology of the west coast of India". Man and Environment. 18 (1):
35–42.
4. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.
Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 9–25).
5. Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Robert G. Bednarik, Indirā Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava
Saṅgrahālaya (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 228
pages (see page 34). ISBN 9788120814646.
6. Goa (India : State). Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Goa University (2001). Goa in
the Indian sub-continent: seminar papers. Goa: Directorate of Archives and Archaeology,
Govt. of Goa. pp. 211 pages (see page 24).
7. C. R. Srinivasan; K. V. Ramesh; S. Subramonia Iyer (2004). Śrī puṣpāñjali: recent
researches in prehistory, protohistory, art, architecture, numismatics, iconography, and
epigraphy : Dr. C.R. Srinivasan commemoration volume, Volume 1. Bharatiya Kala
Prakashan. pp. 469 pages (see page4). ISBN 9788180900563.
 8. Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, K. Paddayya, Deccan College Post-graduate and Research
Institute (1985). Recent advances in Indian archaeology: proceedings of the seminar held in
Poona in 1983. Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute, 1985. pp. 115 pages
(see page 33).
9. Sakhardande, Prajal. "7th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean
Countries : Session V" (http://www.nio.org/index.php?option=com_eventdisplay&task=view
&tid=4&eid=32). Heritage and history of Goa. NIO Goa. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
10. Kushavati Shamanic culture in Goa (https://picasaweb.google.com/Nandkamat/PrehistoricG
oanShamanismTheKushavatiRockArtGalleryGoaIndia#5469611125567591026)
11. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1994). Goa to me. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 176 pages
(see page 33). ISBN 9788170225041.
12. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1 Gazetteer
of India Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: District Gazetteer, Goa,
Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept. Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of
Goa, Daman and Diu. 1979. p. 57.
13. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.
Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 53, 94, 83, 95).
14. Gomes, Olivinho (1987). Village Goa: A Study of Goan Social Structure and Change. S.
Chand. pp. 426 pages.
15. Kamat, Nandkumar. "Prehistoric Goan Shamanism" (https://web.archive.org/web/201108071
42019/http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/prehistoric-goan-shamanism). The navahind
times. Archived from the original (http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/prehistoric-goan-sha
manism) on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
16. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.
Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 100–150).
17. De Souza, Savio. "THE COMUNIDADES OF GOA" (https://web.archive.org/web/201207190
60326/http://www.goa-world.com/goa/comunidades/). Archived from the original (http://www.
goa-world.com/goa/comunidades/) on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
18. Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A history of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992. Delhi:
Sahitya Akademi. pp. 317 pages (see pages 6 and 7). ISBN 9788172016647.
19. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.
Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 100–185).
20. Moraes, Prof. George. "PRE-PORTUGUESE CULTURE OF GOA" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20111006190744/http://www.goacom.com/community/associations/goaont/convention/
moraes.htm). Published in the Proceedings of the International Goan Convention. Published
in the Proceedings of the International Goan Convention. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.goacom.com/community/associations/goaont/convention/moraes.htm) on 6 October
2011. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
21. Motichandra (1982). Sartavaha Ancient indian trade routes. New Delhi: Sahitya academy.
pp. 144–148.
22. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1. panajim
Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, 1979. 1979.
pp. (see page 70).
23. (see Pius Melkandathil,Martitime activities of Goa and the Indian ocean.)
24. "History of Konkani language" (http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/message.htm). Goa
Konkani akademi. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
25. Yadzani, G (1960). The early history of the deccan (Girnar inscription of Mahakshatrapa
Rudradaman). London: Oxford university Press. p. 97.
26. Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979). Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa.
Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. p. 12.
27. Nayak, K.D (1968). Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan(in Marathi). Margao: Gomant Vidya
Niketan. pp. 37–42.
28. (see A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara)
29. Satoskar, Ba.Da (1982). Gomantak prakruti ani sanskuti, khand II, in Marathi. Pune:
Shubhda publishers. p. 106.
30. D. Banerjea (2005). Criminal Justice India Series: Goa, 2002. Allied Publishers. pp. see
page 3. ISBN 9788177645170.
31. Sakshena, R.N. (2003). Goa: Into the Mainstream. Abhinav Publications. pp. 156 pages(see
page 20–21). ISBN 9788170170051.
32. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history, Volume 2.
Concept Publishing Company. pp. 125–127. ISBN 8170222591.
33. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept
Publishing Company. pp. 312 pages (see pages11-15). ISBN 9788170222590.
34. Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979). Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu. Vol. I.
Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept. p. 794.
35. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu : district gazetteer / edited by V.T.
Gune (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000644033). Gazetteer of India. Gazetteer Dept.,
Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. 1979. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
36. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history, Volume 2 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&q=panjanakhani&pg=PA129). Concept
Publishing Company. p. 129. ISBN 9788170222590.
37. Panikkar (4th 1964), pp. 107-108, 195-198, 195 quote re ships, 197 quote re Arabs. India
became "the sole supplier of cotton cloth" to the "Middle East, Burma, Malaya, Java, etc."
(p.195 quote). Cf. per the southeast: pp. 77-84, 104-108.
38. Geneviève Bouchon, "Beginnings of the Carreira da India", pp. 40-54, at 47, in de Souza
(1985).
39. .
40. Winius Diffie, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, p. 253. He returned with a
renovated fleet.
41. Kerr, Robert (1824).
42. Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry and Charles J. Borges, Goa-Kanara Portuguese
Relations, 1498-1763, p. 34-36.
43. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.137 quote.
44. Teotonio R. De Souza, Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History, pp. 220-221, Issue 6,
Goa University publication series, ISBN 81-7022-226-5
45. The Portuguese Indian rupia had a cross on one side and on the reverse the design of an
armillary sphere (a type of astrolabe). The armillary sphere was the badge of King Manuel I
of Portugal. Eventually, gold, silver, and bronze coins were issued: gold cruzados or
manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and leais.
46. Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque, p. 157.
47. Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado, Joseph M. Piel, Glossário luso-asiático, Parte 1, (https://books.
google.com/books?id=zOufgbY8TbsC&lpg=PA1&dq=bibliogroup%3A%22Gloss%C3%A1ri
o%20luso-asi%C3%A1tico%22&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=&f=false), p. 382.
48. An abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India
(London, 1898).
49. Chaudhuri (1985, 1989), pp. 69-71.
50. See below, section Estado da India.
51. Boxer (1969), p.46: Chau, and Diu in 1509.
52. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.135: naval guns.
53. Cf., ship cannon: Portuguese India Armadas, at 2.4 "Artillery".
54. Cf., ship cannon: Naval artillery, at 2.1 "Transition" under "Age of Sail".
55. Au contraire, Panikkar (1929, 2016), at pp. 69-71, states that Egyptian gunnery was more
than a match for that of the Portuguese in 1508 off Chaul.
56. Pearson (1989), pp. 56-60 (ship cannon "not known" quote, sewn hulls and recoil,
"advanced" quote).
57. Boxer (1969), pp. 44, 207, 209 (naval artillery, ship construction, seamanship).
58. Toussaint (1966), pp. 106-107. The age of sail had put paid to that of the oar, although the
oar-driven galleys had their final act at Lepanto in 1571.
59. Panikkar (4th 1964), p.199, cartas quote.
60. Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 135 (galleons), 136 (monopoly).
61. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.136.
62. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.138, quotes.
63. Prizeman, Matthew (1903). The Encyclopedia Britannica (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=9gYkAQAAIAAJ) (11 ed.). New York: The Encyclopedia Britannica Company. p. 160.
64. "A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day"
65. Barrett, Greg. "An exploration of the role of Portugal in the economic integration of Asia and
Europe with a focus on the pepper market" (https://www.academia.edu/1366156).
66. "Goa Museum – Government of Goa" (http://goamuseum.gov.in/collections.html?group=14).
67. Goa Printing Press (http://www.goaprintingpress.gov.in/about-us)
68. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move, p.204.
69. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091222000856/http://www.ust.edu.ph/index.
php/history.html). Archived from the original (http://www.ust.edu.ph/index.php/history.html) on
22 December 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
70. "Medicaleducation Cell-GMC- Bambolim Goa" (http://www.gmcmec.gov.in/).
71. Cf., Panikkar (4th 1964), p.200: da Orta's book, the Goa printing press.
72. C. R. Boxer, Two pioneers of tropical medicine: Garcia d'Orta and Nicolás Monardes (https://
archive.org/details/b20457248/page/8/mode/2up) (London: Wellcome Historical Medical
Library 1963), by ship to Goa in 1534 (p.8), as physician in India (9); publication and
contents of his book (12-18), written in Portuguese (14); his sister Catarina in 1569 (11).
Accessed 20 October 2020.
73. Pilgrims to the Light: Encounters in a Shared Destiny, edited by Valson Thampu. Har-Anand
Publications, 2000. p. 131 (ISBN 8124106436, 9788124106433).
74. The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540-1773, edited by John W. O'Malley, p.
480
75. http://touristplacesofindia.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/page/4/
http://touristplacesofindia.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/page/4/http://gogoa.net/secre
76. "Uncategorized – Page 4" (http://touristplacesofindia.wordpress.com/category/uncategorize
d/page/4/).
77. 'Pilgrims to the Light: Encounters in a Shared Destiny, edited by Valson Thampu. Har-Anand
Publications (2000). p. 132 (ISBN 8124106436, 9788124106433).
78. Macao's Church of Saint Paul: A Glimmer of the Baroque in China By César Guillén Nuñez.
Hong Kong University Press. (2009). p. 70. (ISBN 962209922X, 9789622099227)
 79. Education and Society in Hong Kong and Macao:Comparative Perspectives on Continuity
and Change; Volume 7 of CERC Studies in Comparative Education. By M. Bray, Ramsey
Koo (ISBN 1402034059, 9781402034053) p. 113.114
80. Antonio de Andrade (http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/a/andrade-antonio-de.php)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130520081349/http://www.bdcconline.net/en/storie
s/a/andrade-antonio-de.php) 20 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, BDCC Online
81. "Archived copy" (https://archive.today/20130411044903/http://www.jesuitsources.com/index.
php?main_page=product_info&products_id=114). Archived from the original (http://www.jes
uitsources.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=114) on 11 April 2013.
Retrieved 20 April 2013.
82. The Christian Discovery of Tibet by Joseph Abdo (ISBN 9729985839)
83. "Challenge of Witnessing the Faith in Indian Cultures" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008112
1122854/http://www.ewtn.com/library/BISHOPS/zpoupindia.htm). ewtn.com. Archived from
the original (http://www.ewtn.com/library/BISHOPS/zpoupindia.htm) on 21 November 2008.
84. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121214080901/http://knowindia.gov.in/know
india/culture_heritage.php?id=63). Archived from the original (http://knowindia.gov.in/knowin
dia/culture_heritage.php?id=63) on 14 December 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2013., Know
India
85. Se Cathedral (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/destinations/churches/134-se-cathedral), Goa
Tourism
86. See above section on Albuquerque.
87. De Souza (1979, 2d 2009), pp. 10-13.
88. Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 138-139. In 1686 Bijapur itself was absorbed into the Mughal Empire
by Aurangzeb (p.167).
89. Davies (2d 1949), pp. 44-47 (Maps 21 & 22).
90. Boxer (1969), pp. 58-59: siege of Goa in 1571.
91. Pearson (1987), p.57: Muslims unite to attack Goa.
92. Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 167: In 1686 Bijapur itself was absorbed into the Mughal Empire by
Aurangzeb.
93. De Souza (1979, 2d 2009), pp. 13-16.
94. Pearson (1987), p.20, Map 2: Honavar, Bhatkal.
95. De Souza (1979, 2d 2009) at p.7, writes that Akbar's "pretensions were so well disguised
that it took even the wise Jesuits some time to realize that the Mughal emperor was playing
a political game."
96. Or alternatively Tawhid-i-Ilahi ["Divine Monotheism"].
97. Ikram (1964), pp. 160 (Ibadat quote), 161 ("crucial" quote), 151-161 (Akbar's 'religious
biography'), 158-159 ('Infallibility Decree'), 160-165 (Akbar remained a Muslim), 164 (did not
claim to be a prophet).
98. Smith (3d ed. 1958), au contraire, pp. 350 (promulgation), 149-50 & 157-158 (Akbar rejected
Islam), 347-348 (first Jesuit Mission), 357-359 (Akbar's religious biography), 358,n1 (no
Buddhists at Ibadat). Akbar's eyes were "vibrant like the sea in sunshine" remarked a Jesuit
(p.356).
99. Cf., Vincent Smith, Akbar the Great Mogul (Oxford, Clarendon 1917).
100. De Souza (1969, 2d 2009), pp. 7-9.
101. Pearson (1987), pp. 51-56.
102. Wolpert (7th 2004), 163-167: Shivaji.
103. Goa and the Maratha: see herein below.
104. Krishna Ayyar (1966), p.99.
105. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.141, map quotes.
106. Boxer (1069), pp. 106-111. Fighting between Dutch and Portuguese lasted from 1602 to
1663; the stakes included the East Indies, Africa, and the West Indies. In the east, it pitted
Portuguese Goa against the Dutch in Batavia (since 1619, what is now Jakarta in
Indonesia). The prosperous Dutch, who drew on soldiers from Germany and Sweden,
greatly outnumbered the Portuguese. Cf., pp. 113-127.
107. Panikkar (4th 2004), p.201: Persian horses.
108. Sastri (4th ed. 1975), pp. 215 (mission quote), 250 (Tuluva dynasty), 252 (friends), 258
(irrigation).
109. Smith (3d ed. 1958), p.332.
110. Shastri (4th ed. 1975), p.256: "Goa rose and fell simultaneously with the rise and fall of the
third Vijayanagar dynasty."
111. Wolpert (7th 2004), pp. 138-139 (Vijayanagar-Goa diplomacy and trade, horses).
112. De Souza (2009), pp. 6, 13, 27, 50, 66, 77.
113. Boxer (1969), p.136 (1683 Mughal army, 1740 payment quote).
114. Another version of 1740 had the conquest forestalled because of the unexpected arrival of
the new Viceroy with a Portuguese fleet.
115. Smith (3d ed. 1958), pp. 488-490 (Panipat).
116. Compare: three naval wars: First Anglo-Dutch War (1652-1654) and the Second Anglo-
Dutch War (1665-1667) and the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672-1674).
117. Boxer (1969), p.146 (the Marathas refrained from taking Goa, preferring it as a counterweight
to the English).
118. Smith (3d ed. 1958), p. 367-368 (Jahangir "perceived that the English could now be used as
a counterpoise to the Portuguese").
119. Boxer (1969), pp. 111 (rivalry); 136, 137 (Bombay); 136-137 (naval fiasco).
120. In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal and the Távora affair reduced aristocratic
power, both benefiting Pombal. Critics also denounced his enlightened absolutism.
121. Charles J. Borges, Hannes Stubbe, Goa and Portugal: history and development.
122. Chaudhuri (1985, 1989), p.73.
123. Wolpert (7th 2004), p.138. Intermarriages were "officially encouraged".
124. "World Heritage Sites" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234), UNESCO
125. Leasor, J. (1978). Boarding Party (http://www.jamesleasor.com/boarding-party-filmed-and-re
published-in-paperback-as-the-sea-wolves/). London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-41026-8.
OCLC 4191743 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4191743).
126. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4371
127. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4440
128. "Operação Vijay 18 a 19/12/1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080226040732/https://ww
w.supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (http://www.
supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp) on 26 February 2008.
129. Goa was first recognised as equal to the metropolis in the Royal Charter of 1518, and
affirmed in subsequent legislation. The term 'province' was first used in 1576, and the term
'overseas provinces' used in virtually all legislation and constitutions thereafter, e.g. Art.1–3
& Art. 162-64 of 1822 Constitution online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/co
nst822.html), 1826 constitution online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/carta8
26.html), Art. I & Title X of the constitution of 1838 online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portuga
l/liberalismo/const838.html), Title V of the Republican constitution of 1911 online (http://ww
w.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/const911.html) and the 1932 Constitution of the
Estado Novo.
130. Praval, Major K.C. (2009). Indian Army after Independence. New Delhi: Lancer. p. 214.
ISBN 978-1-935501-10-7.
131. "International Reactions to Indian Attack on Goa – Soviet Veto of Western Cease-fire
Resolution in Security Council". Keesing's Record of World Events. Keesing's Worldwide,
LLC. 8. March 1962.
132. "Explained: Goa Liberation Day and PM Narendra Modi's visit" (https://indianexpress.com/ar
ticle/explained/explained-goa-liberation-day-pm-modi-7679860/). The Indian Express. 23
December 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
133. Reports of the finance commissions of India: First Finance Commission to the Twelfth
Finance Commission: the complete report. India. Finance Commission. Academic
Foundation. 2005. p. 268. ISBN 978-81-7188-474-2.

Bibliography
Banerjea, D., Goa, 2002 (Allied Publishers 2005) Criminal Justice India Series
ISBN 9788177645170.
Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry & Charles J. Borges, Goa-Kanara Portuguese
Relations, 1498-1763
De Souza, Teotonio R., Goa Through the Ages: An economic history, vol. 2. (Concept
Publishing Co. 1990)
De Souza, Teotonio R., Medieval Goa. A socio-economic history (Goa: Goa,1556 1979, 2d
ed. 2009)
Krishna Ayyar, K. V., A short history of Kerala (Ernakulam: Pai & Co. 1966)
Nayak, K. D., Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan [Marathi] (Margao: Gomant Vidya Niketan
1968)
Panikkar, K. M., Malabar and the Portuguese (1929; reprint New Delhi: Voice of India 2016)
Pearson, M. N., The Portuguese in India (Cambridge University 1988)
Priolkar, Anant, The Goa Inquisition, Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the
Inquisition in India (Bombay University Press)
Rao, R. P., Portuguese rule in Goa: 1510-1961 (Bombay: Asia Publishing House 1963)
Sakshena, R. N., Goa: Into the Mainstream (Abhinav Publications 2003)
ISBN 9788170170051.
Satoskar, Ba. Da, Gomantak prakruti ani sanskuti, khand II [Marathi] (Pune: Shubhda
publishers 1982)
De Souza, Teotonio R., editor, Indo-Portuguese History. Old issues, new questions
(Delhi: Naurang Rai Concept 1985)

Articles

Bhat, N. S. (2013). "History of Goa with Special Reference to its Feudal Features". Indian
Historical Review. 40 (2): 249–266. doi:10.1177/0376983613499680 (https://doi.org/10.117
7%2F0376983613499680). S2CID 145048379 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14
5048379).
Boxer, C.R. "Golden Goa 1510-1954." History Today (Nov 1954) 4#11 pp 754-763.
Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979) Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: Goa
(Goa)

Secondary

Boxer, C. R., The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (New York: Knopf 1969)
 Chaudhuri, K. N., Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge University 1985)
Davies, C. Collin, An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula (Oxford University 2d ed. 1949)
Diffie and Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580 (University of
Minnesota 1977)
Ikram, A. J., Muslim civilization in India (New York: Columbia University 1964)
Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva. The Portuguese in the East: A Cultural History of a Maritime
Trading Empire (2008)
Panikkar, K. M., A survey of Indian History (New York: Asia Publishing House 1947, 4th ed.
1964)
Russell-Wood, A. J. R., The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move
Sarker, Himansu Bhusan, Trade and commercial activities of Southern India in the Malayo-
Indonesian world (Calcutta: Firma KLM 1986)
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, A History of South India. From prehistoric times to the fall of
Vijayanagar (1947; New Delhi: Oxford University 4th ed. 1975)
Smith, Vincent, Oxford History of India (3d ed. 1958), edited by Percival Spear.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, The Portuguese empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A political and
economic history (2012)
Wolpert, Stanley, A New History of India (Oxford University 1977, 7th ed. 2004)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Goa&oldid=1080664066"

This page was last edited on 2 April 2022, at 16:55 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goan cuisine
Goan cuisine consists of regional foods popular in Goa, an Indian state located along India's west coast on
the shore of the Arabian Sea. Rice, seafood, coconut, vegetables, meat, bread, pork and local spices are
some of the main ingredients in Goan cuisine. Use of kokum and vinegar is another distinct feature. Goan
food is considered incomplete without fish.

The cuisine of Goa originated from its Konkani roots, and was influenced by the 451 years of Portuguese
rule and the Sultanate rule that preceded the Portuguese.[1] Many Catholic dishes are either similar to or
variants of their Portuguese counterparts in both naming or their use of ingredients.

Contents
Seafood
Introduction of new foods
Goan Hindu cuisine
Goan Catholic cuisine
Main dishes
Sweets and desserts
See also
References
External links

Seafood
The cuisine of Goan people is mostly seafood-based; the staple
foods are rice and fish. Kingfish (vison or visvan) is one of the most
commonly eaten varieties of fish.. Other fish varieties include
pomfret, shark, tuna, sardines, and mackerel. Among the shellfish
are crabs, prawns, tiger prawns, lobster, squid, and mussels. The
food of Goan Christians is heavily influenced by the Portuguese.
The use of vinegar, for example, is very prominent, specifically
toddy vinegar, which is made from coconut sap that is retrieved
from stems, and is then left to ferment for four to six months.[2]
Goan prawn curry, a popular dish
throughout the state.
Introduction of new foods
The Portuguese introduced potatoes, tomatoes, pineapples, guavas, and cashews from Brazil to Goa and
consequently India. The chili pepper is the most important aspect of Goan cuisine; it was introduced by the
Portuguese and became immensely popular as a very important spice for wider Indian cuisine. The
Portuguese also introduced beef and pork, meats that were and still are considered a taboo by Hindus of
Goa.[3] These two ingredients make up one of the national Goan dishes called sorpotel, which is made
from beef and pork. Sorpotel is one of many dishes that allow Goans to distinguish themselves from
Hindus, who do not eat beef, and Muslims, who do not eat pork.[4]

Goan Hindu cuisine

Goan Hindu cuisine in Goa is mainly pescetarian and lacto-vegetarian and is very similar to Saraswat
cuisine, from which it originates. Goan Hindu cuisine is mild, with use of tamarind and kokum for souring,
and jaggery for sweetening. It uses spices such as asafoetida, fenugreek, curry leaves, mustard, and urad
dal. Onion and garlic are also used. It also includes vegetables, such as lentils, pumpkins, gourds, bamboo
shoots, and roots. The medium of cooking is coconut oil.

Popular Goan Hindu dishes include:

Humann (हूमण) – Fish curry, also known as kadi or ambot with rice (शीत or भात),
Fried fish (तळील्ले नूस्ते)
Fish suke or dhabdhabit (सुकें ) – Dry spicy preparation of fish, served as a side dish
Fish udid methi or uddamethi (उद्दमेथी) – Type of curry consisting of fenugreek and mackerel;
a vegetarian version of this dish is also prepared using hog plums (or anything sour and
tangy, such as pieces of raw mango)
Kismur (किस्मुर) – A type of side dish normally consisting of dried fish (mostly mackerel or
shrimp), onions, and coconut
Dangar – Goan fish cutlets (डांगर)
Kalputi – A dish normally prepared from the head of a large fish, with onions and coconut
Bhaaji or shak – A generic term for stews, curries, and stir-fried dishes made from different
vegetables and fruits (भाजी or शाक)
Bhaji - Fried fritters with besan batter. Different kind of bhajis can be made by changing the
vegetable used with besan. Popular bhajis include those containing onion or chilies.
Khatkhate (ख़तखतें)
Varan - A lentil preparation often made with coconut milk tempered with mustard, curry
leaves, and chilies, served as an accompaniment to rice for the Naivedya, prepared during
all Hindu festivals, and an integral part of wedding feasts.
Tondak – A dish with beans and cashews as the primary ingredients (तोंडाक)
Different varieties of sweets made from rice and lentils, such as payasu, patoli, madgane
and kheer. (गोड्शें)
Different varieties of pickles and papads (लोणचे or पापड)
Solachi kadi – A spicy coconut and kokum curry (कडी)

Goan Catholic cuisine

Goan Catholic cuisine in Goa is a fusion of Goan Hindu and Portuguese cooking styles. Vinegar (made
from the toddy of local coconut trees) is used to give the zingy taste to the meat dishes.

Main dishes

Popular Goan Catholic dishes include:

 Ambot tik – A spicy and sour curry prepared with fish
Arroz doce – A Portuguese sweetened rice custard
Balchão – A curry made with prawns/shrimp
Bebinca – A multi-layered baked pudding traditionally
eaten at Christmas
Cafreal – A masala marinade mostly used for chicken or
fish made from coriander leaves, green chilies, and other
spices.
Canja de galinha – A type of chicken broth served with
rice and chicken. Pork vindaloo is a popular Goan
curry dish in the state and around the
Chamuça – A Goan/Portuguese derivative of the
world.
samosa
Chouriço – A spicy pork sausage
Croquettes – Fried minced beef rolls, a common snack among Goan Catholics and the
Portuguese
Feijoada – A stew brought by the Portuguese. It is made with meat (beef or pork), beans,
and cabbage.
Goan Soup

Roast beef and beef tongue – Popular entrees at Goan celebrations

Ros omelette – An omelette drowned in spicy chicken or chickpea gravy and served with
pão (Portuguese-Goan bread)
Samarein chi kodi – Goan curry made with fresh and dried prawns
Sanna – A dry rice cake; a variant of idli
Solantule kodi – A spicy coconut and kokum curry
Sorpotel – A very spicy pork dish eaten with sannas or pão (Goan bread – spelled the same
way as in Portugal)
Vindalho – A spicy curry traditionally made with pork. The name is derived from the
Portuguese term for a garlic and wine (vinho e alho or vinha d'alhos) marinade. Contrary to
popular versions made outside Goa, a traditional vindalho does not contain any meat
besides pork. It also does not contain any potatoes nor is its name related to aloo (potato)[5]
Xacuti – Type of curry made with roasted grated coconut and pieces of chicken or lamb

Chamuças, Fried Crab xec Traditional Goan fish

Goan pomfret xec Goan fish masala
samosas curry

Sweets and desserts

Sweets and desserts are known by their Konkani name, Godshem. Popular dishes include:

Cashew laddus
nevryo-Sweet fried dumpling with filling made from grated coconut, sugar, poppy seeds,
green cardamom, almonds
 khaje
revdyo
sakharbhat -Rice with sugar and coconut
madgane
payasa
halwa dali kapa (halwa made from red gram), cashew halwa, mango halwa, banana halwa,
pumpkin halwa
Dodol
Bebinca
Patoleo or patoli – A dish of turmeric leaves stuffed with rice, dal, jaggery, and coconut
Serradura
Kuswar
Perada

See also
Cucumber cake
Feni
Canja de Goa
Urrak

References
1. "Goa and its cuisine" (http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2921086.cms). The
Times Of India. 3 April 2008.
2. Ihsan, Aqeel. ‘“I’m Goan Because I Eat Goan Food”: A Critical Look at the History of Goan
Canadians’. The Graduate History Review 10, no. 1 (20 September 2021): 51.
https://doi.org/10.18357/ghr101202120028.
3. Chapman, Pat (2009). India: Food & Cooking: The Ultimate Book on Indian Cuisine. New
Holland Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 978-1845376192.
4. Ihsan, 42.
5. "Cricket News, Latest Cricket News Today, Live Cricket Score, Live Score Online Updates"
(http://cricket.expressindia.com/old//fulliestory.php?content_id=74035).

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goan_cuisine&oldid=1084364272"

This page was last edited on 24 April 2022, at 01:40 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goan Soup
Canja de Goa (Goan soup) is a typical soup of the Indo-Portuguese cuisine of Goa, Daman and Diu,
which once formed part of the Portuguese State of India, and is inspired by Portuguese soup.[1]

It is prepared with chicken, local sausage, onion, garlic, rice, water and salt. All these ingredients are
cooked together in a saucepan or in a pressure cooker. Finally, extract of chicken bones is added.[1]

According to tradition, in Goa, it was made for women who gave birth in the family home. After the first
birth, the mothers-in-law sent to the brides a bottle of port wine and six chickens, to be used in preparing
the soup, since this was considered a good food for mothers and convalescents.[1]

It is consumed around at 11 am, together with curry from the previous day, sweet mango chutney and salted
fish. Sometimes it is transported to the fields by children, in a vessel of clay, for their parents and older
siblings working there.[1]

See also
List of soups

References
1. Cherie Y. Hamilton, "Os sabores da lusofonia: encontros de culturas", Senac 2005,
ISBN 8573594071

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goan_Soup&oldid=973284362"

This page was last edited on 16 August 2020, at 11:10 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goa University
Goa University is a public higher education institution,
headquartered in the city of Panaji, in the Indian state of Goa. In Goa University
addition to Panaji (Taleigão Plateau Campus), it has a campus in
Margao, Mapusa, Ponda, Old Goa and Vasco da Gama.

The traditions of Goa University date back to the 17th century,[4]

with the creation of the first university courses by the Portuguese
Empire.[5][6] However, it was only after the annexation of Goa that
the process was consolidated, with the University of Mumbai
establishing a Centre for Post-Graduate Instruction and Research
(CPIR) in Panaji.[7] The CPIR offered affiliation to the first
colleges that were instituted in Goa in June 1962.[7] Was
established under the Goa University Act of 1984 (Act No. 7 of
1984) and commenced operations on 1 June 1985,[8] replacing Crest of Goa University
CPIR.[7] The University offers graduate and post-graduate studies
Motto "Knowledge is
and research programmes. It is currently (2014–19) accredited by
the National Assessment and Accreditation Council in India with a Divine"
rating of A Grade.[7] Type Public
Established 1985
Is one of India's few universities offering western languages such
as Portuguese[9] and French languages.[10] The University's Chancellor P. S.
Department of Portuguese and Lusophone Studies is the only such Sreedharan
in the entire Indian subcontinent.[9] Pillai[1]
Vice-Chancellor Harilal B.
Menon[2]
Contents Registrar V. S. Nadkarni[3]

History Location Taleigão, Goa,

University Education in post-annexation of Goa India
Creation of university Campus Urban
Campus Affiliations UGC, NAAC
Organisation and administration Website www.unigoa.ac
Governance .in (http://www.u
Affiliated colleges nigoa.ac.in)
Recognised institutions
Academics
Rankings
Goa University Library
Visiting Research Professors Programme
Sports
Notable alumni and staff
References
Further reading
External links

History
The university tradition of the Goa University also began during
the Portuguese rule, with the installation of several institutions of
higher education, the oldest one being the Goa Medical College,
dating from 1691,[4] followed by the Mathematical and Military
School, founded in 1817, and Goa College of Pharmacy, founded
in 1842. These schools (with the exception of the Mathematical and
Military School, which was abolished in 1871) gradually formed
the Goa University when it was founded.[5][11]

Goa University, main admin block.

University Education in post-annexation of
Goa

Within less than six months after the annexation of Goa, two colleges were started as a result of private
initiatives and the government's backing:

Dhempe College of Arts and Science, Panjim (1962);[12]

Parvatibai Chowgule College of Arts and Science, Margao (1962).[13]

In the very first year, the number of students who registered in these two colleges added up to 879.

Other colleges were soon established:

St. Xavier's College, Mapusa, Goa, Mapusa (1963)[14]

Carmel College for Women, Nuvem (1964)[15]
S.S. Dempo College of Commerce and Economics
(1966)[16]
Goa Engineering College (1967)[17]

As these institutions and more came into existence, the question of

affiliation surfaced and led to some debate since Goa was a Union
Territory, and it was suggested they be affiliated to the Delhi
St Xavier's, another early college
University. However the colleges opted to be affiliated to the from Goa.
Mumbai University and at the request of the Government of Goa,
the Centre of Post-Graduate Instruction and Research was started in
Goa by the Mumbai University with the support of the Goa administration.

The Jha Committee proposed the establishment of a University in Goa, and recommended its gradual
development from the Centre for Post-Graduate Instruction and Research (CPIR) into a full-fledged
university over a period of five to ten years.

Creation of university
On 1 December 1984, after a long struggle by the pro-autonomy
groups in Goa, the Law of the Goa University was signed, which
unlinked the CPIR from Mumbai University, and converted it into
the Goa University (GU). The aforementioned law extended the
performance of GU to the territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra
and Nagar Haveli, which in practice never occurred.[18]

It moved to its present 175-hectare (430-acre) campus on the The Goa University's permanent
Taleigao Plateau. home is close to the Taleigau-
Bambolim plateau, with river and sea
Campus visible on some sides.

The main campus of Goa University was designed by painter,

sculptor, muralist, graphic designer and architect Satish Gujral.[19]
The University is built on the Taleigão plateau and located about 7
kilometres (4.3  mi) away from the center of the state capital
Panaji.[20]

Organisation and administration

Governance

Statutory bodies of the university include the university court,

executive council, planning board, academic Council and finance
committee.

Satish Gujaral, who designed the

Affiliated colleges Goa University.

Goa University, Goa's only university, is a university of affiliated

colleges.
53 affiliated colleges:
29 in general education
24 professional education
Enrollment ~27,000,
mostly for undergraduate studies

Main Campus primarily for post-graduate studies

Enrolment ~1,500

Recognised institutions

Recognised institutions functioning with Goa University recognition are:[21]

National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Vasco

Directorate of Archives, Panaji
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula
Xavier Centre of Historical Research, Porvorim
Malaria Research Centre, Panaji
Thomas Stephens Konkkni Kendr, Porvorim
Fishery Survey of India, Mormugao
All India Institute of Local Self Government, Panaji
Academics

Rankings

The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked University rankings

Goa University in the 101–150 rank band overall in India and 81 General – India
among universities in 2020.[23][24] NIRF (Universities) (2020)[22] 81

Goa University Library

Established in 1958 based on the collection of the Centre for Post

Graduate Instruction and Research, University of Bombay, the
university library holds more than 158,000 books.[25] It subscribes
to 350 periodicals.[26] It is the repository of several collection of
rare books including a collection on Indo-Portuguese history and
culture donated by the late P. S. S. Pissurlekar.[26]

Visiting Research Professors Programme

The Directorate of Art & Culture, Government of Goa, has funded

and established six Visiting Research Professorship Chairs at the
university. The first chair was set up in 2007 in memory of D. D.
Kosambi during his birth centenary but it remained unoccupied
until 2013.[27] Subsequently, chairs were set up in honour of
Balakrishna Bhagwant Borkar and Dayanand Bandodkar in 2010
and 2011 respectively, to commemorate their birth centenaries. In
2012, three more chairs were instituted in honour of Mario
Miranda, Anthony Gonsalves and Nana Shirgaonkar.[28] In 2014,
the Sant Sohirobanath Ambiye in Marathi language and literature
was established as a part of tercentenary birth anniversary Entrance to the Goa University
celebrations of the Goan poet and saint.[29][30] The Joaquim library.
Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara Chair in Portuguese Studies and Indo-
Portuguese Comparative Studies was established in 2016.[31]

The complete list of Chairs at the University is as under:

The Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi Visiting Research

Professorship in Interdisciplinary Studies
The Dayanand Bandodkar Visiting Research
Professorship in Political Economy
University campus.
The Bakibab Borkar Visiting Research Professorship in
Comparative Literature
The Mario Miranda Visiting Research Professorship in Fine Art, Painting, Illustrative
Cartooning, etc.
The Anthony Gonsalves Visiting Research Professorship in Western Music
The Nana Shirgaonkar Visiting Research Professorship in Traditional Music
Sant Sohirobinath Ambiye Chair in Marathi language and literature[32][33]
 Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara Chair in Portuguese Studies and Indo-Portuguese
Comparative Studies[34]

Those who have been appointed to these Chairs include Romila

Thapar, Madhav Gadgil, Sudhir Kakar, Meghnad Desai, Baron
Desai, Shubha Mudgal,[28] Githa Hariharan,[35] Vidya Dehejia,[36]
Saurabh Dube,[37][38] Ishita Banerjee-Dube,[39] Kumkum
Roy,[40][41] etc. .

Sports International scholars at a Goa

University conference, 2011.

Dr Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Indoor Stadium is an indoor stadium

located on the campus of Goa University.[42] The stadium was constructed for the 2014 Lusophony Games
for events of volleyball and basketball. The stadium is named after Dr Shyama Prasad Mukherjee former
Indian politician and the founder of Bhartiya Jana Sangh. The stadium has a seating capacity of 4,000 and
was inaugurated by Governor of Goa Bharat Vir Wanchoo in 2014.[43] It cost 82 crore and was built in 11
months which is a record for the construction of an indoor stadium of international standard. With a 131-
metre (430 ft) sheet, the stadium is Asia's first stadium which has the longest single-sheet roof.

Notable alumni and staff

Class
Name College Notability References
Year

Goa music producer, songwriter and

Anish Sood
Engineering DJ
Konkani scholar and winner of
Olivinho Gomes Sahitya Akademi award for [44]
Translation in 1993
Sidharth
Politician, former MLA of Panjim
Kuncalienker
Goa [45]
Shikha Pandey cricketer
Engineering
Vishwajit
Pratapsingh Politician, Health Minister of Goa
Rane

References
1. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/about-us/leadership/chancellor.
html). www.unigoa.ac.in. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
2. "Vice-Chancellor" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/contentarticledisp.php?id=3). University of Goa.
2016.
3. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/about-us/leadership/registrar.ht
ml). www.unigoa.ac.in. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
 4. Prôa, Miguel Pires. "Escolas Superiores" Portuguesas Antes de 1950 (esboço). Blog
Gavetas Com Saber. 2008
5. Digby, Anne; Ernst, Waltraud. Crossing Colonial Historiographies: Histories of Colonial and
Indigenous Medicines In Transnational Perspective. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2010
6. Taimo, Jamisse Uilson. Ensino Superior em Moçambique: História, Política e Gestão (http
s://www.unimep.br/phpg/bibdig/pdfs/2006/USQUKAQXVOQD.pdf) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20121030094804/https://www.unimep.br/phpg/bibdig/pdfs/2006/USQUKAQXV
OQD.pdf) 30 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Piracicaba: Universidade Metodista de
Piracicaba, 2010}}
7. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/contentarticledisp.php?id=1).
unigoa.ac.in.
8. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150714235559/https://ww
w.unigoa.ac.in/contentarticledisp.php?id=4). unigoa.ac.in. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.unigoa.ac.in/contentarticledisp.php?id=4) on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
9. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170318173204/https://www.unigoa.ac.in/de
partment.php?adepid=9). Archived from the original (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/department.ph
p?adepid=9) on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
10. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/department.php?adepid=2).
unigoa.ac.in.
11. Taimo, Jamisse Uilson. Ensino Superior em Moçambique: História, Política e Gestão (http
s://www.unimep.br/phpg/bibdig/pdfs/2006/USQUKAQXVOQD.pdf) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20121030094804/https://www.unimep.br/phpg/bibdig/pdfs/2006/USQUKAQXV
OQD.pdf) 30 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Piracicaba: Universidade Metodista de
Piracicaba, 2010
12. "About Us – DCT's Dhempe College of Arts and Science, Miramar, Goa" (http://www.dhemp
ecollege.edu.in/about-us/). dhempecollege.edu.in.
13. "History" (http://www.chowgules.ac.in/chowgule/Alumni/about_spcc/history.jsp).
chowgules.ac.in.
14. "St. Xavier's College Mapusa commemorates its golden jubilee – Times of India" (http://time
sofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/St-Xaviers-College-Mapusa-commemorates-its-golden-jubil
ee/articleshow/20763218.cms). indiatimes.com.
15. "Carmel college celebrates 50 years – Times of India" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cit
y/goa/Carmel-college-celebrates-50-years/articleshow/29025205.cms). indiatimes.com.
16. "S S Dempo College commences its Golden Jubilee Lectures Series with Sitaram Yechury"
(http://www.navhindtimes.in/s-s-dempo-college-commences-its-golden-jubilee-lectures-serie
s-with-sitaram-yechury/). navhindtimes.in.
17. "Incubation centre at GEC in its Golden Jubilee year – Times of India" (http://timesofindia.ind
iatimes.com/city/goa/Incubation-centre-at-GEC-in-its-Golden-Jubilee-year/articleshow/5285
8673.cms?from=mdr). indiatimes.com.
18. The Goa University Act, 1984 (Act No. 7 of 1984) (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/GU_Act.pdf).
Goa University. Dated: 24 May 2017.
19. Chaturvedi, Pooja (30 January 2014). "Satish Gujral – The man with many faces" (http://ww
w.livemint.com/Leisure/j4Gni9YIKCr3fXobKyfW9J/Satish-Gujral--The-man-with-many-faces.
html). livemint.com.
20. https://www.unigoa.ac.in/uploads/news/newsuploads/DST%20SERC%20School/Reaching%2
21. "Goa University, Goa's premier University, Post Graduation, PH.D, B.SC, M.SC, Research
Facilities Study India programme" (http://www.unigoa.ac.in/affiliate.php?aftid=3).
unigoa.ac.in.
22. "National Institutional Ranking Framework 2020 (Universities)" (https://www.nirfindia.org/20
20/UniversityRanking.html). National Institutional Ranking Framework. Ministry of
Education. 11 June 2020.
23. "MHRD, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF)" (https://www.nirfindia.org/2020/Over
allRanking150.html). www.nirfindia.org. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
24. "MHRD, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF)" (https://www.nirfindia.org/2020/Univ
ersityRanking.html). www.nirfindia.org. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
25. "Goa University Library" (https://www.unigoa.ac.in/library/). www.unigoa.ac.in. Goa
University. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
26. "About us | Goa University Library" (http://www.unigoa.ac.in/library/about-us/).
www.unigoa.ac.in. Goa University. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
27. "The professors are here" (http://www.thegoan.net/story.php?id=6087). thegoan.net.
28. https://www.unigoa.ac.in/uploads/course/VisitingResearchProfessorsProgramme/visiting%20p
29. "Slew of proposals to 'boost Konkani and Marathi' – Times of India" (http://timesofindia.indiat
imes.com/city/goa/Slew-of-proposals-to-boost-Konkani-and-Marathi/articleshow/31495761.c
ms). indiatimes.com.
30. "Sant Sohirobanath and secular death" (http://www.heraldgoa.in/Opinions/Sant-Sohirobanat
h-and-secular-death/77511.html). heraldgoa.in.
31. Goan Observer Team (27 November 2016). "UNEASY LIES RIVARA'S CHAIR" (http://www.
goanobserver.in/2016/11/27/uneasy-lies-rivaras-chair/). goanobserver.in.
32. https://www.unigoa.ac.in/uploads/orderandcirculars/25_doc_acer002_20101102_051909.pdf
33. "Jnanpith awardee Nemade to be GU chair professor – Times of India" (http://m.timesofindia.
com/city/goa/Jnanpith-awardee-Nemade-to-be-GU-chair-professor/amp_articleshow/472556
36.cms). timesofindia.com.
34. "GU Portuguese chair to spell good for Konkani – The Navhind Times" (http://www.navhindti
mes.in/gu-portuguese-chair-to-spell-good-for-konkani/). navhindtimes.in. 2 November 2015.
35. "Culture is also about ideas, debates and multiple interpretations ….says writer Githa
Hariharan" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/culture-is-also-about-ideas-debates-and-multiple-int
erpretations-says-writer-githa-hariharan/). navhindtimes.in. 2 September 2015.
36. "Reasserting the role of women in our history" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/reasserting-the-ro
le-of-women-in-our-history/). The Navhind Times. 19 February 2017.
37. http://www.internationalcentregoa.com/web/programme/lecture-on-modernisms-in-india-by-
prof-saurabh-dube/
38. "Saurabh Dube | El Colegio de México - Academia.edu" (https://colmex.academia.edu/Saur
abhDube/CurriculumVitae). colmex.academia.edu. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
39. "Visiting Research Professors Programme » Bringing doyens to the campus….! » A Course
on HSO-158 Nation, Gender and Politics in India by Professor Ishita Banerjee-Dube, D.D.
Kosambi Chair Professor, Goa University (Research Professor in History, Centre for Asian
and African Studies, el Colegio de México) from 28th November to 7th December" (http://vrp
p.unigoa.ac.in/a-course-on-hso-158-nation-gender-and-politics-in-india-by-professor-ishita-b
anerjee-dube-d-d-kosambi-chair-professor-goa-university-research-professor-in-history-cent
re-for-asian-and-african/).
40. "Visiting Research Professors Programme » Bringing doyens to the campus….! » Lectures
on Historiography and History and Feminism by Prof.Kumkum Roy, Visiting Research
Professor under D.D.Kosambi Chair in Interdisciplinary Studies, Goa University" (http://vrpp.
unigoa.ac.in/lectures-on-historiography-and-history-and-feminism-by-prof-romila-thapar-and-
prof-kumkum-roy-visiting-research-professors-under-d-d-kosambi-chair-in-interdisciplinary-st
udies-goa-university/).
41. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201015215428/http://digitalgoa.com/event/k
umkum-roy/). Archived from the original (http://digitalgoa.com/event/kumkum-roy/) on 15
October 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
42. lusofoniagames (http://lusofoniagames2014.gov.in/venue/guc) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20140106141025/http://lusofoniagames2014.gov.in/venue/guc) 6 January 2014 at
the Wayback Machine
43. goacom (http://www.goacom.com/sports/17179-indoor-stadium-at-taleigao-named-after-s-p-
mukherjee) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140915211236/http://www.goacom.co
m/sports/17179-indoor-stadium-at-taleigao-named-after-s-p-mukherjee) 15 September 2014
at the Wayback Machine
44. "Vasco: Renowned Scholar, Linguist, Dr Olivinho Gomes Passes Away" (http://www.daijiwor
ld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=63406). daijiworld.com. Retrieved 2 February
2022.
45. "Shikha Pandey flying high after late takeoff" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articlesho
w/59866269.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201811200824
44/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/shikha-pandey-flying-high-after-late-takeoff/ar
ticleshow/59866269.cms) from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 20 November
2018.

Further reading
Varde, Dr. P.S., History of Education in Goa, Directorate of Art & Culture, Government of
Goa, Panaji, 1977.
Cabral, Ricardo. The Development of Teacher Education in Portuguese Goa (1841–1961)
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2009.

External links
Official website (http://www.unigoa.ac.in)
India Access To Knowledge/Events/Konkani Vishwakosh Digitization (https://meta.wikimedi
a.org/wiki/India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Konkani_Vishwakosh_Digitization)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa_University&oldid=1076645164"

This page was last edited on 12 March 2022, at 05:54 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goan Catholics
Goan Catholics (Romi Konkani: Goenchem Katholik) are an
ethno-religious community of Indian Christians following the Latin Goan Catholics
Rite of worship from the Goa state, in the southern part of the Regions with significant
Konkan region along India's west coast. They are mostly Konkani populations
people and speak the Konkani language.
India (1954) 1,000,000[1]
Missionary activities followed soon after the Portuguese conquest      →Velha Goa 366,130[2]
of Goa as Pope Nicholas V had enacted the Papal bull of (2011)
Romanus Pontifex in AD 1455, according to which the patronage
     →Greater ~100,000[3]
for propagation of the Christian faith in the "East Indies" (Asia)
Bombay (1960s)
was granted to the Portuguese crown.
Portugal 80,000~100,000
Their culture is an amalgam of Konkani and Portuguese cultures,
     →Nairobi ~5000[4]
with the latter having a more dominant role because Goa,
(prior to the
Damaon& Diu had been ruled by Portugal from AD 1510–
1960s)
1961.[13] The notion of Goan identity as a distinct culture among
other Luso-Asians or Luso-Indian cultures was forged into India Uganda ~1124[5]
after the annexation of Goa and Damaon in 1961. (1931)
     →Kampala ~500[6]
The Goan Catholic diaspora is concentrated in the Persian Gulf
(1931)
countries, the Lusophone world, especially Portugal and the EU
countries, and the Anglophone world, especially the United      → ~1,722[7]
Kingdom, Canada, Australia& the United States.[14] Tanganyika
(1931)
     →Dar es 700[8]
Contents Salaam (1993)
Pakistan ~30,000[9]
Ethnic identity
(1954)
History
Renaissance and Baroque eras      →Karachi ~10,000[9]
(1954)
Modern era
Persian Gulf ~20,000[9]
Geographical distribution
countries
Culture
Canada ~23,000[10]
Architecture
(1999)
Cuisine
Names and surnames      →Ontario ~16,000[10]
Language and literature (1999)
Language →London ~6,000[11]
Literature →Swindon (2018) ~12,000[12]
Traditions and festivals Languages
Traditions
Romi Konkani, Indo-Portuguese &
Festivals
British Indian English
Costumes and ornaments
 Society Religion
Caste Latin Church (Roman rite)
Occupation
Related ethnic groups
Performing arts
Karwari Catholics, Kudali Catholics,
Organisations Mangalorean Catholics, Bombay
Notable Goan Catholics East Indian Catholics, Luso-Indians,
See also Portuguese Burghers, Anglo-
Indians, Kunbi Christians, Koli
Citations
Christians, Christian Brahmins,
References Christian Cxatrias& Konkani people
Further reading
External links

Ethnic identity
Christian adherents to the Roman Catholic Church who originate from the present state of Goa, a region on
the west coast of India, and their descendants are generally referred to as Goan Catholics. A majority of
Goan Catholics belong to the Konkani ethnicity while a smaller proportion are Luso-Indians. Goan
Catholics played a pivotal role in the formation of the state of Goa and in designating their native language
Konkani as a scheduled language of India. Diaspora communities in anglophone countries usually speak
English as their first language while regarding Konkani as their ancestral language.[15] Some upper class
Catholic families in Goa spoke Portuguese as their primary language prior to 1961.[16]

Portugal took control of Goa in 1510. The Portuguese soon consolidated their power by imposing their
own government and culture through intermarriage[17] and converting the majority of the local population
to Catholicism.[18] Many pre-Portuguese Hindu traditions were adapted or retained by the Goan Catholics.
This included a variation of the Indian caste system, although it was not practiced rigidly.[19] Throughout
the Portuguese Empire a large part of civic administration (e.g. registration of births, marriages and deaths,
schools, colleges, hospitals, orphanages, etc.) was initially maintained by the Catholic religious orders.
Under Portuguese nationality law, Goans born before 19 December 1961 in the then Portuguese territory of
Goa are entitled to Portuguese citizenship. As per the law of Portugal (Jus sanguinis), this is extended up to
two generations, that is to their children and grandchildren.[20]

Due to the distance from Portugal, Goans (like the people of Macão and Timor) had a high level of
autonomy, although still a part of Portugal. Goans moved for work to other parts of the Portuguese Empire,
and hence it is possible to find people of Goan descent in the Americas, Africa, Europe, as well as other
parts of Asia.[21]

A large-scale emigration of Goan Catholics to Bombay (now Mumbai) began in the 1800s, because of
better economic opportunities.[22] At that time Bombay was under the British rule and there existed another
established Luso-Indian Catholic community; the East Indians, who were residents of Portuguese Bombay
prior to it being granted to the British East India Company in the 17th century. Since the Goan Catholic and
East Indian Catholic communities were converted to Christianity by the Portuguese, the British referred to
them as "Portuguese Christians".[23] They congregated in the same churches, attended many of the same
religious functions, and shared Portuguese surnames and culture.[24]
The British favoured the Goan
Christians in administrative jobs, due to their proficiency in western language and culture.[22]

History
Renaissance and Baroque eras

The Portuguese came to India with the ambition of capturing the

Asian trade to Europe through the Arab world and by-passing the
traditional Silk Route from China to Europe. The Portuguese first
reached the west coast of India in 1498 when Vasco da Gama
landed at Calicut.[25] On 25 November 1510 Afonso de
Albuquerque conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur.[26] By
1544 the Portuguese conquered the districts of Bardez, Tiswadi,
and Salcette.[27] Pope Nicholas V had enacted the Papal bull
Romanus Pontifex in 1455, granting the patronage ("Padroado") of Christian maidens of Goa meeting a
the propagation of the Christian faith in Asia to the Portuguese and Portuguese nobleman seeking a
wife, from the Códice Casanatense
rewarded them a trade monopoly in newly discovered areas.[28]
(c. 1540)
Trade was initiated shortly after Vasco da Gama arrived in India in
1498. The Portuguese Catholic Church was granted the
responsibility of proselytizing in Asia by the Pope, and all
missionaries had to call at Lisbon before departing for Asia. In Goa different orders were designated
different areas, with the Jesuits granted Salsette province in the South, and the Franciscans, the northern
province of Bardez. Other orders such as Carmelites, Dominicans, and Augustinians were also present in
Portuguese Goa.

In 1534 the Diocese of Goa was created from the Diocese of

Funchal to serve as a common diocese for the western coast of
India, including Goa and the area in and around Bombay.[29]

The Portuguese built many churches; the most notable are Basilica
of Bom Jesus (Basílica of Child Jesus) built during the sixteenth
century—a UNESCO World Heritage Site dedicated to the Infant
Jesus.The church also holds the embalmed body of Francis
Xavier.[30]—and the Se Cathedral, the largest church in Asia
The Sé Cathedral dedicated to St. dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria, the construction of which
Catherine of Alexandria, in Old Goa, was started in 1562 during the reign of King Dom Sebastião and
was built by the Portuguese in 1510. completed in 1619. It was consecrated in 1640.[31] The Our Lady
It is one of the oldest churches in of the Immaculate Conception Church (Nossa Senhora da
Goa and one of the largest in Asia. It Imaculada Conceição Igreja) was built in 1540. The Church and
also holds a miraculous cross that is Convent of St. Francis of Assisi (Igreja e Convento de São
venerated to date. Francisco de Assis), Church of Lady of Rosary (Igreja da Senhora
do Rosário), Church of St. Augustine (Igreja de Santo Agostinho),
and St. Michael's Church, Anjuna (Igreja São Miguel em Anjuna),
built in 1613,[32] were also erected during the Portuguese reign.[33][34]

Modern era

In 1787, some Goan Catholic priests, unhappy with the process of promotion within the Church and other
discriminatory practices of the Portuguese, organised the unsuccessful Pinto Revolt against the
Portuguese.[35]
From the 19th century, Catholic Goans started emigrating to British-run cities in India, especially to
Mumbai[36][37] and Bangalore in the 1920s and 1930s.[38] They also started migrating to Portuguese
territories, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[37]

According to the 1909 statistics in the Catholic Encyclopedia, the total Catholic population was 293,628
out of a total population 365,291 (80.33%).[39]

On 1 May 1928, the Archdiocese of Goa was renamed and was promoted to the Metropolitan Archdiocese
of Goa and Daman (Goa e Damão). It is the oldest diocese in terms of activity in the East, with its origins
linked to the arrival of the Portuguese on the Malabar Coast. The Metropolitan Archbishop of Goa and
Daman also uses the title of Primate of the Indies or Primate of the East and honorifically receives the title
of Patriarch of the East Indies.

After British India gained independence in 1947, the Portuguese government refused to accept Nehru's
demand that they hand over Goa to India. On 18 December 1961 India moved in with troops and after
intense warfare, the Portuguese administration was forced to surrender. On 30 May 1987 Goa was elevated
as India's 25th state.[40]

According to the 2011 census, Christians formed 26.01% of Goa's total population.[41]

Geographical distribution
According to the 2001 census there were around 359,568
Christians in Goa,[42] and most of them are Roman Catholics
following the Latin Rite. Many Goan Catholics live in Mumbai and
Bangalore. In the 1960s there were around 100,000 Goan
Catholics in Bombay, of which 90,000 were in urban Bombay, and
10,000 in suburban Bombay.[3] Other regions of India which have
a small proportion of Goan Catholics are Delhi, Calcutta, Madras,
Pune, Ahmednagar, Hyderabad, Nagpur, Nasik, and Ranchi.

Goan Catholics are also found abroad, either as Non-resident

Indian and Person of Indian Origin (NRIs), with some people born
abroad.[43] They are found in Arab states of the Persian Gulf in the Distribution of Goan Catholics in
India
Middle East, including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab
Emirates, and Kuwait.[44] Some have migrated to the Anglophone
world, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, the
US,[14] Australia and New Zealand. In 1954 there were around 1,000,000 Goan Catholics in India and
1,800,000 Goan Catholics outside Goa. Before the First Gulf War (1990–1991) there were probably
around 150,000 Goans outside India.[1] There are 100,000 Goan Catholics in Portugal.[45] A large number
are found in Karachi, Pakistan.[46] Recent emigrants are found in Germany and Austria.[47]

In 1999 the Goan Overseas Association, the Canorient Christian Association, and other Goan associations
estimated that there were around 23,000 Goan Catholics in Canada, out of which 13,000 were in
Ontario.[10] During 1954 it was estimated that there were 20,000 Goan Catholics in the Arab states of the
Persian Gulf, while 30,000 were living in Pakistan, out of which 10,000 were settled in Karachi.[9] In 1931
it was estimated that there were around 1,772 Goan Catholics in Tanzania[7] of which 700 were in Dar es
Salaam.[8] In Uganda during 1931, there were around 1,124 Goan Catholics,[5] out of which 500 were
settled in its capital of Kampala.[6] Prior to the 1960s it was estimated that there were around 5,000 Goan
Catholics in Nairobi, Kenya.[4] By the 20th century there were around 6,000 Goan Catholics in
London,[11] while in 2001, 9,000 were present in Swindon, United Kingdom.[48]
Culture

Architecture

Goan Architecture is heavily influenced by Portuguese styles, a

result of being a territory of Portugal for over 450 years. Houses
influenced by Indian architecture were inward-looking with small
windows and roofed with Mangalore tile. Houses were constructed
with walls of wooden planks, mud, laterite brick, or stone.[49] Most
of these houses were rebuilt or refurbished from the mid-18th to the
20th century, and replaced by buildings with a mix of neo-Classic
and neo-Gothic styles. Contemporary urban and rural housing
A traditional Portuguese-influenced
display a strong Portuguese influence. It shows a variety of laterite
villa of a Goan Catholic family brick structures and Mangalore tiled-roofed houses with steeply
sloped roofs, design features common to houses in Portugal.
Sometimes the walls are made of wooden planks, mud, or brick
and stone. Inside the house a spacious hall is present, while outside there is a large porch in front. A plinth
that indicates the owner of the house is present in front of the house. Courtyards are present in front of the
houses, consisting of a grotto of the Blessed Virgin Mary and a Holy Cross made of hard laterite clay.[50]

Cuisine

Coconut, vinegar and spices are common ingredients in most

curries. Sarapatel— pork cooked in a spicy sauce — is one of the
most popular dishes of the Goan Catholic community. Other
popular meat preparations include Xacuti, Chouriço (spicy pork
sausages), Vindalho, and Leitão Assado (roasted piglet).[51] Canja
de galinha and Frango à Cafreal are well-known chicken
dishes.[52] Fish curry and rice form the staple diet of Goan
Catholics.[53] Parboiled rice, also known as red rice (Ukdem in
Konkani), is the traditional rice eaten and preferred over raw rice. Prawn curry
Feni, a distilled liquor made from either cashew apples or coconut
toddy, is a popular alcoholic beverage.[54]

Patoleo (sweet rice cakes steamed in turmeric leaves consisting of a

filling of coconut and palm jaggery) are prepared on the Feasts of
São João (Nativity of Saint John the Baptist) on 24 June,
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 15 August, and
Konsâchem fest (harvest festival) which occurs across Goa during
the month of August.[55] Consoada is a term used for the sweet
delicacies prepared during Christmas which include Bebinca,
Dodol, Kulkuls, Neureos and Perada.[56]

Names and surnames

Portuguese names, having variants in both Roman Konkani and 'Patoleo' are the hallmark of the
English, like Miguel (Michael) and Madalena (Magdalene) are Assumption feast celebration
common among Goan Catholics.[57] Portuguese surnames (like
Lobo, D'Souza, Rodrigues, Fernandes and Pinto) are standard among Goan Catholics because of the
Christianisation of Goa during Portuguese rule.[58]

Goan Catholic variant English variant Portuguese variant Meaning Gender

Koinsanv Concepcion Conceição Immaculate Conception Female
Foransik Francisco Francisco French (man) Male
Zuvanv John João God is gracious Male
Bosteanv Sebastian Sebastião Revered Male
Mori Mary Maria Beloved Female
Rakel Rachel Raquel Ewe or one with purity Female
Anton Anthony António Flower Male
Jebel Elizabeth Isabel / Elisabete My God is my oath Female
Zoze Joseph José The Lord will add Male

Source: English-Konkani Dictionary[57] and A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992 (2000)[58]

Language and literature

Language

Goan Catholics speak the Konkani language which is key to the

community's identity.[59] Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language
belonging to the Indo-European family of languages, which is
spoken predominantly on the west coast of India.[60] According to
linguists this dialect is largely derived from Maharashtri Prakrit and
is similar to Bengali in terms of pronunciation.[61] This dialect has a
significant infusion of Marathi and Kannada loanwords.[62] The
Ethnologue identifies this dialect as the "Goan" dialect.[63] The Opening verses in the "Prologue" of
Goan Catholic dialect is written in the Roman script.[64] Portuguese the Gospel of John in Konkani. Goan
influence can be seen in the dialect's lexicon and syntax.[65] 1,800 Catholics employ the Roman script
Portuguese lexical items are found in the Goan Catholic dialect.[66] for their religious and secular writings
The syntactic patterns adopted from Portuguese include mostly in Konkani.
word order patterns, such as the placement of the direct and the
indirect object and of the adverb after the verb, the placement of the
predicate noun after the copula, and the placement of the relative or reduced relative clause after the head
noun. There are, however, some transformations as well among these patterns.[67] Such syntactic
modification is most evident in this particular dialect. It is observed only in the written word and in formal
speech such as sermons.[68] In recent times, more and more periodicals have abandoned the Portuguese
syntactic patterns.[69] The dialect is significantly different from the dialect spoken by the Hindu Goans not
only with respect to Portuguese influence, but also with respect to grammatical and lexical
characteristics.[70]

Literature
The origin of their literature dates to 1563, when the first Konkani
grammar was published by Fr Andre Vaz at St Paulo College at
Old Goa. In 1567 the first Konkani-Portuguese dictionary was
published by missionary priests at Rachol, Goa.[61] In 1622
Thomas Stephens, an English Jesuit, published Doutrina Christam
em Lingoa Bramana Canarim (Christian Doctrines in the Canarese
Brahmin Language), which was the first book in Konkani and any
Indian language.[71] On 22 December 1821 the first periodical,
Gazeta de Goa (Goa Gazetteer), edited by Antonio Jose de Lima
Leitao, was published. On 22 January 1900 the first Portuguese
newspaper, O Heraldo, was started by Prof. Messias Gomes. It was
transformed into an English daily in 1987.[72] Periodicals such as
Amcho Ganv (1930) by Luis de Menezes, Vauraddeancho Ixxt
(1933), a weekly by Fr. Arcencio Fernandes and Fr. Gracianco
Moraes,[73] Aitarachem Vachop, a Konkani weekly run by the
Salesians,[74] and Gulab by Fr. Freddy J. da Costa were published Cover of the Doutrina Christam by Fr.
in Goa.[75] Konkani-Portuguese periodicals such as O Concani, a Thomas Stephens, the first
weekly by Sebastiāo Jesus Dias, Sanjechem Noketr (The Evening published work in Konkani and any
Star) (1907) by B.F. Cabral, O Goano (1907) by Honarato Furtado other Indian language.
and Francis Futardo, and Ave Maria (1919) edited by Antonio
D'Cruz were published in Bombay.[73] In February 1899
Udentenchem Sallok (Lotus of the East) by Eduardo J. Bruno de Souza, the first Konkani periodical, was
published as a fortnightly in Poona. The first Konkani book in the Devanagri script, Kristanv Doton ani
Katisism by Dr. George Octaviano Pires, was published in Sholapore in 1894.[76] Fr. Ludovico Pereria's
monthly Dor Mhoineachi Rotti (Monthly Bread) was published in Karachi in 1915.[74][77] In 1911 the first
Konkani novel, Kristanv Ghorabo (Christian Home), was published.[78][79] Modern literature is diverse
and includes themes such as historical awakening in Lambert Mascarenhas' Sorrowing Lies My Land,[80]
feminism in Maria Aurora Couto's Goa: A Daughters' Story,[81] and fantasy in Nandita da Cunha's The
Magic of Maya.[82] In 1974, the Archdiocese of Goa and Daman published the Novo Korar (New
Testament) of the Holy Bible in Konkani. Later, on 4 June 2006, the Archdiocese released the complete
Catholic Bible in Konkani employing the Latin alphabet known as Povitr Pustok.[83] In 2018, Archbishop
of Goa and Daman Filipe Neri Ferrao launched the Povitr Pustok, a Konkani Bible app, a mobile phone
application software with the entire Konkani Bible text.[84]

Traditions and festivals

Traditions

Many Indian customs and traditions persist among the Goan Catholics, which are more conspicuous during
their marriage festivities.[85]

Traditionally, as in other Indian communities, arranged marriages were the norm.[86] Pre-marriage traditions
include Soirik (matrimonial alliance),[87] Utor (promise of marriage),[88] Mudi (engagement ceremony),[89]
Amontron (wedding invitation), Porcond (bridal shower),[90] Chuddo (glass bangles) ceremony wherein
the bride's forearms are adorned with colourful glass bangles of green, yellow, and red which are symbolic
of fertility and married life,[91][92][93] Saddo (red or pink dress) ceremony of cutting and sewing the bridal
dress,[94][95] the bridegroom's Hair-cutting ritual,[96] and Bhuim jevon (a ritual meal in honour of the
ancestors)[97] or Bhikream jevon (a meal for the poor or beggars).[98][99] Dennem (trousseau) is sent to the
groom's house the day before the wedding.[100]
The Ros (anointing) ceremony held on the evening before the wedding involves the parents, relatives, and
friends blessing the soon-to-be-wed couple before they begin their married life.[101] It is conducted at the
bride's and bridegroom's respective homes, who along with their bridesmaids and best men are
ceremonially bathed with Apros (first extract of coconut milk).[102] The bridegroom's/bride's mother dabs
her thumb in coconut oil and anoints her son's/daughter's forehead by placing the sign of the cross on it.
Special commemorative songs called Zoti are sung for the occasion.[103] On the wedding day, the bridal
couple receive Besanv (Benediction) ceremoniously from their parents and elders before the families leave
their individual homes for the church to celebrate the Resper (Nuptial Mass) which is followed by the
wedding reception later in the evening.[104]

Traditions post the reception include Hatant dinvcheak (handing over) the bride solemnly by the father or
the guardian of the bride to the groom's family,[105] Shim (boundary) ritual which involves crossing an
imaginary boundary created by pouring liquor on the ground as the Vor (bridal party) prepare to leave for
the groom's house. After the ritual, one or two relatives from the bride's side formally invite the newlyweds
to the bride's home for a celebration the next day. This is known as Apovnnem (invitation) in Konkani and
the occasion is called Portovnnem (ceremonial return).[106]

Festivals

Konsachem fest (harvest festival) celebrated on 15 August that involves blessing of new harvests are other
Goan Catholic celebrations.[107]

In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas, Good

Friday, and Easter, the community celebrates many other festivals
of religious and historical significance. The Zagor (nocturnal vigil
in Konkani), mainly celebrated in Siolim, in Bardez taluka, is a
festival highlighted by dance, drama and music.[108] The Feast of
Saint Francis Xavier, one of the major festivals of the Goan
Catholics, is celebrated on 3 December annually to honour the
saint's death.[109] The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Monti
Goan Catholics participating at the
Saibinichem Fest in Konkani, Feast of Our Lady of the Mount) on
Intruz (Goan Carnival), late 20th
8 September is a major festival, especially in Chinchinim.[110] century
Milagres Saibinichem Fest is the feast of Our Lady of Miracles,
celebrated at St. Jerome Church (Mapusa).[111] Contrary to popular
belief, Goa Carnival is a commercial festival in Goa. Its current form (King Momo, floats, etc.) was created
only in 1965 to attract tourists.[112]

Costumes and ornaments

In the past, Goan Catholic women wore a hol, a white sheet over their saris, while going to
Church.[113][114]

In the early period of Portuguese rule, Goan Catholic women were married in whites saris (hol) and
changed into a red dress or sari, known as saddo, at home.[115] Women of the upper strata wore the Fota-
Kimao after the Church ceremony. Fota was a blouse made of red velvet and satin with a black border and
embroidered with gold thread.[116] Accessories used along with the fota included a variety of jewellery
worn on the head, ears, neck, and arms. The fator was an ornament that consisted of a green stone between
two corals held by double chains. Together with the fator, women wore a set of five intricate chains known
as contti, and other chains. Women wore bangles known as nille with matching carap on their ears. They
also wore few small chains from the ear to the head, combs made of gold (dantoni), silver, or tortoise shell,
and rings on every finger.[117] During the later period of Portuguese rule, women got married in Western
clothes. The Cordao (wedding necklace) was a necklace with two black-beaded chains reminiscent of the
Hindu Mangalsutra, interspersed with roughly twenty gold coins, which formed a gold pendant, often in
the shape of Jesus or the cross.[118] A widow had to wear black clothes for the rest of her life and was not
allowed to wear ornaments.[119][120]

Society

Goan Catholics retained the same caste system which their

ancestors had followed. A village in Goa was known as Ganv, its
freeholder was the Ganvkar, and Ganvkari included the Ganvkars'
village associations and co-operatives. Village communities were
known as Ganvponn,[1] which the Portuguese referred to as
Comunidades.[121]

The mass was celebrated in Latin; the Homily was delivered to the
congregation in Konkani.[122]

Caste

Native Catholics in rural Goa retained their former Hindu castes.

The Bamonns (the Konkani word for Brahmins) were members of
the Hindu priestly caste.[123] Brahmin sub-castes (such as the Goud
A typical white Sant Khuris (Holy
Saraswat Brahmins, the Padyes, the Daivadnyas), the goldsmiths
Cross) of a Goan Catholic family,
and some merchants were lumped into the Christian caste of
constructed using old-style
Bamonn.[123]
Portuguese architecture

The Chardos (the Konkani word for Kshatriyas) were converts

from the Kshatriya (military/ royal class) caste, and included
members from the Vaishya Vani caste (merchant class). Those Vaishyas who were not incorporated into the
Chardo caste were called Gauddos, and formed the fourth group. The artisan converts formed the third-
biggest group and were known as Sudirs (labour class). The Dalits or "Untouchables" who converted to
Christianity became Mahars and Chamars, who formed the fifth group. They were later merged to the
Sudirs.[123] The Christian converts of the aboriginal stock known as Gavddis were termed Kunbi.[123]
Although they still observe the caste system, they consider it the unhappiest heritage of their pre-Christian
past.[1]

Occupation

After conversion, the most popular occupation of Goan Catholic men was that of sailor. Others served as
government officials for the Portuguese. Goan Catholics also became doctors, architects, lawyers and
businessmen.[124] Agriculture was mainly done by rural women because they were skilled farmers. Rural
men practised carpentry and other artisanal professions, constructing churches and other structures under
Portuguese supervision.[124] In the late seventeenth century, many Goan Catholic women had received
education and also became employed as teachers or feitoria workers. Other crafts and industries were
nonexistent.[124]

Performing arts
On 24 April 1950, Mogacho Aunddo (Desire of Love), the first
Konkani film by Al Jerry Braganza, was released at Mapusa,
Goa.[76] Frank Fernandes, whose stage name was Frank Fernand
(1919–2007; born in Curchorem, Goa), was a renowned film
maker and musician and is remembered for his movies like
Amchem Noxib (Our Luck) in 1963 and Nirmonn (Destiny) in
1966.[125] Other films produced in Goa include Bhunyarantlo
Monis (Cave Man) and Padri (Priest).[76] Remo Fernandes, a
singer and musician, was the first person to introduce fusion music
in India.[126] A still from Frank Fernand's
monochrome Konkani film Amchem
The Konkani hymn Asli Mata Dukhest, which was translated into Noxib
Konkani from the Latin hymn Stabat Mater, is sung during Lent.
Jocachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest, composed Riglo Jezu
Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) during his Canara mission. Diptivonti, Sulokinni, an
eighteenth-century Konkani hymn, was performed at a concert held in the Holy Spirit Church, Margao,
Goa.[127][128] Other hymns composed by Goan Catholics include Dona Barrete's Papeanchi Saratinni
(Sinners Repent), Carlos Jrindade Dias' Sam Jose Bogta Bagvionta, and Fr. Pascal Baylon Dias' San
Francisco Xaveria.[129][130] Konkani pop music became popular after Indian Independence. Chris Perry
and Lorna Cordeiro are known for the Bebdo (Drunkard) in 1976[131] and Pisso (Mad) in the 1970s, while
Frank Fernand's Konkani ballad Claudia from 1966 is popular.[132]

The Mando, a contemporary form of dance music, evolved in Salcette in the first half of the nineteenth
century out of wedding music, specifically the Ovi.[76] The songs in this style are serene and sedate,
generally a monologue in the Bramhin Konkani dialects of the South Goan villages of Loutolim, Raia,
Curtorim, and Benaulim. They are traditionally sung during the Shim (bridal departure) ceremony.[133]
Early composers of the Mando were Ligorio de Costa of Courtarim (1851–1919) and Carlos Trindade
Dias.[129] Deknni is a semi-classical dance form. One woman starts the dance and is later accompanied by
other dancers. The Mussoll (pestle dance), believed to be first performed by the Kshatriyas of Chandor,
commemorates the victory of King Harihara II (son of King Bukka I of the Vijaynagar Empire) over the
Chola Empire at Chandrapur fortification in the fourteenth century.[134] Other dances are the Portuguese
Corridinho and Marcha.[135][136] Dulpod is dance music with a quick rhythm and themes from everyday
Goan life.[137] Fell is a music genre performed by men and women during the Goa Carnival.[137] Other
dances performed at the Goan Carnival are Fulwali, Nistekaram, Vauradi, and Kunbi.[138][139] The
Ghumot is a musical instrument played, especially during weddings, and is used while performing a
Mando.[140] The instrument has the form of an earthen pot that is open at both sides. One end is covered
with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open.[141]

Konkani Plays, known as Tiatr, a form of classic stage performance with live singing and acting, were
written and staged in Goa. The form evolved in the 20th century with pioneer tiatrists such as Jao
Agostinho Fernandes (1871–1941).[44][129][142][143] Tiatr's themes include melodramas about family and
domestic life, with each lyricist offering his own explanation for life's varied problems. Tiatrists include
Prince Jacob[142] and Roseferns, and in the past M. Boyer, C. Alvares, and Alfred Rose. On 17 April 1982
the first tiatr Italian Bhurgo by Lucasinho Ribeiro was staged in Mumbai.[76] In 2007, the Government of
Goa started the Tiatr Academy to facilitate the development of the Tiart.[144] The tradition Of Voviyo,
ancient folk songs that were sung by women during a Ros, began prior to 1510 A.D. The tradition had to
be discarded due to Portuguese prosecution, and the songs now live in the form of archives.[145] The few
which still prevail are recited to this day at weddings, expressing lofty sentiments that give vent to the
feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families and invoke the blessing of God on
them like machlies.
 Adeus Korchu Vellu Paulu
("The Farewell Hour is here")
Adeus korchu vellu paulo.
The time of farewell is now here

Ai mhojem kalliz rê fapsota.

Oh! my heart begins to fear (Repeat previous two lines)

Dispediru korchea vellar,

At this moment of saying farewell,

Ho sonvsar naka-so disota.

In this world I no longer wish to dwell. (Repeat previous two lines)

— Torquato de Figuerio (1876–1948), Mando taken from the book Greatest Konkani
Song Hits Vol. 1, arranged by Francis Rodrigues, p. 24

Goan Catholics have also played an important role in Bollywood music. (See Goans in Hindi film music
composition)

Organisations
Goenkaranchi Ekvot is a registered organisation of Goan Catholics residing in Delhi.[146] In Bangalore,
associations such as the Karnataka Goan Association serve the community.[147] The Kuwait Konknni
Kendr is a well-known Goan Catholic organisation in Kuwait.[148] The Goan Overseas Association in
Toronto,[149] Indian Catholic Association of Central Texas, the Indo-Pakistani Christian Association,[150]
and the Canorient Christian Association are popular organisations in North America.[151] In the United
Kingdom, Goan Voice UK,[152] the Young London Goan Society (YLGS),[153] Goan Community
Association, and Siolim Association, based in London, are popular organisations.[154] In the Middle East,
the Goan Community of Oman is well known.[155]

Notable Goan Catholics

 Goan Catholics Notes

Vincent Alvares Medical practitioner and Chemist of John V of Portugal[156]

Adeodato Barreto Poet and writer[157]

Abade Faria Priest and hypnotist[158]

Teresa Albuquerque Historian
Rosario Alfred
Singer, Tiatrist
Fernandes (Alfred Rose)

Bruno Coutinho Footballer[159][160]

Charles Correa Architect[161]

Evarist Pinto Archbishop of Karachi[162]

Francisco Luís Gomes Physician, politician, writer, historian, and economist[163]

Archbishop of Bombay from 8 November 1996 – 20 May 2006, Prefect of
Ivan Dias
Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, Rome[164]

Keith Vaz British Labour Party politician, Member of Parliament for Leicester East[165]

Valerie Vaz British Labour Party politician, Member of Parliament for Walsall South[166]

Oswald Gracias Cardinal, Archbishop of Mumbai[167]

Lorna Cordeiro Singer and tiatrist[168]

José Gerson da Cunha Physician, orientalist, historian and numismatist[169]

Microbiologist, medical scientist, professor, author and independent MP in the
Froilano de Mello
Portuguese parliament[170]

Wallis Mathias Cricketer[171]

Anthony Mascarenhas Journalist[172]

Jerry Pinto Writer

Patricia Rozario Soprano[173]

José Vaz Missionary, Patron Saint of Sri Lanka

See also
Christianity in Goa
Christianisation of Goa
Portuguese India
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman
Konkani in the Roman script
Culture of Goan Catholics
Goan Catholic cuisine
Goa Inquisition
Architecture of Goan Catholics

Citations
1. Afonso 1991, "Roots"
 2. "Goa Population Statistics 2011". Census Department of India.
3. Baptista 1967, p. 27
4. Zenner 1991, p. 94 (https://books.google.com/books?id=FljGSzbhr4oC&printsec=frontcover
#PPA94,M1)
5. Thomas & Scott 1949, p. 363
6. Thomas & Scott 1949, p. 427
7. Campbell & Rew 1999, p. 178 (https://books.google.com/books?id=81VixxlazT0C&printsec
=frontcover&dq=Identity+and+Affect#PPA178,M1)
8. Fincher & Jacobs 1998, p. 234 (https://books.google.com/books?id=VLygIMjqhmkC&lpg=PA
240&dq=Goans%20in%20the%20United%20States&lr=&pg=PA234#v=onepage&q=Goan&
f=false)
9. Kurzon 2003, p. 81 (https://books.google.com/books?id=p5iK3CmIW6EC&lpg=PA81&dq=G
oans%20in%20the%20Gulf&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
10. Magocsi 1999, p. 613 (https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&printsec=front
cover#PPA613,M1)
11. Clifford 2009, Introduction, chp. id. 727 (http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/Con
Narrative.50/The-Goan-community-of-London.html)
12. Pereira, Andrew (27 November 2018). "Goans help put life back into London's churches" (htt
ps://m.timesofindia.com/city/goa/goans-help-put-life-back-into-londons-churches/amp_article
show/66818111.cms). Times News Network. Goa: The Times Group. Retrieved 24 October
2019.
13. da Silva Gracias, Fatima (1997). "The Impact of Portuguese Culture in Goa: A Myth or
Reality". In Charles J. Borges (ed.). Goa and Portugal: Their Cultural Links. New Delhi:
Concept Publishing Company. pp. 41–51.
14. Pereira, Clifford (2011). "Goans of the North Atlantic: A Transnational study of Migration,
Technology Adoption, and Neoculturation across Six Generations". In German, Myna;
Banerjee, Padmini (eds.). Migration, Technology, and Transculturation: A Global
Perspective. pp. 165–183. ISBN 978-0-9846307-4-5.
15. Nambiar, Nisha; Nair, Ardhra; Sunavala, Nergish. "English goes native as more Parsis, East
Indians list it as mother tongue" (https://m.timesofindia.com/city/mumbai/english-goes-native-
as-more-parsis-east-indians-list-it-as-mother-tongue/amp_articleshow/64903211.cms).
Times News Network. Mumbai/Pune, Maharashtra: The Times Group. Retrieved 24 October
2019.
16. Couto, Maria (2005). Goa: A Daughter's Story (illustrated, reprint ed.). Penguin Books
(India). pp. 68–69 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2QYYjT8-0BIC&pg=PA68&dq=goan
+catholics+speak+portuguese+language&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO4LL5j7XlAhXC8X
MBHaqwD5oQ6AEIYDAI#v=onepage&q=goan%20catholics%20speak%20portuguese%20
language&f=false). ISBN 9780143033431.
17. Roger Crowley (2015). Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire. London:
Faber and Faber.
18. Anthony D’Costa (1965). The Christianisation of the Goa Islands 1510-1567. Bombay:
Heras Institute.
19. de Souza 1989
20. Jacobsen & Raj 2008, p. 23 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlMIcG0C&printsec=f
rontcover#PPA23,M1)
21. Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean
Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
22. da Silva Gracias, Fatima (2000). Goans Away From Goa : Migration to the Middle East. New
Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.[1] (https://www.persee.fr/doc/luso_1257-0273_2000_n
um_7_1_1386)
23. Baptista 1967, p. 25
24. Larsen 1998, p. Migrants in Bombay, p. 345 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQ
WboC&printsec=frontcover#PPA345,M1)
25. "Vasco da Gama (c.1460–1524)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080120020120/http://www.
bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/gama_vasco_da.shtml). BBC. Archived from the original (h
ttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/gama_vasco_da.shtml) on 20 January 2008.
Retrieved 8 July 2008.
26. Kerr 1812
27. George 1992, p. 205 (https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&printsec=frontcov
er#PPA205,M1)
28. Daus 1983, p. 33
29. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Archdiocese of Goa"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cath
olic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Archdiocese_of_Goa). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
30. "Basilica of Bom Jesus (Goa)" (http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/bomjesus.php). National
Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 4 January 2009.
31. "Sé Cathedral" (http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/secathedral.php). National Informatics
Centre (NIC). Retrieved 4 January 2009.
32. Saldhana 2007, p. 33 (https://books.google.com/books?id=q5FgUMJP87IC&printsec=frontc
over#PPA33,M1)
33. "Churches and Convents of Goa" (http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/churches_goa.php).
National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 4 January 2009.
34. Harding 2003, p. 115 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cmO6M63ISKYC&pg=PA115)
35. da Cunha Rivara, Joaquim Heliodoro (2020). A Conjuração de 1787 em Goa (in
Portuguese). Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 978-8121232739.
36. Larsen 1998, p. 340 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQWboC&printsec=frontcov
er#PPA340,M1)
37. Saldhana 2007, p. 34 (https://books.google.com/books?id=q5FgUMJP87IC&printsec=frontc
over#PPA34,M1)
38. Larsen 1998, Goan Migration to Bangalore, p. 374 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4
Q5jQWboC&printsec=frontcover#PPA374,M1)
39. Ernest Hull (1909). "Archdiocese of Goa". Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 6. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
40. Dias 2007, pp. 2–3
41. "India's religions by numbers" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communitie
s-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece). The Hindu (published 26 August
2015). 29 March 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.t
hehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/artic
le7582284.ece#) from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
42. "Population by religious communities" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/C
ensus_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm). Census
department of India. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
43. "Young NRIs trace their roots in Goa" (http://gulfnews.com/news/world/india/young-nris-trace
-their-roots-in-goa-1.148308). Gulf News. 8 December 2008. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
44. Manohar Shetty. "Serenanding memory" (http://www.tehelka.com/story_main19.asp?filenam
e=hub090906Serenading_PhotoFeatures.asp). Tehelka magazine. Retrieved 13 December
2008.
45. "Portugal's Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604122920/http://www.hindu.com/2001/
04/22/stories/1322106l.htm). The Hindu. Chennai, India. 22 April 2001. Archived from the
original (http://www.hindu.com/2001/04/22/stories/1322106l.htm) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved
3 August 2009.
46. Sonia Faleiro. "Karachi Vignettes" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090328194644/http://ww
w.india-today.com/webexclusive/dispatch/20000819/sonia.html). India Today. Archived from
the original (http://www.india-today.com/webexclusive/dispatch/20000819/sonia.html) on 28
March 2009. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
47. "Nativity Fest Around the World" (http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id
=955). Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
48. Norton 2007, p. 40
49. Pandit, Heta; Vakil, Farah; Homi Bhabha Fellowships Council (2003). Hidden hands: master
builders of Goa. Heritage Network. ISBN 81-901858-0-2.
50. Pandit, Heta; Mascarenhas, Annabel; Koshy, Ashok; Dalvi, Sunita (1999). Houses of Goa (2,
illustrated ed.). Architecture Autonomous.
51. Howard Hillman. "Goa Cuisine" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080820015433/http://hillman
wonders.com/cuisines/goa_cuisine.htm). HQP / Hillman Quality Publications. Archived from
the original (http://www.hillmanwonders.com/cuisines/goa_cuisine.htm) on 20 August 2008.
Retrieved 31 December 2008.
52. "Bibinca, fenni and dekhni" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081105041917/http://www.hindu
onnet.com/thehindu/mp/2003/03/27/stories/2003032701250300.htm). The Hindu. 27 March
2003. Archived from the original on 5 November 2008. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
53. Rodrigues, Maria de Lourdes Bravo da Costa (2000). Tasty morsels: Goan food, ingredients
& preparation. Linette & Loraine da Costa Rodrigues. p. 13.
54. "Feni to soon get the GI tag" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090327225058/http://www.oher
aldo.in/pagedetails.asp?nid=13449&cid=2). O Heraldo. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.oheraldo.in/pagedetails.asp?nid=13449&cid=2) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved
9 December 2008.
55. Pereira Kamat, Melinda (16 August 2008), "A tradition wrapped in leaves" (http://epaper.time
sofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOI&Type=t
ext/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOIGO/2008/08/16&ID=Ar00401), The Times
of India, Goa, India, retrieved 16 August 2017
56. Fernandes, Joyce (1990), Goan Cookbook, Bhates Book Pub. Co.
57. Maffei 2001, p. 541 (https://books.google.com/books?id=YheuhLoHKsUC&pg=PA541&vq=
&source=gbs_search_s&sig=ACfU3U2D7Y_ZRuIgrbIs95u-qfFQMJcPrA)
58. Saradesāya 2000, p. 24 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&lpg=PP1&p
g=PA24#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
59. Pereira, Aaron (18 January 2019). "What is Goa's 'Opinion Poll Day'?" (https://indianexpres
s.com/article/explained/what-is-goas-opinion-poll-day-asmitai-dis-5543720/lite/). The Indian
Express. New Delhi: Indian Express Group. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
60. Caroline Menezes. "The question of Konkani?" (https://web.archive.org/web/200804082057
20/http://www.sfb632.uni-potsdam.de/conference/posters/D2_Konkani.pdf) (PDF). The
National Institute for Japanese language (Tokyo, Japan). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.sfb632.uni-potsdam.de/conference/posters/D2_Konkani.pdf) (PDF) on 8 April 2008.
Retrieved 10 February 2008.
61. "Konkani Language and Literature" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828171254/http://ww
w.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.htm). Goa Konkani Akademi.
Archived from the original (http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literat
ure.htm) on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 14 September 2008.
62. Jain & Cardona 2003, p. 845 (https://books.google.com/books?id=mK4kEuDXySIC&printse
c=frontcover#PPA845,M1)
63. "Ethnologue report for Konkani, Goan (ISO 639-3: gom)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081
009164936/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gom). Ethnologue.
Archived from the original (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gom) on
9 October 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
64. Malli, Karthik (28 April 2019). "Romi Konkani: The story of a Goan script, born out of
Portuguese influence, which faces possible decline" (https://www.firstpost.com/living/romi-ko
nkani-the-story-of-a-goan-script-born-out-of-portuguese-influence-which-faces-possible-decl
ine-6510431.html/amp). First Post. Network18 Group. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
65. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 52
66. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 53 (https://books.google.com/books?id=tcfJY7kANo8C&print
sec=frontcover#PPA53,M1)
67. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 59
68. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 48
69. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 51
70. Abbi, Gupta & Kidwai 1997, p. 60
71. Lal 1992, p. 4182 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&printsec=frontcover#
PPA4182,M1)
72. Saradesāya 2000, p. 241 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA290
&lpg=PA289&ots=Qr1ppP7nEt&dq=#PPA241,M1)
73. Noronha 2008, p. 185 (https://books.google.com/books?id=11rRjnzhJQIC&printsec=frontcov
er#PPA185,M1)
74. "Moreno de Souza SJ 1923–2007" (http://www.goajesuits.in/events/20071014morenodesou
za.htm). Goa Jesuits.in. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
75. Noronha 2008, p. 186 (https://books.google.com/books?id=11rRjnzhJQIC&printsec=frontcov
er#PPA186,M1)
76. Pratap Naik (5 September 2008). "Long History of Romi Konkani" (http://www.navhindtimes.
com/story.php?story=2008090520). Navhind Times. Retrieved 10 December 2008.
77. Saradesāya 2000, p. 242 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA290
&lpg=PA289&ots=Qr1ppP7nEt&dq=#PPA242,M1)
78. Saradesāya 2000, p. 102 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&printsec=fr
ontcover#PPA102,M1)
79. George 1992, p. 208
80. "The Hindu – Karnataka News" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060523025340/http://www.hi
ndu.com/2005/10/27/stories/2005102706790400.htm). The Hindu. Chennai, India. 27
October 2005. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/27/stories/2005102
706790400.htm) on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
81. Ranjit Hoskote (4 April 2004). "Apparent divide, actual bridges" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20040414024905/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2004/04/04/stories/2004040400140200.htm).
The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/mag/2004/04/0
4/stories/2004040400140200.htm) on 14 April 2004. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
82. "Following in JK Rowling's footsteps" (http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=106815
5). DNA. 7 December 2006. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
 83. Fernandes, Paul (23 April 2017). "After 1 lakh copies, Konkani Bible set to go for reprint -
Times of India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/after-1l-copies-konkani-bible-set
-to-go-for-reprint/articleshow/58321043.cms). The Times of India. Retrieved 27 October
2019.
84. "Now, a Konkani Bible on your cellphone - Times of India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.co
m/city/goa/now-a-konkani-bible-on-your-cellphone/articleshow/63979490.cms). The Times
of India. 1 May 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
85. Borges, Pereira & Stubbe 2000, p. 307–309 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=diISslZgIA
kC&pg=PA308&dq=goan+christian+ros+ceremony&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwid6ZbDrP
3lAhWPV30KHTdfCacQ6AEISDAE#v=onepage&q=goan%20christian%20ros%20ceremon
y&f=false)
86. Gomes 1987, p. 126
87. Bhatt & Bhargava 2006, p. 213
88. Gomes 1987, pp. 128, 411
89. Gajarani 2004, p. 94 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sP091bSPZ04C&dq=chuddo+cer
emony+goa&q=shim+wedding+ceremony#v=onepage&q=mudi&f=false)
90. da costa 2004, p. 157 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=vUzp68cpXuUC&pg=PA94&dq=
porcondo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjTkvfly_3lAhWHbn0KHZs4Cg8Q6AEIKjAA#v=one
page&q=porcondo&f=true)
91. Bhatt & Bhargava 2006, p. 214
92. Michigan State University 1983, p. 160 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=al5OAAAAYAA
J&q=chuddo+ceremony+goa&dq=chuddo+ceremony+goa&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjSr
t-crf3lAhWk4HMBHQ0aAP04ChDoATAAegQIARAD)
93. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 56 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/56)
94. Bhatt & Bhargava 2006, p. 215
95. Gomes 1987, p. 137
96. Gajarani 2004, p. 97–98 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sP091bSPZ04C&dq=chuddo
+ceremony+goa&q=shim+wedding+ceremony#v=onepage&q=hair%20cutting%20ritual&f=f
alse)
97. Thapar 2004, p. 1032 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Eo4MAQAAMAAJ&q=bhuim+je
von&dq=bhuim+jevon&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjA5ZOOqf3lAhXaXSsKHV-2A7YQ6AE
IKjAA)
98. Gomes 1087, p. 140 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=CHsiAAAAMAAJ&dq=beggar%2
7s+lunch&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=bhikream+jevon)
99. De Sousa 2007, p. 57
100. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 62 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/62)
101. Mascarenhas, Valencia (24 August 2014). "I do it my way" (https://m.timesofindia.com/city/go
a/I-do-it-my-way/articleshow/40821758.cms). Times News Network. The Times Group.
Retrieved 23 October 2019.
102. Goa University 2001, p. 188 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=M15uAAAAMAAJ&q=ros+
goa&dq=ros+goa&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDy5n1ivzlAhURWX0KHXIFDKUQ6AEIVjA
G)
103. Dias, Nisser (29 January 2017). "Going 'nuts' before the wedding" (https://m.timesofindia.co
m/city/goa/going-nuts-before-the-wedding/amp_articleshow/56839125.cms). Times News
Network. The Times Group. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
104. Bhatt & Bhargava 2006, p. 216
105. de Braganza Pereira 2008, p. Marriage (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=MghtAwAAQB
AJ&pg=PT388&lpg=PT388&dq=Hatant+dinvcheak&source=bl&ots=7bBi12voCy&sig=ACf
U3U3W14Mex8Wv_LEJMkHzLy82GyrdKQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBsam2yv3lAhW
E6XMBHSMKDYkQ6AEwCHoECAQQAQ#v=onepage&q=Hatant%20dinvcheak&f=false)
106. Gajrani 2004, pp. 99–100 (https://books.google.co.in/books?id=sP091bSPZ04C&dq=chudd
o+ceremony+goa&q=shim+wedding+ceremony#v=snippet&q=shim%20wedding%20cerem
ony&f=false)
107. "Konsachem fest" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071027202932/http://www.goatourism.org/
Festivals/ChristianFestivals/snows.htm). Department of tourism, Goa. Archived from the
original (http://www.goatourism.org/Festivals/ChristianFestivals/snows.htm) on 27 October
2007. Retrieved 15 December 2008.
108. Shiv Kumar (April 2006). "Zagor, the Goan festival of communal amity, under threat" (http://inf
ochangeindia.org/200604075527/Human-Rights/Features/Zagor-the-Goan-festival-of-comm
unal-amity-under-threat.html). InfoChange News & Features. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
109. "Feast of St. Francis Xavier" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090327231742/http://www.hind
uonnet.com/2004/12/04/stories/2004120401182000.htm). The Hindu. 4 December 2004.
Archived from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2008.
110. Jenny Coutinho (9 October 2008). "Moti Fest, pork sausages and Church of Qatar" (https://ar
chive.today/20121208205433/http://www.merinews.com/catFull.jsp?articleID=143490).
Merinews. Archived from the original (http://www.merinews.com/catFull.jsp?articleID=14349
0) on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2009.
111. "Mapusa's Milagres feast on April 16" (https://m.timesofindia.com/city/goa/mapusas-milagres
-feast-on-april-16/articleshow/63650061.cms7). The Times of India. 7 April 2018. Retrieved
12 September 2021.
112. "The dawn of Viva Carnaval in Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190404155031/https://w
ww.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/The-dawn-of-Viva-Carnaval-in-Goa/143320.html). O Heraldo. 1 March
2019. Archived from the original (https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/The-dawn-of-Viva-Carnaval
-in-Goa/143320.html) on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
113. da Silva Gracias 1994, p. 44 (https://books.google.com/books?id=DxZE03zaHKwC&lpg=PA
143&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
114. da Silva Gracias 1994, p. 34 (https://books.google.com/books?id=DxZE03zaHKwC&lpg=PA
143&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
115. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 64 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/62)
116. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 62 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/62)
117. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 63 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/63)
118. Larsen 1998, p. 135 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQWboC&pg=PA403&dq=
Goan+Catholic+Konkani&lr=&cd=11#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
119. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 76 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/76)
120. da Silva Gracias 1996, p. 77 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/77)
121. Dias 2007, p. 4
122. Buday 2000, p. 102 (https://books.google.com/books?id=mpRApMjx6LMC&lpg=PA102&dq=
Catholic%20mass%20in%20Goa%20was%20celebrated%20in%20Latin&lr=&pg=PA102#v
=onepage&q=&f=false)
123. Gajrani 2004, p. 78 (https://books.google.com/books?id=sP091bSPZ04C&lpg=PA96&dq=S
addo%20sari&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false)
124. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1 January 1990). Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PP1). Concept Publishing Company.
ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
125. Richie Lasrado. "A Tribute to Frank Fernand" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.as
p?n_id=32041&n_tit=News+headlines). Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved
9 December 2008.
126. Souvik Chowdhury (30 December 2002). "Rendezvous with Remo" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20090327231752/http://www.hinduonnet.com/mp/2002/12/30/stories/20021230014204
00.htm). The Hindu. Archived from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 10 December
2008.
127. Rodrigues 2009, p. 46
128. "A Taste of Classical Music" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100112054518/http://www.navhi
ndtimes.in/buzz/2114-a-taste-of-classical-music). Navhind Times. 18 August 2009. Archived
from the original (http://www.navhindtimes.in/buzz/2114-a-taste-of-classical-music) on 12
January 2010. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
129. George 1992, p. 210 (https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&printsec=frontcov
er#PPA210,M1)
130. Ayyappapanicker 1997, p. 277 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=R
A1-PA277&dq=&sig=ACfU3U0JB0cpmWlCOX98sANIqTyvasRBnA)
131. Rodrigues 2009, p. 39
132. Rodrigues 2009, p. 172
133. Rodrigues 2009, p. 22
134. Porter, Rice & Goertzen 1999, p. 740 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&
lpg=PP1&dq=goan%20catholics%20in%20bollywood%20films%20garlands&pg=RA2-PA7
40#v=onepage&q=fell&f=false)
135. Larsen 1998, p. 133 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQWboC&lpg=PP1&dq=Go
a%20Vers&lr=&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
136. Mohanty 2006, p. 95 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cGzQub7POOQC&pg=PA97&#v=
onepage&q=&f=false)
137. Porter, Rice & Goertzen 1999, p. 739 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&
pg=PP1&dq=goan+catholics+in+bollywood+films+garlands#v=onepage&q=fell&f=false)
138. Mohanty 2006, p. 95 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cGzQub7POOQC&lpg=PA95&dq
=Kunbi%20dance&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
139. Pereira, Renato. "GRAF's 'Gõycho Karnaval' Dazzles Mumbaikars" (http://www.mail-archive.
com/goanet@lists.goanet.org/msg58057.html). The Secular Citizen. Mumbai (15 February
2010): 1&12.
140. "The Unique Sound of Goa" (http://www.navhindtimes.com/story.php?story=2008082214).
Navhind Times. 22 August 2008. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
141. Naimpalli 2005, p. 18 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z63zvthhbhAC&printsec=frontco
ver#PPA18,M1)
142. Smitha Venkateswaran (14 April 2007). "Konkan goes Tiatrical" (http://economictimes.indiati
mes.com/articleshowarchive.cms?msid=1907414). The Economic Times. Retrieved
14 December 2008.
143. "Tiatr: The tiatr story" (https://www.flickr.com/photos/joegoauk11/1868617385/sizes/l/) (JPG).
Flickr. 11 April 2007. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
144. "Tiart academy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604122947/http://www.hindu.com/2007/
03/13/stories/2007031308170500.htm). The Hindu. Chennai, India. 13 March 2007.
Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2007/03/13/stories/2007031308170500.ht
m) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
145. Rodrigues 2009, p. 62
146. "Goenkaranchi Ekvot – an organization of Goans in Delhi" (https://groups.yahoo.com/group/
gulf-goans/message/1021). Retrieved 11 September 2008.
147. "Goan flavour" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081206153932/http://www.deccanherald.com/
content/Sep92008/metro-tue2008090888870.asp). Deccan Herald. Archived from the
original (http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Sep92008/metro-tue2008090888870.asp)
on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
148. Mario Rebello. "Kuwait Konknni Kendr" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080808135313/htt
p://www.goacom.com/culture/konkani/kendr.html). Archived from the original (http://www.goa
com.com/culture/konkani/kendr.html) on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2008.
149. "Goan Overseas Association (G.O.A.) celebrate Saint Francias Day" (http://www.goatoronto.
com/). Retrieved 11 September 2008.
150. Magocsi 1999, p. 613 (https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&printsec=front
cover#PPA614,M1)
151. "Daijiworld News Network, Canada" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=
28239&n_tit=News+headlines). Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 6 December
2008.
152. "Goan Voice UK" (http://www.goanvoice.org.uk). Retrieved 6 December 2008.
153. "Young London Goans Society (YLGS)" (http://www.ylgs.org.uk). Retrieved 22 May 2012.
154. "Goan Voice UK organisations" (http://www.goanvoice.org.uk/organisations.php). Retrieved
6 December 2008.
155. "About the Goan Community of Oman" (http://www.goansinoman.com/about_the_gco.htm).
Goan Community of Oman. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
156. Gomes Catão, Francisco Xavier (1962). The Island of Chorão (A Historical Sketch). p. 81.
OCLC 29051875 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29051875).
157. Prabhu 1967, p. 82
158. Luis S.R. Vas. "Pictorial Biography (Abbé Faria)" (http://www.abbefaria.com/Pictorial%20Bio
graphy%20Aug%2024.htm). Abbefaria.com. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
159. "Biographical sketch (Bruno Couthino)" (http://www.indianfootball.com/data/halloffame/couti
nho_bruno.html). Indianfootball.com. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
160. AIFF. "AIFF Award winner of the year – Men" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009021714124
8/http://the-aiff.com/awards.php). All India Football Federation. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.the-aiff.com/awards.php) on 17 February 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
161. "Goa's highest civilian award to Charles Correa" (https://archive.today/20120701155312/htt
p://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-19/goa/30533988_1_charles-correa-goa-ch
ief-minister-digambar-kamat). The Times of India. Archived from the original (http://articles.ti
mesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-19/goa/30533988_1_charles-correa-goa-chief-minister-
digambar-kamat) on 1 July 2012.
162. "New archbishop of Karachi" (http://www.dawn.com/2004/01/08/local5.htm). Dawn.
Retrieved 11 February 2009.
163. Vaz 1997, p. 250 (https://books.google.com/books?id=7DJLxYBYA-YC&pg=PA250#v=onep
age&q&f=true)
164. Catholic News Service. "Variety of experience gives cardinal from India high profile" (http://w
ww.americancatholic.org/Features/JohnPaulII/transition/CardinalsDias.asp).
AmericanCatholic.org. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
165. "Biographical Sketch (Keith Vaz)" (http://www.keithvazmp.com/). KeithVaz.com. Retrieved
5 February 2009.
166. "Walsall South parliamentary constituency - Election 2017" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/poli
tics/constituencies/E14001012). BBC News. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
167. "Biographical sketch (Cardinal Oswald Gracias)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080505122
609/http://www.archbom.org/abos.htm). Archdiocese of Bombay. Archived from the original
(http://www.archbom.org/abos.htm) on 5 May 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
168. Gerry D'Mello. "Interview with Lorna Cordeiro" (http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/music_view.
asp?m_id=21). Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 15 December 2008.
169. Vaz 1997, p. 118 (https://books.google.com/books?id=7DJLxYBYA-YC&pg=PA118#v=onep
age&q&f=false)
170. "Professor Froilano de Mello, MD" (https://www.webcitation.org/64AJJAqCX?url=http://www.
goacom.com/culture/biographies/froil1.html). Goacom.com. Archived from the original (http://
www.goacom.com/culture/biographies/froil1.html) on 24 December 2011. Retrieved
8 September 2009.
171. "Player profile (Wallis Mathias)" (http://content-www.cricinfo.com/pakistan/content/player/412
78.html#Profile). Cricinfo. Retrieved 18 February 2009.
172. Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history" (htt
ps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16207201#Profile). BBC News. BBC. Retrieved
16 December 2011.
173. "Biography" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111228050128/http://www.patriciarozario.com/bi
ography#Profile). Patricia Rozario. Archived from the original (http://www.patriciarozario.co
m/biography#Profile) on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2012.

References
Afonso, John Correia (1991). Narendra K.
Wagle; George Coelho (eds.). To Cherish
and to Share: The Goan Christian Heritage
(https://web.archive.org/web/20111008075
400/http://goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/
GoanCatholicHeritage.doc). Paper
presented at the 1991 Conference on Goa
at the University of Toronto (Reprinted with
permission from: South Asian Studies
Papers, no 9). Toronto, Ontario, Canada:
Goa.com. Archived from the original (http://
goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/GoanCat
holicHeritage.doc) (DOC, 54 KB) on 8
October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2009.
Buday, Grant (2000). Golden Goa (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=mpRApMjx6L
MC&pg=PP1) (illustrated ed.). ECW Press.
ISBN 1-55022-412-3. Retrieved 5 August
2009.
de Souza, Teotonio R. (February 1999). Is
There One Goan Identity, Several or
None ? (http://www.lusotopie.sciencespob
ordeaux.fr/souzaT.pdf) (PDF). Written
version of the talk delivered at the
roundtable on Goan identities, Fourth
Meeting of Lusotopie, 2000. Goa, India:
Lusotopie. Retrieved 3 August 2009.
Ecole pratique des hautes études
(France), Section des sciences
économiques et sociales (University of
Oxford), Institute of Social Anthropology
(Research Centre on Social and Economic
Development in Asia) (1973).
Contributions to Indian sociology. Vol. 7–8.
Mouton.
Fincher, Ruth; Jacobs, Jane Margaret
(1998). Fincher, Ruth; Jacobs, Jane
Margaret (eds.). Cities of Difference (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=VLygIMjqh
mkC&pg=PP1) (illustrated ed.). Guilford
Press. ISBN 1-57230-310-7. Retrieved
17 August 2009.
Gulzar; Nihalani, Govind; Chatterjee,
Saibal, eds. (2003). Encyclopaedia of
Hindi Cinema (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=8y8vN9A14nkC&pg=PP1)
(illustrated ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica
(India) Pvt. Ltd. / Popular Prakashan.
ISBN 81-7991-066-0. Retrieved 5 August
2009.
Hunter, William Wilson; Cotton, James
Sutherland; Burn, Richard; Meyer, William
Stevenson; Great Britain India Office
(1909). The Imperial Gazetteer of India (htt
ps://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazettee
r/). Vol. 12. Clarendon Press. Retrieved
7 January 2009.
Abbi, Anvita; Gupta, R. S.; Kidwai, Ayesha
(1997). Linguistic Structure and Language
Dynamics in South Asia: Papers from the
Proceedings of SALA XVIII Roundtable (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=tcfJY7kA
No8C). Motilal Banarsidass Publications.
ISBN 978-81-208-1765-4. Retrieved
22 January 2009.
Ayyappapanicker, K. (1997). Medieval
Indian Literature: An Anthology (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?
id=KYLpvaKJIMEC). Sahitya Akademi.
ISBN 81-260-0365-0. Retrieved
20 September 2008.
Campbell, John R.; Rew, Alan (1999).
Identity and Affect: Experiences of Identity
in a Globalising World (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=81VixxlazT0C). Pluto
Press. ISBN 0-7453-1423-6. Retrieved
10 December 2008.
Baptista, Elsie Wilhelmina (1967). The
East Indians: Catholic Community of
Bombay, Salsette and Bassein. Bombay
East Indian Association.
da Silva Gracias, Fátima (1996).
Kaleidoscope of women in Goa, 1510–
1961 (https://archive.org/details/kaleidosco
peofwo0000silv). Concept Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-591-1.
Retrieved 9 March 2010.
da Silva Gracias, Fátima (1994). Health
and hygiene and colonial Goa, 1510–1961
(https://books.google.com/books?id=DxZE
03zaHKwC&pg=PP1). Issue 4 of XCHR
studies series. Concept Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-506-5.
Retrieved 9 March 2010.
Daus, Ronald (1983). Die Erfindung des
Kolonialismus to Wuppertal/Germany (in
German). Peter Hammer Verlag. ISBN 3-
87294-202-6.
Jain, Dhanesh; Cardona, George (2003).
The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.
google.com/books?id=mK4kEuDXySIC).
Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
Retrieved 22 January 2009.
Holm, John A. (1989). Pidgins and
Creoles: Reference Survey (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=PcD7p9y3EIcC).
Vol. II. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-35940-5. Retrieved
30 April 2009.
Jacobsen, Knut A.; Raj, Selva J. (2008).
Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Raj (ed.).
South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible
Diaspora in Europe and North America (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlM
IcG0C). Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-
7546-6261-7.
Kerr, Robert (1812). "Discoveries,
Navigations, and Conquests of the
Portuguese in India, from 1505 to 1539" (ht
tp://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/
00generallinks/kerr/vol06chap01sect05.ht
ml). A General History and Collection of
Voyages and Travels. Vol. 6. George
Ramsay and Company. Retrieved
5 January 2008.
Zenner, Walter P. (1991). Minorities in the
Middle: A Cross-cultural Analysis (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=FljGSzbhr4o
C). SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0642-3.
Retrieved 16 January 2009.
Kurzon, Dennis (2003). Where East Looks
West: Success in English in Goa and on
the Konkan Coast (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=p5iK3CmIW6EC). Multilingual
Matters. ISBN 1-85359-673-6. Retrieved
3 December 2008.
Dias, Giselle (May 2007). "A search for an
identity Catholic Goans – How they fit in a
predominantly Hindu India" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20081121204702/http://www.
goatoronto.com/images/stories/stock/catho
lic-goan-research-paper.pdf) (PDF). Goan
Association of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
(Based on various books). Archived from
the original (http://www.goatoronto.com/im
ages/stories/stock/catholic-goan-research-
paper.pdf) (PDF, 66 KB) on 21 November
2008. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
Gomes, Olivinho (1987). "Village Goa: A
Study of Goan Social Structure and
Change". S. Chand.
George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian
Literature, an Anthology: An Anthology:
Surveys and Poems (https://books.google.
com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C). Vol. I.
Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-7201-324-
0. Retrieved 28 November 2008.
Kelley, Gerald B.; Edward C. Dimock; Braj
B. Kachru (1992). Dimensions of
Sociolinguistics in South Asia: Papers in
Memory of Gerald B. Kelley. Oxford & IBH
Pub. Co. ISBN 978-81-204-0573-8.
Lal, Mohan (1992). Mohan Lal; Sahitya
Akademi Inde (eds.). Encyclopedia of
Indian Literature (https://books.google.com/
books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C). Sahitya
Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1221-8. Retrieved
3 December 2008.
Maffei, Angelus Francis Xavier (2001).
English-konkani Dictionary (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=YheuhLoHKsUC).
Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-
0626-4. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
De Sousa, Nora Secco (2007). "Goa,
Cradle of My Dreams". N.S. de Sousa.
Naimpalli, Sadanand (2005). Theory and
Practice of Tabla (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Z63zvthhbhAC). Popular
Prakashan. ISBN 81-7991-149-7.
Retrieved 15 September 2008.
Noronha, Frederick, ed. (2008). In Black
And White: Insiders' Stories About the
Press in Goa: Insiders' Stories About the
Press in Goa (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=11rRjnzhJQIC). Goa1556.
ISBN 978-81-905682-0-3. Retrieved
16 December 2008.
Norton, T. (6 October 2007). "Goan
Migrants Swell Catholic Community". The
Tablet.
PortCities London (2009). "The Goan
community of London" (http://www.portcitie
s.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.
50/The-Goan-community-of-London.html).
PortCities London. Retrieved 17 August
2009.
Porter, James; Rice, Timothy; Goertzen,
Chris (1999). The Garland encyclopedia of
world music (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&pg=PP1). Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0-8240-4946-2. Retrieved
5 August 2009.
Prabhu, Ramachandra Krishna (1967).
Songs of freedom: an anthology of national
and international songs from various
countries of the world. Popular Prakashan..
Vaz, J. Clement (1997). Profiles of eminent
Goans, past and present (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=7DJLxYBYA-YC).
Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 81-
7022-619-8. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
Narendra K. Wagle; George Coehlo
(1995). Goa: Continuity and Change.
University of Toronto, Centre for South
Asian Studies. ISBN 1-895214-12-2.
Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979). Gazetteer of
the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu:
District Gazetteer. Vol. 1. Gazetteer Dept.,
Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman
and Diu.
Magocsi, Paul R., ed. (1999).
Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples (https://
books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnv
QMC). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-
8020-2938-8. Retrieved 11 September
2008.
Rodrigues, Francis (2009). Greatest
Konkani Song Hits Vol. 1 (http://www.konk
anisongbook.com/). Toronto: Pater
Publications. ISBN 978-0-9811794-0-7.
Retrieved 21 February 2010.
Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A
History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to
1992 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
1YILeUD_oZUC). Sahitya Akademi.
ISBN 81-7201-664-6.
Sakshena, R.N. (2003). Goa: Into the main
stream (https://books.google.com/books?id
=7kUE7TV3ZWEC). Abhinav Publications.
ISBN 81-7017-005-2. [sic]
Saldhana, Arun (2007). Psychedelic
White: Goa Trance and the Viscosity of
Race (https://books.google.com/books?id=
q5FgUMJP87IC). University of Minnesota
Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4994-5.
Retrieved 6 January 2009.
 Sen, Colleen Taylor (2004). Food Culture
in India (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=YIyV_5wrplMC). Greenwood Publishing
Group. ISBN 0-313-32487-5. Retrieved
29 August 2008.
Thomas, Harold Beken; Scott, Robert
(1949). Uganda. Oxford University Press,
H. Milford.
Heras Institute of Indian History and
Culture (1983). Indica. Vol. 20. St. Xavier's
College (Bombay).
Asian Recorder. Vol. 8. K. K. Thomas at
Recorder Press. 1962.
Richards, James Maude (1981). Goa. C.
Hurst. ISBN 978-0-905838-46-5.

Further reading
Paul Harding; Bryn Thomas (2003). Goa (https://books.google.com/books?id=cmO6M63ISK
YC&q=Goa) (3rd ed.). Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 1-74059-139-9.

External links
Sarasvati's Children (http://www.kinnigoli.com/?app=article&mode=view&uid=11) by Joe
Lobo
Catholic Goan Network (https://archive.today/20130222070045/http://www.catholic-goan-net
work.net/index.shtml)
Official site of the Archdiocese of Goa and Daman (http://www.archgoadaman.com/)
Goans on the International Sporting Stage (http://sportygoans.blogspot.com)
Great Men of Goa (http://goanet.org/post.php?name=News&list=goanet&info=2006-Novemb
er/thread&post_id=050978)
Goan Overseas Association (G.O.A.) (http://www.goatoronto.com/)
Goan community of Oman (http://www.goansinoman.com/)
Canorient Christian Association (https://web.archive.org/web/20050204165454/http://canori
entmontreal.org/aboutus.htm)
Melgoans (http://www.melgoans.com/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goan_Catholics&oldid=1081453672"

This page was last edited on 7 April 2022, at 13:55 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Konkani language
Konkani[note 4] (Kōṅkaṇī) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Konkani people, primarily along the
Konkani
western coastal region (Konkan) of India. It is one of the 22 Scheduled languages mentioned in the 8th
schedule of the Indian Constitution[9] and the official language of the Indian state of Goa. The first Konkani कोंकणी/ಕೊಂಕಣಿ/കൊംകണീ/
inscription is dated 1187 A.D.[10] It is a minority language in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala,[11] Gujarat and ‫کونکنی‬/Kōṅkaṇī
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Konkani is a member of the Southern Indo-Aryan language group. It retains elements of Vedic structures and
shows similarities with both Western and Eastern Indo-Aryan languages.[12]

There are many Konkani dialects spoken along and beyond the Konkan, from Damaon in the north to Cochin
The word "Konkani" in Devanagari
in the South, most of which are only partially mutually intelligible with one another due to a lack of linguistic script
contact and exchanges with the standard and principal forms of Konkani. Dialects such as Malvani, Chitpavani,
East Indian Koli and Aagri in coastal Maharashtra, are also threatened by language assimilation into the Pronunciation [kõkɳi] (in the
linguistic majority of non-Konkani States of India.[13][14] language itself),
[kõkɵɳi]
(anglicised)
Native to India
Contents
Region Konkan
Classification (includes Goa
and the coastal
Names
areas of
History Karnataka,
Proposed substrate influences Mangalore,
Prehistory and early development Maharashtra
Early and some parts
of Kerala,
Medieval
Gujarat (Dang
Contemporary district) and
Revival Dadra and
Post-independence period Nagar Haveli
and Daman and
Recognition as an independent language
Diu)[1][2]
Official language status
Ethnicity Konkani people
Geographical distribution Native speakers 2.3
Current status and issues million (2011
Opposition census)[3]
Marathi dispute Language family Indo-European
Karnataka Indo-Iranian
Multilingualism
Indo-Aryan
Scripts and dialects
Southern
Phonology Zone
Vowels Marathi–
Consonants Konkani

Grammar Konkani
Verbs Dialects Dialect
Apabhramsha and metathesis groups:
Vocabulary Canara
Loanwords Konkani, Goan
Konkani,
Sanskritisation Maharashtrian
Writing systems Konkani
Past Individual
Present dialects:
Alphabet/vaṇamāḷha Malvani,
Mangalorean,
Dialects Chitpavani,
Goan Antruz,
Bardeskari,
Organisations Saxtti, Daldi,
Literature Pednekari, Koli
and Aagri[4]
Media
Radio Writing system Past:
Print Brahmi
Nāgarī
Dailies
Goykanadi
Weeklies Modi script
 Fortnightly Present:
Monthlies Devanagari
(official)[note 1]
Digital and audible Roman[note 2]
Television Kannada[note 3]
Film Malayalam[5]
Perso-Arabic
In popular culture
Official status
See also
Official language in  India

Footnotes
Goa[6]
References
Regulated by Karnataka
Further reading
Konkani Sahitya
External links Academy and
the
Government of
Classification Goa[7]
Language codes
Konkani belongs to the Indo-Aryan language branch. It is part of the Marathi-Konkani group of the southern ISO 639-2 kok (http
Indo-Aryan languages.[15] It is inflexive, and less distant from Sanskrit as compared to other modern Indo- s://www.loc.
Aryan languages. Linguists describe Konkani as a fusion of variety of Prakrits. This could be attributed to the gov/standard
confluence of immigrants that the Konkan coast has witnessed over the years.[16] s/iso639-2/p
hp/langcodes
Names _name.php?co
de_ID=239)
It is quite possible that Old Konkani was just referred to as Prakrit by its speakers.[17] Reference to the name ISO 639-3 kok – inclusive
Konkani is not found in literature prior to the 13th century. The first reference of the name Konkani is in code
"Abhanga 263" of the 13th century Hindu Marathi saint poet, Namadeva (1270–1350).[18] Konkani has been Individual
known by a variety of names: Canarim, Concanim, Gomantaki, Bramana, and Goani. Learned Marathi codes:
gom – Goan
speakers tend to call it Gomantaki.[19]
Konkani
Konkani was commonly referred to as Lingua Canarim by the Portuguese[20] and Lingua Brahmana by knn –
 Maharashtrian
Catholic missionaries.[20] The Portuguese later started referring to Konkani as Lingua Concanim.[20] The name
Konkani
Canarim or Lingua Canarim, which is how the 16th century European Jesuit Thomas Stephens refers to it in
the title of his famous work Arte da lingoa Canarim has always been intriguing. It is possible that the term is Glottolog goan1235 (ht
derived from the Persian word for coast, kinara; if so, it would mean "the language of the coast". The problem tp://glottol
is that this term overlaps with Kanarese or Kannada.[21] All the European authors, however, recognised two og.org/resou
forms of the language in Goa: the plebeian, called Canarim, and the more regular (used by the educated rce/languoi
classes), called Lingua Canarim Brámana or simply Brámana de Goa. The latter was the preferred choice of d/id/goan123
the Europeans, and also of other castes, for writing, sermons, and religious purposes.[22] 5)  Goan
Konkani
There are different views as to the origin of the word Konkan and hence Konkani konk1267 (ht
tp://glottol
The word Konkan comes from the Kukkana (Kokna) tribe, who were the original inhabitants of og.org/resou
the land where Konkani originated.[23] rce/languoi
According to some texts of Puranas, Parashurama shot his arrow into the sea and commanded d/id/konk126
the Sea God to recede up to the point where his arrow landed. The new piece of land thus 7)  Konkani
recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning piece of earth or corner of earth, kōṇa (corner)
+ kaṇa (piece). This legend is mentioned in Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana.

History

Proposed substrate influences

The substratum of the Konkani language lies in the speech of Austroasiatic tribes called Kurukh, Oraon, and
Kukni, whose modern representatives are languages like Kurukh and its dialects including Kurux, Kunrukh,
Kunna, and Malto.[24] According to the Indian Anthropological Society, these Australoid tribes speaking
Austro-Asiatic or Munda languages who once inhabited Konkan, migrated to Northern India (Chota Nagpur
Plateau, Mirzapur) and are not found in Konkan any more.[25][26] Olivinho Gomes in his essay "Medieval
Konkani Literature" also mentions the Mundari substratum.[27] Goan Indologist Anant Shenvi Dhume Distribution of native Konkani speakers
identified many Austro-Asiatic Munda words in Konkani, like mund, mundkar, dhumak, goem-bab.[28] This in India
substratum is very prominent in Konkani.[29]

The grammatical impact of the Dravidian languages on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is difficult to fathom. Some linguists explain this
anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were built on a Dravidian substratum.[30]
Some examples of Konkani words of
Dravidian origin are: naall (coconut), madval (washerman), choru (cooked rice) and mulo (radish).[31] Linguists also suggest that the substratum of Marathi
and Konkani is more closely related to Dravidian Kannada.[32][33]

Prehistory and early development

Migrations of Indo-Aryan vernacular speakers have occurred throughout the history of the Indian west coast. Around 2400 BC the first wave of Indo-
Aryans dialect speakers might have occurred, with the second wave appearing around 1000–700 BC.[28] Many spoke old Indo-Aryan vernacular
languages, which may be loosely related to Vedic Sanskrit; others still spoke Dravidian and Desi dialects. Thus the ancient Konkani Prakrit was born as a
confluence of the Indo-Aryan dialects while accepting many words from Dravidian speech. Some linguists assume Shauraseni to be its progenitor whereas
some call it Paisaci. The influence of Paisachi over Konkani can be proved in the findings of Dr. Taraporewala, who in his book Elements of Science of
Languages (Calcutta University) ascertained that Konkani showed many Dardic features that are found in present-day Kashmiri.[16] Thus, the archaic form
of old Konkani is referred to as Paishachi by some linguists.[23] This progenitor of Konkani (or Paishachi Apabhramsha) has preserved an older form of
phonetic and grammatic development, showing a great variety of verbal forms found in Sanskrit and a large number of grammatical forms that are not found
in Marathi. (Examples of this are found in many works like Dnyaneshwari, and Leela Charitra.)[34] Konkani thus developed with overall Sanskrit
complexity and grammatical structure, which eventually developed into a lexical fund of its own.[34] The second wave of Indo-Aryans is believed to have
been accompanied by Dravidians from the Deccan plateau.[28] Paishachi is also considered to be an Aryan language spoken by Dravidians.[35]

Goa and Konkan were ruled by the Konkan Mauryas and the Bhojas; as a result, numerous migrations occurred from north, east and western India.
Immigrants spoke various vernacular languages, which led to a mixture of features of Eastern and Western Prakrit. It was later substantially influenced by
Magadhi Prakrit.[36] The overtones of Pali[34] (the liturgical language of the Buddhists) also played a very important role in the development of Konkani
Apabhramsha grammar and vocabulary.[37] A major number of linguistic innovations in Konkani are shared with Eastern Indo-Aryan languages like
Bengali and Oriya, which have their roots in Magadhi.[38]

Maharashtri Prakrit is the ancestor of Marathi and Konkani,[39] it was the official language of the Satavahana Empire that ruled Goa and Konkan in the
early centuries of the Common Era. Under the patronage of the Satavahana Empire, Maharashtri became the most widespread Prakrit of its time. Studying
early Maharashtri compilations, many linguists have called Konkani "the first-born daughter of Maharashtri".[40] This old language that was prevalent
contemporary to old Marathi is found to be distinct from its counterpart.[40]

The Sauraseni impact on Konkani is not as prominent as that of Maharashtri. Very few Konkani words are found to follow the Sauraseni pattern. Konkani
forms are rather more akin to Pali than the corresponding Sauraseni forms.[41] The major Sauraseni influence on Konkani is the ao sound found at the end
of many nouns in Sauraseni, which becomes o or u in Konkani.[42] Examples include: dando, suno, raakhano, dukh, rukhu, manisu (from Prakrit),
dandao, sunnao, rakkhakao, dukkhao, vukkhao, vrukkhao, and mannisso. Another example could be the sound of ण at the beginning of words; it is still
retained in many Konkani words of archaic Shauraseni origin, such as णव (nine). Archaic Konkani born out of Shauraseni vernacular Prakrit at the earlier
stage of the evolution (and later Maharashtri Prakrit), was commonly spoken until 875 AD, and at its later phase ultimately developed into Apabhramsha,
which could be called a predecessor of old Konkani.[37]

Although most of the stone inscriptions and copper plates found in Goa (and other parts of Konkan) from the 2nd century BC to the 10th century AD are in
Prakrit-influenced Sanskrit (mostly written in early Brahmi and archaic Dravidian Brahmi), most of the places, grants, agricultural-related terms, and names
of some people are in Konkani. This suggests that Konkani was spoken in Goa and Konkan.[43]

Though it belongs to the Indo-Aryan group, Konkani was influenced by a language of the Dravidian family. A branch of the Kadambas, who ruled Goa for
a long period, had their roots in Karnataka. Konkani was never used for official purposes.[44] Another reason Kannada influenced Konkani was the
proximity of original Konkani-speaking territories to Karnataka.[45] Old Konkani documents show considerable Kannada influence on grammar as well as
vocabulary. Like southern Dravidian languages, Konkani has prothetic glides y- and w-.[46] The Kannada influence is more evident in Konkani syntax. The
question markers in yes/no questions and the negative marker are sentence final.[46] Copula deletion in Konkani is remarkably similar to Kannada.[46]
Phrasal verbs are not so commonly used in Indo-Aryan languages; however, Konkani spoken in Dravidian regions has borrowed numerous phrasal verb
patterns.[47]

The Kols, Kharwas, Yadavas, and Lothal migrants all settled in Goa during the pre-historic period and later. Chavada, a tribe of warriors (now known as
Chaddi or Chaddo), migrated to Goa from Saurashtra, during the 7th and 8th century AD, after their kingdom was destroyed by the Arabs in 740.[48]
Royal matrimonial relationships between the two states, as well as trade relationships, had a major impact on Goan society. Many of these groups spoke
different Nagar Apabhramsha dialects, which could be seen as precursors of modern Gujarati.

Konkani and Gujarati have many words in common, not found in Marathi.[49]
The Konkani O (as opposed to the Marathi A, which is of different Prakrit origin), is similar to that in Gujarati.[49]
The case terminations in Konkani, lo, li, and le, and the Gujarati no, ni, and ne have the same Prakrit roots.[49]
In both languages the present indicatives have no gender, unlike Marathi.[49]

Early

An inscription at the foot of the colossal Jain monolith Bahubali (The word gomateshvara apparently comes from Konkani gomaṭo which means
"beautiful" or "handsome" and īśvara "lord".[50]) at Shravanabelagola of 981 CE reads, in a variant of Nāgarī:[51]

"śrīcāvuṇḍarājē̃ kara viyālē̃, śrīgaṅgārājē̃ suttālē̃ kara viyālē̃" (Chavundaraya got it done, Gangaraya got the surroundings
done).[note 5][note 6]

The language of these lines is Konkani according to S.B. Kulkarni (former head of Department of Marathi, Nagpur University) and Jose Pereira (former
professor, Fordham University, USA).

Another inscription in Nāgarī, of Shilahara King Aparaditya II of the year 1187 AD in Parel reportedly contains Konkani words, but this has not been
reliably verified.[52]

Many stone and copper-plate inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan are written in Konkani. The grammar and the base of such texts is in Konkani,
whereas very few verbs are in Marathi.[53] Copper plates found in Ponda dating back to the early 13th century, and from Quepem in the early 14th century,
have been written in Goykanadi.[27] One such stone inscription or shilalekh (written Nāgarī) is found at the Nageshi temple in Goa (dating back to the year
1463 AD). It mentions that the (then) ruler of Goa, Devaraja Gominam, had gifted land to the Nagueshi Maharudra temple when Nanjanna Gosavi was the
religious head or Pratihasta of the state. It mentions words like, kullgga, kulaagra, naralel, tambavem, and tilel.[54]

A piece of hymn dedicated to Lord Narayana attributed to the 12th century AD says:

"jaṇẽ rasataḷavāntũ matsyarūpē̃ vēda āṇiyēlē̃. manuśivāka vāṇiyēlē̃. to saṁsārasāgara tāraṇu.

mōhō to rākho nārāyāṇu". (The one who brought the Vedas up from the ocean in the form of a fish,
from the bottoms of the water and offered it to Manu, he is the one Saviour of the world, that is
Narayana my God.).

A hymn from the later 16th century goes

vaikuṇṭhācē̃ jhāḍa tu gē phaḷa amṛtācē̃, jīvita rākhilē̃ tuvē̃ manasakuḷācē̃.[55]

Early Konkani was marked by the use of pronouns like dzo, jī, and jẽ. These are replaced in contemporary
Konkani by koṇa. The conjunctions yedō and tedō ("when" and "then") which were used in early Konkani are no
longer in use.[56] The use of -viyalẽ has been replaced by -aylẽ. The pronoun moho, which is similar to the Konkani Inscription with 'Maee
Brijbhasha word mōhē has been replaced by mākā. Shenvi' of 1413 AD, Nagueshi, Goa.

Medieval

This era was marked by several invasions of Goa and subsequent exodus of some Konkani families to Canara (today's coastal Karnataka), and Cochin.

Exodus (between 1312–1327) when General Malik Kafur of the Delhi Sultans, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammed bin Tughlaq destroyed
Govepuri and the Kadambas
Exodus subsequent to 1470 when the Bahamani kingdom captured Goa, and subsequent capture in 1492 by Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah of
Bijapur
Exodus of converted Muslims to Bijapur-held territory due to the Portuguese conquest of Goa in 1510
Migration of Hindu converts to Canara in South India after the Christianisation of Goa, the subsequent Goa Inquisition, and the
Sackings of Goa and Bombay-Bassein.

These events caused the Konkani language to develop into multiple dialects with multiple scripts. The exodus to coastal Karnataka and Kerala required
Konkani speakers in these regions to learn the local languages. This caused penetration of local words into the dialects of Konkani spoken by these
speakers. Examples include dār (door) giving way to the word bāgil. Also, the phoneme "a" in the Salcette dialect was replaced by the phoneme "o".

Other Konkani communities came into being with their own dialects of Konkani. The Konkani Muslim communities of Ratnagiri and Bhatkal came about
due to a mixture of intermarriages of Arab seafarers and locals as well as conversions of Hindus to Islam.[57] Another migrant community that picked up
Konkani are the Siddis, who are descended from Bantu peoples from South East Africa that were brought to the Indian subcontinent as slaves.[58]

Contemporary

Contemporary Konkani is written in Devanagari, Kannada, Malayalam, Persian, and Roman scripts. It is written by speakers in their native dialects. The
Goan Antruz dialect in the Devanagari script has been promulgated as Standard Konkani.

Revival
Konkani language was in decline, due to the use of Portuguese as the official and social language among the Christians, the predominance of Marathi over
Konkani among Hindus, and the Konkani Christian-Hindu divide. Seeing this, Vaman Raghunath Varde Valaulikar set about on a mission to unite all
Konkanis, Hindus as well as Christians, regardless of caste or religion. He saw this movement not just as a nationalistic movement against Portuguese rule,
but also against the pre-eminence of Marathi over Konkani. Almost single-handedly he crusaded, writing a number of works in Konkani. He is regarded as
the pioneer of modern Konkani literature and affectionately remembered as Shenoi Goembab.[59] His death anniversary, 9 April, is celebrated as World
Konkani Day (Vishwa Konkani Dis).[60]

Madhav Manjunath Shanbhag, an advocate by profession from Karwar, who with a few like-minded companions travelled throughout all the Konkani
speaking areas, sought to unite the fragmented Konkani community under the banner of "one language, one script, one literature". He succeeded in
organising the first All India Konkani Parishad in Karwar in 1939.[61] Successive Adhiveshans of All India Konkani Parishad were held at various places
in subsequent years. 27 annual Adhiveshans of All India Konkani Parishad have been held so far.

Pandu Putti Kolambkar an eminent social worker of Kodibag, Karwar was a close associate of Shri Waman Raghunath Shennoi Varde Valaulikar, strove
hard for the upliftment of Konkani in Karwar (North Kanara) and Konkan Patti.

Post-independence period

Following India's independence and its subsequent annexation of Goa in 1961, Goa was absorbed into the Indian Union as a Union Territory, directly
under central administration.

However, with the reorganisation of states along linguistic lines, and growing calls from Maharashtra, as well as Marathis in Goa for the merger of Goa into
Maharashtra, an intense debate was started in Goa. The main issues discussed were the status of Konkani as an independent language and Goa's future as a
part of Maharashtra or as an independent state. The Goa Opinion Poll, a plebiscite, retained Goa as an independent state in 1967.[59] However, English,
Hindi, and Marathi continued to be the preferred languages for official communication, while Konkani was sidelined.[6]

Recognition as an independent language

With the continued insistence of some Marathis that Konkani was a dialect of Marathi and not an independent language, the matter was finally placed
before the Sahitya Akademi. Suniti Kumar Chatterji, the president of the Akademi appointed a committee of linguistic experts to settle the dispute. On 26
February 1975, the committee came to the conclusion that Konkani was indeed an independent and literary language, classified as an Indo-European
language, which in its present state was heavily influenced by the Portuguese language.

Official language status

All this did not change anything in Goa. Finally, fed up with the delay, Konkani activists launched an agitation in 1986, demanding official status for
Konkani. The agitation turned violent in various places, resulting in the death of six agitators from the Catholic community: Floriano Vaz from Gogal
Margao, Aldrin Fernandes, Mathew Faria, C. J. Dias, John Fernandes, and Joaquim Pereira, all from Agaçaim. Finally, on 4 February 1987, the Goa
Legislative Assembly passed the Official Language Bill, making Konkani the official language of Goa.[6]

Konkani was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India as per the Seventy-First Amendment on 20 August 1992, adding it to the list of
national languages.

Geographical distribution
The Konkani language originated and is spoken widely in the western coastal region of India known as Konkan.
The native lands historically inhabited by Konkani people include the Konkan division of Maharashtra, the state of
Goa and the territory of Damaon, the Uttara Kannada (North Canara), Udupi & Dakshina Kannada (South Canara)
districts of Karnataka, along with many districts in Kerala such as Kasaragod (formerly part of South Canara),
Kochi (Cochin), Alappuzha (Allepey), Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), and Kottayam. All of the regions and
areas have developed distinct dialects, pronunciation and prose styles, vocabulary, tone and sometimes, significant
differences in grammar.[62]

According to the 2001 estimates of the Census Department of India, there were 2,489,016 Konkani speakers in
India.[63] The Census Department of India, 2011 figures put the number of Konkani speakers in India as 2,256,502 Modern day Goan Konkani in
making up 0.19% of India's population. Out of these, 788,294 were in Karnataka, 964,305 in Goa, [64] 399,255 in Devanagari
Maharashtra, and 69,449 in Kerala. It ranks 19th on the List of Scheduled Languages by strength. The number of
Konkani speakers in India fell by 9.34% in the decade 2001-2011. It is the only scheduled language apart from
Urdu to have a negative growth rate in the decade. A very large number of Konkanis live outside India, either as expatriates (NRIs) with work visas or as
naturalised citizens and permanent residents of other host countries (immigrants). Determining their numbers is difficult since Konkani is a minority
language that is very often not recognised by censuses and surveys of various government agencies and NGOs catering to Indians abroad.

During the days of Portuguese Goa and British rule in Pre-Partition India many Goans and non-Goan Konkani people went to foreign countries as
economic migrants to the Portuguese and British Empires, and to the Pakistan of Pre-Partition India. The migratory trend has continued well into the post-
colonial era and a significant number of Konkani people are found in Kenya, Uganda, Pakistan, the Persian Gulf countries, Portugal and the European
Union, and the British Isles and the rest of the Anglosphere. Many families still continue to speak different Konkani dialects that their ancestors spoke,
which are now highly influenced by the languages of the dominant majority.

Current status and issues

The Konkani language has been in danger of dying out over the years for many of the following reasons:

1. The fragmentation of Konkani into various, sometimes mutually unintelligible, dialects.

2. The Portuguese influence in Goa, especially on Catholics.
3. The dominance of Marathi and the large degree of bilingualism of Konkani Hindus in Goa state, the union territory of Damaon& the
Konkan division of Maharashtra.
4. Progressive inroads made by Urdu into the Konkani Muslim community.
5. Mutual animosity among various religious sects and caste groups; including a secondary status of Konkani culture to religion.
6. The migration of Konkanis to various parts of India and around the world.
7. The lack of opportunities to study Konkani in schools and colleges. Even until recently there were few Konkani schools in Goa.
Populations outside the native Konkani areas have absolutely no access to Konkani language studies, literature& media.
8. The preference among Konkani parents to speak to their children in potaachi bhaas (language of the stomach) over maai bhaas
(mother tongue). They sometimes speak primarily in English to help their children gain a grip on English in schools.[5]

Efforts have been made to stop this downward trend of usage of Konkani, starting with Shenoi Goembab's efforts to revive Konkani. The recognition
granted by Sahitya Akademi to Konkani and the institution of an annual award for Konkani literature has helped to a certain extent.

Some organisations, such as the Konkan Daiz Yatra organised by Konkani Bhasha Mandal, World Konkani Centre& the newer Vishwa Konkani Parishad
have laid great stress on uniting all factions of Konkanis.

Opposition

Marathi dispute
José Pereira, in his 1971 work Konkani – A Language: A History of the Konkani Marathi Controversy, pointed to an essay on Indian languages written by
John Leyden in 1807, wherein Konkani is called a “dialect of Maharashtra” as an origin of the language controversy.[5]

Another linguist to whom this theory is attributed is Grierson. Grierson's work on the languages of India, the Linguistic Survey of India, was regarded as an
important reference by other linguists. In his book, Grierson had distinguished between the Konkani spoken in coastal Maharashtra (then, part of Bombay)
and the Konkani spoken in Goa as two different languages. He regarded the Konkani spoken in coastal Maharashtra as a dialect of Marathi and not as a
dialect of Goan Konkani itself. In his opinion, Goan Konkani was also considered a dialect of Marathi because the religious literature used by the Hindus in
Goa was not in Konkani itself, but in Marathi.

S. M. Katre's 1966 work, The Formation of Konkani, which utilised the instruments of modern historical and comparative linguistics across six typical
Konkani dialects, showed the formation of Konkani to be distinct from that of Marathi.[5][65] Shenoi Goembab, who played a pivotal role in the Konkani
revival movement, rallied against the pre-eminence of Marathi over Konkani amongst Hindus and Portuguese amongst Christians.

Goa's accession to India in 1961 came at a time when Indian states were being reorganised along linguistic lines. There were demands to merge Goa with
Maharashtra. This was because Goa had a sizeable population of Marathi speakers and Konkani was also considered to be a dialect of Marathi by many.
Konkani Goans were opposed to the move. The status of Konkani as an independent language or as a dialect of Marathi had a great political bearing on
Goa's merger, which was settled by a plebiscite in 1967 (the Goa Opinion Poll).[5]

The Sahitya Akademi (a prominent literary organisation in India) recognised it as an independent language in 1975, and subsequently Konkani (in
Devanagari script) was made the official language of Goa in 1987.

Karnataka

MLC Ivan D'Souza attempted to speak in Konkani at the Karnataka state's Legislative Council, but was urged not to by the Chairman D H
Shankaramurthy as most of the audience did not know Konkani. Even though Mr D'Souza pleaded that Konkani was amongst the 22 official languages
recognised by the Indian Constitution, he was not given permission to continue in Konkani.[66]

Even though there are substantial Konkani Catholics in Bengaluru, efforts to celebrate Holy Mass in Konkani have met with opposition by Kannada
"activists". Konkani Holy Masses has been held in the Sabbhavana and Saccidananda chapels of the Carmelite and Capuchin Fathers respectively, in
Yeswanthpur and Rajajinagar, Bangalore. These services are under threat from Kannada groups who do not want church services to be held in any other
language other than Kannada, even though Kannada Catholics constitute only 30% of the Catholic population in the Archdiocese. Konkani activists and
associations have been demanding Konkani language mass and services for a long time.[67] It is still the official language of the Mangalore Archdiocese.[68]

Multilingualism

According to the Census Department of India, Konkani speakers show a very high degree of multilingualism. In the 1991 census, as compared to the
national average of 19.44% for bilingualism and 7.26% for trilingualism, Konkani speakers scored 74.20% and 44.68% respectively. This makes Konkanis
the most multilingual community of India.

This has been due to the fact that in most areas where Konkanis have settled, they seldom form a majority of the population and have to interact with others
in the local tongue. Another reason for bilingualism has been the lack of schools teaching Konkani as a primary or secondary language.

The bilingualism of Konkanis with Marathi in Damaon Goa and Maharashtra has been a source of great discontent because it has led to the belief that
Konkani is a dialect of Marathi[5][65] and hence has no bearing on the future of Goa.

Scripts and dialects

The problems posed by multiple scripts and varying dialects have come as an impediment in the efforts to unite Konkani people. The Goa state's decision to
use Devnagari as the official script and the Antruz dialect has been met with opposition both within Goa and outside it.[6] Critics contend that the Antruz
dialect is unintelligible to most Goans, let alone other Konkani people outside Goa, and that Devanagari is used very little as compared to Romi Konkani in
Goa or Konkani in the Kannada script.[6] Prominent among the critics are Konkani Christians in Goa, who were at the forefront of the Konkani agitation in
1986–87 and have for a long time used the Roman script, including producing literature in Roman script. They demanded Roman script be given equal
status to Devanagari.[69]

In Karnataka, which has the largest number of Konkani speakers after Goa, leading organisations and activists have similarly demanded that Kannada script
be made the medium of instruction for Konkani in local schools instead of Devanagari.[70] The government of Karnataka has given its approval for
teaching of Konkani as an optional third language from 6th to 10th standard students either in Kannada or Devanagari scripts.[71]

Phonology
The Konkani language has 16 basic vowels (excluding an equal number of long vowels), 36 consonants, 5 semi-vowels, 3 sibilants, 1 aspirate, and many
diphthongs. Like the other Indo-Aryan languages, it has both long and short vowels and syllables with long vowels may appear to be stressed. Different
types of nasal vowels are a special feature of the Konkani language.[72]

The palatal and alveolar stops are affricates. The palatal glides are truly palatal but otherwise the consonants in the palatal column are
alveopalatal.[73]
The voiced/voiceless contrasts are found only in the stops and affricates. The fricatives are all voiceless and the sonorants are all
voiced.[73]
The initial vowel-syllable is shortened after the aspirates and fricatives. Many speakers substitute unaspirated consonants for
aspirates.[73]
Aspirates in a non-initial position are rare and only occur in careful speech. Palatalisation/non-palatisation is found in all obstruents,
except for palatal and alveolars. Where a palatalised alveolar is expected, a palatal is found instead. In the case of sonorants, only
 unaspirated consonants show this contrast, and among the glides only labeo-velar glides exhibit this. Vowels show a contrast between
oral and nasal ones[73]

Vowels

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close iĩ uũ
Close-mid eẽ ɵ ɵ̃ oõ
Open-mid ɛ ɛ̃ ʌ ɔ ɔ̃
Open (æ) aã

One of the most distinguishing features of Konkani phonology is the use of /ɵ/, the close-mid central vowel, instead of the schwa found in Hindustani and
Marathi.

Whereas many Indian languages use only one of the three front vowels, represented by the Devanagari grapheme ए, Konkani uses three: /e/, /ɛ/ and /æ/.

Nasalizations exist for all vowels except for /ʌ/.

Consonants

Consonants
Dental/ Alveolo
Labial Retroflex Velar Glottal
Alveolar -palatal
p (pʰ)
t tʰ ʈ ʈʰ k kʰ
Stops  
b bʱ d dʱ ɖ ɖʱ ɡ ɡʱ
ts tsʰ tɕ tɕʰ
Affricates  
dz dzʱ dʑ dʑʱ
Fricatives f  s   ɕ   h
Nasals m mʱ n nʱ ɳ ɳʱ ɲ ŋ

ɾ ɾʱ ɽ
Liquids ʋ ʋʱ j    
l lʱ [74]

The consonants in Konkani are similar to those in Marathi.

Grammar
Konkani grammar is similar to other Indo-Aryan languages. Notably, Konkani grammar is also influenced by Dravidian languages. It cannot be described
as a stress-timed language, nor as a tonal language.[75]

Speech can be classified into any of the following parts:[76]

1. naam (noun)
2. sarvanaam (pronoun)
3. visheshan (adjective)
4. kriyapad (verb)
5. kriyavisheshana (adverb)
6. ubhayanvayi avyaya
7. shabdayogi avyaya
8. kevalaprayogi avyaya

Like most of the Indo-Aryan languages, Konkani is an SOV language, meaning among other things that not only is the verb found at the end of the clause
but also modifiers and complements tend to precede the head and postpositions are far more common than prepositions. In terms of syntax, Konkani is a
head-last language, unlike English, which is an SVO language.[77]

Almost all the verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and the avyayas are either tatsama or tadbhava.[76]

Verbs

Verbs are either tatsama or tadbhava:[76]

Verbs and their roots:

Konkani verbs Sanskrit/Prakrit Root Translation

वाच vaach (tatsama) वच् vach read

आफय, आपय aaphay, aapay (tatsama) आव्हय् aavhay call, summon

 रांध raandh (tatsama) रांध् raandh cook

बरय baray (tadbhav) वर्णय् varnay write

व्हर vhar (tadbhav) हर har take away

भक bhak (tadbhav) भक्ष् bhaksh eat

हेड hedd (tadbhav) अट् att roam

ल्हेव lhev (tadbhav) लेह् leh lick

शीन sheen (tadbhav) छिन्न chinna cut

Source: Ko ṅka ṇî Dhatukosh [76]

Present indefinite of the auxiliary is fused with present participle of the primary verb, and the auxiliary is partially dropped.[76] When the
southern dialects came in contact with Dravidian languages this difference became more prominent in dialects spoken in Karnataka
whereas Goan Konkani still retains the original form.

For example, "I eat" and "I am eating" sound similar in Goan Konkani, due to loss of auxiliary in colloquial speech. "Hāv khātā" corresponds to "I am
eating". On the other hand, in Karnataka Konkani "hāv khātā" corresponds to "I eat", and "hāv khātoāsā" or "hāv khāter āsā" means "I am eating".

Out of eight grammatical cases, Konkani has totally lost the dative, the locative, and the ablative.[76] It has partially lost the accusative
and the instrumental cases too.[76] So the preserved cases are: the nominative, the genitive, and the vocative case.[76]

Apabhramsha and metathesis

Like Marathi and Gujarati, the Konkani language has three genders. During the Middle Ages, most of the Indo-Aryan languages lost
their neuter gender, except Maharashtri, in which it is retained much more in Marathi than Konkani.[76] Gender in Konkani is purely
grammatical and unconnected to sex.[76]

Metathesis is a characteristic of all the middle and modern Indo-Aryan languages including Konkani. Consider the Sanskrit word "स्नुषा" (daughter-in law).
Here, the ष is dropped, and स्नु alone is utilised, स्नु-->स/नु and you get the word सुन (metathesis of ukar).[78]

Unlike Sanskrit, anusvara has great importance in Konkani. A characteristic of Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, Konkani still retains the
anusvara on the initial or final syllable.[76] Similarly visarga, is totally lost and is assimilated with उ and/or ओ. For example, in Sanskrit
दीपः becomes दिवो and दुःख becomes दुख.
Konkani retains the pitch accent, which is a direct derivative of Vedic accent, which probably would account for "nasalism" in
Konkani.[76] The "breathed" accent is retained in most of the tatsamas than the tadbhavas.[76] Declension also affects the accent.[76]
Konkani has lost its passive voice, and now the transitive verbs in their perfects are equivalent to passives.
Konkani has rejected ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ, ष, and क्ष, which are assimilated with र, ख, ह, श and स.[76]
Sanskrit compound letters are avoided in Konkani. For example, in Sanskrit द्वे, प्राय, गृहस्थ, उद्योत become बे, पिराय, गिरेस्त, and उज्जो
respectively in Konkani.[76]

Vocabulary
The vocabulary from Konkani comes from a number of sources. The main source is Prakrits. So Sanskrit as a whole has played a very important part in
Konkani vocabulary. Konkani vocabulary is made of tatsama (Sanskrit loanwords without change), tadhbhava (evolved Sanskrit words), deshya
(indigenous words) and antardeshya (foreign words). Other sources of vocabulary are Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Finally, Kannada, Marathi, and
Portuguese have enriched its lexical content.[77]

Loanwords

Since Goa was a major trade centre for visiting Arabs and Turks, many Arabic and Persian words infiltrated the Konkani language.[45] A large number of
Arabic and Persian words now form an integral part of Konkani vocabulary and are commonly used in day-to-day life; examples are karz (debt), fakt
(only), dusman (enemy), and barik (thin).[45] Single and compound words are found wherein the original meaning has been changed or distorted.
Examples include mustaiki (from Arabic mustaid, meaning "ready"), and kapan khairo ("eater of one's own shroud", meaning "a miser").

Most of the old Konkani Hindu literature does not show any influence from Portuguese. Even the dialects spoken by the majority of Goan Hindus have a
very limited Portuguese influence. On the other hand, dialects spoken by the Catholics from Goa (as well as the Canara to some extent) and their religious
literature show a strong Portuguese influence. They contain a number of Portuguese lexical items, but these are almost all religious terms. Even in the
context of religious terminology, the missionaries adapted native terms associated with Hindu religious concepts. (For example, krupa for grace,
Yamakunda for hell, Vaikuntha for paradise and so on). The syntax used by Goan Catholics in their literature shows a prominent Portuguese influence. As
a result, many Portuguese loanwords are now commonly found in common Konkani speech.[79][80]
The Portuguese influence is also evident in the
Marathi–Konkani spoken in the former Northern Konkan district, Thane a variant of Konkani used by East Indians Catholic community.

Sanskritisation
Konkani is not highly Sanskritised like Marathi, but still retains Prakrit and apabhramsa structures, verbal forms, and vocabulary. Though the Goan Hindu
dialect is highly Prakritised, numerous Sanskrit loanwords are found, while the Catholic dialect has historically drawn many terms from Portuguese. The
Catholic literary dialect has now adopted Sanskritic vocabulary itself, and the Catholic Church has also adopted a Sanskritisation policy.[73] Despite the
relative unfamiliarity of the recently introduced Sanskritic vocabulary to the new Catholic generations, there has not been wide resistance to the change.[73]
On the other hand, southern Konkani dialects, having been influenced by Kannada − one of the most Sanskritised languages of Dravidian origin − have
undergone re-Sanskritisation over time.[73]

Writing systems
Konkani has been compelled to become a language using a multiplicity of scripts, and not just one single script used
everywhere. This has led to an outward splitting up of the same language, which is spoken and understood by all,
despite some inevitable dialectal convergences.[81]

Past

The Brahmi script for Konkani fell into disuse.[82] Later, some inscriptions were written in old Nagari. However,
owing to the Portuguese conquest in 1510 and the restrictions imposed by the inquisition, some early form of
Devanagari was disused in Goa.[81] The Portuguese promulgated a law banning the use of Konkani and Nagari
scripts.[20]

Another script, called Kandevi or Goykandi, was used in Goa since the times of the Kadambas, although it lost its
popularity after the 17th century. Kandevi/Goykandi is very different from the Halekannada script, with strikingly
similar features.[83] Unlike Halekannada, Kandevi/Goykandi letters were usually written with a distinctive horizontal
bar, like the Nagari scripts. This script may have been evolved out of the Kadamba script, which was extensively used
in Goa and Konkan.[84] The earliest known inscription in Devanagari dates to 1187 AD.[55] The Roman script has the
oldest preserved and protected literary tradition, beginning from the 16th century.

The name Konkani in the five

Present scripts it is written in:
Devanagari, Kannada, Latin,
Konkani is written in five scripts: Devanagari, Roman, Kannada, Malayalam, and Perso-Arabic.[5] Because Malayalam, Arabic.
Devanagari is the official script used to write Konkani in Goa and Maharashtra, most Konkanis (especially Hindus) in
those two states write the language in Devanagari. However, Konkani is widely written in the Roman script (called
Romi Konkani) by many Konkanis, (especially Catholics).[46] This is because for many years, all Konkani literature was in the Latin script, and Catholic
liturgy and other religious literature has always been in the Roman script. Most people of Karnataka use the Kannada script; however, the Saraswats of
Karnataka use the Devanagari script in the North Kanara district. Malayalam script was used by the Konkani community in Kerala, but there has been a
move towards the usage of the Devanagari script in recent years.[85] Konkani Muslims around Bhatkal taluka of Karnataka use Arabic script to write
Konkani. There has been to trend towards the usage of the Arabic script among Muslim communities; this coincides with them mixing more Urdu and
Arabic words into their Konkani dialects. When the Sahitya Akademi recognised Konkani in 1975 as an independent and literary language, one of the
important factors was the literary heritage of Romi Konkani since the year 1556. However, after Konkani in the Devanagari script was made the official
language of Goa in 1987, the Sahitya Akademi has supported only writers in the Devanagari script. For a very long time there has been a rising demand for
official recognition of Romi Konkani by Catholics in Goa because a sizeable population of the people in Goa use the Roman script. Also a lot of the
content on the Internet and the staging of the famed Tiatr is written in Romi Konkani. In January 2013, the Goa Bench of the Bombay High Court issued a
notice to the state government on a Public Interest Litigation filed by the Romi Lipi Action Front seeking to amend the Official Language Act to grant
official language status to Romi Konkani but has not yet been granted.[86]

Alphabet/vaṇamāḷha

The vowels, consonants, and their arrangement are as follows:[87]

a
ā

aṃ aḥ
अ / आ / इ i
/i/ ई ī

/iː/ उ u
/u/ ऊ ū
/uː/ ए e
/eː/ ऐ ai
/aːi/ ओ o
/oː/ औ au
/aːu/ अं /ⁿ/ अः /h/
ɐ/ ɑː/
 ṅa
क ka

/k/ ख kha

/kʰ/ ग ga

/ɡ/ घ gha

/ɡʱ/ ङ /ŋ/

च ca

/c, t͡ʃ/ छ cha

/cʰ, t͡ʃʰ/ ज ja

/ɟ, d͡ʒ/ झ jha

/ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/ ञ ña

/ɲ/

ṭa
ṭha
ḍa ḍha ṇa
ट /ʈ/ ठ /ʈʰ/ ड /ɖ/ ढ /ɖʱ/ ण /ɳ/

त ta
/t̪/ थ tha
/t̪ʰ/ द da

/d̪/ ध dha

/d̪ʱ/ न na

/n/

प pa

/p/ फ pha

/pʰ/ ब ba

/b/ भ bha

/bʱ/ म ma

/m/

य ya

/j/ र ra

/r/ ल la

/l/ व va
/ʋ/

ṣa

ष /ʂ/ श śa
/ɕ, ʃ/ स sa

/s/ ह ha
/ɦ/

ḷha
kṣa

ळ //ɭʱ// क्ष /kʃ/ ज्ञ jña

/ɟʝɲ/

Dialects
Konkani, despite having a small population, shows a very high number of dialects. The dialect tree structure of
Konkani can easily be classified according to the region, religion, caste, and local tongue influence.[5]

Based on the historical events and cultural ties of the speakers, N. G. Kalelkar has broadly classified the dialects
into three main groups:[5]

Northern Konkani: Dialects spoken in the Sindhudurga district of Maharashtra with strong cultural
ties to Marathi; i.e. Malvani
Central Konkani: Dialects in Goa and Northern Karnataka, where Konkani came in close contact
with Portuguese language and culture and Kannada. Venn diagram of the ISO codes of
Southern Konkani: Dialects spoken in the Canara region (Mangalore,Udupi) of Karnataka and the Konkani languages
Kasaragod of Kerala, which came in close contact with Tulu and Kannada.

Goan

Under the ISO 639-3 classification, all the dialects of the Konkani language except for those that come under
Maharashtrian Konkani are collectively assigned the language code ISO 639:gom and called Goan Konkani. In this
context, it includes dialects spoken outside the state of Goa, such as Mangalorean Konkani, Chitpavani Konkani
Malvani Konkani and Karwari Konkani.

In common usage, Goan Konkani refers collectively only to those dialects of Konkani spoken primarily in the state
of Goa, e.g. the Antruz, Bardeskari and Saxtti dialects.

Organisations
The campus of the Thomas
Stephens Konknni Kendr (TSKK), a
research institute working on issues
related to the Konkani language,
located at Alto Porvorim, near Panaji
in Goa
There are organisations working for Konkani but, primarily, these were
restricted to individual communities. The All India Konkani Parishad
founded on 8 July 1939, provided a common ground for Konkani people
from all regions.[88] A new organisation known as Vishwa Konkani
Parishad, which aims to be an all-inclusive and pluralistic umbrella
Entrance to Konkani section of the
organisation for Konkanis around the world, was founded on 11 September
Golden Heart Emporium, Margao,
2005.
Goa
Mandd Sobhann is the premier organisation that is striving hard to preserve,
promote, propagate, and enrich the Konkani language and culture. It all
began with the experiment called ‘Mandd Sobhann’ – a search for a Konkani identity in Konkani music in 30
November 1986 at Mangalore. What began as a performance titled ‘Mandd Sobhann’, grew into a movement of
revival and rejuvenation of Konkani culture; and solidified into an organization called Mandd Sobhann. Today,
Mandd Sobhann boasts of all these 3 identities namely - a performance, a movement and an
organization.https://www.manddsobhann.org/

The Konkan Daiz Yatra, started in 1939 in Mumbai, is the oldest Konkani organisation. The Konkani Bhasha
Mandal was born in Mumbai on 5 April 1942, during the Third Adhiveshan of All India Konkani Parishad. On 28 December 1984, Goa Konkani
Akademi (GKA) was founded by the government of Goa to promote Konkani language, literature, and culture.[89] The Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr
(TSKK) is a popular research institute based in the Goan capital Panaji. It works on issues related to the Konkani language, literature, culture, and
education.[90] The Dalgado Konkani Academy is a popular Konkani organisation based in Panaji.
The Konkani Triveni Kala Sangam is one more famed Konkani organisation in Mumbai, which is engaged in the
vocation of patronising Konkani language through the theatre movement. The government of Karnataka established
the Karnataka Konkani Sahitya Akademy on 20 April 1994.[91] The Konkani Ekvott is an umbrella organisation of
the Konkani bodies in Goa.

The First World Konkani Convention was held in Mangalore in December 1995. The Konkani Language and
Cultural Foundation came into being immediately after the World Konkani Convention in 1995.[92] World Konkani Centre, Mangalore

The World Konkani Centre built on a three-acre plot called Konkani Gaon (Konkani Village) at Shakti Nagar,
Mangalore was inaugurated on 17 January 2009,[93] "to serve as a nodal agency for the preservation and overall development of Konkani language, art,
and culture involving all the Konkani people the world over.”

The North American Konkani Association (NAKA) serves to unite Konkanis across the United States and Canada. It serves as a parent organization for
smaller Konkani associations in various states. Furthermore, the Konkani Young Adult Group serves as a platform under NAKA to allow young adults
across America (18+) of Konkani descent to meet each other and celebrate their heritage. Every 2-4 years, a Konkani Sammelan, where Konkanis from
across the continent attend, is held in a different city in the US. A Konkani Youth Convention is held yearly. Past locations have included NYC and
Atlanta; the upcoming youth convention is slated to be held in Chicago, IL in June.

Literature
During the Goa Inquisition which commenced in 1560, all books found in the Konkani language were burnt, and it
is possible that old Konkani literature was destroyed as a consequence.[94]

The earliest writer in the history of Konkani language known today is Krishnadas Shama from Quelossim in Goa.
He began writing 25 April 1526, and he authored Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Krishnacharitrakatha in prose
style. The manuscripts have not been found, although transliterations in Roman script are found in Braga in
Portugal. The script used by him for his work is not known.[95]

The first known printed book in Konkani was written by an English Jesuit priest, Fr. Thomas Stephens in 1622, and
entitled Doutrina Christam em Lingoa Bramana Canarim (Old Portuguese for: Christian Doctrine in the Canarese
Brahman Language). The first book exclusively on Konkani grammar, Arte da Lingoa Canarim, was printed in
1640 by Father Stephens in Portuguese.[23]

Media
Cover of Dovtrina Christam by Fr.
Thomas Stephens, first published
Radio
work in Konkani, and any Indian
language
All India Radio started broadcasting Konkani news and other services. Radio Goa Pangim started a Konkani
broadcast in 1945. AIR Mumbai and Dharwad later started Konkani broadcasts in the years 1952 and 1965
respectively. Portuguese Radio, Lisbon started services in 1955 for India, East Africa, and Portugal. Similarly
Trivandrum, Alleppey, Trichur, and Calicut AIR centres started Konkani broadcasts.[23]

In Manglore and Udupi, many weekly news magazines are published in Konkani. Rakno, Daize, and a few others are very famous among the Christian
community. Every Roman Catholic parish will publish three or four magazines in a year.

Print

Udentichem Sallok was the first Konkani periodical published in 1888, from Poona, by Eduardo Bruno de Souza. It started as a monthly and then as a
fortnightly. It closed down in 1894.[96]

Dailies

Sanjechem Nokhetr was started in 1907 by B. F. Cabral in Bombay, and is the first Concanim newspaper. It contained detailed news of Bombay, as it was
published from there. In 1982, "Novem Goem" was a daily edited by Gurunath Kelekar, Dr. F. M. Rebello and Felisio Cardozo. It was started due to
people's initiative. In 1989, Fr. Freddy J. da Costa, began a Konkani daily "Goencho Avaz". It became a monthly after one and a half year. Presently there
is just a single Konkani daily newspaper, called Bhaangar Bhuin. For a long time, there was another Konkani daily, Sunaparant, which was published in
Panjim.

Weeklies

O Luzo-Concanim was a Concanim (Konkani)- Portuguese bilingual weekly, begun in 1891, by Aleixo Caitano José Francisco. From 1892 to 1897, A Luz,
O Bombaim Esse, A Lua, "O Intra Jijent and O Opinião Nacional were bilingual Concanim- Portuguese weeklies published. In 1907, O Goano was
putblished from Bombay by Honorato Furtado and Francis Xavier Furtado. It was a trilingual weekly in Portuguese, Konkani and English.

The Society of the Missionaries of Saint Francis Xavier, publish the Konkani weekly (satollem) named Vauraddeancho Ixtt. from Pilar. It was started in
1933 by Fr. Arsencio Fernandes and Fr. Graciano Moraes.

Fortnightly

There is a fortnightly published newspaper since 2007 called Kodial Khaber', edited by Venkatesh Baliga Mavinakurve and published by Baliga
Publications, Mangalore.
Monthlies

Katolik Sovostkai was started in 1907 by Roldão Noronha. It later became a fortnightly before ceasing publication.

Dor Mhoineachi Rotti is the oldest running Konkani periodical. It is dedicated to the spreading of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and was
initially named Dor Muineachi Rotti Povitra Jesucha Calzachem Devoçãõ Vaddounchi. Note that the til (tilde mark) over ãõ in Devoçãõ is one single til. Fr.
Vincent Lobo, from Sangolda in Goa, who was then curator at the St. Patrick's Church in Karachi, began it in 1915, to feed the spiritual thirst and hunger of
the large number of Konkani speaking people there, on noticing the absence of Konkani spiritual literature. The name was changed subsequently to "Dor
Muiniachi Rotti, Concanim Messenger of the Sacred Heart". On Fr. Vincent Lobo's passing away on 11 November 1922, Fr. António Ludovico Pereira,
also from Sangolda, took over the responsibility. Dor Mhoineachi Rotti had an estimated readership of around 12,000 people then. After the passing away
of Fr. António Ludovico Pereira on 26 July 1936, Fr. Antanasio Moniz, from Verna, took over. On his passing away in 1953, Fr. Elias D'Souza, from
Bodiem, Tivim in Goa became the fourth editor of Dor Mhoineachi Rotti. After shifting to Velha Goa in Goa around 1964, Fr. Moreno de Souza was editor
for around 42 years. Presently the Dor Mhuineachi Rotti is owned by the Jesuits in Goa, edited by Fr. Vasco do Rego, S. J. and printed and published by Fr.
Jose Silveira, S.J. on behalf of the Provincial Superior of the Jesuits in Goa. Dor Mhoineachi Rotti will complete 100 years on 1 January 2015.

Gulab is a monthly from Goa. It was started by late Fr. Freddy J. da Costa in 1983, and was printed in colour, then uncommon.

Konkani periodicals published in Goa include Vauraddeancho Ixtt (Roman script, weekly), Gulab (Roman script, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari script,
monthly), Panchkadayi (Kannada script, monthly) and Poddbimb (Roman script, monthly).
Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include "Raknno"
(Kannada script, weekly), "DIVO" (Kannada Script, weekly from Mumbai), "Kutmacho Sevak" (Kannada script, monthly), "Dirvem" (Kannada script,
monthly),"Amcho Sandesh" (Kannada script, monthly) and "Kajulo" (Kannda script, children's magazine, monthly).
Konkani periodical published in
Udupi include "Uzwad" (Kannada script, monthly) and Naman Ballok Jezu (Kannada script, monthly).
Ekvottavorvim Uzvadd (Devanagari Script,
monthly) is published from Belgaum since 1998. Panchkadayi Konkani Monthly magazine from Manipal since 1967.

Digital and audible

The first complete literary website in Konkani started in 2001 using Kannada script was www.maaibhaas.com by Naveen Sequeira of Brahmavara. In 2003
www.daaiz.com started by Valley Quadros Ajekar from Kuwait, this literary portal was instrumental in creating a wider range of readers across the globe,
apart from various columns, literary contests, through Ashawadi Prakashan, he published several books in Konkani, including the first e-book 'Sagorachea
Vattecheo Zori' released by Gerry DMello Bendur in 2005 at Karkala.

www.poinnari.com is the first literaryyy webportal in Konkani using three scripts (Kannada, Nagari and Romi), started in 2015, is also conducted the first
National level literary contest in dual scripts in Konkani in 2017.

'Sagorachea Vattecheo Zori' is the first e-book in Konkani, a compilation of 100 poems digitally published by www.daaiz.com and digitally published in
2005 by Ashawadi Prakashan in Karkala.

'Kathadaaiz' is the first digital audio book digitally published in 2018 by www.poinnari.com. This audio book is also available in the YouTube channel of
Ashawari Prakashan.

'Pattim Gamvak' is the first e-Novel written in Kannada script Konkani in 2002 by Valley Quadros Ajekar from Kuwait, published in www.maaibhaas.com
in 2002-3.

'Veez' is the first digital weekly in Konkani, started in 2018 by Dr.Austine D'Souza Prabhu in Chicago, USA. Veez is the only magazine publishing
Konkani in 4 scripts; Kannada, Nagari, Romi and Malayalam.

Television

The Doordarshan centre in Panjim produces Konkani programs, which are broadcast in the evening. Many local Goan channels also broadcast Konkani
television programs. These include: Prudent Media, Goa 365, HCN, RDX Goa, and others.

Film

In popular culture
Many Konkani songs of the Goan fisher-folk appear recurrently in a number of Hindi films. Many Hindi movies feature characters with a Goan Catholic
accent. A famous song from the 1957 movie Aasha, contains the Konkani words "mhaka naka" and became extremely popular. Children were chanting
"Eeny, meeny, miny, moe", which inspired C Ramchandra and his assistant John Gomes to create the first line of the song, "Eena Meena Deeka, De Dai
Damanika". Gomes, who was a Goan, added the words "maka naka" (Konkani for "I don't want"). They kept on adding more nonsense rhymes until they
ended with "Rum pum po!".[97][98]

An international ad campaign by Nike for the 2007 Cricket World Cup featured a Konkani song "Rav Patrao Rav" as the background theme. It was based
on the tune of an older song "Bebdo", composed by Chris Perry and sung by Lorna Cordeiro. The new lyrics were written by Agnello Dias (who worked
in the ad agency that made the ad), recomposed by Ram Sampat, and sung by Ella Castellino.

A Konkani cultural event, Konkani Nirantari, organised by Mandd Sobhann, was held in Mangalore on 26 and 27 January 2008, and entered the Guinness
Book of World Records for holding a 40-hour-long non-stop musical singing marathon, beating a Brazilian musical troupe who had previously held the
record of singing non-stop for 36 hours.[99]

See also
Canara Konkani Konkani Language Agitation
Konkani in the Roman script Konkani people
 Konkani phonology
Konkani Poets
Konkani Script
List of loanwords in Konkani
Languages of India
Languages with official status in India
List of languages by number of native speakers in India
Maharashtri
Footnotes
1. Devanagari has been promulgated as the official script.
2. Roman script is not mandated as an official script by law.
However, an ordinance passed by the government of Goa allows
the use of Roman script for official communication. This
ordinance has been put into effect by various ministries in
varying degrees. For example, the Goa Panchayat Rules, 1996
(http://panchayatsgoa.gov.in/Panchayat_Raj_Act_and_Rules.pd
f) stipulate that the various forms used in the election process
must be in both the Roman and Devanagari script.
3. The use of Kannada script is not mandated by any law or
ordinance. However, in the state of Karnataka, Konkani is used
in the Kannada script instead of the Devanagari script.
References
1. Whiteley, Wilfred Howell (1974). Language in Kenya. Oxford
University Press. p. 589.
2. Kurzon, Denis (2004). Where East looks West: success in
English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast Volume 125 of
Multilingual matters. Multilingual Matters. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-
85359-673-5.
3. "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and
mother tongues - 2011" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Cen
sus/Language_MTs.html). www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the
Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved
7 July 2018.
4. Kapoor, Subodh (10 April 2002). The Indian Encyclopaedia: La
Behmen-Maheya (https://books.google.com/books?id=4LqRXZP
JTUoC&pg=PA4230). Cosmo Publications.
ISBN 9788177552713 – via Google Books.
5. Mother Tongue blues (http://www.india-seminar.com/2004/543/5
43%20madhavi%20sardesai.htm) – Madhavi Sardesai
6. "PUZZLE WRAPPED IN AN ENIGMA: UNDERSTANDING
KONKANI IN GOA" (https://goanet.goanet.narkive.com/H1jxktc
U/goanet-reader-puzzle-wrapped-in-an-enigma-understanding-k
onkani-in-goa). 24 July 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2020.
7. "The Goa Daman and Diu Official Language Act" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20090304010627/http://india.gov.in/allimpfrms/all
acts/419.pdf) (PDF). Government of India. Archived from the
original (http://india.gov.in/allimpfrms/allacts/419.pdf) (PDF) on 4
March 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2010.
8. "Konkani Language and History" (http://www.lisindia.net/konkan
i/konkani.html). Language Information Service. 6 July 2009.
Retrieved 18 March 2011.
9. "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages- India/ States/
Union Territories – 2001 Census" (http://censusindia.gov.in/Cens
us_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/parta.htm).
10. Administrator. "Department of Tourism, Government of Goa, India
- Language" (http://www.goatourism.gov.in/people/language).
goatourism.gov.in.
Malvani dialect
Malvani people
Marathi–Konkani languages
Paisaci
Sahitya Akademi Award to Konkani Writers
World Konkani Centre
World Konkani Hall of Fame
4. Konkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects
spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the
western coast of India. Geographically, Konkan is defined
roughly as the area between the Daman Ganga River to the
north and the Kali River to the south; the north–south length is
about 650 km and the east–west breadth is about 50 km. The
dialect spoken in Goa, coastal Karnataka and in some parts of
Northern Kerala has distinct features and is rightly identified as a
separate language called Konkani.[8]
5. Chavundaraya was the military chief of the Ganga dynasty-era
King Gangaraya. This inscription on the Bahubali statue draws
attention to a Basadi (Jain Temple) initially built by him and then
modified by Gangaraya in the 12th century AD. Ref: S. Settar in
Adiga (2006), p256
6. The above inscription has been quite controversial, and is touted
as old-Marathi. But the distinctive instrumental viyalem ending of
the verb is the hallmark of the Konkani language, and the verb
sutatale or sutatalap is not prevalent in Marathi. So linguists and
historians such as S.B. Kulkarni of Nagpur University, Dr V.P.
Chavan (former vice-president of the Anthropological Society of
Mumbai), and others have thus concluded that it is Konkani.
11. Cardona, Jain, George, Dhanesh (2007). The Indo-Aryan
Languages. Routledge. pp. 1088 pages (see page:803–804).
ISBN 9780415772945.
12. Cardona, Jain, George, Dhanesh (2007). The Indo-Aryan
Languages. Routledge. pp. 1088 pages (see page:834).
ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
13. " 'Konkanis to be blamed for lingo's precarious state' - Times of
India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/konkanis-to-b
e-blamed-for-lingos-precarious-
state/articleshow/65494285.cms). The Times of India. Retrieved
27 December 2020.
14. Menezes, Vivek (8 September 2017). "Konkani: a language in
crisis" (https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/AJVHke7VvvvVPerV1j
v8WO/Konkani-a-language-in-crisis.html). mint. Retrieved
27 December 2020.
15. Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 449.
16. Menezes, Armando (1970). Essays on Konkani language and
literature: Professor Armando Menezes felicitation volume.
Konkani Sahitya Prakashan. pp. 118 pages (see page:2).
17. Janardhan, Pandarinath Bhuvanendra (1991). A Higher Konkani
grammar. P.B. Janardhan. pp. 540 pages.
18. V.J.P. Saldanha. Sahitya Akademi. 2004. pp. 81 pages.
ISBN 9788126020287.
19. M. Saldanha 717. J. Thekkedath, however, quotes Jose Pereira
to the following effect: "A lay brother of the College of St Paul
around 1563 composed the first grammar of Konkani. His work
was continued by Fr Henry Henriques and later by Fr Thomas
Stephens. The grammar of Fr Stephens was ready in manuscript
form before the year 1619." (Jose Pereira, ed., "Gaspar de S.
Miguel’s Arte da Lingoa Canarim, parte 2a, Sintaxis
copiossisima na lingoa Bramana e pollida," Journal of the
University of Bombay [Sept. 1967] 3–5, as cited in J.
Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India, vol. II: From the
Middle of the Sixteenth to the End of the Seventeenth Century
(1542–1700) [Bangalore: TPI for CHAI, 1982] 409).
20. Sardessai, Manohar Rai (2000). "Missionary period". A history of
Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 30–
70.
21. Arte Canarina na lingoa do Norte. Anonymous MS, edited by
Cunha Rivara under the title: Gramática da Lingua Concani no
dialecto do Norte, composta no seculo XVII por um Missionário
Portugues; e agora pela primeira vez dada à estampa (Nova
Goa: Imprensa Nacional, 1858). Cunha Rivara suggested that
the author was either a Franciscan or a Jesuit residing in Thana
on the island of Salcete; hence the reference to a ‘Portuguese
missionary’ in the title.
22. Mariano Saldanha, "História de Gramática Concani," Bulletin of
the School of Oriental Studies 8 (1935–37) 715. See also M. L.
SarDessai, A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992
(New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2000) 42–43.
23. Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A history of Konkani
literature: from 1500 to 1992. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-81-7201-664-7.
24. Singh, K.S. (1997). People of India Vol. III : Scheduled Tribes (htt
p://www.friendsofbooks.com/store/people-india-national-series-v
olume-iii-the-scheduled-tribes-vol-book-144986.html). Oxford
University Press. pp. 522, 523. ISBN 978-0-19-564253-7.
25. Indian Anthropological Society (1986). Journal of the Indian
Anthropological Society, Volumes 21–22. Indian Anthropological
Society. pp. See page 75.
26. Enthoven, Reginald Edward (1990). The tribes and castes of
Bombay, Volume 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=FoT6gP
rbTp8C&q=konkan&pg=PA146). Asian Educational Services.
pp. 195–198. ISBN 978-81-206-0630-2.
27. Gomes, Olivinho (1997). Medieval Indian literature: an
anthology, Volume 3 Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology,
K. Ayyappapanicker. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 256–290. ISBN 978-
81-260-0365-5.
28. Sinai Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of
Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume.
pp. 355 pages.
29. India. Office of the Registrar General (1961). Census of India,
1961, Volume 1, Issue 1 Census of India, 1961, India. Office of
the Registrar General. Manager of Publications. p. 67.
30. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003)The Dravidian Languages
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0
at pp. 40–41.
31. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0
at pp. 12.
32. Encyclopaedia of Tamil Literature: Introductory articles. Institute
of Asian Studies. 1990. pp. See Page 45.
33. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0
at pp.4–6.
34. Ayyappapanicker, K. Medieval Indian literature: an anthology.
Vol. 3. Sahitya Akademi. p. 256.
35. James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray
(1919). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 10. T. & T.
Clark. pp. see page 45.
36. Wilford, Major F. (1812). "II". Asiatic researches or transactions of
the society instituted in Bengal. Vol. 11. p. 93.
37. Gomes, Olivinho (1999). Old Konkani language and literature:
the Portuguese role. Konkani Sorospot Prakashan, 1999. pp. 28,
29.
38. Southworth, Franklin C. (2005). Linguistic archaeology of South
Asia. Routledge. pp. 369 pages. ISBN 978-0-415-33323-8.
39. "Roots of Konkani" (https://web.archive.org/web/200808281712
54/http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-lit
erature.htm) (in English and Konkani). Goa Konkani Akademi.
Archived from the original (http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/k
onkaniweb/language-literature.htm) on 28 August 2008.
Retrieved 3 September 2009.
40. Ayyappapanicker, K. Medieval Indian literature: an anthology.
Vol. 3. Sahitya Akademi. p. 246.
41. Bhat, V. Nithyanantha. The Konkani language: historical and
linguistic perspectives. Sukṛtīndra Oriental Research Institute.
p. 5.
42. Bhat, V. Nithyanantha. The Konkani language: historical and
linguistic perspectives. Sukṛtīndra Oriental Research Institute.
p. 12.
43. Sinai Dhume, Ananta Ramakrishna (2009). The cultural history
of Goa from 10000 BC to 1352 AD. Panaji: Broadway book
centre. pp. Chapter 6(pages 202–257). ISBN 9788190571678.
44. Mitragotri, Vithal Raghavendra (1999). A socio-cultural history of
Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara. Institute Menezes
Braganza, 1999. p. 268.
45. Sardessai, Manoharray (2000). "The foreign influence". A history
of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992 (1st ed.). Sahitya
Akademi. pp. 21–30. ISBN 978-81-7201-664-7.
46. George, Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages.
p. 840.
47. ndo-Iranian journal. Mouton, 1977.
48. Gune, V.T (1979). Gazetteer of the union territory of Goa Daman
and Diu, part 3, Diu. Gazetteer of the union territory of Goa. p. 21.
49. Saradesāya Publisher, Manohararāya (2000). A history of
Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 317
pages. ISBN 978-81-7201-664-7.
50. Pereira, José (1977). Monolithic Jinas. Motilal Banarsidass.
pp. see pages 47–48. ISBN 9788120823976.
51. Chavan, Mahavir S. (1 April 2008). "Jainism Articles and
Essays: The First Marathi Inscription at Shravanbelagola" (http://
jainology.blogspot.com/2009/12/first-marathi-inscription-at.html).
52. Corpus Inscriptions Indicarum, p. 163, verses 22-24,
https://archive.org/stream/corpusinscriptio014678mbp#page/n395/
53. D'Souza, Edwin. V.J.P. Saldanha. pp. 3–5.
54. Da Cruz, Antonio (1974). Goa: men and matters. s.n., 1974.
p. 321.
55. Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A history of Konkani
literature: from 1500 to 1992 (https://books.google.com/books?id
=1YILeUD_oZUC&q=aravalem). New Delhi: Kendra Sahitya
Akademi. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-81-7201-664-7.
56. Maffei, Agnelus F.X. (2003). A Konkani grammar (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=lZv6UyynBPgC&q=yedo+tedo). Asian
Educational Services. p. 83. ISBN 978-81-206-0087-4.
57. "Konkani History" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012020703041
6/http://www.kokaniz.com/history.html). Kokaniz.com. Archived
from the original (http://kokaniz.com/history.html) on 7 February
2012. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
58. Shah, Anish M.; et al. (15 July 2011). "Indian Siddis: African
Descendants with Indian Admixture" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801). American Journal of Human
Genetics. 89 (1): 154–161. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.05.030). PMC 3135801 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801).
PMID 21741027 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21741027).
59. "Goa News -" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828083336/htt
p://www.goanews.com/shenoi.htm). Archived from the original (h
ttp://www.goanews.com/shenoi.htm) on 28 August 2008.
Retrieved 29 March 2015.
60. "Goa News -" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080517165915/htt
p://www.goanews.com/9apr00.htm). Archived from the original (h
ttp://www.goanews.com/9apr00.htm) on 17 May 2008. Retrieved
29 March 2015.
61. Kelekar 2003:14.
62. Kurzon, Dennis. Where East looks West: success in English in
Goa and on the Konkan Coast. pp. 25–30.
63. "Abstract of Speakers' strengths of languages and mother
tongues – 2001" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120206233628/
http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Dat
a_Online/Language/Statement1.htm). Census of India. Archived
from the original (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2
001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm) on 6
February 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2008.
64. "Census of India 2011, LANGUAGE" (http://censusindia.gov.in/2
011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf) (PDF).
65. "Language in India" (http://www.languageinindia.com/may2001/
bilingual.html). Language in India. 3 May 2001. Retrieved
23 August 2013.
66. "Mangaluru : MLC Ivan D'Souza told not to speak in Konkani" (ht
tp://www.mangaloreinformation.com/city/9420-mangaluru--mlc-iv
an-dsouza-told-not-to-speak-in-konkani). Mangalore Information.
17 December 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
67. "Bangalore: Kannada Activists Target Konkani Catholics Again
at Sadbhavana" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.as
p?n_id=157158). Daijiworld Media Network. 2 December 2012.
Retrieved 14 January 2015.
68. Saldanha-Shet, I J (25 March 2014). "An exquisite edifice in
Mangalore" (http://www.deccanherald.com/content/394300/an-e
xquisite-edifice-mangalore.html). No. Bangalore. Deccan
Herald. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
69. PTI (20 February 2007). "Goa group wants Konkani in Roman
script" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121021013210/http://articl
es.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-02-20/india/27871957_1_k
GOA BOARD OF
onkani-language-roman-script-official-language-status). The
Times of India. Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofin
dia.indiatimes.com/2007-02-20/india/27871957_1_konkani-lang
uage-roman-script-official-language-status) on 21 October 2012.
Retrieved 23 August 2013.
70. "Kannada script must be used to teach Konkani" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20070930223640/http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/1
4/stories/2006031416160300.htm). The Hindu. Chennai, India.
14 March 2006. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.co
m/2006/03/14/stories/2006031416160300.htm) on 30
September 2007.
71. "News headlines" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.a
sp?n_id=35720&n_tit=Mangalore:+Konkani+Textbooks+in+Dev
anagari+Released). Daijiworld.com. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
72. Bhat, V. Nithyanantha. The Konkani language: historical and
linguistic perspectives (in English and Konkani). Sukṛtīndra
Oriental Research Institute. pp. 43, 44.
73. Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages.
Routledge. p. 1088. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
74. *Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC), Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
75. Caroline Menezes. "The question of Konkani?" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20080408205720/http://www.sfb632.uni-potsdam.de/
conference/posters/D2_Konkani.pdf) (PDF). Project D2,
Typology of Information Structure". Archived from the original (htt
p://www.sfb632.uni-potsdam.de/conference/posters/D2_Konkan
i.pdf) (PDF) on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2008.
76. Janardhan, Pandarinath Bhuvanendra (1991). A Higher Konkani
grammar. Foreign Language Study / Indic Languages Konkani
language About (in English and Konkani). P.B. Janardhan.
pp. 540 pages.
77. Kurzon, Dennis (2004). Where East looks West: success in
English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast Volume 125 of
Multilingual matters. Multilingual Matters. p. 158.
ISBN 9781853596735.
78. Pandarinath, Bhuvanendra Janardhan (1991). A Higher Konkani
grammar. P.B. Janardhan. pp. 540 pages (see pages:377 and
384).
79. Anvita Abbi; R. S. Gupta; Ayesha Kidwai (2001). Linguistic
structure and language dynamics in South Asia: papers from the
proceedings of SALA XVIII Roundtable. Motilal Banarsidass,
2001 – Language Arts & Disciplines -. pp. 409 pages(Chapter 4
Portuguese influence on Konkani syntax).
ISBN 9788120817654.
Further reading
Romi Konkani: The story of a Goan script, born out of Portuguese influence, which faces possible decline, Karthik Malli (Firstpost) (http
s://www.firstpost.com/living/romi-konkani-the-story-of-a-goan-script-born-out-of-portuguese-influence-which-faces-possible-decline-651
0431.html)
External links
80. List of loanwords in Konkani
81. Sardessai, Manohar Rai (2000). "Missionary period". A history of
Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 9–
10.
82. Bhat, V. Nithyanantha (2004). V. Nithyanantha Bhat, Ela Sunītā
(ed.). The Konkani language: historical and linguistic
perspectives. Konkani language. Vol. 10. Sukṛtīndra Oriental
Research Institute. p. 52.
83. Indian archives. Vol. 34. National Archives of India. p. 1985.
84. Ghantkar, Gajanana (1993). History of Goa through Gõykanadi
script (in English, Konkani, Marathi, and Kannada). pp. Page x.
85. George, Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages.
p. 804.
86. "HC notice to govt on Romi script" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.
com/city/goa/HC-notice-to-govt-on-Romi-script/articleshow/1812
4209.cms). The Times of India. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
87. Gomanta Bharati, yatta payali, Published by
SECONDARY AND HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION
ALTO BETIM, page number:11
88. "Goanobserver.com" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110807185
618/http://goanobserver.com/statehood-and-konkani.html).
www77.goanobserver.com. Archived from the original (http://ww
w77.goanobserver.com/) on 7 August 2011.
89. "Goa Konkani Akademi – promoting the development of Konkani
language, literature and culture" (http://www.goakonkaniakadem
i.org/). Goa Konkani Akademi. Retrieved 16 June 2008.
90. "Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr" (http://www.tskk.org/).
Retrieved 16 June 2008.
91. "Konkani" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080224134442/http://
www.kalaangann.com/konkani.htm). Kalaangann, Mandd
Sobhann (The Konkani Heritage Centre). Archived from the
original (http://www.kalaangann.com/konkani.htm) on 24
February 2008. Retrieved 16 June 2008.
92. "Encouragement for Vishwa Konkani Kendra" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20061024232023/http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/06/st
ories/2005090615340300.htm). The Hindu. Chennai, India. 6
September 2005. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.co
m/2005/09/06/stories/2005090615340300.htm) on 24 October
2006.
93. "Mangalore Goa CM Dedicates World Konkani Centre to
Konkani People" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.as
p?n_id=55810). Daijiworld.com. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
94. Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A history of Konkani
literature: from 1500 to 1992. Sahitya Akademi. p. 317.
ISBN 978-81-7201-664-7.
95. Bhembre, Uday (September 2009). Konkani bhashetalo paylo
sahityakar:Krishnadas Shama. Sunaparant Goa. pp. 55–57.
96. "Romi Konknni: Hanging on a Cliff by Fr. Peter Raposo". Behind
the News: Voices from Goa's Press. pp. 183–185.
97. Joshi, Lalit Mohan (2002). Bollywood: popular Indian cinema.
Dakini Books. pp. 351 pages (see page:66).
98. Ashwin Panemangalore (16 June 2006). "The story of 'Eena
Meena Deeka' " (https://web.archive.org/web/20070930014618/
http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1035927). DNA.
Archived from the original (http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?
NewsID=1035927) on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 6 July
2007.
99. "Mangalore: Guinness Adjudicator Hopeful of Certifying Konkani
Nirantari" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id
=42855&n_tit=Mangalore%3A+Guinness+Adjudicator+Hopeful+
of+Certifying+Konkani+Nirantari). Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd
Mangalore. Retrieved 1 February 2008.
 Vauraddeancho Ixtt (https://web.archive.org/web/20170916054056/http://v-ixtt.com/), Konkani language site
Konkani News (http://www.konkaninews.com), Konkani language site
Kital (http://www.kittall.com/kitall/index.php), Konkani language site
Chilume.com (http://konkani.chilume.com/), Konkani Literature
Niz Goenkar (http://www.nizgoenkar.org/), Konkani-English bilingual site
Learn Goan Konkani online (https://web.archive.org/web/20090208104244/http://goa-world.com/GOA/konkani/)
Read Konkani News online (http://www.konkaninews.bangalorelivenews.com/)
Learn Mangalorean GSB Konkani online (https://web.archive.org/web/20140328022341/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/learn_konkani/le
arn_konkani_main.htm)
Learn Mangalorean Catholic Konkani online (https://web.archive.org/web/20060618141228/http://www.mangalorean.com/konkani/archi
ve.php?ltype=Lesson)
An excellent article on Konkani history and literature by Goa Konkani Academi (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828171254/http://ww
w.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.htm)
Online Manglorean Konkani Dictionary Project (https://web.archive.org/web/20110502055206/http://manglorean.net/konkani/)
Online Konkani (GSB) dictionary (https://web.archive.org/web/20070112230100/http://www.savemylanguage.org/)
World Konkani Centre, Mangalore (http://www.vishwakonkani.org/)
Konkanverter-Konkani script conversion utility (http://www.konkanverter.com)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konkani_language&oldid=1084216306"

This page was last edited on 23 April 2022, at 06:21 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Konkani in the Roman script
Konkani in the Roman script, commonly known as Romi Konkani or Romi Konknni (Goan Konkani: रोमी कोंक्णी, Rōmī Kōṅkṇī  ? ) refers to the writing of the
Konkani language in the Roman script. While Konkani is written in five different scripts altogether, Romi Konkani is widely used. Romi Konkani is known to be
the oldest preserved and protected literary tradition beginning from the 16th century AD.

An estimated 5,00,000 people use Romi Konkani. The use of Devanagari script for Konkani, which is now its official script, first occurred in AD 1187.[1][2] Romi
Konkani was not mandated as official script by law, for decades even after the Konkani language agitation of the 1960s. However in 2013, an ordinance passed by
the Government of Goa allows the use of the Roman script alongside Devanagari Konkani and Marathi for official communication.

The terms 'Konkani in the Roman script' and 'Romi Konkani' do not merely refer to the fact that the language is written in the Roman script, but they also refer to
the dialects traditionally written in this script, namely, the Bardesi (Bardes) and Saxtti (Salcette) variants as opposed to the Antruzi (Ponda) dialect written in
Devanagari.

Contents
History
Movement for official recognition of Romi Konkani
Official responses to the demands
Organizations
Publications
Letters
Orthography
See also
Citations
References
External links

History
In the 16th century, Christian missionaries studied the Konkani language in depth. They even prepared Konkani grammar,
dictionaries and studied various facets of literature. The Jesuits established the first printing press in Asia in Goa in 1556.
Since then, a rich tradition of Konkani literature in the Roman script has developed.[3] Fr. Thomas Stephens made vital
contributions to the development of Romi Konkani orthography in the early 1600s. Fr. Eduardo Bruno de Souza launched
the first Roman Konkani monthly titled Udentechem Salok (Lotus of The East) in 1889, in Pune. He also wrote the first
Konkani novel, Kristanv Ghorabo (Christian Home). Shenoi Goembab wrote seven Konkani books in the Roman
script.[4] Konkani literature was dominated by the Roman script before 1961.[5] Reginaldo Fernandes (1914–1994) wrote
over 200 Konkani novels in the Roman script called Romanses.[6]

Today, Konkani in the Roman script is mainly used by the Christian community because the liturgy of the Catholic Church
in Goa is entirely in the Roman script and the work of the Archdiocese of Goa and Daman is also carried out in the Roman
script. However, many writers outside the Christian Community also write in Romi Konkani. Konkani in the Roman script
is also used in tiatr.

There are a huge number of people who solely or primarily use the Roman script. As a result of the recognition of only the
Devanagari script, the rich body of Konkani literature written in the Roman script goes unrecognized, unpromoted and Cover of the Doutrina Christam by Fr.
unrewarded. When the Sahitya Akademi recognized Konkani in 1975 as an independent and literary language, one of the Thomas Stephens, the first
important factors was the well-preserved literary heritage of Romi Konkani.[7] After Konkani in the Devanagari script was published work in Romi Konkani and
made the official language of Goa in 1987, the Sahitya Akademi supported only writers in the Devanagari script and any other Indian language.
writers in the Roman script (as also in the Kannada script) are not eligible for the Sahitya Akademi awards and
assistance.[8]

Movement for official recognition of Romi Konkani

Recently, there has been a renewed surge in the support for Romi Konkani and in the demand for official recognition for the Roman script alongside the
Devanagari script. Some examples of this are the growing online readership for Vauraddeancho Ixtt[9] and several groups and pages on social networking website
Facebook[10] in support of Romi Konkani. The critics of sole recognition of Devanagri script contend that Antruz dialect is unintelligible to most Goans, let alone
other Konkanis, and that Devanagari is used very little as compared to Roman script in Goa or Kannada script in coastal Karnataka[11] Prominent among the
critics are Konkani Catholics in Goa, who have been at the forefront of the Konkani language agitation in 1986–1987 and have for long used the Roman script
including producing literature in Roman script. They are demanding that Roman script be given equal status to Devanagari.[12] Tiatr artists and tiatr aficionados
are another group which supports Romi Konkani. It is argued that giving official recognition to Romi Konkani will help strengthen the language by creating an
inclusive environment for users of the Roman script and also to the Christian community of Goa. It will avoid people who have difficulty in using the Devanagari
script or do not know the Devanagari script from feeling alienated and giving up on the language. Goans who do not know Devanagari are unable to communicate
with the state government in their own language and are forced to use English instead, contributing to the decline of Konkani.[5] The Roman script is widely used
for Konkani on the internet. It is also the most convenient script for use with computers.

There have been three state-level literary and cultural conventions of Konkani in the Roman script (Romi Lipi Konkani Sahitya ani Sonvskrutik Sommelan) held in
2008, February 2010 and February 2011 in Goa.
However, the criticism against official recognition of Konkani in the Roman script is that having more than one official
script for Konkani will lead to fragmentation of the language.

In January 2013, the Goa Bench of the Bombay High Court issued a notice to the state government on a Public Interest
Litigation filed by the Romi Lipi Action Front seeking to amend the Official Language Act to grant official language status
to Romi Konkani.[13]

In 2016, the Goa Su-Raj Party announced in its manifesto for the 2017 assembly elections that it supports official status for
Romi Konkani.[14]

Official responses to the demands

In September 2008, the advisory board of the Official Language Cell of the Government of Goa recommended the use of
Konkani in Roman script in government offices.[15] As per the recommendation, Konkani in the Roman script would be
permitted for communication purposes, and government employees may submit applications, appeals or representations
and receive orders or notices in Roman script. At present, this is only possible in Konkani in Devanagari script and in Opening verses in the "Prologue" of
Marathi. However, this recommendation has not yet been implemented. the Gospel of John in Romi Konkani.
Goan Catholics employ the Latin-
In August 2012, Chief Minister of Goa, Manohar Parrikar announced that he would fulfill four demands of the script alphabet for their religious and
DKA:[16][17][18] secular writings in the Konkani
language
Goa Kala Academy to introduce Romi Konkani as a separate category in its book publishing scheme with
a yearly prize for best literature in Romi Konkani at par with Devanagari
Romi Konkani to be introduced in schools from Std. 1 to 12
A theater in Panjim exclusively for staging tiatrs
Office space for Dalgado Konknni Akademi

Organizations

Some organizations that promote and support Romi Konkani are:

Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr

Dalgado Konkani Academy
Goa Konkani Akademi
Fr. Freddy J. Da Costa Memorial trust
Felicio Cardozo-che Pattlavdar

Publications

Some periodicals in Konkani written in the Roman script in continuous publication are:

Dor Mhoineachi Rotti, since 1915

Vauraddeancho Ixtt, since 1933
Gulab, since 1983

Letters

A Ã B C Ç D E Ẽ F G H I Ĩ J K L M N Ñ O Õ P Q
a ã b c ç d e ẽ f g h i ĩ j k l m n ñ o õ p q

Orthography
The letter A makes the sound /a/ in every word.
The letter O can make one of the possible four sounds which are /ɵ/, /ʌ/, /o/ or /ɔ/.

See also
Literature of Goan Catholics
Goan Catholics

Citations
1. Kamat, Dr. Krishnanand. "The origin and development of Konkani 2. Mother Tongue blues (http://www.india-seminar.com/2004/543/54
language" (http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/konkani/konkani.htm). 3%20madhavi%20sardesai.htm) — Madhavi Sardesai
To serves as a distant learning resource for lesser known topics
about India.
 3. "Goa Konkani Akademi website" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008
0828171254/http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/langu
age-literature.htm). 26 February 1975. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/konkaniweb/language-literature.ht
m) on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
4. "GOANEWS - BY SANDESH PRABHUDESAI" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20080828083336/http://www.goanews.com/shenoi.htm).
28 August 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.goanews.co
m/shenoi.htm) on 28 August 2008.
5. Malli, Karthik (28 April 2019). "Romi Konkani: The story of a Goan
script, born out of Portuguese influence, which faces possible
decline" (https://www.firstpost.com/living/romi-konkani-the-story-of-a
-goan-script-born-out-of-portuguese-influence-which-faces-possible
-decline-6510431.html). Firstpost.
6. "Reginaldo Fernandes: A votary of Konkani | Goa News - Times of
India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Reginaldo-Ferna
ndes-A-votary-of-Konkani/articleshow/52737582.cms). The Times
of India.
7. "Konkani back in script row | Goa News - Times of India" (http://time
sofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Konkani-back-in-script-row/articles
how/22955814.cms). The Times of India.
8. " 'Consider Konkani writers for Akademi awards irrespective of the
script' " (https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karna
taka/lsquoConsider-Konkani-writers-for-Akademi-awards-irrespecti
ve-of-the-script/article16205603.ece). The Hindu. 22 July 2010 –
via www.thehindu.com.
9. " 'Ixtt' with a new vigour" (http://www.goanews.com/news_disp.php?
rnpageno=2&newsid=1060&catid=183). Goa News. Retrieved
29 August 2012.
10. "Konkani in the Roman script / Romi Konknni" (https://www.faceboo
k.com/Konkani.in.Roman.script?v=info). Facebook. 25 December
2010. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
11. [1] (http://goanet.org/post.php?name=News&list=goanet&info=2006
-June/thread&post_id=044809) Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20110724132146/http://goanet.org/post.php?name=News&list=
goanet&info=2006-June%2Fthread&post_id=044809) 24 July 2011
at the Wayback Machine
12. "Goa group wants Konkani in Roman script" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20121021013210/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
2007-02-20/india/27871957_1_konkani-language-roman-script-offi
cial-language-status). The Times of India. 20 February 2007.
Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.co
m/2007-02-20/india/27871957_1_konkani-language-roman-script-o
fficial-language-status) on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 12 August
2015.
13. "HC notice to govt on Romi script - The Times of India" (http://timeso
findia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/HC-notice-to-govt-on-Romi-script/arti
cleshow/18124209.cms). Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 22 January
2013. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
14. nt (5 December 2015). "Goa Su Raj Party declares first batch of poll
candidates" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/goa-su-raj-party-declares-fi
rst-batch-of-poll-candidates/).
15. "Archived copy" (https://archive.today/20130126140920/http://article
s.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-09-27/goa/27901391_1_roman
-script-romi-konkani-official-language-act).
articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Archived from the original (htt
p://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-09-27/goa/27901391_
1_roman-script-romi-konkani-official-language-act) on 26 January
2013. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
16. "Goa, Goa Breaking News, Goa Holidays, Goa Centric Portal, Goa
Yellow Pages, Explore Goa, Goa News Headlines, Goa News, Goa
Current Affairs, Goa Events" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150424
125444/http://www.digitalgoa.com/ca_disp.php?id=2122).
DigitalGoa.com. Archived from the original (http://www.digitalgoa.co
m/ca_disp.php?id=2122) on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 12 August
2015.
17. [2] (http://www.navhindtimes.in/goa-news/cm-promises-fulfil-deman
ds-dka)
18. "Chief minister Manohar Parrikar assures boost to Romi Konkani"
(https://archive.today/20130126112027/http://articles.timesofindia.in
diatimes.com/2012-08-29/goa/33475259_1_romi-konkani-roman-sc
ript-manohar-parrikar). The Times of India. 29 August 2012.
Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.co
m/2012-08-29/goa/33475259_1_romi-konkani-roman-script-manoh
ar-parrikar) on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2015.

References
Quadros, Vincy; Almeida, Menino, eds. (18 July 2020). Romi Lipint Konknni Borovpiank Ani Vachpiank "SANGATI" [Roman Script Konkani
Writer's and Reader's "COMPANION"] (in Goan Konkani) (3rd ed.). Panjim, Goa: Dalgado Konkani Academy. ASIN B08LDL2WKM (https://w
ww.amazon.in/s?k=B08LDL2WKM&crid=1H6G7LOMNTYE4&sprefix=b08ldl2wkm%2Caps%2C312&ref=nb_sb_noss).
Dantas, Isidore; D'Souza, Joel (5 March 2016) [1 April 2015]. Modern English–Konkani Dictionary (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M
odern_English_to_Konkani_Dictionary_-_Isidore_Dantas.pdf) (PDF) (in English and Goan Konkani). Margao, Goa: Golden Heart Emporium
Books. ISBN 978-9384298319.

External links
Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr (http://www.tskk.org/)
Goa Konkani Akademi (Goa Academy of Letters for Konkani) (http://konkaniakademi.goa.gov.in/)
Goa Konkani Akademi (https://web.archive.org/web/20110505222532/http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/akademi/aims.htm)
Vauraddeancho Ixtt (https://web.archive.org/web/20080419133702/http://www.v-ixtt.com/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konkani_in_the_Roman_script&oldid=1069629450"

This page was last edited on 3 February 2022, at 08:06 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Konkani cinema
Konkani cinema is an Indian film industry, where films are made
Konkani cinema
in the Konkani language, which is spoken mainly in the Indian
states of Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka and to a smaller extent Produced feature films (2013)
in Kerala. Konkani films have been produced in Goa, Karnataka, Total 145
Maharashtra and Kerala.[1]

As of 2018, when the Indian film industry celebrated its centennial, a total of 145 feature films were
released.[2] This was another increase over a total films made until 2009 as documented by Isidore Dantas
in his book Konkani Cholchitram.

The first full-length Konkani film was Sukhi Konn produced by GMB Rodrigues in 1949 but was never
released. Mogacho Anvddo, was released on 24 April 1950, and was produced and directed by Jerry
Braganza, a native of Mapusa, under the banner of ETICA Pictures.[3][4] Hence, 24 April is celebrated as
Konkani Film Day.[5]
In 2008-09, Mr JoJo Dsouza of Goa began the first small scale digital film training
academy in Goa. He drew inspiration from noted film genius Ashok Miranda.

Konkani film Paltadcho manis has been included in the world's best films of 2009 list.[6]

Konkani films are eligible for the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani. The most
commercially successful Konkani film (as of June 2011) is O Maria directed by Rajendra Talak.[7]

In 2012, a new age digital film The Victim was directed by Milroy Goes.[8]

Some old Konkani films are Sukhachem Sopon, Amchem Noxib, Nirmonn, Mhoji Ghorkarn, Kortubancho
Sonvsar, Jivit Amchem Oxem, Mog ani Moipas, Bhuierantlo Munis, Suzanne, Boglantt, Padri and
Bhogsonne. Ujwadu is a 2011 Konkani film directed by Kasargod Chinna and produced by KJ
Dhananjaya and Anuradha Padiyar.

Numerous short films have been made in Konkani such as Cheddum...the Girl by Sharon Mazarello., Sin,
by Ramprasad Adpaikar.

The film In Search of Mother was one of the first completely digital Konkani films. It was co-produced by
the ESG and JoJo Dsouza and directed by Ramprasad Adpaikar with production at RJ Films, Goa. Post-
production was also done at RJ films studio.

Goa's first 24x7 Digital Film and Media Production house BIG BANNER ENTERTAINMENT AND
MEDIA LLP was founded by Mr. Deepak A. Bandekar, Mrs. Chandan D. Bandekar and Smt. Deepa A.
Bandekar in collaboration with Mr. Jojo JF D'Souza and his team. This state of the art studio was
inaugurated by noted film personality Mr. Manoj Pawha and Mr. Rajendra Talak, Writer, Director, Film-
maker, in December in December 2017. The studio has complete production and post production facilities
that are globally accepted in sound, video and film as well as print and publishing. Big Banner
Entertainment and Media LLP also recently worked successfully on a project with Sony Music
Entertainment and Disney which is a big achievement for the small industry in Goa. They are currently
expanding to Line Production and boosting the film capabilities in the state of Goa.

List of Konkani Movies

   Goan dialects
  Southern Saraswat dialect
  Mangalorean Catholic dialect
  Mixed
dialects
Year Movie Producer Director Notes
Jerry
1950 Mogacho Anvddo Jerry Braganza The first full length Konkani film
Braganza
Franklin
1963 Amchem Noxib Franklin Fernandes
Fernandes
The film won two National Awards
1966 Nirmonn Franklin Fernandes A. Salam at the hands of India's then Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi.
Jerry
1967 Sukhachem Sopon Jerry Braganza
Braganza
1969 Mhoji Ghorkarn
Kortubancho
1970
Sounsar
Jivit Amchem
1971
Oxem
1975 Boglantt
United Youngsters of Mangalore
1977 Mog ani Moipass brought out the first colored
Konkani film
1977 Bhuierantlo Munis
1978 Tisri Chitt Peter Gonsalves Produced in 1973
1980 Tapaswini GSB Mandal Amrit Prabhu
1980 Girestkai
Ramesh
1981 Jana Mana GSB Mandal
Kamath
1982 Suzane
1985 Zau Zau Teg Bhau
1988 Kazara Uprant Henry D'Silva Suratkal
Richard
1996 Bhogsanne
Castelino
National Award for Best Feature
Rajendra
2004 Aleesha Rajendra Talak Film in Konkani at the 52nd
Talak
National Film Awards
2005 Padri Frank Fernandes
National Award for Best Feature
Rajendra
2006 Antarnad Rajendra Talak Film in Konkani at the 57th National
Talak
Film Awards
2007 Zuzari Suhas Sawardekar
Laxmikant This Film has been included in the
2009 Paltadacho Munis NFDC
Shetgaonkar world's best films of 2009 list.
Richard
2009 Kazar Frank Fernandes
Castelino
Sangramsingh
2009 Jagor Damodar Naik
Gaekwad
2010 Tum Kitem Kortolo Sharon Mazarello Sharon Screened at Addis Ababa
Aslo? Mazarello international film festival and
 Marbella International Film Festival,
premiered at Kuwait[9]
Rajendra The film is about internet marriage
2010 Saavariyaa.com[10]
Talak in Goa
Rajendra The most commercially successful
2011 O Maria[11] M.B Creations
Talak Konkani film
In Search of ... Raamprasaad
2011 Jojo D'Souza
Mother Adpaikar
KJ Dhananjaya and Kasargod
2011 Ujwadu
Anuradha Padiyar Chinna
2012 The Victim Milroy Goes First Digital Theatrical Film
Screened at International Film
Laxmikant
2013 Baga Beach Pramod Salgaocar Festival of India and won a national
Shetgaonkar
award.
Screened at International Film
Jitendra
2013 Mortoo Atrey Sawant Festival of India and won a state
Shikerkar
award.
Home Sweet Home Swapnil
2014 [12] Shetkar

2014 Gunnaji

First Konkani Film to make

it to the Oscar Shortlist.
Winner of unprecedented
37 National and
International Awards, most
by a Konkani Film. Won 3
Nachom-ia Bardroy
2015
Kumpasar
Goa Folklore Productions
Barretto National Awards, 24
International Awards, and
10 State Awards. 33 Official
selection at International
Film Festivals. Shown in 25
countries across 6
continents.

Won National Award for Best

Konkani Film, Won Best Foreign-
Dinesh P.
2015 ENEMY? A.Durga Prasad language feature film in
Bhonsle
International Film Maker Festival of
World Cinema, Milan, Italy
Hanv Tum Tum Raamprasaad
2015 Eddie Fernandes Sci-fi based black comedy film
Hanv Adpaikar
Home Sweet Home Swapnil
2015 First Konkani Sequel Film
2 Shetkar
Eesha and Noah Sripad
2015 Nirmon the Destiny First remake Konkani film
Productions R.A.Pai
Ek Aslear Ek Pradeep
2016 Frank Fernandes
Na[13] Paladka

Harry
2016 Noxibacho Khell[14] Henry D'Silva Suratkal
Fernandes
2016 K Sera Sera – Gayatri Pednekar Rajeev
Ghodpachem Shinde
Ghoddtelem[15]
Ramesh
2016 Aa Vai Ja Sa[16] First Konkani Children's film
Kamath
Film Contested at Oscars 2019 -
WELCOME 91st Academy Awards 2019 in
2017 Manna Mohie Milroy Goes
M1LL10NS General Category. Premiered in Los
Angeles, USA.
R Jovito Rodrigues

R Jovito
2017 Mogan Tujea
Rodrigues
Jayson Colaco

Planning ... Rajesh

2017 Severino Fernandes Audio released
Devachem[17] Fernandes

Oxem Zalem Maxim Pereira Maxim

2017 Also Tulu film
Koxem[17] Vincent D'Souza Pereira

Harry The film won Best Regional Movie,

2017 Sophiya[18] Janet Noronha
Fernandes Karnataka State Award 2017/18

First Konkani film to have an

India-France-Netherlands co-
production born out of the NFDC
Thin Air Productions, Film Bazaar, It's been picked for
Miransha International sales by Films
[19][20][21][22] Kepler film, Cine Sud
2017 Juze Boutique. It was premiered at 41st
promotions, Three River Naik[23] Hong Kong international film
Films, Films Boutique festival and currently taking other
festival rounds. First Konkani film
to be reviewed by 'The Hollywood
Reporter'.

Starring Jackie Shroff and Seema

[24] Nieelesh
2017 Soul Curry Reflection Creation Biswas in the main roles, it won
Malkar
Goa State Awards[25]
Jitendra
2017 Martin A.Durga Prasad First Konkani suspense thriller[26]
Shikerkar

2017 Connection[27] Genre: Suspense

2017 Anthu [28] GSB Mandal Karopady

Akshaya
Nayak
5th Movie in GSB konkani
language “Anthu” (A tale
from our livelihood) is a
unique movie, with one of
its kind story line. It revolves
around a family, the
problems that arises, the
way it spreads out its
branches, when one
problem gets solved the
other erupts and this vicious
circle heading towards a
solution has been made as
a movie. Entire movie has
 been made by GSB
Konkani community. It is
one of its kind movies in
Konkani genres.
This movie
is being Produced,
Directed, Story, Screen-
Played, Cinematographed
and Edited by youngster
Karopady Akshay Nayak.
State Film awardee M K
Matha, has written
dialogues in Kannada,
which is being converted
into Konkani by Venkatesh
Baliga. Lyrics are
composed by Om Ganesh
Kamath Uppunda &
Srinivas Shenoy Puttur
while music has been
composed by ‘Hari-Ram’
(Dual Musicians B.
Athmaram Nayak &
Harish Pandav) Milan
Markanja, Vishwanath
Kodikal, Vipin Shetty are
assistant directors. Krishna
Prasad, Vijay Montero has
assisted in
Cinematography.
On screen artists are a bunch of
outstanding talents from Konkani
community, consisting of Stage
artist Chidananda Kamath
Kasargod, who has acted in
number of Movies, Dramas,
serials etc. The cast also
includes, ardent actress
Poornima Suresh Udupi,
National Balashree Awardee
Sujay Shanbhag Mysore,
Manjesh Bhat Vittla, Dinesh
Prabhu Kalotte, Maroli Sabitha
Kamath, Jaya Pai, Jaya Kamath,
Vithobh Bhandarkar & more than
45 artists from the community.

A. Durga
2017 MOGAN PODLO Prasad Creations, Goa First Konkani Dubbed film in Goa
Prasad
Sripad
2018 O LA LA[29] AXIS VISION Releasing on 27 May 2018
R.A.Pai
Harry
2018 Zanvoy No 1[30] Harry Fernandes Mangalorean film with Goan artistes
Fernandes
Joywin
2018 7 days[31] Rocky D’Souza
Fernandes
2018 Questao De Chetana Productions, Go Swapnil Releasing on 28 September 2018
 Confusao Goa Gollywood, The Shetkar
Neutral View
Amizade (English: The film was released on 7
2018 Sachin Verlekar Aniket Naik
Friendship) [32] December 2018.[33]

2019 Kantaar[25] Janet Noronha Nilesh Malkar

Gautam Theatrical release on 14 February

2020 Ironheart Spring Pictures
Parwar 2020 at Inox Goa Multiplex

References
1. "News Archives" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121110004647/http://www.hindu.com/2011/
04/17/stories/2011041760220500.htm). The Hindu. 17 April 2011. Archived from the original
(http://www.hindu.com/2011/04/17/stories/2011041760220500.htm) on 10 November 2012.
Retrieved 6 November 2016.
2. "First Konkani film 'Mogacho Aunddo's reel restored" (http://indianexpress.com/article/entert
ainment/entertainment-others/now-showing-konkani-legacy/). 23 July 2015. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20160218213242/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/ent
ertainment-others/now-showing-konkani-legacy/) from the original on 18 February 2016.
Retrieved 6 November 2016.
3. "Panaji Konkani Cinema - A Long Way to Go" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.a
sp?n_id=59256&n_tit=Panaji:%20Konkani%20Cinema%20-%20A%20Long%20Way%20t
o%20Go). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161107013730/http://www.daijiworld.co
m/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=59256&n_tit=Panaji:%20Konkani%20Cinema%20-%20A%20
Long%20Way%20to%20Go) from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 6 November
2016.
4. "Yahoo! Groups" (https://groups.yahoo.com/group/gulf-goans/message/31478). Retrieved
6 November 2016.
5. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120610122109/http://www.navhindtimes.in/p
anorama/konkani-cinema-day-some-reflections). The Navhind Times. Archived from the
original (http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/konkani-cinema-day-some-reflections) on 10
June 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
6. Dearcinema.com (http://dearcinema.com/news/man-beyond-bridge-release-canada)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140223110252/http://dearcinema.com/news/man-b
eyond-bridge-release-canada) 2014-02-23 at the Wayback Machine
7. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140228210554/http://www.navhindtimes.in/i
watch/celebrating-konkani-cinema). Archived from the original (http://www.navhindtimes.in/i
watch/celebrating-konkani-cinema) on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
8. "Konkani movie 'The Victim' hits screens on Sept 14 - Times of India" (https://timesofindia.in
diatimes.com/city/mangaluru/Konkani-movie-The-Victim-hits-screens-on-Sept-14/articlesho
w/16360609.cms). The Times of India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201701080257
42/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/Konkani-movie-The-Victim-hits-screens
-on-Sept-14/articleshow/16360609.cms) from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved
3 January 2019.
9. Silveira, Mary (10 September 2011). "Konkani Film goes International in Spain" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160508141632/http://www.goanvoice.ca/2011/issue19/peopleplacesthin
gs.htm). Goan Voice, Canada: People Places and Things. Archived from the original (http://
www.goanvoice.ca/2011/issue19/peopleplacesthings.htm) on 8 May 2016. Retrieved
4 January 2018.
10. "My film would have made it to the Panorama section: Talak" (https://www.outlookindia.com/
newswire/story/my-film-would-have-made-it-to-the-panorama-section-talak/640430). Outlook
India. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130717/https://www.outlookindia.co
m/newswire/story/my-film-would-have-made-it-to-the-panorama-section-talak/640430) from
the original on 28 December 2018. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
11. Lobo, Joanna (11 November 2012). "Konkani cinema: For love not money" (https://www.dnai
ndia.com/lifestyle/report-konkani-cinema-for-love-not-money-1763145). DNA India. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20181228174623/https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-kon
kani-cinema-for-love-not-money-1763145) from the original on 28 December 2018.
Retrieved 28 December 2018.
12. "Home Sweet Home (Konkani)" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4293668/). 26 December 2014.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170120115012/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt429366
8/) from the original on 20 January 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2016 – via IMDb.
13. "Mangaluru: Muhurtam held for Frank Fernandes' new Konkani movie" (http://www.daijiworl
d.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=366485). www.daijiworld.com. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20151104064840/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=36648
5) from the original on 4 November 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
14. " 'Noshibacho Khell' could become trendsetter in Konkani filmdom" (http://www.daijiworld.co
m/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=369670). www.daijiworld.com. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20151126222016/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=369670)
from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
15. nt (31 October 2016). "Konkani film 'K Sera Sera ' to premier at 47th IFFI" (http://www.navhin
dtimes.in/konkani-film-k-sera-sera-to-premier-at-47th-iffi/). navhindtimes.in. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20180909222133/http://www.navhindtimes.in/konkani-film-k-sera-sera-
to-premier-at-47th-iffi/) from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
16. "Ramesh Kamath's 'Aa Vai Jaa Saa' making waves both in India and abroad - Times of
India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Ramesh-Kamaths-Aa-Vai-Jaa-Saa
-making-waves-both-in-India-and-abroad/articleshow/55355253.cms). The Times of India.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180919213441/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
city/bengaluru/Ramesh-Kamaths-Aa-Vai-Jaa-Saa-making-waves-both-in-India-and-abroad/
articleshow/55355253.cms) from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January
2019.
17. "Mangaluru: Audio album of 'Planning...Devachem' movie released" (http://www.daijiworld.c
om/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=429062). www.daijiworld.com. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20180910014744/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsI
D=429062) from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
18. "Mangaluru: Janet Productions launches new Konkani movie 'Sophiya' " (http://www.daijiwor
ld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=413842). www.daijiworld.com. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180910060954/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?ne
wsID=413842) from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
19. " 'Juze' ('Juje'): Film Review - Hong Kong 2017" (https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/j
uze-juje-film-review-hong-kong-2017-994403). The Hollywood Reporter. 18 April 2017.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180910094508/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/
review/juze-juje-film-review-hong-kong-2017-994403) from the original on 10 September
2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
20. nt (20 November 2015). "Konkani film 'Juje' selected at NFDC Film Bazaar" (http://www.nav
hindtimes.in/konkani-film-juje-selected-at-nfdc-film-bazaar/). navhindtimes.in. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20180909222052/http://www.navhindtimes.in/konkani-film-juje-sele
cted-at-nfdc-film-bazaar/) from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
21. nt (15 March 2017). "Miransha's 'Juze' to premier at Hong Kong International Film Festival"
(http://www.navhindtimes.in/miranshas-juze-to-premier-at-hong-kong-international-film-festiv
al/). navhindtimes.in. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180909222115/http://www.na
vhindtimes.in/miranshas-juze-to-premier-at-hong-kong-international-film-festival/) from the
original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
22. "From Goa to Hong Kong: Hitting the big screen" (https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Cafe/From-
Goa-to-Hong-Kong-Hitting-the-big-screen/114382.html). oHeraldo. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180909222002/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Cafe/From-Goa-to-Hong-Kon
g-Hitting-the-big-screen/114382.html) from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved
3 January 2019.
23. Gadal, Nikita (27 December 2017). "In Conversation with Miransha Naik I Juze I Konkani
Movie" (https://themoviean.com/miransha-naik-interview/). themoviean.com. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20190101052942/https://themoviean.com/miransha-naik-interview/)
from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
24. "Jackie Shroff to be seen in a Konkani film now" (https://indianexpress.com/article/entertain
ment/bollywood/jackie-shroff-to-be-seen-in-a-konkani-film-now-2999198/). The Indian
Express. 27 August 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181228174601/https://in
dianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/jackie-shroff-to-be-seen-in-a-konkani-film-
now-2999198/) from the original on 28 December 2018. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
25. "A Mumbaikar's perspective of Goa on reel" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130723/
https://www.navhindtimes.in/a-mumbaikars-perspective-of-goa-on-reel/). Archived from the
original (https://www.navhindtimes.in/a-mumbaikars-perspective-of-goa-on-reel/) on 28
December 2018. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
26. "Martin" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6384274/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0213200617/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt6384274/) from the original on 13 February 2017.
Retrieved 3 January 2019 – via www.imdb.com.
27. "Connection – a film for the Konkani thriller buffs" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/connection-a-f
ilm-for-the-konkani-thriller-buffs/). 14 November 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20180306204057/http://www.navhindtimes.in/connection-a-film-for-the-konkani-thriller-buff
s/) from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
28. "Mangaluru: Konkani film 'Anthu' awaits release" (http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisp
lay.aspx?newsID=458552). www.daijiworld.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
80909222222/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=458552) from the
original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
29. "Konkani comedy film 'O La La' to premiere on May 27" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/konkani-
comedy-film-o-la-la-to-premiere-on-may-27/). The Navhind Times. 22 May 2018. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20180525062259/http://www.navhindtimes.in/konkani-comedy-fil
m-o-la-la-to-premiere-on-may-27/) from the original on 25 May 2018. Retrieved
31 December 2018.
30. "Mangaluru: Director Harry Fernandes brings Bollywood touch to Konkani films" (http://www.
daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=485279). Daijiworld. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20180106174842/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?news
ID=485279) from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
31. "Winning accolades before the big screen release" (https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Winning-
accolades-before-the-big-screen-release/126531.html). oHeraldo. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20180221100155/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Winning-accolades-before-the-
big-screen-release/126531.html) from the original on 21 February 2018. Retrieved
31 December 2018.
32. "The amicable in Amizade" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/the-amicable-in-amizade/). 14
March 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170424174926/http://www.navhindtim
es.in/the-amicable-in-amizade/) from the original on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 31 December
2018.
33. "#GOA365 VIDEO: Konkani film Amizade out on 7th Dec" (http://www.goa365.tv/big-event/
N/konkani-film-amizade-out-on-7th-dec/05104.html). Goa365. Retrieved 1 January 2019.

Bibliography
Konknni Cholchitram, Isidore Dantas, 2010
50 Years of Konkani Cinema, Andrew Greno Viegas, 2000

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konkani_cinema&oldid=1073138067"

This page was last edited on 21 February 2022, at 05:33 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goa civil code
The Goa Civil Code, also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of
the Indian state of Goa.[1][2] The Goan civil code was introduced after Portuguese Goa and Damaon were
elevated from being mere Portuguese colonies to the status of a Província Ultramarina (Overseas
possession) in 1869 AD.[3] The Goan civil code is a Indianized variant of Portuguese legal system that
draws largely from Code Napoleon, a common legal system in a number of Continental European
nations,[3] Indian law mostly derives from English common law that was formulated and applied in British
India and remains pegged to developments in the Charter of the British Commonwealth. With a number of
amendments, post the Partition of India, Indian laws as a whole, have religion-specific civil codes that
separately govern adherents of different religions (like the Muslim and Hindu personal laws); and also caste
reservations. Goa and Damaon are an exception to that rule, in that a single code governs all the native
Goans and the native Damanese of Damaon, Diu& Silvassa, irrespective of affiliation to religion,
ethnicity& social strata.[4] The English translation of the civil code (http://goaprintingpress.gov.in/download
s/1819/1819-29-SI-OG-0.pdf)| is available on the Government of Goa's e-Gazette (http://goaprintingpress.g
ov.in/)| dated 19/10/2018.[5]

Contents
History
Differences with the Indian law
Uniformity
References

History
The Goa civil code is largely based on the Portuguese Civil Code (Código Civil Português) of 1867, which
was introduced in Goa in 1870. Later, the code saw some modifications, based on:[6]

the Portuguese Gentile Hindu Usages Decrees of 1880 (Código de usos e costumes dos
hindus gentios de Goa)
the Portuguese Decrees on Marriage and Divorce of 1910 (Lei do Divórcio: Decreto de 3 de
Novembro de 1910). After the establishment of the First Portuguese Republic, the civil code
was liberalized to give women more freedom.[7]
the Portuguese Decrees on Canonical Marriages of 1946 (Decreto 35.461: regula o
casamento nas colónias portuguesas)[8]

The civil code was retained in Goa after its merger with the Indian Union in 1961, although in Portugal, the
original Code was replaced by the new Portuguese Civil Code of 1966. In 1981, the Government of India
appointed a Personal Law Committee to determine if the non-uniform laws of the Union could be extended
to Goa. The Goa Muslim Shariah Organization supported the move, but it was met with stiff resistance
from the Muslim Youth Welfare Association and the Goa Muslim Women's Associations.[9]
Differences with the Indian law
Some ways in which the Goa Civil Code is different from other Indian laws include:[6]

A married couple jointly holds ownership of all the assets owned (before the marriage) or
acquired (after the marriage) by each spouse. In case of a divorce, each spouse is entitled to
a half share of the assets. However, the law also allows antenuptial agreements, which may
state a different division of assets in case of a divorce. These agreements also allow the
spouses to hold the assets acquired before marriage separately. Such agreements cannot
be changed or revoked. A married person cannot sell the property without the consent of
his/her spouse.
The parents cannot disinherit their children entirely. At least half of their property has to be
passed on to the children compulsorily. This inherited property must be shared equally
among the children.
Muslim men, who have their marriages registered in Goa, cannot practice polygamy. Also,
there is no provision for a verbal divorce.

Uniformity
The Goa Civil Code is not strictly a uniform civil code, as it has specific provisions for certain
communities. For example:[6][9]

The Hindu men have the right to bigamy under specific circumstances mentioned in Codes
of Usages and Customs of Gentile Hindus of Goa (if the wife fails to deliver a child by the
age of 25, or if she fails to deliver a male child by the age of 30). For other communities, the
law prohibits bigamy.
The Roman Catholics can solemnize their marriages in church after obtaining a No
Objection Certificate from the Civil Registrar. For others, only a civil registration of the
marriage is accepted as a proof of marriage. The Catholics marrying in the church are
excluded from divorce provisions under the civil law.
For Hindus, divorce is permitted only on the grounds of adultery by the wife.
The law has inequalities in case of adopted and illegitimate children.

References
1. "SC's example of Goa as a state with a Uniform Civil Code is inconsistent with Article 44" (ht
tps://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/uniform-civil-code-supreme-court-article-44-
6004340/). The Indian Express. 2019-09-18. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
2. "Goan Civil Code a shining example of Indian democracy" (https://www.outlookindia.com/ne
wsscroll/goan-civil-code-a-shining-example-of-indian-democracy/1619379). Outlook India.
Retrieved 2021-12-05.
3. Mathew, C. K. "Uniform Civil Code: The Importance of an Inclusive and Voluntary Approach"
(https://www.thehinducentre.com/publications/issue-brief/article29796731.ece). The Hindu
Center. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
4. Nandini Chavan; Qutub Jehan Kidwai (2006). Personal Law Reforms and Gender
Empowerment: A Debate on Uniform Civil Code (https://books.google.com/books?id=QIMp5
ctu_ngC&pg=PA245). Hope India Publications. p. 245. ISBN 978-81-7871-079-2. Retrieved
17 January 2014.
5. "Translated Portuguese Civil Code published in official gazette" (http://www.navhindtimes.in/
translated-portuguese-civil-code-published-in-official-gazette/), The Navhind Times, 2018-
 10-24, retrieved 2018-10-24
6. Vivek Jain and Shraddha Gupta (2014-05-15). "Uniform and civil" (http://www.thestatesman.
net/news/54625-uniform-and-civil.html). The Statesman.
7. Fatima da Silva Gracias (1 January 1996). Kaleidoscope of Women in Goa, 1510-1961 (http
s://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv). Concept Publishing Company. pp. 90 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/90)–. ISBN 978-81-7022-591-1.
8. "Decreto 35.461: regula o casamento nas colónias portuguesas" (http://www.dre.pt/pdf1s/19
46/01/01500/00430048.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2014-09-05.
9. Partha S. Ghosh (23 May 2012). The Politics of Personal Law in South Asia: Identity,
Nationalism and the Uniform Civil Code (https://books.google.com/books?id=YwvaaHI8sjE
C&pg=PA19). Routledge. pp. 19–22. ISBN 978-1-136-70511-3.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa_civil_code&oldid=1082658785"

This page was last edited on 14 April 2022, at 09:57 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 2°11′20″N 102°23′4″E

Portuguese India
The Portuguese State of India (Portuguese: Estado
Português da Índia, EPI), often abbreviated as the State of Portuguese State of India
India (Estado da Índia) or simply Portuguese India (Índia Estado Português da
Portuguesa), was a state of the Portuguese Empire founded Índia  (Portuguese)
six years after the discovery of a sea route to the Indian
subcontinent by Vasco da Gama, a subject of the Kingdom 1505–1961
of Portugal. The capital of Portuguese India served as the
governing centre of a string of military forts and trade posts
scattered all over the Indian Ocean.

The first viceroy, Francisco de Almeida established his base

of operations at Fort Emmanuel, after the Kingdom of Flag Coat of arms
Cochin negotiated to become a protectorate of Portugal in
1505. After the Portuguese conquest of Goa from the Anthem: Hymno Patriótico (1808–1826)
"Patriotic Anthem"

Bijapur Sultanate in 1510, Goa became the major

anchorage for Portuguese India Armadas arriving in India.
The capital of the viceroyalty was transferred from Cochin 0:00 / 0:00
in the Malabar region to Goa in 1530.[1][2] Mumbai
(Bombay) was a part of Portuguese India as Bom Baim
Hino da Carta (1826–1911)
until it was handed over to Charles II of England, via the "Hymn of the Charter"

dowry of Catherine Braganza in 1661, who in turn leased it

to the English East India Company. Until the 18th century, 0:00 / 0:00
the viceroy in Goa had authority over all possessions in and
around the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to southeast
Asia. In 1752, Mozambique got its own separate A Portuguesa (1911–1961)
government, from 1844 onwards Portuguese Goa stopped "The Portuguese"

administering the territories of Macao, Solor and Timor.

0:00 / 0:00
In the latter years, Portugal's authority would be confined to
holdings in the Canara and Konkan regions, along the
western coast of India. At the time of the British Raj's
dissolution in 1947, Portuguese India was subdivided into
three districts, sometimes referred to collectively as Goa:
Namely Goa; Damaon, which included the inland enclaves
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli; and Diu. The Salazar regime
of Portugal lost de-facto control of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
in 1954. Finally, the rest of the overseas territory in
December 1961 with Annexation of Goa by India, under
PM Jawaharlal Nehru's rule. Portugal only recognised
Indian control in 1974, after the Carnation Revolution and
the fall of the Estado Novo regime, by a treaty signed on 31
December, 1974.[3] Status State of Portugal
(1505-1946)

The expression "State of India" began regularly appearing Overseas

in documents from the mid 16th century onwards.[4] province of
 Portugal (1946-
1961)
Contents
Capital Cochin (1505–
Context 1530)
Vasco da Gama lands in India Old Goa (1530–
Pedro Álvares Cabral 1843)
Nova Goa (1843–
Foundation (1505-1515)
1961)
Francisco de Almeida
Afonso de Albuquerque Common languages
Official
Flourishing years language
European
Diminishing years
Portuguese
17th century Also spoken
18th and 19th century Indo-
Second World War Portuguese
Konknni
1945 to 1961
Tamil
Post-annexation Kannada
Status of the new territories Gujarati
Marathi
Citizenship Malayalam
Indo-Portuguese relations Bengali
Portuguese cemetery in Kollam (Quilon) English

Administration
Religion Hinduism,
Trade and economy Christianity
(Catholicism) and
Society and culture Islam
Postal history Head of State  
Gallery • 1511–1521 Manuel I of
Currency Portugal
Architecture • 1958–1961 Américo Tomás
Governor-General  
See also • 1505–1509 Francisco de
References Almeida (first)
• 1958–1961 Manuel António
Further reading Vassalo e Silva
External links (last)

Historical era Imperialism

• Fall of Sultanate of 15 August 1505
Context Bijapur
• Indian Annexation 19 December
1961
Vasco da Gama lands in India Area
• Total 4,305 km2
The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was (1,662 sq mi)
on 20 May 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on
the Malabar Coast. Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Currency Portuguese
Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and Indian rupia
immediately bought some Indian items. One Portuguese (INPR)
accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Portuguese
Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a Indian escudo
couple of his men to Ponnani to meet with ruler of Calicut, (INPES)
the Zamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama
ISO 3166 code IN
managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights
from the Zamorin, Calicut's ruler. But, the Portuguese were Preceded by Succeeded by
unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his
Bijapur Goa,
goods in gold.[5]
Sultanate Daman
Gujarat and Diu
Later Calicut officials temporarily detained Gama's
Sultanate Free
Portuguese agents as security for payment. This, however, Dadra
Ahmednagar
annoyed Gama, who carried a few natives and sixteen Sultanate and
fishermen with him by force.[6] Malacca Nagar
Sultanate Haveli
Nevertheless, Gama's expedition was successful beyond all Kingdom of
reasonable expectation, bringing in cargo that was worth Kotte
sixty times the cost of the expedition. Kingdom of
Jaffna
Hormuz
Pedro Álvares Cabral
Today part of
Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India, marking the arrival of India
Europeans to Brazil on the way, to trade for pepper and Bangladesh
other spices, negotiating and establishing a factory at Ceylon
Calicut, where he arrived on 13 September 1500. Matters
worsened when the Portuguese factory at Kozhikode was attacked by surprise by the locals, resulting in the
death of more than fifty Portuguese.[7] Cabral was outraged by the attack on the factory and seized ten
Arab merchant ships anchored in the harbour, killing about six hundred of their crew and confiscating their
cargo before burning the ships. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in
retaliation for the violation of the agreement. In Cochin and Cannanore Cabral succeeded in making
advantageous treaties with the local rulers. Cabral started the return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived
in Portugal with only 4 of 13 ships on 23 June 1501.

In 1502, the Portuguese built a trade post in Pulicat because its location at the mouth of a lagoon made it a
great natural harbor.[8]

Vasco da Gama sailed to India for a second time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30
October 1502, where the ruler was willing to sign a treaty. Gama this time made a call to expel all Muslims
(Arabs) from Calicut which was vehemently turned down. He bombarded the city and captured several rice
vessels.[9] He returned to Portugal in September 1503.

Foundation (1505-1515)

Francisco de Almeida

On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he would
set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: at Anjediva Island, Cannanore, Cochin and Quilon.[10]
Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men.[10]

On 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he immediately started the
construction of Fort Anjediva.[10] On 23 October, with the permission of the friendly ruler of Cannanore,
he started building St. Angelo Fort at Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and
two ships.[10]
 Francisco de Almeida then reached Cochin on 31 October 1505
with only 8 vessels left.[10] There he learned that the Portuguese
traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son
Lourenço de Almeida with 6 ships, who destroyed 27 Calicut
vessels in the harbour of Quilon.[10] Almeida took up residence in
Cochin. He strengthened the Portuguese fortifications of Fort
Manuel on Cochin.

Portuguese Fortress of Cochin, in

The Zamorin prepared a large fleet of 200 ships to oppose the
the allied Kingdom of Cochin
Portuguese, but in March 1506 Lourenço de Almeida (son of
Francisco de Almeida) was victorious in a sea battle at the entrance
to the harbour of Cannanore, the Battle of Cannanore, an important
setback for the fleet of the Zamorin. Thereupon Lourenço de Almeida explored the coastal waters
southwards to Colombo, in what is now Sri Lanka. In Cannanore, however, a new ruler, hostile to the
Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese garrison, leading to the Siege of
Cannanore.

In 1507 Almeida's mission was strengthened by the arrival of Tristão da Cunha's squadron. Afonso de
Albuquerque's squadron had, however, split from that of Cunha off East Africa and was independently
conquering territories in the Persian Gulf to the west.

In March 1508 a Portuguese squadron under command of Lourenço de Almeida was attacked by a
combined Mameluk Egyptian and Gujarat Sultanate fleet at Chaul and Dabul respectively, led by admirals
Mirocem and Meliqueaz in the Battle of Chaul. Lourenço de Almeida lost his life after a fierce fight in this
battle. Mamluk-Indian resistance was, however, to be decisively defeated at the Battle of Diu.

Afonso de Albuquerque

In the year 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed the second governor of Portuguese possessions in
the East. After acquiring their first protectorate in Portuguese Cochin, a new fleet under Marshal Fernão
Coutinho arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power of Zamorin of Calicut. The Zamorin's
palace was captured and destroyed and the city was set on fire. The Zamorin's forces rallied, killing
Coutinho and wounding Albuquerque. Albuquerque withdrew with his forces and after the Zamorin was
assassinated in 1513 he entered into agreement with his successor to protect Portuguese interests in
Malabar, and a fort was built on Calicut.

In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate sultan with the aid of the Hindu
privateer Timoja, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa
in English). Goa (island) bore the site of the capital and the seat of the viceroy, who governed all the
Portuguese possessions in Asia.

Albuquerque added to the Portuguese State of India the city of Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515. He
encouraged the settlement of his soldiers and their marriage to native women. In the mid sixteenth century
there were about 2000 casados ("married men") in Goa.[11] Goa included a large body of native non-
Portuguese inhabitants for the Portuguese crown to rule. To better achieve this, Albuquerque resorted to
medieval Iberian procedures: people of different religious communities were allowed to live by their laws
under representatives of their respective communities.[12] Exception was made to the practice of sati
however, which was promptly abolished. Certain taxes due to the Adil Shah of Bijapur were also
abolished.[13] Native women were legally allowed property rights for the first time.[14] At Goa,
Albuquerque instituted an orphan's fund and opened a hospital, the Hospital Real de Goa, modelled after
the grand Hospital Real de Todos os Santos in Lisbon.[15] Also at Goa were built smaller hospitals run by
 the city's charity, the
Misericórdia, dedicated to
serving the poor and the
natives.

Albuquerque's policies
proved immensely popular
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the amongst his soldiers as well
Portuguese Empire in the East, with as the local population,
its capital in Goa, was then often
especially his
styled in Europe as the "Rome of
characteristically strict
the East", it included possessions
observance of justice.[16]
(subjected tracts of land with a
When Albuquerque died in
certain degree of autonomy) in South
sight of Goa in 1515, even
Asia, Southeast Asia, East Africa,
the Hindu natives of Goa
and the Pacific
mourned his passing
alongside the
Portuguese.[17][18] His tomb at the Nossa Senhora da Serra
hermitage was converted to a shrine by the local Hindus, who
would leave flowers there in his dedication and direct prayers to
him, seeking aid in matters of justice, until his remains were
returned to Portugal in 1566.[19]
Afonso de Albuquerque, second
The Portuguese had also shipped Órfãs d'El-Rei to their colonies in Portuguese governor of India
the Indian peninsula, the most important of which were the capital
of Goa and the largest province in Bombay-Bassein. Órfãs d'El-Rei
(literally "Orphans of the King"), were orphaned Portuguese girls
patronised by the King, and sent to overseas colonies to form
marital alliances with either Portuguese settlers or natives of high
status.

Flourishing years
In 1520, the Portuguese extended their dominion over the town of A Portuguese nobleman riding on a
Rachol, as in that year, Krishnadevaraya captured the Rachol Fort horse from "Itinerario, voyage, ofte
and delivered it to the Portuguese, in exchange for mutual defence Schipvaert van Jan Huygen van
pact against the Deccan Sultanates. Linschoten naer Oost ofte Portugaels
Indien", Amsterdam, 1596
In 1526, John III of Portugal granted the city of Goa and its town
hall the same legal status as Lisbon, in a foral in which the general
laws and privileges of the city, its town hall, and the local Hindu
community were detailed – especially important since at the time
the native laws of Goa were still not written, instead being handled
by councils of elders or religious judges and passed down orally
(thus prone to abuses).[20]

There were Portuguese settlements in and around the Coromandel

region. The Luz Church in the Mylapore neighbourhood of Madras
(Chennai) was the first church that the Portuguese built in the area
Portuguese Goa in 1600
in 1516, the São Tomé or San Thome shrine was rebuilt by them
1522. They also built the first structures at the Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount, Bandra, the Our Lady of
Velankanni shrine& the Cathedral of Our Lady of Miracles; which are among the important Christian
pilgrimage sites of South Asia.

Several colonies were also acquired from the Sultan of Guzerat in the north Konkan region: Damaon was
sacked in 1531 and ceded in 1539; Salsette, the seven islands of Bombay, Chaul& Bassein (Vasai) in 1534;
Diu ceded in 1535. These would jointly come to be known as the Northern Province of Portuguese India, it
extended almost 100 km (62 mi) along the west-coast from Daman to Chaul, and in places 30–50 km (19–
31 mi) inland. The provincial territory around present-day Bombay (Mumbai) had it's most populated city
centre in and around the Bassein Fort; but was subject to the viceroy in the capital city of Velha Goa in
south Konkan, along with other colonies in the Indian subcontinent such as Portuguese Ceylon and
Portuguese Chittagong.

The Ottoman Empire carried out the Siege of Diu in 1538, with a strong fleet under the command of the
Ottoman governor of Egypt Sulaiman Pasha for four months, with the aid of a large army provided by the
Sultan of Guzerat; however they were ultimately forced to retreat with considerable losses. The successful
defense of Diu by captain António da Silveira against overwhelming odds was a battle of annihilation, and
is one of the most celebrated exploits in Portuguese history, and frequently compared to the 1565 Great
Siege of Malta. On the occasion, the Portuguese captured the Tiro de Diu, a massive Guzerati bombard.

According to Portuguese records there was a Cholera epidemic in 1543, "It is said that deaths from the
disposal of the disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task"[21]

In 1546, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier requested the institution of the Goa Inquisition for the "Old
Christians" and "New Christians" in a letter dated 16 May 1546 to King John III of Portugal.[22] Various
non-Christian communities were oppressed officially, much before the Inquisition was set up.[23][24] At the
same time, Francis Xavier achieved a mass conversion of 30,000 Paravar fishermen.

In 1556 a printing press was first installed India at Saint Paul's College in Goa. Through publications made
on the printing press, Goa opened a window on the knowledge and customs of Europe.[25][26][27] The
Jesuits brought this European-style, metal movable type technology to Macau in China in 1588 and to
Japan in 1590.[28]

By the start of the 17th century, the population of Goa and the surrounding areas was about 250,000.[29]
Holding this strategic land against repeated attacks by the Indian states required constant infusions of men
and material. Portugal's important victories, such as the battle of Cochin in 1504, the defense of Diu in
1509, the conquest of Goa in 1510, the defenses of Diu in 1538 and 1546, and the defense of Goa in 1571
were accomplished with limited manpower. In their largest deployments, the Portuguese could field
perhaps 2,000 to 3,000 European and mestiço troops supported by a similar amount of local auxiliaries,
while the larger Indian states could field tens of thousands each. Portuguese superiority in military
technology (especially in regards to ships and artillery), training (especially in the skill of their gunners),
and tactics, combined with the disunity of the Indian states opposing them, allowed them to keep their
position and consistently win their wars.[30]

In 1597, the Portuguese annexed the Kingdom of Kotte in Ceylon. The territories in Ceylon were
administered as part of Portuguese India by a captain-general who was subordinate to the governor of
India. In 1617, the Kingdom of Jaffna was added to Portuguese territory on the island.

Diminishing years

17th century
In 1640, Shivappa Nayaka captured all the Portuguese forts in the
Canara subregion.[31]

The seven islands of Bombay (Mumbai) were presented to the

English Crown in 1661, as part of princess Catherine Braganza's
dowry to Charles II of England. In 1683, Mahrattas attempted a
siege against Portuguese settlements with no success.

18th and 19th century Portuguese fortress of Bassein,

capital of the North Province
Most of the Northern Territory composed of Taana, Bassein
(Vasai)& Chaul near British Bombay was lost following the
Mahratta Invasion of Bassein in 1739. Goa, Damaon& Diu as well as Anjediva, were retained because a
fleet of Portuguese Armadas arrived from Lisbon, bearing a newly appointed viceroy.

In the aftermath of the battles and the losses, the Portuguese expanded the territory of Goa between 1763
and 1788, at the expense of the Dessais of Kudal, the Sondas& the Bhonsla/ Mahrattas of Silvassa, which
became known as Novas Conquistas.[32] By order of the Marquis de Pombal, the Jesuits were expelled
from Portugal's territories in 1759.[33] They were replaced by the Oratorians, a native Goan Catholic
religious order founded by Christian Brahmin and Christian Cxatria converts, and a college dedicated to the
secular education of the native elites was opened, and the Goan Inquisition was abolished.[33] By influence
of Pombal, King José declared that native Christians were equal in standing with Europeans, while the
Viceroy Count of Ega declared religious freedom and prohibited racial slander. For these reasons "Pombal
and his collaborators remain to this day much respected figures in Goa"[34]

In 1752, Mozambique was detached from the Portuguese State of India and henceforth ruled by its own
governor.

Military intelligence about the France's plan to occupy Goa caused the British Governor-general at
Calcutta, Marquis of Wellesley to send troops, Goa was briefly a protectorate from 1799 to 1813.[35] The
Portuguese governor Francisco António da Veiga Cabral managed to retain control of civil institutions by
formally appointing the British officer in charge of the occupation, Sir William Clarke, as commander of
Portuguese troops in Goa under his authority.[36]

In 1843, the capital was shifted to Panjim (Nova Goa or New Goa), when it officially became the
administrative seat of the Estado, replacing the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa), although the viceroys taken
residence there already since 1 Dec, 1759. In 1844, the Portuguese governor of India stopped administering
the territories of Macao, Solor, and Timor. Only then was the territory of the Portuguese State of India
confined to the Indian subcontinent itself.

Second World War

Portugal was neutral during the Second World War. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of
Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German
merchants ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in
the port of Mormugao. The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the U-boats operating in
the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

But the British Royal Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's
stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of SOE backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta
Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light
Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they
sunk the Ehrenfels. The British then sent a decrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the
territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British
forces.

The raid was covered in the book Boarding Party by James Leasor. Due to the potential political
ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the
book was published in 1978.[37] In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring
Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore.

1945 to 1961

On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans" took control of the enclave of Dadra,
Nagar Haveli was seized by Azad Gomantak Dal on 2 August 1954.[38]
The International Court of Justice
at The Hague delivered an impasse verdict, regarding access to Dadra and Nagar Haveli by Portugal.[39]

From 1954, the satyagrahis (peaceful protesters) against Portuguese rule, outside Goa were violently
suppressed through brute force.[40] Many internal revolts were quelled and leaders extrajudicially murdered
or jailed. As a result, India broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal, closed its consulate-general in
Panjim[41] and demanded that Portugal must close its delegation in New Delhi.[42] India also imposed an
economic embargo against the territories of Portuguese Goa.[43] The Indian Government adopted a
diplomatic "wait and watch" approach from 1955 to 1961 with numerous representations to the Portuguese
Salazar dictatorship, and made attempts to highlight the issue of decolonisation before the international
community.[44]

To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and

from the Indian enclaves, the Salazar dictatorship
established an airline, Transportes Aéreos da Índia
Portuguesa,[45] and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.

Finally, in December 1961, India militarily invaded the

remaining Portuguese possessions.[46] Portuguese
forces had been given orders to either defeat the
invaders or die. Despite the Portuguese forces poor
firepower and small size (only 3,300 men), against a
fully armed Indian force of over 30,000 with full air Portuguese and other European settlements in
and naval support, the Portuguese forces put up a fight India
regardless of the odds.[47][48][49] Eventually, the
Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of
Surrender on 19 December 1961, thus ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.[50]

Post-annexation

Status of the new territories

Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as a de facto independent

entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the
Republic of India in 1961.[51] District of Portuguese Diu
Following the annexation of Goa, Daman and Diu, the new territories became union territories within the
Indian Union as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa, Daman and Diu. Maj. Gen. K. P. Candeth was declared
as military governor of Goa, Daman and Diu. Goa's first general elections were held in 1963.

In 1967 a referendum was conducted, where voters decided whether to merge Goa into the Marathi-
majority state of Maharashtra, the pro-Konkani faction eventually won after many protests against the pro-
Marathi faction led by Dayanand Bandodkar.[52] However full statehood was not conferred immediately,
and it was only on 30 May 1987 that Goa became the 25th state of the Indian Union, with Dadra and
Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu being separated, continue to be administered as Union Territories.[53]

The most drastic changes in Portuguese India after 1961 were the introduction of democratic elections, as
well as the replacement of Portuguese with English as the general language of government and
education.[54] In 1987, Konkani in the Devanagari script became the official language of the union territory
of Goa, Daman and Diu.[55] The Indians allowed certain Portuguese institutions to continue unchanged.
Amongst these were the land ownership system of the comunidade, where land was held by the
community and was then leased out to individuals. Goans under the Indian Government left the Portuguese
Goa civil code unchanged, hence Goa and Daman today remain as the only territories in India with a
common civil code that does not depend on religion.[56]

Citizenship

The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the government of India the authority to define citizenship in the
Indian union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed the Goa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship)
Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December
1961 in Goa, Daman, and Diu.[57]

Indo-Portuguese relations

Portugal's Salazar dictatorship did not recognise India's sovereignty over the annexed territories, and
established a government-in-exile for the territories,[58] which continued to be represented in the
Portuguese National Assembly.[59] After 1974's Carnation Revolution, the new Portuguese government
recognised Indian sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu,[60] and the two states restored diplomatic
relations. Portugal automatically gives citizens of the former Portuguese-India its citizenship[61] and opened
a consulate in Goa in 1994.[62]

Portuguese cemetery in Kollam (Quilon)

Kollam (originally Desinganadu, a prominent seaport in ancient India) became a Portuguese settlement; in
1519 they built a cemetery at Tangasseri in Quilon city. After a Dutch invasion, they also buried their dead
there. The Pirates of Tangasseri formerly inhabited the cemetery. Remnants of this cemetery are still in
existence today at Tangasseri. The site is very close to Tangasseri Lighthouse and St Thomas Fort, which
are on the list of centrally protected monuments under the control of Archaeological Survey of
India.[63][64][65][66]

Administration
From the moment the State was founded in 1505 till it was
disestablished in 1961, an official with the title of governor or
viceroy served as its highest authority, usually for a three-year term,
initially with authority over all Crown territories east of the Cape of
Good Hope. The latter title was attributed as a high honour while
the monarchy lasted, however their duties were the same as
governors.[67] They were the highest military commanders as well
as administrators, hence their authority fell on matters pertaining to
the armed forces, diplomacy, trade, finance and personnel
management.[68] Before they left Portugal, they were handed a Remnants of St Thomas Fort,
written set of orders and objectives, called regimento.[68] The Tangasseri in the Quilon area,
viceroys often attempted to influence the nomination of political Malabar region
allies to key positions howerver the final say fell on the metropolis.
Many were accompanied by their personal retinues, and these often
included their sons to serve in important military positions, such
was the case of the captain-major of the seas of India Dom
Lourenço de Almeida, son the viceroy Dom Francisco de Almeida.
After Goa was conquered, governors and viceroys lived in the
Palácio do Hidalcão, the native Indian palace built by the city's
former sovereign, the Adil Khan.[68]

The most important administrative structure of the State was put in

place in the 16th century; it included the high court (relação), the
superintendency of finances (vedoria da fazenda) run by a Crown
appointed vedor, financial accounts office (casa dos contos) and
the military registry and supply office (casa da matrícula).[68]

The extremely scattered nature of Portuguese holdings however,

meant that the State was highly decentralized, with great power
being held by individual fortress captains, their captain-generals or The Conquistas of Goa. Red: Velhas
town halls, far away from Goa. [69] Like the governors and Conquistas (1510-1546). Cream:
viceroys, fortress captains served for three years, however their Novas Conquistas (1763-1788)

terms could be renovated.[69] Sancho de Vasconcelos, captain-

major of Ambon served for 19 years.[69] In the most important
captaincies, financial authority rested with the vedor (superintendent), while judicial authority was vested in
an ouvidor ("ombundsman").

The Church played an important role in the State. The Pope had granted the Kings of Portugal exclusive
ecclesiastical rights to religious patronage (Padroado) in their overseas possessions. After 1513 Portuguese
eastern holdings were part of the bishopric of Funchal seated in Madeira island. After 1557 Goa became
the seat of an archbishop with subordinate bishops in Cochin and Malacca.[70] Further sees were later
opened in Macau in 1576 and in Funai in 1588. Religious Orders of the Augustinians, Franciscans,
Dominicans and Jesuits established mission headquarters in Goa, giving the Catholic Church a very visible
presence and influence in the capital of the Portuguese State of India, for which it earned the nickname of
"Rome of the East", a fact commented by many foreign travellers.[70]

In the most important settlements featured a câmara ("town hall"), with charters similar to equivalent cities
in Portugal, and they played an important role in administration, as they were the only institution through
which settlers could voice their opinions and make themselves heard.[71] They were responsible for local
governance, could collect some municipal taxes and acted as a court of first instance.[71] They sometimes
provided loans to Viceroys, though cooperation was often
difficult.[71] Portuguese merchants often established by their own
initiative a câmara in their non-Crown settlements, the most
important case of which was the Leal Senado in Macau.

Aside from the Portuguese themselves, the State often also ruled
over non-Portuguese, non-Christian peoples, and in these cases
often the traditional native structures were left in place. When
Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, the Hindu inhabitants were
left in possession of their lands; the pre-Portuguese system of land-
ownership and administration of village communes codified and the
rights of Brahmin or Khsatria ganvkars (shareholders) recognized,
and tax collection was left to the Hindu Timoja and after him the Coat of arms of Portuguese Goa in
long-standing Krishna Rao.[71] In Hormuz, Albuquerque left its 1596
native Muslim king as chief administrator under a protectorate.[71]
As the Counter-Reformation gained momentum in Europe,
Brahmins were excluded from the Portuguese administration during the tenure of Dom Constantino de
Bragança, which resulted in a wave of conversions.[72]

Trade and economy

Trade had been one of the primary motivations behind the
Portuguese expansion overseas, and one of the main objectives
behind the foundation of the State of India was to take over the
Europe-Asia trade, up to that point conducted mainly through the
Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, redirecting it around Africa via the
Cape Route. Trade was processed either by the Crown through Marketplace in Goa, as depicted in
royal agents (feitores) working from royal trade posts (feitorias) and Jan Huygen van Linschotens
maintained by the royal finances, or by independent merchants, Itinerarium
either Portuguese or otherwise.

One of the main tasks of royal factors was to acquire spices to be shipped back to Europe. In 1503, the
Portuguese unloaded at Lisbon 30,000 quintals of spices, more than what the Venetians introduced in the
European marked through Alexandria in Egypt. [73] The overwhelming bulk of commodities imported to
Europe by the Portuguese consisted of black pepper, which after 1520 was declared an official Crown
monopoly.[74] The Portuguese acquired most of their pepper in Kerala or Kanara in India. For most of the
century, the Portuguese secured an overwhelming share of the pepper imports into Europe, supplying 75
per cent or more of Europes pepper.[75] The Crown declared a monopoly on ther commodities, such as
cloves, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, silk, pearls and the export of gold and silver bullion from Portugal
to Asia.

The Portuguese Crown instituted a number of official carreiras, literally, "runs", connecting Goa to major
Portuguese and non-Portuguese harbours around the Indian and Pacific oceans once a year. Initially
conducted through Crown vessels, after 1560, the Crown began leasing them to private contractors, and by
the late 16th century they were the norm.[77] By 1580, the value of inter-Asian trade rights leases reached
as high as two million cruzados - twice the value the Portuguese Crown earned from the Goa-Lisbon
trade.[78]

Portugal regulated and rerouted the Indian Ocean trade by imposing a system of safe-passes called
cartaz.[79] It was imposed most effectively on the west coast of India.[80] The Portuguese Crown also
collected high customs dues, most importantly at Goa, Hormuz, Malacca, Bassein and Diu, and in the
 1580s it accounted for over
85% of the viceroys
revenue.[81]

Independent Portuguese
merchants got involved in
the inter-Asian trade, and Portugal was the first European
the backbone of informal nation to establish trade routes with
Portuguese presence and Japan. A significant portion of the
trade in Asia was formed of crew on Portuguese ships were
Eurasian Portuguese Indian Christians.[76]
merchants, descending
Portuguese gold coin struck in Goa from Portuguese soldiers or
during the reign of King Manuel 1510- merchants married to local wives.[82] Their main hub of activities
1521 was the capital of Goa, where the largest community of casados
("married men") was located at, about 2,000 families.[83] The core
element of their trade was Gujarati cotton textiles, but they also
dealt in Kerala pepper, cinnammon from Sri Lanka, Kanara rice, diamons from southern India and larins
from Persia.[84] By 1520 they had penetrated almost every commercially relevant region in Asia aside from
Japan (which was reached in the 1540s). Macau was founded by independent Portuguese traders. The
Crown regulated their trade into a number of convoys for safety against pirates, the most important of
which were those which transported textiles from Gujarat to Goa and rice from Kanara to Goa.[85] The
second most important settlement of Portuguese merchants in India was Cochin, where 500 casados with
their families resided.[86] Diu had a casado population of about 200.[87]

Portuguese India Company was established in 1628, however with the Crown being its only major
shareholder, it was liquidated five years later.[88] By that point, Portugals share of pepper trade had fallen
behind those of the Dutch VOC and the English EIC.[89]

Portuguese trade was greatly reduced by the war with the Dutch VOC, with whom a peace treaty was
signed in 1663. Inter-Indian Portuguese convoys continued, mainly with Gujarat, Porto Novo and
Madras.[90] Indian cottons became the bedrock of exports from Portuguese India, while tobacco grown in
Portuguese Brazil became the most important commodity exported across Asia via Portuguese India till the
19th century.[91] New Portuguese East India Companies established in 1669 and 1685 failed, largely due to
disagreements between the Crown and the merchants over the nature of the enterprise and lack of
confidence from investors.[92] By the 18th century, tobacco, bullion, firearms, consumer goods such as
Madeira wine and books represented the most important items traded in Portuguese India, while exports
back to Europe included silks, spices, porcelain, precious stones, Indian cottons and high quality lacquered
furniture, a good proportion being unloaded at Bahia in Brazil.[93] Indian cottons were especally valuable
in Mozambique, where an important community of Indians from Diu or Daman came to reside.
Nevertheless, Goa effectively became a commercial sattellite of British Bombay. Many Indo-Portuguese
merchants became deeply involved and prominent in French Pondicherry, Danish Tranquebar and
especially British Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, Portuguese Jews being linked to the diamond trade in
Madras.[94]

Society and culture

The State was largely urban, since it's reason of being was to provide well-protected havens from which
trade and communication could be conducted, controlled and dominated, hence only Goa, Daman, Bassein,
Chaul and Colombo had any meaningful hinterland and rural populations.[95] After the massacre of the
Portuguese in their feitoria in Calicut in 1500, practically every possession of the State was fortified,
sometimes massively, and for this reason it resembled as much a
network of maritime communications as an enormous perimeter of
fortresses.[96]

Portuguese India harboured a society that was officially Christian

and European but influenced by the non-European setting into
which it was inserted. At the top of the social pyramid were the
European-born viceroys, officers, and clergymen, followed by the
Portuguese casados and their Eurasian descendants, who could be
wealthy merchants or hold important positions in the local câmara,
and finally the native society. Portuguese living in Asia or east- Portuguese riding a palanquin
Africa were generally more accepting of non-Christian beliefs and
practices than their countrymen from Europe or Catholic clergy
generally approved.[97] At their peak in 1600, the total number of Portuguese casados across the State
probably numbered about 5,500.[98] Many casados followed a lifestyle that seemed to foreign visitors as
remarkably relaxed and luxurious by European standards, some living in fine houses furnished in the Indian
fashion with many servants, abundant and varied food that included a wide variety of fruits and poultry,
consumed off Ming porcelain. Goan casados often dressed in shirts and white trousers while their wives
usually wore saris.[99]

Alongside fortresses, ecclesiastical buildings dominated the skyline of most Portuguese settlements,
particularly in Goa, giving the city a distinctly European and Catholic flavour and a high profile to the
Church.[100] About 600 clergymen were concentrated in Goa out of perhaps 1800 east of the Cape of
Good Hope in 1630.[101] Nevertheless, the European and Christian Eurasian community in any Portuguese
settlement of the State always constituted a minority, perhaps no more than 7% in the case of Goa, the rest
being Hindus, Indian Christians, other Asians and Africans, free or slaves.[102]

For these reasons, the State was culturally hybrid, distant as it was from Europe, with the façades and
interiors of churches blending Portuguese and Asian iconographic traditions, while the domestic culture
was likewise a compromise between East and West, with furniture, dress and food often more Asian than
Portuguese.[103]

Postal history
Early postal history of the colony is obscure, but regular mail is known to have been exchanged with
Lisbon from 1825 onwards. Portugal had a postal convention with Great Britain, so much mail was
probably routed through Bombay and carried on British packets. Portuguese postmarks are known from
1854 when a post office was opened in Goa.

The last regular issue for Portuguese India was on 25 June 1960, for the 500th anniversary of the death of
Prince Henry the Navigator. Stamps of India were first used on 29 December 1961, although the old
stamps were accepted until 5 January 1962. Portugal continued to issue stamps for the lost colony but none
were offered for sale in the colony's post offices, so they are not considered valid stamps.

Dual franking was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese)
postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.


Gallery

Indo-Portuguese 18th century Indo-

illustration of a Portuguese cabinet
Portuguese
nobleman and
Christian Indian
women, from the
Códice
Casanatense.

Mughal depiction of a Portuguese

nobleman

Indo-Portuguese Indo-Portuguese
cabinet writing cabinet


Indo-Portuguese Indo-Portuguese 17th century Indo-

furniture pistol Portuguese
Christian ivory.

Currency

1 Escudo (1959)

Obverse: Lettering Reverse: Lettering

20 Portuguese 20 Portuguese "ESTADO·DA·INDIA", "REPÚBLICA ·
bazarucos from bazarucos from face value with Coat PORTUGUESA",
1799, reverse. 1799, obverse. of arms of Portugal year and Coat of
in the center. arms of Portugal in

the center.
6,000,000 coins minted. This coin was
from Portuguese State of India.

1866 1/8 tanga. 1 Portuguese India

rupia, 1882.


1947 escudo coin. 1959 100 escudos. Late 19th century 60 Portuguese India
and early 20th centavos, 1959.
century Portuguese
rupias

Architecture

Indo-Portuguese Portuguese villa Goa Cathedral he church of Our

house Lady of the
Immaculate
Conception in
Panaji (Goa, India).

Old Goa,Church of Bom Jesus Basilica, House in Goa. House in Goa.

Lady of Rosary Goa.

See also
Portuguese Empire
Códice Casanatense
Japan Voyage
 Estado Novo (Portugal)
Indo-Portuguese creoles
List of governors of Portuguese India
Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (archives in Lisbon
documenting Portuguese Empire, including India)
Portuguese Indian rupia
Portuguese Indian escudo
Goa liberation movement
Proposed flag for Portuguese India
Goan civil code
Cuncolim Revolt
Portuguese Bombay and Bassein
Portuguese Ceylon
Colonial India

References
1. R.S. Whiteway, (1899) Rise of Portuguese Power in India, p.224 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=jM4NAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA224)
2. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages (https://books.google.com/books?id=d
wYDPnEjTb4C&lpg=PA214&pg=PA214). Goa University Publications Series No. 6. Vol. 2:
An Economic History. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 214.
ISBN 9788170222590.
3. "Treaty Between the Government of India and the Government of the Republic of Portugal
on Recognition of India's Sovereignty over Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
Related Matters" (http://www.commonlii.org/in/other/treaties/INTSer/1974/53.html).
www.commonlii.org. 1974.
4. Disney, 2009, p.145
5. Narayanan, M. G. S. (2006). Calicut: The City of Truth Revisited (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=NhNuAAAAMAAJ&q=+Zamorin+Vasco+da+Gama). Calicut University
Publications. p. 198. ISBN 9788177481044.
6. . The incident is mentioned by Camões in The Lusiads, wherein it is stated that the Zamorin
"showed no signs of treachery" and that "on the other hand, Gama's conduct in carrying off
the five men he had entrapped on board his ships is indefensible".
7. Chalmers, Alexander (1810). English Translations: From Modern and Ancient Poems (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=EuMSqgHF8TYC&q=attack+on+pedro+alvares+cabral+fact
ory+in+calicut&pg=PA549). J. Johnson.
8. "Pulicat & the Forgotten Indian Slave Trade" (https://s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/img.live
historyindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Een_aantal_Oostindi_vaarders_voor_de_kust
_Rijksmuseum_SK_A_3108.jpeg). Live History India. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
9. Sreedhara Menon, A. (1967). A Survey of Kerala History. Kottayam: D. C. Books. p. 152.
10. Logan, William (2000). Malabar Manual (https://books.google.com/books?id=9mR2QXrVEJI
C&pg=RA1-PA312). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120604469.
11. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 147.
12. Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor (https://books.google.pt/books?i
d=71htAAAAMAAJ&q=) p.240
13. Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor (https://books.google.pt/books?i
d=71htAAAAMAAJ&q=) p.248
14. Roger Crowley (2015): Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the
First Global Empire p. 288. Faber & Faber. London.
15. Sanceau, 1936, p.235-236
16. Sanceau, 1936, p.235
17. Sanceau, 1936, p.298
18. Crowley, 2015, p.356
19. The commentaries of the great Afonso Dalboquerque, second viceroy of India 1875 edition,
edited by Walter de Birch Gray, Hakluyt Society. (https://archive.org/details/commentariesgre
03bircgoog/page/n249)
20. Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor (https://books.google.pt/books?i
d=71htAAAAMAAJ&q=) p. 249
21. "A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day"
22. Cuoto, Maria Aurora (2005). Goa: A Daughter's Story. Penguin Books. pp. 109–121, 128–
131.
23. Glenn, Ames. Portugal and its Empire, 1250–1800 (Collected Essays in Memory of Glenn J.
Ames. The Portuguese Studies Review at Trent University Press. pp. 12–15.
24. Walker, Timothy D. (2021). "Contesting Sacred Space in the Estado da India: Asserting
Cultural Dominance over Religious Sites in Goa" (http://journals.openedition.org/lerhistoria/
8618). Ler História (78): 111–134. doi:10.4000/lerhistoria.8618 (https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fl
erhistoria.8618). ISSN 0870-6182 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0870-6182).
25. Barrett, Greg. "An exploration of the role of Portugal in the economic integration of Asia and
Europe with a focus on the pepper market" (https://www.academia.edu/1366156).
26. "Goa Museum – Government of Goa" (http://goamuseum.gov.in/collections.html?group=14).
27. Goa Printing Press (http://www.goaprintingpress.gov.in/about-us)
28. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move, p.204.
29. M.N. Pearson. "The New Cambridge History of India: The Portuguese in India." 1988. Pages
92-93: "In 1524 there were 450 Portuguese householders in Goa city, and in 1540 about
1,800. The former figure refers to "pure" Portuguese, while the latter includes descendants of
Portuguese and local women, in other words mestiços. There were also 3,600 soldiers in
the town in 1540. Later in the 1540s, at the time of St Francis Xavier, the city population
included 10,000 Indian Christians, 3,000-4,000 Portuguese, and many non-Christians, while
outside the city the rest of Ilhas contained 50,000 inhabitants, 80 percent of them Hindu.
Recent estimates put the city population at 60,000 in the 1580s, and about 75,000 at 1600,
the latter figure including 1,500 Portuguese and mestiços, 20,000 Hindus, and the rest local
Christians, Africans, and others. In the 1630s the total population of the Old Conquests —
Ilhas, Bardes and Salcette — was perhaps a little more than a quarter of a million...
Casualties in the endless skirmishes with Malabarese and others were often substantial.
Cholera and malaria also took their toll; one estimate claims that from 1604 to 1634, 25,000
soldiers died in the Royal Hospital in Goa."
30. Pearson, p. 56-59.
31. Portuguese Studies Review (ISSN 1057-1515) (Baywolf Press) p.35
32. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 321.
33. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 325.
34. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 326.
35. "Catalogue Description: 'The British Occupation of the Portuguese Settlements in India,
Goa, Diu, Damaun,..." (http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/58cf5e45-1d2d-457e
-b3ae-cc533d9735e2) discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk. The National Archives.
36. Disney, II, 2009, p. 330.
37. Leasor, J. (1978). Boarding Party (http://www.jamesleasor.com/boarding-party-filmed-and-re
published-in-paperback-as-the-sea-wolves/). London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-41026-8.
OCLC 4191743 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4191743).
38. Mascarenhas, Lambert. "Goa's Freedom Movement" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120214
125132/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html). Archived from the original (htt
p://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html) on 14 February 2012.
39. "CASE CONCERNING RIGHT OF PASSAGE OVER INDIAN TERRITORY (MERITS):
Judgment of 12 April 1960" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111222171240/http://www.icj-cij.
org/docket/files/32/4523.pdf) (PDF). 22 December 2011. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.icj-cij.org/docket/files/32/4523.pdf) (PDF) on 22 December 2011.
40. Singh, Satyindra (1992). "Blueprint to Bluewater, The Indian Navy, 1951–65" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20060706083838/http://indiannavy.nic.in/bptobw.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/bptobw.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2006.
41. Ali, B. Sheikh (1986). Goa Wins Freedom: Reflections and Reminiscences (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=tCZuAAAAMAAJ&q=indian+consulate++). Goa University. p. 154.
ISBN 9788185571003.
42. Esteves, Sarto (1966). Goa and Its Future (https://books.google.com/books?id=oNQLAAAAI
AAJ&q=consul+general). Manaktalas. p. 88.
43. Prabhakar, Peter Wilson (2003). Wars, Proxy-wars and Terrorism: Post Independent India (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC&q=indian%2520blockade%2520goa&p
g=PA39). New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 39. ISBN 9788170998907.
44. "Lambert Mascarenhas, "Goa's Freedom Movement," excerpted from Henry Scholberg,
Archana Ashok Kakodkar and Carmo Azevedo, Bibliography of Goa and the Portuguese in
India New Delhi, Promilla (1982)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120214125132/http://www.
goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html). Archived from the original (http://www.goacom.co
m/culture/history/history4.html) on 14 February 2012.
45. De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages (https://books.google.com/books?id=d
wYDPnEjTb4C&q=indian%2520blockade%2520goa&pg=PA276). Goa University
Publications Series No. 6. Vol. 2: An Economic History. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company. p. 276. ISBN 9788170222590.
46. "The Liberation of Goa: 1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060828110301/http://bharat-ra
kshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa.html). Bharat Rakshak, a Consortium of Indian Military
Websites. Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa.
html) on 28 August 2006.
47. "Liberation of Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928203647/http://gpp.nic.in/Liberatio
n.html). Government Polytechnic of Goa. Archived from the original (http://gpp.nic.in/Liberati
on.html) on 28 September 2007.
48. Pillarisetti, Jagan. "The Liberation of Goa: 1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120107025
811/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html). Bharat Rakshak, a
Consortium of Indian Military Websites. Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-raksha
k.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html) on 7 January 2012.
49. "Liberation of Goa, Goa Liberation Day" (https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/goa/geography
-and-history/liberation-of-goa.html). Maps of India.
50. "Dossier Goa – A Recusa do Sacrifício Inútil" (http://www.shvoong.com/books/469174-dossi
er-goa-recusa-sacrif%C3%ADcio-in%C3%BAtil/). Shvoong.com.
51. Gupta, K. R. Amita; Gupta, Amita (2006). Concise Encyclopaedia of India (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=9dNOT9iYxcMC&q=Dadra%2520and%2520Nagar%2520Haveli%252
0%25201954%25201961.&pg=PA1214). Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 1214.
ISBN 9788126906390.
52. "But Not Gone" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081215143912/http://www.time.com/time/ma
gazine/article/0,9171,843378,00.html). Time. 27 January 1967. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,843378,00.html) on 15 December 2008.
53. Boland-Crewe, Tara; Lea, David (2 September 2003). The Territories and States of India (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=M2uPAgAAQBAJ&q=30%2520May%25201987%2520tha
t%2520Goa%2520became%2520the%252025th%2520state%2520of%2520the%2520India
n%2520Union&pg=PA25). Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 9781135356255.
54. Miranda, Rocky V. (2007). "Konkani" (https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ
&q=replacement%2520of%2520Portuguese%2520with%2520English%2520language%25
20goa&pg=PA735). In Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages.
Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 735. ISBN 9781135797119.
55. "The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987" (https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/1
23456789/6809/1/official_language_act.pdf) (PDF), Manual of Goa Laws, vol. III, pp. 487–
492
56. "Portuguese Civil Code is No Model for India" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/P
ortuguese-Civil-Code-is-no-model-for-India/articleshow/5277521.cms). The Times of India.
TNN. 28 November 2009.
57. "Gangadhar Yashwant Bhandare vs Erasmo Jesus De Sequiria" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160304064449/http://www.manupatrainternational.in/supremecourt/1950-1979/sc1975/s
750288.htm). manupatra. Archived from the original (http://www.manupatrainternational.in/su
premecourt/1950-1979/sc1975/s750288.htm) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
58. "Goa To Have An Exile Government". The Age. 5 January 1962. p. 4.
59. Asian Recorder (https://books.google.com/books?id=UMgTAAAAIAAJ&q=%2522continue+t
o+have+representation+in+the+Portuguese+National+Assembly%2522), vol. 8, 1962,
p. 4490
60. "Treaty on Recognition of India's Sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadar and Nagar
Haveli Amendment, 14 Mar 1975" (http://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/5964/Treaty
+on+Recognition+of+Indias+Sovereignty+over+Goa+Daman+and+Diu+Dadar+and+Nagar+
Haveli+Amendment+14+Mar+1975). mea.gov.in.
61. Barbosa, Alexandre Moniz (15 January 2014). "Portuguese Nationality is Fundamental
Right by Law" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Portuguese-nationality-is-fundam
ental-right-by-law/articleshow/28808047.cms). The Times of India.
62. "Portuguese Citizens Cannot Contest Polls: Faleiro" (http://www.thehindu.com/todays-pape
r/tp-national/tp-karnataka/portuguese-citizens-cannot-contest-polls-faleiro/article5472699.ec
e). The Hindu. 18 December 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
63. "Colonial Voyage – Tangasseri" (http://www.colonialvoyage.com/asia-dutch-colonial-remain
s-16th-18th-centuries/#). Mathrubhumi. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
64. "Tangasseri – OOCITIES" (http://www.oocities.org/athens/Acropolis/9669/tangy.htm).
OOCITIES. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
65. "Archaeological site and remains" (http://www.asithrissurcircle.in/Monuments.html).
Archaeological Survey of India – Thrissur Circle. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
66. "Tangasseri: A Brief History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131122170529/http://rotarytang
asseri.org/history.html). Rotary Club of Tangasseri. Archived from the original (http://rotarytan
gasseri.org/history.html) on 22 November 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
67. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, 2009, p. 159.
68. Disney, II, 2009, p. 161.
69. Disney, volume II, 2009, p. 160.
70. Disney, II, 2009, p. 163.
71. Disney, II, 2009, p. 164.
 72. Disney, II, 2009, p. 165.
73. A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, 2009, p. 150.
74. Disney, 2009, p.150
75. Disney, 2009, p.152
76. Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing
Group. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-8264-6074-5.
77. Disney, 2009, p.155
78. Disney, 2009, p.155
79. Disney, 2009, p.156
80. Disney, 2009, p.156
81. Disney, 2009, p.156
82. Disney, 2009, p.173
83. Disney, 2009, p.175
84. Disney, 2009, p.175
85. Disney, 2009, p.175
86. Disney, 2009, p.176
87. Disney, 2009, p.177
88. Disney, 2009, p.153
89. Disney, 2009, p.153
90. Disney, 2009, p.310
91. Disney, 2009, p.306
92. Disney, 2009, p.175
93. Disney, 2009, p.175
94. Disney, 2009, p.312
95. Disney, 2009, p.145
96. Disney, 2009, p.147
97. Disney, 2009, p.201
98. Disney, 2009, p.148
99. Disney, 2009, p.148
100. Disney, 2009, p.148
101. Disney, 2009, p.148
102. Disney, 2009, p.147
103. Disney, 2009, p.149

Further reading
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto
Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New
Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.
Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar.
London: G. Allen and Unwin.
Panikkar, K. M. 1929: Malabar and the Portuguese: being a history of the relations of the
Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663
Priolkar, A. K. The Goa Inquisition (https://archive.org/details/GoaInquisitionAnantKakbaPrio
lkar) (Bombay, 1961).
 Declercq, Nico F. (2021). "Chapter 41: Fortresses and settlements in Goa and Sri Lanka and
the appearance of Iberian names". The Desclergues of la Villa Ducal de Montblanc (https://a
rchive.org/details/The_Desclergues_of_la_Villa_Ducal_de_Montblanc). pp. 691–696.
ISBN 9789083176901.

External links
ColonialVoyage.com (http://www.colonialvoyage.com/) – History of the Portuguese and the
Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil.
Biographical entries on Portuguese viceroys and governors of India (1550-1640) in
Portuguese - [1] (https://www.academia.edu/28553333/Virtual_Encyclopedia_of_the_Portug
uese_Expansion_Articles_2008_2017)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_India&oldid=1084753072"

This page was last edited on 26 April 2022, at 11:15 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Saraswat Brahmin
The Saraswat Brahmins are a Hindu Brahmin subcaste, who
have spread from Kashmir in North India to Konkan in West India
to Kanara (coastal region of Karnataka) and Kerala in South India.
The word Saraswat is derived from the Rigvedic Sarasvati
River.[1][2][3]

Contents
Classification Parashurama with Saraswat
Brahmin, commanding Varuna to
History
make the seas recede in order to
Philosophy and literature
create the Konkan Region[1]
Military and administration
Society and culture
Marriages
Diet
Notable people
See also
References
Bibliography

Classification
Saraswats Brahmins are classified under the Pancha Gauda Brahmin classification of the Brahmin
community in India.

In Western and South India, along with the Chitpavan, Karhades (including Padhyes, Bhatt Prabhus), and
Konkani-speaking Saraswat Brahmins are referred to as Konkani Brahmins, which denotes those Brahmin
sub-castes of the Konkan coast which have a regional significance in Maharashtra and Goa.[4] Here the
Saraswat Brahmins are divided into three sub-groups, they are, Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, Chitrapur
Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins. Vaishnavas among them are followers of Kashi Math
and Gokarna Math, while the Smarthas are followers of Kavale Math and Chitrapur Math.[5]

Based on Veda and Vedanta

In Western and South India, The Saraswat Brahmins are Rigvedi Brahmins and they follow Ashwalayana
Sutra and are of Shakala Shaka[6] Saraswat Brahmins are divided into two groups based on the Vedanta
they follow, the first of which follows the Dvaita Vedanta of Madhvacharya and second group are
followers of Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara.
In Karnataka and Kerala, Majority of Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are followers of Madhvacharya, while the
Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins are Smarthas, followers of Adi Shankara.[7][8][9] Writer Chandrakant Keni
and former I.C.S officer V. N. Kudva says, "The majority of the Saraswats, including those in Goa, are
now Vaishnavas".[10][11][12]

History
In Kalhana's Rajatarangini (12th century CE), the Saraswats are mentioned as one of the five Pancha
Gauda Brahmin communities residing to the north of the Vindhyas.[2] They were spread over a wide area
in northern part of the Indian subcontinent. One group lived in coastal Sindh and Gujarat, this group
migrated to Bombay State after the partition of India in 1947. One group was found in pre-partition Punjab
and Kashmir most of these migrated away from Pakistan after 1947. Another branch known as
Dakshinatraya Saraswat Brahmin are now found along the western coast of India.[3][13]

Philosophy and literature

Saraswats have contributed to the fields of Sanskrit, Konkani, Marathi and Kannada literature and
philosophy. All the mathadhipathis of Kashi Math, Gokarna Math, Kavale Math and Chitrapur Math
without a single exception are from the Saraswat Brahmin community.[14][15] The 17th century Madhva
Saraswat scholar, Sagara Ramacharya, the author of Konkanabhyudhaya,[16] the 19th century Konkani
scholar Shenoi Goembab,[17] and the 20th century multi-faceted Marathi scholar Purushottam Laxman
Deshpande[18] are some of the prominent scholars from the Saraswat Brahmin community.

Advaita saints such as Gaudapada, grand-teacher of the philosopher Shankaracharya, Sureśvara, the first
peetadhipathi of Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Mandana Mishra,[19] and Parijnanashram I, the first
peetadhipathi of Chitrapur Math; the Vaishnava saints such as Surdas,[20] Narayana Tirtha,[21] the first
peetadhipathi of Gokarna Math and Yadavendra Tirtha,[21] the first peetadhipathi of Kashi Math, are some
of the prominent saints from the Saraswat Brahmin community.

Military and administration

Historically, in Maharashtra, Saraswats had served as low and medium level administrators under the
Deccan Sultanates for generations. In 18th century, the quasi-independent Shinde and the Holkar rulers of
Malwa recruited Saraswats to fill their administrative positions. This made them wealthy holder of rights
both in Maharashtra and Malwa during the eighteenth century. During the same period in Peshwa ruled
areas, there was a continuation of filling of small number of administration post by the Saraswats.[22]
During the rule of the Chitpavan Brahmin Peshwas in the 18th century, Saraswat Brahmins was one of the
communities against whom the Chitpavans conducted a social war which led to Gramanya (inter-caste
dispute).[23]

After the liberation of Goa from the Portuguese colonial rule in 1961, many Goan Saraswats opposed
merger of Goa into Maharashtra.[24]

Society and culture

Northern and Eastern India

According to M. K. Kaw (2001), Kashmiri Pandits, a part of the larger Saraswat Brahmin community hold
the highest social status in Kashmir.[25]
Based on the calendar used, they divided into two groups-Malmasi (who remained in the valley despite
religious persecution) and Banmasi (who are said to have immigrated or re-immigrated under King Zain ul
Abidin in the fifteenth century)

The former follow the lunar calendar while latter who are in the majority follow the solar calendar.[26][27]

Walter Lawrence states that the Kashmiri Pandit community to be divided into the following classes - the
Jotish (astrologer), the priestly class Guru or Bachabat and the Karkun (working class) that was employed
in government service.[26]

Western and Southern India

The majority of Saraswats speak Konkani, one of the languages of the Indo-Aryan language family. The
major dialects of Konkani used by Saraswats are Goan Konkani, Maharashtrian Konkani and Canarese
Konkani.

Rivalry between the Saraswat Brahmins and the other Brahmins such as the Chitpavans led to conflicts
over ritual status[28] During Shivaji's coronation, the ritual status of the Saraswats to be Brahmins was
supported by Gaga Bhat a leading Brahmin from Benares.[29]

According to some socialists due to pescatarian diet of saraswats the claim of satkarmi brahminhood of
saraswats was contested by local Brahmins but majority of saraswat Brahmins were Vegetarians, this was
discussed during coronation of shivaji where Gagabhatt gave verdict in favour of saraswat
Brahmins,further during British era this matter reached court which resulted in court declaring saraswat
Brahmins as Satkarmi Brahmins[11][9][30][31]

Marriages

The Saraswat Brahmins are divided into various territorial endogamous groups, who at one time did not
intermarry.[32] According to the sociologist, Gopa Sabharwal (2006),[33] marriages between Saraswat and
non-Saraswat Brahmins are on the increase though they were unheard of before, mainly because the
Saraswats eat fish and occasionally meat, while all other Brahmins in that region are vegetarians.[34][35]

Diet
North India

Kashmiri Pandits eat mutton and fish, but obey restrictions laid down by the shastras of not eating the meat
of forbidden animals.[26] Professor Frederick J. Simoons says according to some reports, Saraswat
Brahmins from northern India also consume fish as part of their diet.[36][37][38]

Western and South India

In Goa and Konkan region, Saraswat Brahmins have both vegetarians and pescetarians among
them,[39][40][41] while in Maharashtra they are pescetarians.[42]

In Karnataka, Saraswat Brahmins are mainly concentrated in the coastal Kanara region. The sub-groups
among Saraswats are Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat
Brahmins are largely vegetarians.[11][9]
In Gujarat, Saraswat Brahmins are pure vegetarians and do not even consume masur dal and garlic. They
chiefly live on Bajri (millet), wheat roti (unleavened bread) with rice during the lunch and Khichdi (a
mixture of rice and pulse) in the Dinner.[43]

In Kerala, Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins and Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are chiefly vegetarians, but there are
also pescetarians among them .[44][45]

Notable people

See also
Canara Konkani
Gaud Saraswat Brahmin
Rajapur Saraswat Brahmin
Gauda Brahmins

References
1. Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By
Gajanan shastri Gaytonde, published by Shree Katyani Publication, Mumbai
2. D. Shyam Babu and Ravindra S. Khare, ed. (2011). Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities
(https://books.google.com/books?id=lXyWE6KbG8oC&pg=PA168). Pearson Education
India. p. 168. ISBN 9788131754399.
3. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z (https://archive.o
rg/details/illustratedencyc0000loch). Rosen. pp. 490 (https://archive.org/details/illustratedenc
yc0000loch/page/490)–491. ISBN 9780823931804.
4. P. P. Nārāyanan Nambūdiri (1992). Aryans in South India (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=El9uAAAAMAAJ). Inter-India Publications. p. 78. ISBN 9788121002660.
5. Saraswats in Goa and Beyond (https://books.google.com/books?id=B0NuAAAAMAAJ).
Murgaon Mutt Sankul Samiti. 1998. p. 10.
6. Kamath, Suryanath U. (1992). The origin and spread of Gauda Saraswats. Archana
Prakashana.
7. P. Thankappan Nair (2004). South Indians in Kolkata: History of Kannadigas, Konkanis,
Malayalees, Tamilians, Telugus, South Indian Dishes, and Tippoo Sultan's Heirs in Calcutta
(https://books.google.com/books?id=swNuAAAAMAAJ). Punthi Pustak. p. 93.
ISBN 9788186791509. "As a result of this, the Saraswats living in the south of the Gangavali
in North Kanara separated into what is known as the Gowda Saraswat community
consisting mostly of Vaishnavas and Chitrapur Saraswats, mostly of Smarthas."
8. Karnataka State Gazetteer: South Kanara (https://books.google.com/books?id=jooBAAAAM
AAJ). Director of Print., Stationery and Publications at the Government Press. 1973. p. 111.
"The Gauda Saraswats are the Madhva Vaishnavite Saraswat Brahmins, while the
Saraswats [Chitrapur] have continued to be Smarthas."
9. S. Anees Siraj (2012). Karnataka State: Udupi District (https://books.google.com/books?id=L
Giex76a5-kC&q=madhva). Government of Karnataka, Karnataka Gazetteer Department.
p. 189.
10. Chandrakant Keni (1998). Saraswats in Goa and Beyond (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=B0NuAAAAMAAJ). Murgaon Mutt Sankul Samiti. p. 62. "The majority of the Saraswats,
including those in Goa, are now Vaishnavas"
11. The Illustrated Weekly of India, Volume 91, Part 2 (https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.1068
9.12084). Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at the Times
of India Press. 1970. p. 63 (https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12084/page/n411).
"The Saraswats are largely a vegetarian community, whose coconut- based cuisine is famed
for its variety."
12. Venkataraya Narayan Kudva (1972). History of the Dakshinatya Saraswats (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=x0NuAAAAMAAJ). Samyukta Gowda Saraswata Sabha. p. 154. "The
majority of the Saraswats, including those in Goa, are now Vaishnavas. Nearly the whole of
the prosperous trading community on the West Coast are now Madhvas."
13. Dakshinatya Sarasvats: Tale of an Enterprising Community, page 6
14. Sharma 2000, p. 474.
15. Sharma 2000, p. 577.
16. Sharma 2000, p. 580.
17. Olivinho Gomes (2004). Goa (https://books.google.com/books?id=rl9uAAAAMAAJ).
National Book Trust, India. p. 176. ISBN 9788123741390. "Shennoy Goembab, the great
Konkani writer and scholar, himself a Saraswat Brahmin by caste ,"
18. "Economic and Political Weekly, Volume 14" (https://books.google.com/books?id=NauwAA
AAIAAJ&q=deshpande&pg=PA1519). Sameeksha Trust. 1979: 1519. "Deshpande a college
graduate from a progressive Gaud Saraswat Brahmin community.."
19. P. Thankappan Nair (2004). South Indians in Kolkata: History of Kannadigas, Konkanis,
Malayalees, Tamilians, Telugus, South Indian Dishes, and Tippoo Sultan's Heirs in Calcutta
(https://books.google.com/books?id=swNuAAAAMAAJ). Punthi Pustak. p. 93.
ISBN 9788186791509. "Remembering that some of his predecessors like
Sureshvaracharya ( the famous Mandana Misra, the successor of Sankaracharya on the
Sringeri Sharada Pitha ) were Kashmiri Saraswats, the Jagadguru readily gave them a letter
in which ..."
20. Medieval Indian Literature, an Anthology: Selections (Gujarati - Konkani) (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=M81jAAAAMAAJ). Sahitya Akademi. 1997. p. 457. ISBN 9788126003655.
"SURDAS ( Sürdās, 1488 - 1591 ) was born in the village of Sihi, near Delhi, as the son of
Ram Das, a Saraswat Brahmin."
21. Sharma 2000, p. 578.
22. Gordon, Stewart (2017). The Marathas 1600-1818, Volume 2 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&q=Saraswat+&pg=PA109). Cambridge university press. pp. 130–
145. ISBN 9780521033169.
23. Gokhale, Sandhya (2008). The Chitpwans. Shubhi Publications. p. 204. "The jati disputes
were not a rare occurrence in Maharashtra. There are recorded instances of disputes
between jatis such as Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Pathare
Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Saraswats and the Chitpawans and Shukla Yajurvedi and the
Chitpawans. These intra-caste dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical
ritual code of behavior was called Gramanya in marathi."
24. Arun Sinha (2002). Goa Indica: A Critical Portrait of Postcolonial Goa (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=lVluAAAAMAAJ). Bibliophile South Asia. p. 50. ISBN 8185002312. Retrieved
6 July 2019.
25. M K, KAW (2017). Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future (https://books.google.com/books?
id=VMM-xRVr5qgC&q=kashmir+saraswat+brahmins+social+status.&pg=PA34). APH
Publications. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9788176482363.
26. Michael Witzel (September 1991). "THE BRAHMINS OF KASHMIR" (http://www.michaelwit
zel.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/KashmiriBrahmins1.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 25 January
2021.
27. Dhingra, Rajni; Arora, Vaishali (March 2005). "At the Cross Roads: Families in Distress" (htt
ps://www.researchgate.net/publication/228810409). Journal of Human Ecology. 17 (3): 217–
222. doi:10.1080/09709274.2005.11905784 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09709274.2005.11
905784). S2CID 54701622 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54701622). Retrieved
25 January 2021.
28. . Gokhale, Sandhya (2008). The Chitpwans. Shubhi Publications. p. 204. The jati disputes
were not a rare occurrence in Maharashtra. There are recorded instances of disputes
between jatis such as Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Pathare
Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Saraswats and the Chitpawans and Shukla Yajurvedi and the
Chitpawans. These intra-caste dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical
ritual code of behavior was called Gramanya in Marathi.
29. Manu S Pillai (2018). Rebel Sultans: The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji (https://books.google.
com/books?d=Rq5oDwAAQBAJ). Juggernaut Books. pp. 279–. ISBN 978-93-86228-73-4.
30. Dennis Kurzon (2004). Where East Looks West: Success in English in Goa and on the
Konkan Coast (https://books.google.com/books?id=p5iK3CmIW6EC&pg=PA74).
Multilingual Matters. pp. 74–. ISBN 978-1-85359-673-5. "Saraswatis claim that they come
from the Brahmin caste – hence their name - but others believe that they are usurpers using
some fake brahmin ancestry to maintain their superiority."
31. Ramesh Bairy (11 January 2013). Being Brahmin, Being Modern: Exploring the Lives of
Caste Today (https://books.google.com/books?id=BTXgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA193).
Routledge. pp. 193–. ISBN 978-1-136-19820-5. "Saraswat claim to Brahminhood is still
strongly under dispute, particularly in the coastal districts of Karnataka."
32. Kumar Suresh Singh (1998). India's Communities, Volume 6. Oxford University Press.
p. 3175. "The Saraswat Brahman are an ancient and a dynamic community of India, spread
from Jammu and Kashmir to Konkan. They are divided into various territorial endogamous
groups, who at one time did not intermarry."
33. "Department Of Sociology:Dr. Gopa Sabharwal" (http://lsr.edu.in/courses-sociology-gopa-sa
bharwal.asp). Retrieved 28 December 2019.
34. Gopa Sabharwal (2006). Ethnicity and Class: Social Divisions in an Indian City (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=gEhPAAAAMAAJ). Oxford University Press. p. 131.
ISBN 9780195678307. "In fact, marriages between Saraswat and non-Saraswat Brahmins
are on the increase though they were unheard of before, mainly because the Saraswats eat
fish and occasionally meat, while all other Brahmins are vegetarians."
35. Ramesh Bairy (11 January 2013). Being Brahmin, Being Modern: Exploring the Lives of
Caste Today (https://books.google.com/books?id=GAS8TN50bJcC&pg=PA194). Routledge.
ISBN 9781136198199. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
36. Frederick J. Simoons (1994). Eat Not this Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the
Present (https://books.google.com/books?id=QLTfAAAAMAAJ). University of Wisconsin
Press. p. 284. ISBN 9780299142506. "There are even reports of certain Brahmin (Bengali
Brahmins, Oriya Brahmins, Brahmins of certain parts of Bihar, Saraswat Brahmins of
northern India, and Kashmiri Pandits) eating fish."
37. Kaw, M. K. (2001). Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=VMM-xRVr5qgC&q=gaud+saraswat+fish&pg=PA35). APH Publishing.
ISBN 9788176482363. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
38. "Forward castes must think forward as well" (https://www.hindustantimes.com/ht-view/forwar
d-castes-must-think-forward-as-well/story-SQ9mT9rE8zOGDSyhO5If3K.html). Hindustan
Times. 23 November 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
39. Maria Couto (2005). Goa: A Daughter's Story (https://books.google.com/books?id=2QYYjT8-
0BIC&pg=PR11). Penguin Books India. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-14-303343-1.
40. Understanding Society: Readings in the Social Sciences (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=jDxdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA273). Macmillan International Higher Education. October 1970.
p. 273. ISBN 9781349153923. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
41. Anant Kakba Priolkar (1967). Goa Re-discovered (https://books.google.com/books?id=AbR9
9ym3E_EC). Bhatkal Books International. p. 53. "Saraswats are mainly vegetarians but are
permitted to eat fish."
42. G. C. Hallen (1988). Indian Journal of Social Research, Volume 29 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=1Yg5AAAAIAAJ). p. 4. "In Maharashtra among most Brahmin castes non-
vegetarian food is taboo but the Saraswat Brahmins eat fish."
43. Kumar Suresh Singh (1998). India's Communities: N -Z (https://books.google.com/books?id
=jHQMAQAAMAAJ). Oxford University Press. p. 3178. ISBN 9780195633542.
44. J. Rajathi (1976). Survey of Konkani in Kerala (https://books.google.com/books?id=uLnoakl
6NH0C). Language Division, Office of the Registrar General. pp. 7–8.
45. Nagendra Singh (2006). Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography,
Volume 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC). Global Vision Pub House.
p. 729. ISBN 9788182201675. "Rajapura Saraswat ( Rajapuri ) are loosely referred to as
Nayaka ... The Rajapura Saraswat are mostly vegetarian , rice being their chief food , but
some use fish , and rear fowls.."

Bibliography
Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its
Literature, Vol 1. 3rd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint), ISBN 978-8120815759

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saraswat_Brahmin&oldid=1084741671"

This page was last edited on 26 April 2022, at 09:07 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 15.1219°N 74.1306°E

Usgalimal rock engravings

Usgalimal rock engravings or Usgalimal Petroglyphs at
Usgalimal village, in South Goa, is one of the most important
prehistoric sites in western India.[1]

Overview
Situated on the banks of river Kushavati, these engravings exhibit
earliest traces of human settlement in Goa. These petroglyphs (rock
Rock art at Usgalimal
art) are approximately 4,000 to 6,000 years old and belong to the
Neolithic Period. More than 100 distinct figures, spread an area of
500 sqm., including images of bulls, labyrinths and human figures
are carved on laterite stones.[1][2]

The site was discovered in 1993 when local villagers took

archaeologists to the bend in west-flowing river Kushavati outside
the village, with mysterious engravings on the laterite shelf. The
layer of mud covering up the engravings had been washed away by
monsoon floods facilitating their discovery. Subsequently, when the
soil was cleared more engravings were found. In the coming years,
Petroglyph depicting an Indian bison
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) put up signage and started
promoting the site as a tourist destination, while the Forest
Department declared it a protected area. Some of the finds are displayed in the Panaji Archaeological
Museum.[3]

Location
The engravings are situated on the bed of the river Kushavati, beyond old iron ore mines, outside
Usagalimal village, accessible via a winding pathway. It is about one km down from the main road between
Rivona to Neturlim, and about 16 km south of Rivona in the Sanguem taluka in South Goa district.[4][5]

References
1. Indian Archaeological Society (2006). Purātattva, Issue 36. Indian Archaeological Society.
p. 254.
2. Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Robert G. Bednarik, Indirā Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava
Saṅgrahālaya (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 228
pages (see page 34). ISBN 9788120814646.
3. David Abram (2004). Goa (https://books.google.com/books?id=GGZRtj4OnccC&q=Usgalim
al+rock+engravings&pg=PA190). Rough Guides. p. 190. ISBN 1843530813.
4. "Historical rock art included in unauthorized religious structures list" (https://archive.today/20
120701165226/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-15/goa/28141453_1_una
uthorized-religious-structures-rock-art-carvings). The Times of India. Mar 15, 2010. Archived
from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-15/goa/28141453_1_un
authorized-religious-structures-rock-art-carvings) on July 1, 2012.
 5. Paul Harding (2003). Goa (https://books.google.com/books?id=cmO6M63ISKYC&q=%22Us
galimal+rock+engravings%22+-inpublisher%3Aicon&pg=PA187). Lonely Planet. p. 187.
ISBN 1-74059-139-9.

[1] (https://goaprehistory.wordpress.com/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usgalimal_rock_engravings&oldid=1077559751"

This page was last edited on 16 March 2022, at 23:29 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Velhas Conquistas
As Velhas Conquistas or "the Old Conquests" are a grouping of
the areas in Goa which were incorporated into Portuguese India
early in the sixteenth century AD; as these areas underwent
urbanisation they were elevated to concelhos (municipalities) by the
Portuguese Viceroyalty that ruled from the administrative centre at
Velha Goa. Having been acquired in AD 1510 or within the next
few years, they formed the oldest parts and the core of Portuguese
Goa and remain as the central theme in the history geography and
culture of present-day Goa and Damaon. The Novas Conquistas or
New Conquests formed the outer periphery of Goa bordering the
erstwhile British India. Novas Conquistas of present-day Goa
shares borders with the Konkan province of Maharashtra, and also
with Belgaum and North Canara districts of Carnatica.

The three concelhos of the territory are Bardes (Bardez), Ilhas de

Goa (Tiswadi), and Salcette (modern-day Salcete and Mormugao Goa at its height under Portuguese
talukas). When writing postal addresses, Velhas Conquistas is occupation. The Velhas Conquistas
abbreviated to "V.C." are highlighted in red.

Technically and historically the enclaves of Damaon and Diu Island

which were settled by the Portuguese in 1523 AD are also part of the Old Conquests, however in layman's
terms and contemporary contexts Velhas Conquistas is taken to mean the westernmost and central portions
of Goa, particularly the environs and neighbouring towns of the centuries-old city and capital of Ponnje.
The Old Conquests are also the most socio-economically developed areas of Goa.

See also
Novas Conquistas

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Velhas_Conquistas&oldid=1058838042"

This page was last edited on 5 December 2021, at 22:05 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Novas Conquistas
The Novas Conquistas or "New Conquests" are a group of seven
concelhos (administrative subdistricts or municipalities) of Goa and
Damaon, officially known as Portuguese India. They were added
into Goa in the eighteenth century AD, a comparatively later date
than the original three concelhos that make up the Velhas
Conquistas or "Old Conquests".

The seven concelhos of the Novas Conquistas are Pernem,

Bicholim, Sattari, Antruz (Ponda), Sanguem (modern-day
Sanguem and Dharbandora talukas), Quepem, and Canacona.
Silvassa was a newly conquered area in the territory of Damaon,
Diu& Silvassa

In writing postal addresses, the Novas Conquistas were abbreviated

"N.C."
Goa at its height under Portuguese
History occupation. The Novas Conquistas
are highlighted in cream.
In December 1764 Hyder Ali, the king of Mysore, sent his general
Fazalullah Khan northward into Soonda via Bednur, where
landowners who resisted his administration met severe retribution. Fearing capture, the Raja of Soonda fled
to Goa, surrendering his territories below the Western Ghats to the Portuguese in exchange for sanctuary
and a fixed annual stipend. The lower territories including the port of Sadashivgad near Karwar were
absorbed into the Kingdom of Mysore.[1]

These new areas granted by the Raja of Soonda were incorporated into Portuguese Goa.

Later in 1783 the Kingdom of Sawantwadi, in order to get Portuguese help against Kolhapur, ceded some
parts of Pernem, Bicholim and Sattari to Portugal. The remaining part of Pernem (including Terekhol Fort)
was ceded in 1788 and thus came to be known as the Novas Conquistas (New Conquests). Unlike the
Velhas Conquistas, these areas remained predominantly Hindu because the Portuguese government had
dismissed the Society of Jesus (the missionary order responsible for the majority of the Christianization of
Goa) in 1759.[2]

References
1. Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians, Alan Machado Prabhu, I.J.A.
Publications, 1999, pp. 168
2. "The American Catholic quarterly review" (https://archive.org/stream/americancatholic33phil
uoft#page/244/mode/2up/search/Jesuit). archive.org. Philadelphia : Hardy and Mahony.
p. 244. Retrieved 31 May 2017.

See also
Velhas Conquistas
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Novas_Conquistas&oldid=1043979868"

This page was last edited on 13 September 2021, at 00:32 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Gopakapattana
Gopakapattana or Gopakpatna (also known as Govāpurī, Gopakapurī in Sanskrit, Goy in Konkani,
Govā in Marathi, Gove in Kannada) was a prosperous ancient port city in the west coastal Indian state of
Goa, that served as capital under the reign of different Hindu dynasties extending from 100 BC to 1469
AD which ruled ancient Goa (which included Modern Goa and South Konkan).[1]: p .119  [2]: p .171 

In a certain Hindu scripture Suta Samhita, Govapuri is associated with spiritually cleansing touch: ...The
very sight of Govapuri destroys any sin committed in former existence just as sunrise dispels darkness
...Certainly there is no other kshetra equal to Govapuri

A similar hymn praising Govapuri city is found in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the
extent of Govapuri was about seven Yojanas.[3]: p .8 

गोकर्णादुत्तरे भागे सप्तयोजनविस्तृतं

तत्र गोवापुरी नाम नगरी पापनाशिनी

Gopakapattana is today a sleepy blink-and-miss village of Tiswadi. Except for the stray wanderer who
drives off the bustling National Highway 17 (66), the significance of this village and its history is all but
lost.

What may appear like just any other Goan roadside village, strewn across the paddy fields barely 10km
from Panaji was, until the emergence of Ela or today's Old Goa, India's wealthiest city and busiest port on
the southwest coast.

Goa Velha literally means Old Goa. This is often the reason for the village being confused for the other
historically rich village of Old Goa or Velha Goa which was then still nascent.

Gopakapattana is said to be built by Sanapulla, the founder of the south Konkan Silahara dynasty, who
reigned from 765 AD. The Silaharas ruled from 765 AD to 1020 AD, when they were overthrown by the
Kadambas.

According to the famous historian Dr A S Altekar, Gopakapattana finds mention in the epic, Mahabharata.
It was also known as Govapuri or Gove in the Ramayana, which adds that whoever casts a glance over the
holy city of Govapuri gets his sins cleansed.

As the Kadamba dynasty prospered, they built a navy that was formidable. With Chandor being too small
to accommodate his fleet of ships, Kadamba ruler Jayakeshi I moved to Goa Velha or Gopakapattana
which had natural breakwaters, a safe cove and was open to the seas, historians recount.

Today, all that remains of that historic city are the ruins of the laterite brick wall of the ancient port, the site
of the Kadamba palace, the 8km-long royal passage known as Raj Bidd from Agasaim to Old Goa, and
some centuries-old water tanks.

A predominantly Catholic village, Goa Velha is marked by many crosses and chapels besides the striking
church of St Andrew.
The village also holds a special significance for the Hindu brethren. Chamunda Devi is worshipped as the
gramdevi or village goddess and this is seen in the number of stores that are named after the deity. While
the main temple dedicated to Chamunda Devi is at Bicholim, a small idol of the goddess remains housed in
the Zuwarkar family home for daily dharshan.

On Akshaya tritiya, the deity kept in the Zuwarkar household is put on an assembled palki (palanquin) and
taken in a procession to the building of the Marathi school of the Chemunda Samaj in Goa Velha. It is
followed by a three-day cultural programme.

Among the prominent families of the village are the Kenis, Zuwarkars and the Menezes’. The few large
and old houses scattered about in the village are reportedly owned by these families. The beautiful colonial-
style architecture of the houses that belong to the Menezes family, specifically Solar-Menezes or Menezes
Mansion, the main ancestral house of the family is very impressive.

The 350-year old home of the Zuwarkar's commands a note. It is said that the surname Zuwarkar originates
from this village. Walk through the centuries-old wooden door frame on an evening and you maybe lucky
to bump into the Zuwarkar cousins. Ask nicely and they will happily show you their family tree drawn on
parched paper.

Today, the vestiges of Goa Velha are fading away. Once famed for its sweet potatoes and saltpans,
traditional trade is dying out. With 65% of its population, especially the younger generation, trading in their
Indian passports for the sought-after Portuguese passport, the identity of the village is changing, says Dr
Carmo Pegado.

The vacuum created by the migration to British shores is slowly being filled up by migrants from
neighbouring states.

In the past, Goa Velha was famous for Ayurveda. In fact, one of the village wards, Zuari, comprised mostly
experts in Ayurvedic medicines and the treatment of broken bones and hence they were known as Zuarioilo
doctor. Not much is left of this trade today.

See also
Kadambas of Goa
History of Goa
Saptakoteshwar

References
1. da Fonseca, José Nicolau (1878). Historical and Archaeological Sketch of the City of Goa.
Asian Educational Services. pp. 348 pages. ISBN 978-81-206-0207-6.
2. India. Study Team on Administration of Union Territories and NEFA., R. R. Morarka (1972).
Report, Volume 1. Administrative Reforms Commission.
3. Esteves, Sarto (1966). Goa and its features. Mumbai: Manaktalas.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gopakapattana&oldid=948855231"

This page was last edited on 3 April 2020, at 12:22 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Annexation of Goa
The Annexation of Goa was the process in
Annexation of Goa
which the Republic of India annexed Estado da
India, the then Portuguese Indian territories of
Goa, Daman and Diu, starting with the armed
action carried out by the Indian Armed Forces in
December 1961. In India, this action is referred
to as the "Liberation of Goa". In Portugal, it is
referred to as the "Invasion of Goa". Jawaharlal
Nehru had hoped that the popular movement in
Goa and the pressure of world public opinion
would force the Portuguese Goan authorities to

grant it independence but since it did not have

any effect, he decided to take it by force.[5]
Dadra and Nagar Haveli had already been
declared independent by the locals.

After Indian Independence from the United

Kingdom and the subsequent Partition of India
and Pakistan, a few pockets in the Konkan
region called "Portuguese India" were among the
last colonies in Asia. They included the areas of Location of the state of Goa in present-day India
Goa, Damaon, Silvassa, Diu & Anjediva on the Date 17–19 December 1961
west coast of the Indian peninsula. India claimed
the Portuguese territories by military power Location Goa, Daman and Diu, Portuguese India
means after the Salazar dictatorship of Portugal (incl. surrounding sea and airspace)

refused to leave. The "armed action" was code Result Indian victory
named Operation Vijay (meaning "Victory" in
Territorial Incorporation of the Portuguese
Hindi) by the Indian Armed Forces. It involved colonial territories of Goa, Daman and
changes
air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, and Diu into the Republic of India
was a decisive victory for India, ending 451
years of rule by Portugal over its remaining Belligerents
exclaves in India. The engagement lasted two  India Portugal
days, and twenty-two Indians and thirty
Commanders and leaders
Portuguese were killed in the fighting.[2] The
brief conflict drew a mixture of worldwide praise Rajendra Prasad
Américo Tomás

and condemnation. In India, the action was seen (President of India) (President of Portugal)
as a liberation of historically Indian territory, Jawaharlal Nehru
A. O. Salazar

while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against (Prime Minister of India)

(Prime Minister of Portugal)
its national soil and citizens. V. K. Krishna Menon

M. A. Vassalo e Silva

(Minister of Defence)
Following the end of Portuguese rule in 1961, (Governor-General)
Lt. Gen. J. N.
Goa was placed under military administration Cunha Aragão
headed by Kunhiraman Palat Candeth as Chaudhuri
lieutenant governor.[6] On 8 June 1962, military VAdm R. D. Katari

rule was replaced by civilian government when AVM Erlic Pinto

the Lieutenant Governor nominated an informal Maj. Gen. K. P.

Consultative Council of 29 nominated members Candeth
to assist him in the administration of the Brig. Sagat Singh
territory.[7]
Strength
45,000 infantry 3,500 military personnel

1 light aircraft carrier 1 frigate

Contents 2 cruisers 3 inshore patrol boats

Background 1 destroyer
Local resistance to Portuguese rule 8 frigates
Diplomatic efforts to resolve Goa 4 minesweepers
dispute 20 Canberra medium
Annexation of Dadra and Nagar bombers
Haveli 6 Vampire fighters
Events preceding the hostilities 6 Toofani fighter-bombers
Indian military build-up 6 Hunter multi-role
Portuguese mandate aircraft
Portuguese military preparations 4 Mystère fighter-
Navy bombers
Ground forces Casualties and losses
Air defence 22 killed[1] 30 killed[2]
Portuguese civilian evacuation 57 wounded[2]
Indian reconnaissance operations
1 frigate disabled[2][3]
Commencement of hostilities
4,668 captured[4]
Military actions in Goa
Ground attack on Goa: North and
North East sectors
Advance from the east
Air raids over Goa
Storming of Anjidiv Island
Naval battle at Mormugão
harbour
Military actions in Daman
Ground attack on Daman
Daman air raids
Naval action at Daman
Military actions in Diu
Ground attack on Diu
The Diu air raids
Naval action at Diu
UN attempts at ceasefire
Portuguese surrender
Portuguese actions post-hostilities
Internment and repatriation of the
prisoners of war
International reaction to the invasion
and annexation of Goa
Support
African states
Soviet Union
Arab states
Ceylon
Condemnation
United States
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Brazil
Pakistan
Ambivalence
People's Republic of China
The Catholic Church
Legality
Cultural depiction
See also
References
Citations
General bibliography
Further reading
External links

Background
After India's independence from the British Empire in August 1947, Portugal continued to hold a handful
of exclaves on the Indian subcontinent—the districts of Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli
—collectively known as the Estado da Índia. Goa, Daman and Diu covered an area of around 1,540
square miles (4,000  km2 ) and held a population of 637,591.[8] The Goan diaspora was estimated at
175,000 (about 100,000 within the Indian Union, mainly in Bombay).[9] Religious distribution was 61%
Hindu, 36.7% Christian (mostly Catholic) and 2.2% Muslim.[9] The economy was primarily based on
agriculture, although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in mining—principally iron ore and some
manganese.[9]

Local resistance to Portuguese rule

Resistance to Portuguese rule in Goa in the 20th century was pioneered by Tristão de Bragança Cunha, a
French-educated Goan engineer who founded the Goa Congress Committee in Portuguese India in 1928.
Cunha released a booklet called 'Four hundred years of Foreign Rule', and a pamphlet, 'Denationalisation
of Goa', intended to sensitise Goans to the oppression of Portuguese rule. Messages of solidarity were
received by the Goa Congress Committee from leading figures in the Indian independence movement
including Rajendra Prasad, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. On 12 October 1938, Cunha with
other members of the Goa Congress Committee met Subhas Chandra Bose, the President of the Indian
National Congress, and on his advice, opened a Branch Office of the Goa Congress Committee at 21,
Dalal Street, Bombay. The Goa Congress was also made affiliate to the Indian National Congress and
Cunha was selected as its first President.[10]

In June 1946, Ram Manohar Lohia, an Indian Socialist leader, entered Goa on a visit to his friend, Julião
Menezes, a nationalist leader, who had founded the Gomantak Praja Mandal in Bombay and edited the
weekly newspaper Gomantak. Cunha and other leaders were also with him.[10] Ram Manohar Lohia
advocated the use of non-violent Gandhian techniques to oppose the government.[11] On 18 June 1946, the
Portuguese government disrupted a protest against the suspension of civil liberties in Panaji (then spelt
'Panjim') organised by Lohia, Cunha and others including Purushottam Kakodkar and Laxmikant Bhembre
in defiance of a ban on public gatherings, and arrested them.[12][13] There were intermittent mass
demonstrations from June to November.

In addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal (The Free Goa Party)
and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa.[14]
The Indian government supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving
them full financial, logistic and armament support. The armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian
territory and under cover of Indian police forces. The Indian government—through these armed groups—
attempted to destroy economic targets, telegraph and telephone lines, road, water and rail transport, in order
to impede economic activity and create conditions for a general uprising of the population.[15] A
Portuguese army officer stationed with the army in Goa, Captain Carlos Azaredo, stated in 2001 in the
Portuguese newspaper Expresso: "To the contrary to what is being said, the most evolved guerrilla warfare
which our Armed Forces encountered was in Goa. I know what I'm talking about, because I also fought in
Angola and in Guiné. In 1961 alone, until December, around 80 policemen died. The major part of the
freedom fighters of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans. Many had fought in the British Army, under
General Montgomery, against the Germans."[16]

Diplomatic efforts to resolve Goa dispute

On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the

Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of
Portuguese colonies in India.[17] Portugal asserted that its territory
on the Indian subcontinent was not a colony but part of
metropolitan Portugal and hence its transfer was non-negotiable,
and that India had no rights to this territory because the Republic of
India did not exist at the time when Goa came under Portuguese
rule.[18] When the Portuguese government refused to respond to
subsequent aide-mémoires in this regard, the Indian government, on
11 June 1953, withdrew its diplomatic mission from Lisbon.[19]

By 1954, the Republic of India instituted visa restrictions on travel

from Goa to India which paralysed transport between Goa and
other exclaves like Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[17]
Meanwhile, the Indian Union of Dockers had, in 1954, instituted a
boycott on shipping to Portuguese India.[20] Between 22 July and 2
August 1954, armed activists attacked and forced the surrender of
Portuguese forces stationed in Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[21]
Goa, Western India
On 15 August 1955, 3000–5000 unarmed Indian activists[22]
attempted to enter Goa at six locations and were violently repulsed
by Portuguese police officers, resulting in the deaths of between 21[23] and 30[24] people.[25] The news of
the incident built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa.[26] On 1 September
1955, India shut its consul office in Goa.[27]

In 1956, the Portuguese ambassador to France, Marcello Mathias, along with Portuguese Prime Minister
António de Oliveira Salazar, argued in favour of a referendum in Goa to determine its future. This proposal
was however rejected by the Ministers for Defence and Foreign Affairs. The demand for a referendum was
repeated by presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in 1957.[17]

Prime Minister Salazar, alarmed by India's hinted threats at armed action against Portugal's presence in Goa,
first asked the United Kingdom to mediate, then protested through Brazil and eventually asked the United
Nations Security Council to intervene.[28] Mexico offered the Indian government its influence in Latin
America to bring pressure on the Portuguese to relieve tensions.[29] Meanwhile, Krishna Menon, India's
defence minister and head of India's UN delegation, stated in no uncertain terms that India had not "abjured
the use of force" in Goa.[28] The US ambassador to India, John Kenneth Galbraith, requested the Indian
government on several occasions to resolve the issue peacefully through mediation and consensus rather
than armed conflict.[30][31]

On 24 November 1961, Sabarmati, a passenger boat passing between the Indian port of Kochi and the
Portuguese-held island of Anjidiv, was fired upon by Portuguese ground troops, resulting in the death of a
passenger and injuries to the chief engineer. The action was precipitated by Portuguese fears that the boat
carried a military landing party intent on storming the island.[32] The incidents lent themselves to fostering
widespread public support in India for military action in Goa.

Eventually, on 10 December, nine days prior to the armed action, code named Operation Vijay, Nehru
stated to the press: "Continuance of Goa under Portuguese rule is an impossibility".[28] The American
response was to warn India that if and when India's armed action in Goa was brought to the UN security
council, it could expect no support from the US delegation.[33]

Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

The hostilities between India and Portugal started seven years before the annexation of Goa, when Dadra
and Nagar Haveli were invaded and occupied by pro-Indian forces with the support of the Indian
authorities.[34]

Dadra and Nagar Haveli were two Portuguese landlocked exclaves of the Daman district, totally
surrounded by Indian territory. The connection between the exclaves and the coastal territory of Daman had
to be made by crossing about 20 kilometres (12  mi) of Indian territory. Dadra and Nagar Haveli did not
have any Portuguese military garrison, but only police forces.

The Indian government started to develop isolation actions against Dadra and Nagar Haveli already in
1952, including the creation of impediments to the transit of persons and goods between the two landlocked
enclaves and Daman;[35] the use of these economic warfare tactics by India caused a deep economic
depression in Goa with subsequent hardship for the inhabitants and, in attempt to remedy the situation and
with land travel precluded, Salazar established a new airline to communicate the enclaves of Portuguese
India with its ports[36] In July 1954, pro-Indian forces, including members of organisations like the United
Front of Goans, the National Movement Liberation Organisation, the Communist Party of India, the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Azad Gomantak Dal, with the support of Indian Police forces,
began to launch assaults against Dadra and Nagar Haveli. On the night of 22 July, UFG forces stormed the
small Dadra police station, killing Police Sergeant Aniceto do Rosário and Constable António Fernandes,
who resisted the attack. On 28 July, RSS forces took Naroli police station.[34]
Meanwhile, the Portuguese authorities asked the Indian Government for permission to cross the Indian
territory with reinforcements to Dadra and Nagar Haveli, but no permission was given.[37] Surrounded and
prevented from receiving reinforcements by the Indian authorities, the Portuguese Administrator and police
forces in Nagar Haveli eventually surrendered to the Indian police forces on 11 August 1954. Portugal
appealed to the International Court of Justice, which, in a decision dated 12 April 1960,[38] stated that
Portugal had sovereign rights over the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli but India had the right to deny
passage to armed personnel of Portugal over Indian territories. Therefore, the Portuguese authorities could
not legally pass through Indian territory.

Events preceding the hostilities

Indian military build-up

On receiving the go-ahead for military action and a mandate for the capture of all occupied territories for
the Indian government, Lieutenant-General Chaudhari of the Indian Army's Southern Command fielded the
17th Infantry Division commanded by Major-General K. P. Candeth and the 50th Parachute Brigade
commanded by Brigadier Sagat Singh. The assault on the enclave of Daman was assigned to the 1st
battalion of the Maratha Light Infantry while the operations in Diu were assigned to the 20th battalion of
the Rajput Regiment and the 5th battalion of the Madras Regiment.[39]

Meanwhile, the Commander-in-Chief of India's Western Air Command, Air Vice Marshal Erlic Pinto, was
appointed as the commander of all air resources assigned to the operations in Goa. Air resources for the
assault on Goa were concentrated in the bases at Pune and Sambra (Belgaum).[39] The mandate handed to
Pinto by the Indian Air Command was listed out as follows:

1. The destruction of Goa's lone airfield in Dabolim, without causing damage to the terminal
building and other airport facilities.
2. Destruction of the wireless station at Bambolim, Goa.
3. Denial of airfields at Daman and Diu, which were, however, not to be attacked without prior
permission.
4. Support to advancing ground troops.

The Indian Navy deployed two warships—the INS Rajput, an 'R' Class destroyer, and INS  Kirpan, a
Blackwood class anti-submarine frigate—off the coast of Goa. The actual attack on Goa was delegated to
four task groups: a Surface Action Group comprising five ships: Mysore, Trishul, Betwa, Beas and
Cauvery; a Carrier Group of five ships: Delhi, Kuthar, Kirpan, Khukri and Rajput centred on the light
aircraft carrier Vikrant; a Mine Sweeping Group consisting of mine sweepers including Karwar, Kakinada,
Cannonore and Bimilipatan, and a Support Group which consisted of Dharini.[40]

Portuguese mandate

In March 1960, Portuguese Defence Minister General Júlio Botelho Moniz told Prime Minister Salazar that
a sustained Portuguese campaign against decolonisation would create for the army "a suicide mission in
which we could not succeed". His opinion was shared by Army Minister Colonel Afonso Magalhães de
Almeida Fernandes, by the Army under secretary of State Lieutenant-Colonel Francisco da Costa Gomes
and by other top officers.[41]
Ignoring this advice, Salazar sent a message to Governor General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva in Goa
on 14 December, in which he ordered the Portuguese forces in Goa to fight to the last man: "Do not expect
the possibility of truce or of Portuguese prisoners, as there will be no surrender rendered because I feel that
our soldiers and sailors can be either victorious or dead."[42] Salazar asked Vassalo e Silva to hold out for at
least eight days, within which time he hoped to gather international support against the Indian invasion.
Vassalo e Silva disobeyed Salazar to avoid the unnecessary loss of human lives and surrendered the day
after the Indian invasion.[42]

Portuguese military preparations

Portuguese military preparations began in 1954, following the Indian economic blockade, the beginning of
the anti-Portuguese attacks in Goa and the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Three light infantry
battalions (one each sent from Portugal, Angola and Mozambique) and support units were transported to
Goa, reinforcing a locally raised battalion and increasing the Portuguese military presence there from almost
nothing to 12,000 men.[16] Other sources state that, at the end of 1955, Portuguese forces in India
represented a total of around 8,000 men (Europeans, Africans and Indians), including 7,000 in the land
forces, 250 in the naval forces, 600 in the police and 250 in the Fiscal Guard, split between the districts of
Goa, Daman and Diu.[43] Following the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the Portuguese authorities
markedly strengthened the garrison of Portuguese India, with units and personnel sent from the Metropole
and from the Portuguese African provinces of Angola and Mozambique.

The Portuguese forces were organised as the Armed Forces of the State of India (FAEI, Forças Armadas
do Estado da Índia), under a unified command headed by General Paulo Bénard Guedes, who combined
the civil role of Governor-General with the military role of Commander-in-Chief. Guedes ended his
commission in 1958, with General Vassalo e Silva being appointed to replace him in both the civil and
military roles.[43]

The Portuguese government and military commands were, however, well aware that even with this effort to
strengthen the garrison of Goa, the Portuguese forces would never be sufficient to face a conventional
attack from the overwhelmingly stronger Indian Armed Forces. The Portuguese government hoped
however to politically deter the Indian government from attempting a military aggression through the
showing of a strong will to fight and to sacrifice to defend Goa.[43]

In 1960, during an inspection visit to Portuguese India and referring to a predictable start of guerrilla
activities in Angola, the Under Secretary of State of the Army, Francisco da Costa Gomes, stated the
necessity to reinforce the Portuguese military presence in that African territory, partly at the expense of the
military presence in Goa, where the then existing 7,500 men were too many just to deal with anti-
Portuguese actions, and too few to face an Indian invasion, which, if it were to occur, would have to be
handled by other means. This led to the Portuguese forces in India suffering a sharp reduction to about
3,300 soldiers.[43]

Faced with this reduced force strength, the strategy employed to defend Goa against an Indian invasion was
based on the Plano Sentinela (Sentinel Plan), which divided the territory into four defence sectors (North,
Center, South and Mormugão), and the Plano de Barragens (Barrage Plan), which envisaged the
demolition of all bridges to delay the invading army, as well as the mining of approach roads and beaches.
Defence units were organised as four battlegroups (agrupamentos), with one assigned to each sector and
tasked with slowing the progress of an invading force. Then-Captain Carlos Azaredo, who was stationed in
Goa at the time of hostilities, described the Plano Sentinela in the Portuguese newspaper Expresso on 8
December 2001 as "a totally unrealistic and unachievable plan, which was quite incomplete. It was based
on exchange of ground with time. But, for this purpose, portable communication equipment was
necessary."[16] The plans to mine roads and beaches were also unviable because of an insufficient quantity
of mines.[44]

Navy

The naval component of the FAEI were the Naval Forces of the State of India (FNEI, Forças Navais do
Estado da Índia), headed by the Naval Commander of Goa, Commodore Raúl Viegas Ventura. The only
significant Portuguese Navy warship present in Goa at the time of invasion was the sloop NRP Afonso de
Albuquerque.[45] It was armed with four 120 mm guns capable of two shots per minute, and four automatic
rapid-firing guns. In addition to the sloop, the Portuguese Naval Forces had three light patrol boats (lanchas
de fiscalização), each armed with a 20  mm Oerlikon gun, one based in each of Goa, Daman and Diu.
There were also five merchant marine ships in Goa.[46] An attempt by Portugal to send naval warships to
Goa to reinforce its marine defences was foiled when President Nasser of Egypt denied the ships access to
the Suez Canal.[47][48][49]

Ground forces

Portuguese ground defences were organised as the Land Forces of the State of India (FTEI, Forças
Terrestres do Estado da Índia), under the Portuguese Army's Independent Territorial Command of India,
headed by Brigadier António José Martins Leitão. At the time of the invasion, they consisted of a total of
3,995 men, including 810 native (Indo-Portugueses – Indo-Portuguese) soldiers, many of whom had little
military training and were utilised primarily for security and anti-extremist operations. These forces were
divided amongst the three Portuguese enclaves in India.[43] The Portuguese Army units in Goa included
four motorised reconnaissance squadrons, eight rifle companies (caçadores), two artillery batteries and an
engineer detachment. In addition to the military forces, the Portuguese defences counted on the civil
internal security forces of Portuguese India. These included the State of India Police (PEI, Polícia do
Estado da Índia), a general police corps modelled after the Portuguese Public Security Police; the Fiscal
Guard (Guarda Fiscal), responsible for Customs enforcement and border protection; and the Rural Guard
(Guarda Rural), game wardens. In 1958, as an emergency measure, the Portuguese government gave
provisional military status to the PEI and the Fiscal Guard, placing them under the command of the FAEI.
The security forces were also divided amongst the three districts and were mostly made up of Indo-
Portuguese policemen and guards. Different sources indicate between 900 and 1400 men as the total
effective strength of these forces at the time of the invasion.[43]

Air defence

The Portuguese Air Force did not have any presence in Portuguese India, with the exception of a single
officer with the role of air adviser in the office of the Commander-in-Chief.[43]

On 16 December, the Portuguese Air Force was placed on alert to transport ten tonnes of anti-tank
grenades in two DC-6 aircraft from Montijo Air Base in Portugal to Goa to assist in its defence. When the
Portuguese Air Force was unable to obtain stopover facilities at any air base along the way because most
countries, including Pakistan, denied passage of Portuguese military aircraft, the mission was passed to the
Portuguese international civilian airline TAP, which offered a Lockheed Constellation (registration CS-
TLA) on charter. However, when permission to transport weapons through Karachi was denied by the
Pakistani government, the Constellation landed in Goa at 18:00 on 17 December with a consignment of
half a dozen bags of sausages as food supplies instead of the intended grenades. In addition it transported a
contingent of female paratroopers to assist in the evacuation of Portuguese civilians.[50]
The Portuguese air presence in Goa at the time of hostilities was thus limited to the presence of two civilian
transport aircraft, the Lockheed Constellation belonging to TAP and a Douglas DC-4 Skymaster belonging
to the Goan airline Portuguese India Airlines. The Indians claimed that the Portuguese had a squadron of F-
86 Sabres stationed at Dabolim Airport—which later turned out to be false intelligence. Air defence was
limited to a few obsolete anti-aircraft guns manned by two artillery units who had been smuggled into Goa
disguised as football teams.[32]

Portuguese civilian evacuation

The military buildup created panic amongst Europeans in Goa, who were desperate to evacuate their
families before the commencement of hostilities. On 9 December, the vessel India arrived at Goa's
Mormugão port en route to Lisbon from Timor. Despite orders from the Portuguese government in Lisbon
not to allow anyone to embark on this vessel, Governor General Manuel Vassalo e Silva allowed 700
Portuguese civilians of European origin to board the ship and flee Goa. The ship had capacity for only 380
passengers, and was filled to its limits, with evacuees occupying even the toilets.[32] On arranging this
evacuation of women and children, Vassalo e Silva remarked to the press, "If necessary, we will die here."
Evacuation of European civilians continued by air even after the commencement of Indian air strikes.[51]

Indian reconnaissance operations

Indian reconnaissance operations had commenced on 1 December, when two Leopard class frigates, the
INS Betwa and the INS Beas, undertook linear patrolling of the Goa coast at a distance of 8 miles (13 km).
By 8 December, the Indian Air Force had commenced baiting missions and fly-bys to lure out Portuguese
air defences and fighters.

On 17 December, a tactical reconnaissance flight conducted by Squadron Leader I. S. Loughran in a

Vampire NF54 Night Fighter over Dabolim Airport in Goa was met with five rounds fired from a ground
anti-aircraft gun. The aircraft took evasive action by drastically dropping altitude and escaping out to sea.
The anti-aircraft gun was later recovered near the ATC building with a round jammed in its breech.[52]

The Indian light aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed 75 miles (121 km) from the coast of Goa to head
off a possible amphibious operation on Goa and deter any foreign military intervention.

Commencement of hostilities

Military actions in Goa

Ground attack on Goa: North and North East sectors

On 11 December 1961, 17th Infantry Division and attached troops of the Indian Army were ordered to
advance into Goa to capture Panaji and Mormugão. The main thrust on Panaji was to be made by the 50th
Para Brigade Group, led by Brigadier Sagat Singh from the north. Another thrust was to be carried out by
63rd Indian Infantry Brigade from the east. A deceptive thrust, in company strength, was to be made from
the south along the Majali-Canacona-Margao axis.[53]

Although the 50th Para Brigade was charged with merely assisting the main thrust conducted by the 17th
Infantry, its units moved rapidly across minefields, roadblocks and four riverine obstacles to be the first to
reach Panaji.[54]
Hostilities at Goa began at 09:45 on 17 December 1961, when a unit of Indian troops attacked and
occupied the town of Maulinguém in the north east, killing two Portuguese soldiers. The Portuguese 2nd
EREC (esquadrão de reconhecimento—reconnaissance squadron), stationed near Maulinguém, asked for
permission to engage the Indians, but permission was refused at about 13:45.[55] During the afternoon of
the 17th, the Portuguese command issued instructions that all orders to defending troops would be issued
directly by headquarters, bypassing the local command outposts. This led to confusion in the chain of
command.[55] At 02:00 on 18 December, the 2nd EREC was sent to the town of Doromagogo to support
the withdrawal of police forces present in the area, and were attacked by Indian Army units on their return
journey.[55]

At 04:00, the Indian assault commenced with artillery bombardment on Portuguese positions south of
Maulinguém, launched on the basis of the false intelligence that the Portuguese had stationed heavy battle
tanks in the area. By 04:30, Bicholim was under fire. At 04:40, the Portuguese forces destroyed the bridge
at Bicholim and followed this with the destruction of the bridges at Chapora in Colvale and at Assonora at
05:00.[55]

On the morning of 18 December, the 50th Para Brigade of the Indian Army moved into Goa in three
columns.

1. The eastern column comprised the 2nd Para Maratha advanced towards the town of Ponda
in central Goa via Usgão.
2. The central column consisting of the 1st Para Punjab advanced towards Panaji via the
village of Banastari.
3. The western column—the main thrust of the attack—comprised the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry
as well as an armoured division which crossed the border at 06:30 and advanced on
Tivim.[53]

At 05:30, Portuguese troops left their barracks at Ponda in central Goa and marched towards the town of
Usgão, in the direction of the advancing eastern column of the Indian 2nd Para Maratha, which was under
the command of Major Dalip Singh Jind and included tanks of the Indian 7th Cavalry. At 09:00, these
Portuguese troops reported that Indian troops had already covered half the distance to the town of
Ponda.[55]

By 10:00, Portuguese forces of the 1st EREC, faced with the advancing 2nd Sikh Light Infantry, began a
south-bound withdrawal to the town of Mapuca where, by 12:00, they came under the risk of being
surrounded by Indian forces. At 12:30, the 1st EREC began a retreat, making their way through the Indian
forces, with their armoured cars firing ahead to cover the withdrawal of the personnel carrier vehicles. This
unit relocated by ferry further south to the capital city of Panaji.[55] At 13:30, just after the retreat of the 2nd
EREC, the Portuguese destroyed the bridge at Banastarim, cutting off all road links to Panaji.

By 17:45, the forces of the 1st EREC and the 9th Caçadores Company of the Portuguese Battlegroup
North had completed their ferry crossing of the Mandovi River to Panaji, just minutes ahead of the arrival
of the Indian armoured forces.[55] The Indian tanks had reached Betim, just across the Mandovi River from
Panaji, without encountering any opposition. The 2nd Sikh Light Infantry joined it by 21:00, crossing over
mines and demolished bridges en route. In the absence of orders, the unit stayed at Betim for the night.

At 20:00, a Goan by the name of Gregório Magno Antão crossed the Mandovi River from Panaji and
delivered a ceasefire offer letter from Major Acácio Tenreiro of the Portuguese Army to Major Shivdev
Singh Sidhu, the commanding officer of the Indian 7th Cavalry camped there. The letter read: "The
Military Commander of the City of Goa states that he wishes to parley with the commander of the army of
the Indian Union with respect to the surrender. Under these conditions, the Portuguese troops must
immediately cease fire and the Indian troops do likewise in order to prevent the slaughter of the population
and the destruction of the city."[56]

The same night Major Shivdev Singh Sidhu with a force of the 7th Cavalry decided to take Fort Aguada
and obtain its surrender, after receiving information that a number of supporters of the Indian Republic were
held prisoners there. However, the Portuguese defenders of the fort had not yet received orders to surrender
and responded by opening fire on the Indian forces, Major Sidhu and Captain Vinod Sehgal being killed in
the firefight.[53]

The order for Indian forces to cross the Mandovi River was received on the morning of 19 December, upon
which two rifle companies of the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry advanced on Panaji at 07:30 and secured the
town without facing any resistance. On orders from Brigadier Sagat Singh, the troops entering Panaji
removed their steel helmets and donned the Parachute Regiment's maroon berets. Fort Aguada was also
captured on that day, when the Indian 7th Cavalry attacked with assistance from the armoured division
stationed at Betim and freed its political prisoners.

Advance from the east

Meanwhile, in the east, the 63rd Indian Infantry Brigade advanced in two columns. The right column,
consisting of the 2nd Bihar Battalion, and the left column, consisting of the 3rd Sikh Battalion, linked up at
the border town of Mollem and then advanced by separate routes on Ponda. By nightfall, the 2nd Bihar had
reached the town of Candeapur, while the 3rd Sikh had reached Darbondara. Although neither column had
encountered any resistance, their further progress was hampered because all bridges spanning the river had
been destroyed.

The rear battalion was the 4th Sikh Infantry, which reached Candeapar in the early hours of 19 December,
and not to be bogged down by the destruction of the Borim bridge, went across the Zuari river in their
military tankers and then waded through chest-high water across a small stream to reach a dock known as
Embarcadouro de Tembim in the village of Raia, from where a road connects to Margão, the administrative
centre of southern Goa. Their rear battalion took some rest in a cattle shed and on the grounds and the
balcony of an adjacent house before proceeding to Margão by 12:00. From here, the column advanced
towards the harbour of Mormugão. En route they encountered fierce resistance from a 500-strong
Portuguese unit at the village of Verna, where they were joined by the 2nd Bihar. The Portuguese unit
surrendered at 15:30 after fierce fighting, and the 4th Sikh then proceeded to Mormugão and Dabolim
Airport, where the main body of the Portuguese Army awaited the Indians.

The 4th Rajput company staged a decoy attack south of Margão in order to mislead the Portuguese. This
column overcame minefields, roadblocks and demolished bridges, and eventually went on to help secure
the town of Margão.

Air raids over Goa

The first Indian raid was led by Wing Commander N.B. Menon on 18 December on the Dabolim Airport
using 12 English Electric Canberra aircraft. 63,000 pounds of explosives were dropped within minutes,
completely destroying the runway. In line with the mandate given by the Air Command, structures and
facilities at the airfield were left undamaged.[39]

The second Indian raid was conducted on the same target by eight Canberras led by Wing Commander
Surinder Singh, again leaving the airport's terminal and other buildings untouched. Two civilian transport
aircraft—a Lockheed Constellation belonging to the Portuguese airline TAP and a Douglas DC-4
belonging to the Goan airline TAIP—were parked on the apron.
On the night of 18 December, the Portuguese used both aircraft to
evacuate the families of some government and military officials
after airport workers had hastily recovered part of the heavily
damaged runway that evening. The first aircraft to leave was the
TAP Constellation, commanded by Manuel Correia Reis, which
took off using only 700 metres; debris from the runway damaged
the fuselage, causing 25 holes and a flat tire. To make the 'short
A Canberra PR.9 taking off. The
take-off' possible, the pilots had jettisoned all the extra seats and
Indian Air Force used 20 small and
other unwanted equipment.[57] The TAIP DC-4 then also took off, lightweight Canberra bombers.
piloted by TAIP Director Major Solano de Almeida. The two
aircraft successfully used the cover of night and very low altitudes
to break through Indian aerial patrols and escape to Karachi, Pakistan.[58]

A third Indian raid was carried out by six Hawker Hunters, successfully targeting the wireless station at
Bambolim with rockets and gun cannons.

The mandate to support ground troops was served by the de Havilland Vampires of No. 45 squadron,
which patrolled the sector but did not receive any requests into action. In an incident of friendly fire, two
Vampires fired rockets into the positions of the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry, injuring two soldiers, while
elsewhere, Indian ground troops mistakenly opened fire on an IAF T-6 Texan, causing minimal damage.

In later years, commentators have maintained that India's intense air strikes against the airfields were
uncalled-for, since none of the targeted airports had any military capabilities and they did not cater to any
military aircraft. As such, the airfields were defenceless civilian targets.[58] The Indian navy continues to
control the Dabolim Airport, although it is also once more used as a civilian airport.

Storming of Anjidiv Island

Anjidiv was a small 1.5 km2 island of Portuguese India, then almost uninhabited, belonging to the District
of Goa, although off the coast of the Indian state of Karnataka. On the island stood the ancient Anjidiv
Fort, defended by a platoon of Goan soldiers of the Portuguese Army.

The Indian Naval Command assigned the task of securing Anjidiv to the cruiser INS Mysore and the frigate
INS Trishul. Under covering artillery fire from the ships, Indian marines under the command of Lieutenant
Arun Auditto stormed the island at 14:25 on 18 December and engaged the Portuguese garrison. The
assault was repulsed by the Portuguese defenders, with seven Indian marines killed and 19 wounded.
Among the Indian casualties were two officers.

The Portuguese defences were eventually overrun after fierce shelling from the Indian ships offshore. The
island was secured by the Indians at 14:00 on the next day, all the Portuguese defenders being captured
with the exception of two corporals and one private. Hidden in the rocks, one corporal surrendered on 19
December. The other was captured in the afternoon of 20 December, but not before launching hand
grenades that injured several Indian marines. The last of the three, Goan private Manuel Caetano, became
the last Portuguese soldier in India to be captured, on 22 December, after he had reached the Indian shore
by swimming.

Naval battle at Mormugão harbour

On the morning of 18 December, the Portuguese sloop NRP
Afonso de Albuquerque was anchored off Mormugao Harbour.
Besides engaging Indian naval units, the ship was also tasked with
providing a coastal artillery battery to defend the harbour and
adjoining beaches, and providing vital radio communications with
Lisbon after on-shore radio facilities had been destroyed in Indian
airstrikes.
The NRP Afonso de Albuquerque
At 09:00, three Indian frigates led by the INS Betwa (F139) took
up position off the harbour, awaiting orders to attack the Afonso
and secure sea access to the port. At 11:00, Indian planes bombed Mormugão harbour.[3] At 12:00, upon
receiving clearance, the INS Betwa and the INS Beas (F137) entered the harbour and fired on the Afonso
with their 4.5-inch guns while transmitting requests to surrender in morse code between shots. In response,
the Afonso lifted anchor, headed out towards the enemy and returned fire with its 120 mm guns.

The Afonso was outnumbered by the Indians, and was at a severe disadvantage since it was in a confined
position that restricted its maneuvering, and because its four 120mm guns could fire only two rounds a
minute, as compared to the 16 rounds per minute of the guns aboard the Indian frigates. A few minutes into
the exchange of fire, at 12:15, the Afonso took a direct hit in its control tower, injuring its weapons officer.
At 12:25, an anti-personnel shrapnel bomb fired from an Indian vessel exploded directly over the ship,
killing its radio officer and severely injuring its commander, Captain António da Cunha Aragão, after
which First Officer Pinto da Cruz took command of the vessel. The ship's propulsion system was also
badly damaged in this attack.

At 12:35, the Afonso swerved 180 degrees and was run aground against Bambolim beach. At that time,
against the commander's orders, a white flag was hoisted under instructions from the sergeant in charge of
signals, but the flag coiled itself around the mast and as a result was not spotted by the Indians, who
continued their barrage. The flag was immediately lowered.

Eventually at 12:50, after the Afonso had fired nearly 400 rounds at the Indians, hitting two of the Indian
vessels, and had taken severe damage, the order was given to start abandoning ship. Under heavy fire
directed at both the ship and the coast, non-essential crew including weapons staff left the ship and went
ashore. They were followed at 13:10 by the rest of the crew, who, along with their injured commander, set
fire to the ship and disembarked directly onto the beach. Following this, the commander was transferred by
car to the hospital at Panaji. The NRP Afonso de Albuquerque lost 5 dead and 13 wounded in the battle.[3]

The sloop's crew formally surrendered with the remaining Portuguese forces on 19 December 1961 at
20:30.[16] As a gesture of goodwill, the commanders of the INS Betwa and the INS Beas later visited
Captain Aragão as he lay recuperating in bed in Panaji.

The Afonso—having been renamed Saravastri by the Indian Navy—lay grounded at the beach near Dona
Paula until 1962, when it was towed to Bombay and sold for scrap. Parts of the ship were recovered and
are on display at the Naval Museum in Mumbai.[3]

The Portuguese patrol boat NRP Sirius, under the command of Lieutenant Marques Silva, was also present
at Goa. After observing Afonso running aground and not having communications from the Goa Naval
Command, Lieutenant Marques Silva decided to scuttle the Sirius. This was done by damaging the
propellers and making the boat hit the rocks. The eight men of the Sirius's crew avoided being captured by
the Indian forces and boarded a Greek freighter on which they reached Pakistan.

Military actions in Daman

Ground attack on Daman

Daman, approximately 72 km2 in area, is at the south end of Gujarat bordering Maharashtra, approximately
193 km north of Bombay. The countryside is broken and interspersed with marsh, salt pans, streams, paddy
fields, coconut and palm groves. The river Daman Ganga splits the capital city of Daman (Damão in
Portuguese) into halves—Nani Daman (Damão Pequeno) and Moti Daman (Damão Grande). The
strategically important features were Daman Fort (fortress of São Jerónimo) and the air control tower of
Daman Airport.[59]

The Portuguese garrison in Daman was headed by Major António José da Costa Pinto (combining the roles
of District Governor and military commander), with 360 soldiers of the Portuguese Army, 200 policemen
and about 30 customs officials under him. The army forces consisted of two companies of caçadores (light
infantry) and an artillery battery, organised as the battlegroup "Constantino de Bragança". The artillery
battery was armed with 87.6 mm guns, but these had insufficient and old ammunition. The Portuguese also
placed a 20  mm anti-aircraft gun ten days before the invasion to protect the artillery. Daman had been
secured with small minefields and defensive shelters had been built.[46]

The advance on the enclave of Daman was conducted by the 1st Maratha Light Infantry Battalion under
the command of Lieutenant-Colonel S.J.S. Bhonsle[59] in a pre-dawn operation on 18 December.[53] The
plan was to capture Daman piecemeal in four phases, starting with the area of the airfield, then
progressively the open countryside, Damão Pequeno and finally Damão Grande including the fort.[59]

The advance commenced at 04:00 when one battalion and three companies of Indian soldiers progressed
through the central area of the northern territory, aiming to seize the airfield.[46] However, the surprise was
lost when the Indian A Company tried to capture the control tower and suffered three casualties. The
Portuguese lost one soldier dead and six taken captive. The Indian D Company captured a position named
"Point 365" just before the next morning. At the crack of dawn, two sorties by Indian Air Force Mystère
fighters struck Portuguese mortar positions and guns inside Moti Daman Fort.[59]

At 04:30, the Indian artillery began to bombard Damão Grande. The artillery attack and transportation
difficulties isolated the Portuguese command post there from the forces in Damão Pequeno. At 07:30, a
Portuguese unit at the fortress of São Jerónimo fired mortars on Indian forces attempting to capture the
airstrip.[46]

At 11:30, Portuguese forces resisting an Indian advance on the eastern border at Varacunda ran out of
ammunition and withdrew westwards to Catra. At 12:00, to delay the Indian advance following the
withdrawal from Varacunda, the Portuguese artillery battery on the banks of the Rio Sandalcalo was
ordered to open fire. The commander of the battery, Captain Felgueiras de Sousa, instead dismantled the
guns and surrendered to the Indians.[46] By 12:00, the airfield was assaulted by the Indian A and C
companies simultaneously. In the ensuing exchange of fire the A Company lost one more soldier and seven
were wounded.[59]

By 13:00, the remaining Portuguese forces on the east border at Calicachigão exhausted their ammunition
and retreated towards the coast. By 17:00, in the absence of resistance, the Indians had managed to occupy
most of the territory, except the airfield and Damão Pequeno, where the Portuguese were making their last
stand. By this time, the Indian Air Force had conducted six air attacks, severely demoralising the
Portuguese forces. At 20:00, after a meeting between the Portuguese commanders, a delegation was
dispatched to the Indian lines to open negotiations, but was fired on, and was forced to withdraw. A similar
attempt by the artillery to surrender at 08:00 next day was also fired on.[46]
The Indians assaulted the airfield the next morning, upon which the Portuguese surrendered at 11:00
without a fight.[53] Garrison commander Major Costa Pinto, although wounded, was stretchered to the
airfield, as the Indians were only willing to accept a surrender from him.[46] Approximately 600 Portuguese
soldiers and policemen (including 24 officers[59]) were taken prisoner. The Indians suffered 4 dead and 14
wounded,[59] while the Portuguese suffered 10 dead and two wounded.[53] The 1st Light Maratha Infantry
was decorated for the battle with one VSM for the commanding officer, two Sena Medals and five
Mentioned in Dispatches.[59]

Daman air raids

In the Daman sector, Indian Mystères flew 14 sorties, continuously harassing Portuguese artillery positions.

Naval action at Daman

Like the Vega in Diu, the patrol boat NRP Antares—based at Daman under the command of 2nd
Lieutenant Abreu Brito—was ordered to sail out and fight the imminent Indian invasion. The boat stayed in
position from 07:00 on 18 December and remained a mute witness to repeated air strikes followed by
ground invasion until 19:20, when it lost all communications with land.

With all information pointing to total occupation of all Portuguese enclaves in India, Lieutenant Brito
decided to save his crew and vessel by escaping; the Vega traversed 530 miles (850 km), escaping detection
by Indian forces, and arrived at Karachi at 20:00 on 20 December.

Military actions in Diu

Ground attack on Diu

Diu is a 13.8 km by 4.6 km island (area about 40 km2 ) at the south tip of Gujarat. The island is separated
from the mainland by a narrow channel running through a swamp. The channel could only be used by
fishing boats and small craft. No bridges crossed the channels at the time of hostilities. The Portuguese
garrison in Diu was headed by Major Fernando de Almeida e Vasconcelos (district governor and military
commander), with around 400 soldiers and police officers, organised as the battlegroup "António da
Silveira".[60]

Diu was attacked on 18 December from the north west along Kob Forte by two companies of the 20th
Rajput Battalion—with the capture of the Diu Airfield being the primary objective—and from the northeast
along Gogal and Amdepur by the Rajput B Company and the 4th Madras Battalion.[53]

These Indian Army units ignored requests from Wing Commander M.P.O. "Micky" Blake, planning-in-
charge of the Indian Air Force operations in Diu, to attack only on first light when close air support would
be available.[60] The Portuguese defences repulsed the attack backed by 87.6mm artillery and mortars,[46]
inflicting heavy losses on the Indians.[60] The first attack was made by the 4th Madras on a police border
post at 01:30 on 18 December at Gogol and was repulsed by 13 Portuguese police officers.[46] Another
attempt by the 4th Madras at 02:00 was again repulsed, this time backed with Portuguese 87.5mm artillery
and mortar which suffered due to poor quality of munitions. By 04:00, ten of the original 13 Portuguese
defenders at Gogol had been wounded and were evacuated to a hospital. At 05:30, the Portuguese artillery
launched a fresh attack on the 4th Madras assaulting Gogol and forced their retreat.[46]
Meanwhile, at 03:00, two companies of the 20th Rajput attempted to cross a muddy swamp[46] separating
them from the Portuguese forces at Passo Covo under cover of dark on rafts made of bamboo cots tied to
oil barrels.[60] The attempt was to establish a bridgehead and capture the airfield.[53] This attack was
repulsed, with losses on the Indian side, by a well entrenched unit of Portuguese soldiers armed with small
automatic weapons, sten guns[60] as well as light and medium machine guns. According to Indian sources
this unit included between 125 and 130 soldiers,[53] but according to Portuguese sources this post was
defended by only eight soldiers,[46] but this number doesn't support the total number of weapon operators.

As the Rajputs reached the middle of the creek, the Portuguese on Diu opened fire with two medium and
two light machine-guns, capsizing some of the rafts. Major Mal Singh of the Indian Army along with five
men pressed on his advance and crossed the creek. On reaching the far bank, he and his men assaulted the
light machine gun trenches at Fort-De-Cova and eliminated the weapon operators. The Portuguese medium
machine gun fire from another position wounded the officer and two of his men. However, with the efforts
of company Havildar Major Mohan Singh and two other men, the three wounded were evacuated back
across the creek to safety. As dawn approached, the Portuguese increased the intensity of fire and the
battalion's water crossing equipment suffered extensive damage. As a result, the Indian battalion was
ordered to fall back to Kob village by first light.[59]

Another assault at 05:00 was similarly repulsed by the Portuguese defenders. At 06:30, Portuguese forces
retrieved rafts abandoned by the 20th Rajput, recovered ammunition left behind and rescued a wounded
Indian soldier, who was given treatment.[46]

At 07:00, with the onset of dawn, Indian air strikes began, forcing the Portuguese to retreat from Passo
Covo to the town of Malala. By 09:00 the Portuguese unit at Gogol also retreated,[46] allowing the Rajput
B Company (who replaced the 4th Madras) to advance under heavy artillery fire and occupy the town.[53]
By 10:15, the Indian cruiser INS Delhi, anchored off Diu, began to bombard targets on the shore.[46] At
12:45, Indian jets fired a rocket at a mortar at Diu Fortress causing a fire near a munitions dump, forcing the
Portuguese to order the evacuation of the fortress—a task completed by 14:15 under heavy bombardment
from the Indians.[46]

At 18:00, the Portuguese commanders agreed in a meeting that in view of repeated military advances with
naval and air strikes, along with the inability to establish contact with headquarters in Goa or Lisbon, there
was no way to pursue an effective defence and decided to surrender to the Indian military.[46] On 19
December, by 12:00, the Portuguese formally surrendered. The Indians took 403 prisoners, which included
the Governor of the island along with 18 officers and 43 sergeants.[59] Seven Portuguese soldiers had been
killed in the battle.[60]

When surrendering to the Indians, the Diu Governor stated that he could have stalled the army's advances
for a few days to weeks, but he had no answer to the Indian Air Force and Navy. The Indian Air Force was
also present at the ceremony and was represented by Gp Capt Godkhindi, Wing Cmdr Micky Blake and
Sqn Ldr Nobby Clarke.[60]

Major Mal Singh and Sepoy Hakam Singh of the Indian army were awarded Ashok Chakra (Class III).[59]

On 19 December, the 4th Madras C Company landed on the island of Pani Khota off Diu, where a group
of 13 Portuguese soldiers surrendered to them there.[53]

The Diu air raids

The Indian air operations in the Diu Sector were entrusted to the
Armaments Training Wing led by Wg Cdr Micky Blake. The first
air attacks were made at dawn on 18 December and were aimed at
destroying Diu's fortifications facing the mainland. Throughout the
rest of the day, the Air Force had at least two aircraft in the air at
any time, giving close support to advancing Indian infantry. During A MD450 Ouragan on display at the
the morning, the air force attacked and destroyed Diu Airfield's Royal Museum of the Armed Forces
ATC as well as parts of Diu Fort. On orders from Tactical Air and Military History (Brussels-
Command located at Pune, a sortie of two Toofanis attacked and Belgium). Similar aircraft in service
destroyed the airfield runway with 4 1000  lb Mk 9 bombs. A with the Indian Air Force, locally
second sortie aimed at the runway and piloted by Wg Cdr Blake known as Toofani, formed the
himself was aborted when Blake detected what he reported as backbone of the air strikes on Diu.
people waving white flags. In subsequent sorties, PM
Ramachandran of the Indian Air Force attacked and destroyed the
Portuguese ammunition dump as well a patrol boat N.R.P. Vega that attempted to escape from Diu.

In the absence of any Portuguese air presence, Portuguese ground-based anti-aircraft units attempted to
offer resistance to the Indian raids, but were overwhelmed and quickly silenced, leaving complete air
superiority to the Indians. Continued attacks forced the Portuguese governor of Diu to surrender.

Naval action at Diu

The Indian cruiser INS Delhi was anchored off the coast of Diu and fired a barrage from its 6-inch guns at
the Portuguese occupied Diu Fortress. The Commanding Officer of the Indian Air Force operating in the
area reported that some of the shells fired from the Delhi were bouncing off the beach and exploding on the
Indian mainland. However, no casualties were reported from this.

At 04:00 on 18 December, the Portuguese patrol boat NRP Vega encountered the Delhi around 12 miles
(19 km) off the coast of Diu, and was attacked with heavy machine gun fire. Staying out of range, the boat
had no casualties and minimal damage, the boat withdrew to the port at Diu.

At 07:00, news was received that the Indian invasion had commenced, and the commander of the Vega,
2nd Lt Oliveira e Carmo was ordered to sail out and fight until the last round of ammunition. At 07:30 the
crew of the Vega spotted two Indian aircraft led by Flt. Lt. PM Ramachandran on patrol missions and
opened fire on them with the ship's 20mm Oerlikon gun. In retaliation the Indian aircraft attacked the Vega
twice, killing the captain and the gunner and forcing the rest of the crew to abandon the boat and swim
ashore, where they were taken prisoners of war.[61][62]

UN attempts at ceasefire
On 18 December, a Portuguese request was made to the UN Security Council for a debate on the conflict
in Goa. The request was approved when the bare minimum of seven members supported the request (the
US, UK, France, Turkey, Chile, Ecuador, and Nationalist China), two opposed (the Soviet Union and
Ceylon), and two abstained (the United Arab Republic and Liberia).[63]

Opening the debate, Portugal's delegate, Vasco Vieira Garin, said that Portugal had consistently shown her
peaceful intentions by refraining from any counter-action to India's numerous "provocations" on the Goan
border. Garin also stated that Portuguese forces, though "vastly outnumbered by the invading forces," were
putting up "stiff resistance" and "fighting a delaying action and destroying communications in order to halt
the advance of the enemy." In response, India's delegate, C. S. Jha said that the "elimination of the last
vestiges of colonialism in India" was an "article of faith" for the Indian people, "Security Council or no
Security Council." He went on to describe Goa, Daman, and Diu as "an inalienable part of India
unlawfully occupied by Portugal."[63]

In the ensuing debate, the US delegate, Adlai Stevenson, strongly criticised India's use of force to resolve
her dispute with Portugal, stressing that such resort to violent means was against the charter of the UN. He
stated that condoning such acts of armed forces would encourage other nations to resort to similar solutions
to their own disputes, and would lead to the death of the United Nations. In response, the Soviet delegate,
Valerian Zorin, argued that the Goan question was wholly within India's domestic jurisdiction and could
not be considered by the Security Council. He also drew attention to Portugal's disregard for UN
resolutions calling for the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples.[63]

Following the debate, the delegates of Liberia, Ceylon and the U.A.R. presented a resolution which: (1)
stated that "the enclaves claimed by Portugal in India constitute a threat to international peace and security
and stand in the way of the unity of the Republic of India; (2) asked the security Council to reject the
Portuguese charge of aggression against India; and (3) called upon Portugal "to terminate hostile action and
co-operate with India in the liquidation of her colonial possessions in India." This resolution was supported
only by the Soviet Union, the other seven members opposing.[63]

After the defeat of the Afro-Asian resolution, a resolution was presented by France, Turkey, the United
Kingdom and the United States which:
(1) Called for the immediate cessation of hostilities; (2) Called upon
India to withdraw her forces immediately to "the positions prevailing before 17 Dec 1961." (3) Urged India
and Portugal "to work out a permanent solution of their differences by peaceful means in accordance with
the principles embodied in the Charter"; and (4) Requested the U.N. Secretary-General "to provide such
assistance as may be appropriate."[63]

This resolution received seven votes in favour (the four sponsors and Chile, Ecuador, and Nationalist
China) and four against (the Soviet Union, Ceylon, Liberia, and the United Arab Republic). It was thus
defeated by the Soviet veto. In a statement after the vote, Mr. Stevenson said that the "fateful" Goa debate
could have been be "the first act of a drama" which could have ended in the death of the United
Nations.[63]

Portuguese surrender
By the evening of 18 December, most of Goa had been overrun by advancing Indian forces, and a large
party of more than two thousand Portuguese soldiers had taken position at the military base at Alparqueiros
at the entrance to the port town of Vasco da Gama. Per the Portuguese strategy code named Plano
Sentinela the defending forces were to make their last stand at the harbour, holding out against the Indians
until Portuguese naval reinforcements could arrive. Orders delivered from the Portuguese President called
for a scorched earth policy—that Goa was to be destroyed before it was given up to the Indians.[64]
Canadian political scientist Antonio Rangel Bandeira has argued that the sacrifice of Goa was an elaborate
public relations stunt calculated to rally support for Portugal's wars in Africa.[41]

Despite his orders from Lisbon, Governor General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva took stock of the
numerical superiority of the Indian troops, as well as the food and ammunition supplies available to his
forces and took the decision to surrender. He later described his orders to destroy Goa as "um sacrifício
inútil" (a useless sacrifice).

In a communication to all Portuguese forces under his command, he stated, "Having considered the defence
of the Peninsula of Mormugão ... from aerial, naval and ground fire of the enemy and ... having considered
the difference between the forces and the resources ... the situation does not allow myself to proceed with
the fight without great sacrifice of the lives of the inhabitants of Vasco da Gama, I have decided with ... my
patriotism well present, to get in touch with the enemy ... I order all my forces to cease-fire."[65]

The official Portuguese surrender was conducted in a formal ceremony held at 20:30 hours on 19
December when Governor General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva signed the instrument of surrender
bringing to an end 451 years of Portuguese Rule in Goa. In all, 4,668 personnel were taken prisoner by the
Indians—a figure which included military and civilian personnel, Portuguese, Africans and Goan.[16]

Upon the surrender of the Portuguese governor general, Goa, Daman and Diu was declared a federally
administered Union Territory placed directly under the President of India, and Major-General K. P. Candeth
was appointed as its military governor. The war had lasted two days, and had cost 22 Indian and 30
Portuguese lives.

Those Indian forces who served within the disputed territories for 48 hours, or flew at least one operational
sortie during the conflict, received a General Service Medal 1947 with the Goa 1961 bar.[66]

Portuguese actions post-hostilities

When they received news of the fall of Goa, the Portuguese government formally severed all diplomatic
links with India and refused to recognise the incorporation of the seized territories into the Indian Republic.
An offer of Portuguese citizenship was instead made to all Goan natives who wished to emigrate to
Portugal rather than remain under Indian rule. This was amended in 2006 to include only those who had
been born before 19 December 1961. Later, in a show of defiance, Prime Minister Salazar's government
offered a reward of US$10,000 for the capture of Brigadier Sagat Singh, the commander of the maroon
berets of India's parachute regiment who were the first troops to enter Panaji, Goa's capital.[67]

Lisbon went virtually into mourning, and Christmas celebrations were extremely muted. Cinemas and
theatres shut down as tens of thousands of Portuguese marched in a silent parade from Lisbon's city hall to
the cathedral, escorting the relics of St. Francis Xavier.[68]

Salazar, while addressing the Portuguese National Assembly on 3 January 1962, invoked the principle of
national sovereignty, as defined in the legal framework of the Constitution of the Estado Novo. "We can
not negotiate, not without denying and betraying our own, the cession of national territory and the transfer
of populations that inhabit them to foreign sovereigns," said Salazar.[69] He went on to state that the UN's
failure to halt aggression against Portugal, showed that effective power in the U.N. had passed to the
Communist and Afro-Asian countries. Dr. Salazar also accused Britain of delaying for a week her reply to
Portugal's request to be allowed the use of certain airfields. "Had it not been for this delay," he said, "we
should certainly have found alternative routes and we could have rushed to India reinforcements in men
and material for a sustained defence of the territory."[63]

Hinting that Portugal would yet be vindicated, Salazar went on to state that "difficulties will arise for both
sides when the programme of the Indianization of Goa begins to clash with its inherent culture  ... It is
therefore to be expected that many Goans will wish to escape to Portugal from the inevitable consequences
of the invasion."[63]

In the months after the conflict, the Portuguese Government used broadcasts on Emissora Nacional, the
Portuguese national radio station, to urge Goans to resist and oppose the Indian administration. An effort
was made to create clandestine resistance movements in Goa, and within Goan diaspora communities
across the world to use general resistance and armed rebellion to weaken the Indian presence in Goa. The
campaign had the full support of the Portuguese government with the ministries of defence, foreign affairs,
army, navy and finance involved. A plan was chalked out called the 'Plano Gralha' covering Goa, Daman
and Diu, which called for paralysing port operations at Mormugao and Bombay by planting bombs in some
of the ships anchored at the ports.[70][71]

On 20 June 1964, Casimiro Monteiro, a Portuguese PIDE agent of Goan descent, along with Ismail Dias, a
Goan settled in Portugal, executed a series of bombings in Goa.[72]

Relations between India and Portugal thawed only in 1974, when, following an anti-colonial military coup
d'état and the fall of the authoritarian rule in Lisbon, Goa was finally recognised as part of India, and steps
were taken to re-establish diplomatic relations with India. On 31 December 1974, a treaty was signed
between India and Portugal with the Portuguese recognising full sovereignty of India over Goa, Daman,
Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[73] In 1992, Portuguese President Mário Soares became the first Portuguese
head of state to visit Goa after its annexation by India, following Indian President Ramaswamy
Venkataraman's visit to Portugal in 1990.[74]

Internment and repatriation of the prisoners of war

After they surrendered, the Portuguese soldiers were interned by the Indian Army at their own military
camps at Navelim, Aguada, Pondá and Alparqueiros under harsh conditions which included sleeping on
cement floors and hard manual labour.[32] By January 1962, most prisoners of war had been transferred to
the newly established camp at Ponda where conditions were substantially better.[32]

Portuguese non-combatants present in Goa at the surrender—which included Mrs Vassalo e Silva, wife of
the Portuguese Governor General of Goa—were transported by 29 December to Mumbai, from where they
were repatriated to Portugal. Manuel Vassalo e Silva, however, remained along with approximately 3,300
Portuguese combatants as prisoners in Goa.

Air Marshal S Raghavendran, who met some of the captured Portuguese soldiers, wrote in his memoirs
several years later "I have never seen such a set of troops looking so miserable in my life. Short, not
particularly well built and certainly very unsoldierlike."[75]

In one incident, recounted by Lieutenant Francisco Cabral Couto (now retired general), on 19 March 1962
some of the prisoners tried to escape the Ponda camp in a garbage truck. The attempt was foiled, and the
Portuguese officers in charge of the escapees were threatened with court martial and execution by the
Indians. This situation was defused by the timely intervention of Ferreira da Silva, a Jesuit military
chaplain.[32][76] Following the foiled escape attempt, Captain Carlos Azeredo (now retired general) was
beaten with rifle butts by four Indian soldiers while a gun was pointed at him, on the orders of Captain
Naik, the 2nd Camp Commander. The beating was in retaliation for Azeredo's telling Captain Naik to "Go
to Hell", and was serious enough to make him lose consciousness and cause severe contusions. Captain
Naik was later punished by the Indian Army for violating the Geneva Convention.[16]

During the internment of the Portuguese prisoners of war at various camps around Goa, the prisoners were
visited by large numbers of Goans—described by Captain Azeredo as "Goan friends, acquaintances, or
simply anonymous persons"—who offered the internees cigarettes, biscuits, tea, medicines and money.
This surprised the Indian military authorities, who first limited the visits to twice a week, and then only to
representatives of the Red Cross.[16]

The captivity lasted for six months "thanks to the stupid stubbornness of Lisbon" (according to Capt.
Carlos Azeredo). The Portuguese Government insisted that the prisoners be repatriated by Portuguese
aircraft—a demand that was rejected by the Indian Government who instead insisted on aircraft from a
neutral country. The negotiations were delayed even further when Salazar ordered the detention of 1200
Indians in Mozambique allegedly as a bargaining chip in exchange for Portuguese prisoners.[16]
By May 1962, most of the prisoners had been repatriated—being first flown to Karachi, Pakistan, in
chartered French aircraft, and then sent off to Lisbon by three ships: Vera Cruz, Pátria and
Moçambique.[77] On arrival at the Tejo in Portugal, returning Portuguese servicemen were taken into
custody by military police at gunpoint without immediate access to their families who had arrived to receive
them. Following intense questioning and interrogations, the officers were charged with direct
insubordination on having refused to comply with directives not to surrender to the Indians. On 22 March
1963, the governor general, the military commander, his chief of staff, one naval captain, six majors, a sub
lieutenant and a sergeant were cashiered by the council of ministers for cowardice and expelled from
military service. Four captains, four lieutenants and a lieutenant commander were suspended for six
months.[41]

Ex-governor Manuel António Vassalo e Silva had a hostile reception when he returned to Portugal. He was
subsequently court martialed for failing to follow orders, expelled from the military and sent into exile. He
returned to Portugal only in 1974, after the fall of the regime, and was given back his military status. He
was later able to conduct a state visit to Goa, where he was given a warm reception.[78]

International reaction to the invasion and annexation of Goa

Support

African states

Before the invasion the press speculated about international reaction to military action and recalled the
recent charge by African nations that India was "too soft" on Portugal and was thus "dampening the
enthusiasm of freedom fighters in other countries".[28] Many African countries, themselves former
European colonies, reacted positively to the capture of Goa by the Indians. Radio Ghana termed it as the
"Liberation of Goa" and went on to state that the people of Ghana would "long for the day when our
downtrodden brethren in Angola and other Portuguese territories in Africa are liberated." Adelino
Gwambe, the leader of the Mozambique National Democratic Union stated: "We fully support the use of
force against Portuguese butchers."[28]

Also in 1961, the tiny Portuguese enclave of Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá was annexed by the
Republic of Dahomey (now Benin). Portugal recognised the annexation in 1975.

Soviet Union

The future leader of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, who was touring India at the time of the war,
made several speeches applauding the Indian action. In a farewell message, he urged Indians to ignore
Western indignation as it came "from those who are accustomed to strangle the peoples striving for
independence ... and from those who enrich themselves from colonialist plunder". Nikita Khrushchev, the
de facto Soviet leader, telegraphed Nehru stating that there was "unanimous acclaim" from every Soviet
citizen for "Friendly India". The USSR had earlier vetoed a UN security council resolution condemning the
Indian annexation of Goa.[79][80][81]

Arab states
The United Arab Republic expressed its full support for India's "legitimate efforts to regain its occupied
territory". A Moroccan Government spokesman said that "India has been extraordinarily patient and a non-
violent country has been driven to violence by Portugal"; while Tunisia's Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs of Tunisia, Sadok Mokaddem expressed the hope that "the liberation of Goa will bring nearer the
end of the Portuguese colonial regime in Africa." Similar expressions of support for India were forthcoming
from other Arab countries.[63]

Ceylon

Full support for India's action was expressed in Ceylon, where Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike
issued an order on 18 December directing that "transport carrying troops and equipment for the Portuguese
in Goa shall not be permitted the use of Ceylon's seaports and airports." Ceylon went on, along with
delegates from Liberia and the UAR, to present a resolution in the UN in support of India's annexation of
Goa.[63]

Condemnation

United States

The United States' official reaction to the annexation of Goa was delivered by Adlai Stevenson in the
United Nations Security Council, where he condemned the armed action of the Indian government and
demanded that all Indian forces be unconditionally withdrawn from Goan soil.

To express its displeasure with the Indian action in Goa, the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee
attempted, over the objections of President John F. Kennedy, to cut the 1962 foreign aid appropriation to
India by 25 percent.[82]

Referring to the perception, especially in the West, that India had previously been lecturing the world about
the virtues of nonviolence, President Kennedy told the Indian ambassador to the US, "You spend the last
fifteen years preaching morality to us, and then you go ahead and act the way any normal country would
behave ... People are saying, the preacher has been caught coming out of the brothel."[83]

In an article titled "India, The Aggressor", The New York Times on 19 December 1961, stated "With his
invasion of Goa Prime Minister Nehru has done irreparable damage to India's good name and to the
principles of international morality."[84]

Life International, in its issue dated 12 February 1962, carried an article titled "Symbolic pose by Goa's
Governor" in which it expressed its vehement condemnation of the military action.

The world's initial outrage at pacifist India's resort to military violence for conquest has
subsided into resigned disdain. And in Goa, a new Governor strikes a symbolic pose before
portraits of men who had administered the prosperous Portuguese enclave for 451 years. He is
K. P. Candeth, commanding India's 17th Infantry Division, and as the very model of a modern
major general, he betrayed no sign that he is finding Goans less than happy about their
"liberation". Goan girls refuse to dance with Indian officers. Goan shops have been stripped
bare by luxury-hungry Indian soldiers, and Indian import restrictions prevent replacement.
Even in India, doubts are heard. "India", said respected Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, leader of
the Swatantra Party, "has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of
military power"
 — "Symbolic pose by Goa's Governor", Life International, 12 February 1962

United Kingdom

Commonwealth Relations Secretary, Duncan Sandys told the House of Commons on 18 December 1961
that while the UK Government had long understood the desire of the Indian people to incorporate Goa,
Daman, and Diu in the Indian Republic, and their feeling of impatience that the Portuguese Government
had not followed the example of Britain and France in relinquishing their Indian possessions, he had to
"make it plain that H.M. Government deeply deplores the decision of the Government of India to use
military force to attain its political objectives."

The Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons Hugh Gaitskell of the Labour Party also
expressed "profound regret" that India should have resorted to force in her dispute with Portugal, although
the Opposition recognised that the existence of Portuguese colonies on the Indian mainland had long been
an anachronism and that Portugal should have abandoned them long since in pursuance of the example set
by Britain and France. Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom to the United Nations, Sir Patrick
Dean, stated in the UN that Britain had been "shocked and dismayed" at the outbreak of hostilities.[63]

Netherlands

A Foreign Ministry spokesman in The Hague regretted that India, "of all countries," had resorted to force to
gain her ends, particularly as India had always championed the principles of the U.N. Charter and
consistently opposed the use of force to achieve national purposes. Fears were expressed in the Dutch Press
lest the Indian attack on Goa might encourage Indonesia to make a similar attack on West New Guinea.[63]
On 27 December 1961, Dutch ambassador to the United States, Herman Van Roijen asked the US
Government if their military support in the form of the USN's 7th Fleet would be forthcoming in case of
such an attack.[85]

Brazil

The Brazilian government's reaction to the annexation of Goa was one of staunch solidarity with Portugal,
reflecting earlier statements by Brazilian presidents that their country stood firmly with Portugal anywhere
in the world and that ties between Brazil and Portugal were built on ties of blood and sentiment. Former
Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitschek, and long time friend and supporter of Portuguese PM Salazar,
stated to Indian PM Nehru that "Seventy Million Brazilians could never understand, nor accept, an act of
violence against Goa."[86] In a speech in Rio de Janeiro on 10 June 1962, Brazilian congressman Gilberto
Freyre commented on the annexation of Goa by declaring that "a Portuguese wound is Brazilian pain".[87]

Shortly after the conflict, the new Brazilian ambassador to India, Mário Guimarães, stated to the Portuguese
ambassador to Greece that it was "necessary for the Portuguese to comprehend that the age of colonialism
is over". Guimarães dismissed the Portuguese ambassador's argument that Portuguese colonialism was
based on miscegenation and the creation of multiracial societies, stating that this was "not enough of a
reason to prevent independence".[88]

Pakistan

In a statement released on 18 December, the Pakistani Foreign Ministry spokesman described the Indian
attack on Goa as "naked militarism". The statement emphasised that Pakistan stood for the settlement of
international disputes by negotiation through the United Nations and stated that the proper course was a
"U.N.-sponsored plebiscite to elicit from the people of Goa their wishes on the future of the territory." The
Pakistani statement (issued on 18 December) continued: "The world now knows that India has double
standards  ... . One set of principles seem to apply to India, another set to non-India. This is one more
demonstration of the fact that India remains violent and aggressive at heart, whatever the pious statements
made from time to time by its leaders."[63]

"The lesson from the Indian action on Goa is of practical interest on the question of Kashmir. Certainly the
people of Kashmir could draw inspiration from what the Indians are reported to have stated in the leaflets
they dropped ... on Goa. The leaflets stated that it was India's task to ‘defend the honour and security of the
Motherland from which the people of Goa had been separated far too long' and which the people of Goa,
largely by their own efforts could again make their own. We hope the Indians will apply the same logic to
Kashmir. Now the Indians can impress their electorate with having achieved military glory. The mask is off.
Their much-proclaimed theories of non-violence, secularism, and democratic methods stand exposed."[63]

In a letter to the US President on 2 January 1962, Pakistani President General Ayub Khan stated: "My Dear
President, The forcible taking of Goa by India has demonstrated what we in Pakistan have never had any
illusions about—that India would not hesitate to attack if it were in her interest to do so and if she felt that
the other side was too weak to resist."[89]

Ambivalence

People's Republic of China

In an official statement issued on 19 December, the Chinese government stressed its "resolute support" for
the struggle of the people of Asia, Africa and Latin America against "imperialist colonialism". However,
the Hong Kong Communist newspaper Ta Kung Pao described the attack on Goa as "a desperate attempt
by Mr. Nehru to regain his sagging prestige among the Afro-Asian nations." The Ta Kung Pao article –
published before the statement from the Chinese Government – conceded that Goa was legitimately part of
Indian territory and that the Indian people were entitled to take whatever measures were necessary to
recover it. At the same time, however, the paper ridiculed Mr. Nehru for choosing "the world's tiniest
imperialist country" to achieve his aim and asserted that "internal unrest, the failure of Nehru's anti-China
campaign, and the forthcoming election forced him to take action against Goa to please the Indian
people."[63]

The Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Goa and Daman and Patriarch of the East Indies was always a
Portuguese-born cleric; at the time of the annexation, José Vieira Alvernaz was archbishop, and days earlier
Dom José Pedro da Silva had been nominated by the Holy See as coadjutor bishop with right to succeed
Alvernaz. After the annexation, Silva remained in Portugal and was never consecrated; in 1965 he became
bishop of Viseu in Portugal. Alvernaz retired to the Azores but remained titular Patriarch until resigning in
1975 after Portuguese recognition of the 1961 annexation.

Although the Vatican did not voice its reaction to the annexation of Goa, it delayed the appointment of a
native head of the Goan Church until the inauguration of the Second Vatican Council in Rome, when Msgr
Francisco Xavier da Piedade Rebelo was consecrated Bishop and Vicar Apostolic of Goa in 1963.[90][91]
His was succeeded by Raul Nicolau Gonçalves in 1972, who became the first native-born Patriarch in
1978.[92]
Legality
Upon independence in 1947 India had accorded recognition to the Portuguese sovereignty over Goa. After
invading Goa India's case was built around the illegality of colonial acquisitions. This argument was correct
according to the legal norms of the twentieth century, but did not hold to the standards of sixteenth century
international law. India gained sympathy from much of the international community, but this did not,
however, signify any legal support for the invasion.[93] The Supreme Court of India recognised the validity
of the annexation and rejected the continued applicability of the law of occupation. In a treaty with
retroactive effect, Portugal recognised Indian sovereignty in 1974.[94] Under the jus cogens rule forceful
annexations including the annexation of Goa are held as illegal since they have taken place after the UN
Charter came into force. A later treaty can not justify it.[95] Sharon Korman argues that the principle of self-
determination may bend the rule to accommodate the new reality but it will not change the illegal aspect of
the original annexation.[96]

Cultural depiction
The movie Saat Hindustani (1969), was about Operation Vijay. Trikal, a film by Shyam Benegal and
Pukar also have storylines based on the backdrop of 1960s Goa.

See also
Cuncolim Revolt
Goa Inquisition
Goa liberation movement
History of Goa
NRP Afonso de Albuquerque
Portuguese Colonial War
Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)
Portuguese India
Portuguese Indian escudo
Portuguese Indian rupia
12th Amendment of the Constitution of India
Indonesian invasion of East Timor

References

Citations
1. Azaredo, Carlos; Gabriel Figueiredo (translation) (8 December 2001). "Passage to India –
18th December 1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101224100740/http://goancauses.co
m/gabriel_figueiredo/). Goancauses.com. Archived from the original (http://www.goancause
s.com/gabriel_figueiredo/) on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2010.
2. Praval, Major K.C. (2009). Indian Army after Independence. New Delhi: Lancer. p. 214.
ISBN 978-1-935501-10-7.
 3. "Aviso / Canhoneira classe Afonso de Albuquerque" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150412
193816/http://www.areamilitar.net/DIRECTORIO/NAV.aspx?nn=128). ÁreaMilitar. Archived
from the original (http://www.areamilitar.net/DIRECTORIO/NAV.aspx?NN=128) on 12 April
2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
4. Castanheira, José Pedro (8 December 2001). "Passagem para a Índia" [Passage to India].
Revista. Expresso (in Portuguese) (Paço d'Arcos). Archived from the original on 8
December 2001. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
5. Davar, Praveen (January 2018). "The liberation of Goa" (https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/o
p-ed/the-liberation-of-goa/article22339624.ece). The Hindu.
6. "Obituary of Lt-Gen K. P. Candeth" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/lt-gen-k-
p-candeth-36784.html). Independent.co.uk. 10 July 2003. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
7. http://goaassembly.gov.in/goa-legislative-assembly-infrastructure_1.php
8. Numbers from 1955, thus excluding Dadra and Nagar-Haveli. The bulk (547,448) was in
Goa (composed of the districts of Old and New Goa, Bardez, Mormugão and Salsete, and
the offshore island of Anjediva), the remainder in Dammam (69,005) and Diu (21,138). See
Kay (1970) Salazar and Modern Portugal, New York: Hawthorn, p. 295.
9. H. Kay (1970) Salazar and Modern Portugal, New York: Hawthorn.
10. Prof. Frank D'Souza, "FRANKLY SPEAKING, The Collected Writings of Prof. Frank
D'Souza" Editor-in-chief Mgr. Benny Aguiar, published by the Prof. Frank D'Souza Memorial
Committee, Bombay 1987. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090923182300/h
ttp://www.goacom.com/culture/biographies/tristao.html). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.goacom.com/culture/biographies/tristao.html) on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 20 July
2010.
11. Goa's Freedom Movement (http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html) Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20120214125132/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history
4.html) 14 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine By: Lambert Mascarenhas
12. "Kamat Research Database – Goa's Freedom Struggle" (http://www.kamat.com/database/co
ntent/goa_freedom/). Retrieved 8 May 2015.
13. "On Rammanohar Lohia's 99th Birth Anniversary" (http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article1
247.html). Retrieved 8 May 2015.
14. "A Liberation From Lies By Prabhakar Sinari" (http://www.countercurrents.org/comm-sinari0
61103.htm). Countercurrents.org. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
15. Francisco Monteiro, Chronology of Freedom Struggle Activities Unleashed by the Indian
Union Against the Territories of Goa, Damão and Diu [1] (http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.ht
m) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205346/http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.
htm) 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
16. Castanheira, José Pedro (8 December 2001). "Passagem para a Índia" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20011209004006/http://semanal.expresso.pt/revista/artigos/interior.asp?edicao=15
19&id_artigo=ES44188) [Passage to India]. Revista. Expresso (in Portuguese). Paço
d'Arcos. Archived from the original (http://semanal.expresso.pt/revista/artigos/interior.asp?ed
icao=1519&id_artigo=ES44188) on 9 December 2001. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
17. "Operação Vijay 18 a 19/12/1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080226040732/https://ww
w.supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (http://www.
supergoa.com/pt/40anos/vijay.asp) on 26 February 2008.
18. Goa was first recognised as equal to the metropolis in the Royal Charter of 1518, and
affirmed in subsequent legislation. The term 'province' was first used in 1576, and the term
'overseas provinces' used in virtually all legislation and constitutions thereafter, e.g. Art.1–3
& Art. 162-64 of 1822 Constitution online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/co
nst822.html), 1826 constitution online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/carta8
26.html), Art. I & Title X of the constitution of 1838 online (http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/portuga
l/liberalismo/const838.html), Title V of the Republican constitution of 1911 online (http://ww
w.arqnet.pt/portal/portugal/liberalismo/const911.html) and the 1932 Constitution of the
Estado Novo.
19. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120214125132/http://www.goacom.com/cult
ure/history/history4.html). Archived from the original (http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/
history4.html) on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2012. Lambert Mascarenhas,
"Goa's Freedom Movement," excerpted from Henry Scholberg, Archana Ashok Kakodkar
and Carmo Azevedo, Bibliography of Goa and the Portuguese in India New Delhi, Promilla
(1982)
20. Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru: A biography. Mumbai: Allied. p.283
21. P.W. Prabhakar (2003) Wars, proxy-wars and terrorism: post independent India New Delhi:
Mittal, p.39
22. Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru: A biography. Mumbai: Allied. p.282
23. "Indian Volunteers Invade Goa; 21 Die; Unarmed Indians March into Goa", New York Times,
15 August 1955
24. Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Published by Columbia
University Press, 1998
25. "India: Force & Soul Force" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081215050523/http://www.time.c
om/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823878,00.html). Time. 29 August 1955. Archived from the
original (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823878,00.html) on 15
December 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
26. Lambert Mascarenhas. "Ancient Goan History – GOACOM – Goa – India – Information and
Services in Goa. Goa News, Goa Konkani News, Goa Sunaparant News, Goan Konakani
News, Goa Video News, Goa Yellow Pages" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012021412513
2/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.goacom.com/culture/history/history4.html) on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
27. "Francisco Monteiro – India supported banditry in Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/201509
23205346/http://www.colaco.net/1/India-ter.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.colac
o.net/1/India-ter.htm) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
28. Rotter (2000), p. 185 (https://books.google.com/books?id=uPx4vb99RUoC&pg=PA185)
29. Rusk, Dean; Horgan, Rogers B. (8 December 1961). Talbot, Phillips (ed.). "1962. Re Delhi
1611 Dept, Lisbon 606 Dept. Assistant Secretary Talbot called in Ambassador Nehru to
discuss Goa morning eighth. He said current situation re Goa has caused Portuguese
Government to express deep concern to US. Within USG queries also have been coming to
Talbot as to whether GOI would use force to settle issue (Telegram From the Department of
State to the Embassy in India)" (https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.ht
m). Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. Letter to John Kenneth Galbraith. Washington, D.C.:
United States Department of State. Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 - 561.
Retrieved 29 August 2021.
30. US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 1161 [2] (https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/
pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm) Document 68
31. US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 1261 [3] (https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/
pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm) Document 69
32. Couto, Francisco Cabral (2006). Pissarra, José V. (ed.). O fim do Estado Português da Índia
1961: um testemunho da invasão [Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961].
Lisbon: Tribuna da História. pp. 22–102. ISBN 978-972-8799-53-3.
33. US Department of State, Central Files, 753D.00/12 – 1461 [4] (https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/
pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/46453.htm) Document 72
34. Lele, Purushottam Shiripad (1987). Lele, Purushottam Shiripad; Lele, Usha P. (eds.). Dadra
and Nagar Haveli: Past and present (1st ed.). Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli and Daman and Diu, India: Usha P. Lele. LCCN 87903848 (https://lccn.loc.gov/87903
848). OCLC 18496466 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18496466).
35. Prabhakar, Peter Wilson (2003). "3. Liberation of Goa, Daman and Diu" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC&pg=PA39). In Rai, Naurang (ed.). Wars, Proxy-wars and
Terrorism: Post Independent India (https://books.google.com/books?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC)
(1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Mittle Publications. p. 39. ISBN 9788170998907 – via Google
Books.
36. de Mendonça-Noronha, Silvia M. (1990). "Chapter 11: The Economic Scene in Goa (1926-
1961)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&pg=PA276). In de Souza,
Teotonio R.; Ali, B. Sheik (eds.). Goa Through The Ages: An Economic history, volume 2 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C). Goa University Publication Series.
Vol. II (2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: Goa University; Concept Publishing Company. p. 276.
ISBN 9788170222590 – via Google Books.
37. Singh, Satyindra (1 December 1992). Blueprint To Bluewater: The Indian Navy 1951 – 65 (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20060706083838/http://indiannavy.nic.in/bptobw.pdf) (PDF)
(1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Lancer International. ISBN 9788170621485. Archived from the
original (http://indiannavy.nic.in/bptobw.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2006.
38. "Case Concerning Right of Passage Over Indian Territory" (http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/
32/4521.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111220044651/http://www.icj-cij.org/d
ocket/files/32/4521.pdf) 20 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine
39. Pillarisetti, Jagan. "The Liberation of Goa: 1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20031005110
857/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html). Bharat Rakshak.
Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa01.html) on
5 October 2003. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
40. Kore, V.S. "Liberation of Goa: Role Of The Indian Navy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130
204131726/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1950s/Kore.html). Bharat
Rakshak. Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1950s/K
ore.html) on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
41. Porch, Douglas (January 1977). The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=ncoOAAAAQAAJ&q=salazar+goa+sacrifice+troops&pg=PA36).
ISBN 9780856643910. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
42. Constantino Hermanns Xavier (18 December 2006). "Invasão de Goa, Damão e Diu foi há
45 anos" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150924111816/http://www.supergoa.com/pt/read/n
ews_noticia.asp?c_news=603) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (http://www.super
goa.com/pt/read/news_noticia.asp?c_news=603) on 24 September 2015. "Não prevejo a
possibilidade de tréguas, nem prisioneiros portugueses, como não haverá navios rendidos,
pois sinto que apenas pode haver soldados e marinheiros vitoriosos ou mortos"
43. Lopes (2007), José Alves. Estado Português da Índia – Rememoração Pessoal. Lisboa:
Revista Militar.
44. "Invasão de Goa: O dispositivo português" (http://www.areamilitar.net/analise/analise.aspx?
NrMateria=52&p=4). ÁreaMilitar. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
45. "Portuguese Navy 1875" (http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/portuguese_navy.htm).
Battleships-cruisers.co.uk. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
46. "A invasão: Damão e Diu" (http://www.areamilitar.net/analise/analise.aspx?NrMateria=52&p
=6). ÁreaMilitar. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
47. Chopra, V. D., ed. (2006). India's Foreign Policy in the 21st Century (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=cpfVVXV3-t4C&pg=PA219). Kalpaz Publications. p. 219. ISBN 81-7835-500-0.
48. "Spokane Daily Chronicle - Google News Archive Search" (https://news.google.com/newsp
apers?nid=1338&dat=19611223&id=LQ4zAAAAIBAJ&pg=6593,5399334).
news.google.com.
49. Egypt and India, A study of political and cultural relations, 1947–1964; Zaki Awad, El Sayed
Mekkawi, Preface (http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/14518/3/03_preface.pd
f) page i/.
50. Os Transportes Aéreos Da Índia Portuguesa (TAIP), Lecture delivered by Major-General
Flight Pilot (Retd.) José Krus Abecasis on 23 March 2002 in the Society of Geography of
Lisbon
51. "'Intolerable' Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070713132416/http://www.time.com/time/
magazine/article/0,9171,827139,00.html), Time, 22 December 1961
52. Loughran, I.S. "Four Sorties Over Goa" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1961Go
a/1014-Loughran.html). Bharat Rakshak. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013020413
1730/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa03.html) from the original on 4
February 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
53. Chakravorty, B.C. "Operation Vijay" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140331145027/http://ww
w.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/History/1961Goa/262-Operation-Vijay.html). Bharat
Rakshak. Archived from the original (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Histor
y/1961Goa/262-Operation-Vijay.html) on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
54. Mohan, P. V. S. Jagan (November–December 2001). "Remembering Sagat Singh (1918–
2001)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130204131720/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONI
TOR/ISSUE4-3/jagan.html). Bharat Rakshak Monitor. 4 (3). Archived from the original (http://
www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-3/jagan.html) on 4 February 2013. Retrieved
12 June 2014.
55. "17 / 18 / 19 de Dezembro: A invasão (Território de Goa)" (http://www.areamilitar.net/analise/
analise.aspx?NrMateria=52&p=5). ÁreaMilitar. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
56. Castro, Paul (19 June 2011). "Archive of Goan Writing in Portuguese: Telo de Mascarenhas
- A carta de Rendição (1974)" (http://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/0
6/telo-de-mascarenhas-carta-de-rendicao.html). Archive of Goan Writing in Portuguese.
57. Raghavendran, Air Marshal S. "Eyewitness to the Liberation of Goa" (http://www.bharat-raks
hak.com/IAF/History/1961Goa/1050-Raghavendran.html). www.bharat-rakshak.com.
58. "Dabolim and TAIP" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091225141528/http://www.colaco.net/1/
GdeFdabolim3.htm). Colaco.net. Archived from the original (http://www.colaco.net/1/GdeFda
bolim3.htm) on 25 December 2009. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
59. Shorey, Anil (21 February 1999). "The forgotten battles of Daman and Diu" (http://www.tribun
eindia.com/1999/99feb21/sunday/head3.htm). The Tribune. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
60. Gp Capt Kapil Bhargava (Retd), Operations at Diu: The One Day War, Bharatrakshak.com
[5] (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1961Goa/1013-Diu.html)
61. "The Liberation of Goa: 1961" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131120034108/http://www.bha
rat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa02.html). Archived from the original (http://www.bhara
t-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1960s/Goa02.html) on 20 November 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
62. "The sinking of N.R.P.Vega - a first person narrative" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/his
tory/1961goa/1352-p-m-#gsc.tab=0). bharat-rakshak.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20200908044733/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1961goa/1352-p-m-) from
the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
63. "International Reactions to Indian Attack on Goa. - Soviet Veto of Western Cease-fire
Resolution in security Council" (https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/1
074-1962-03-KS-b-RCW.pdf) (PDF). Keesing's Worldwide, LLC.
64. "The Church in Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120402200720/http://www.goacom.co
m/culture/history/church.html). Goacom.com. Archived from the original (http://www.goacom.
com/culture/history/church.html) on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
65. "Peaceful and quickly over" (http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19981224/3
5850184.html). Indianexpress.com. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
66. "General Service Medal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192318/http://www.prideofin
dia.net/general.html). Archived from the original (http://www.prideofindia.net/general.html) on
3 March 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
67. Datta, Rakesh (26 June 2005). "Not all generals are leaders" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2
005/20050626/spectrum/book3.htm). The Tribune. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
68. "India: End of an Image" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111120143937/http://www.time.co
m/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827193-2,00.html). Time. 29 December 1961. Archived from
the original (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827193-2,00.html) on 20
November 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
69. José Manuel Barroso, Só soldados vitoriosos ou mortos, 2 January 2001 (http://www.superg
oa.com/pt/40anos)
70. "Records show colonizers were not done with Goa" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/g
oa/Records-show-colonizers-were-not-done-with-Goa/articleshow/11162999.cms). The
Times of India. Panaji. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
71. Xavier, Constantino (3 May 2014). "Lost in delusion" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140704
151803/http://www.thegoan.net/View-From-Afar/Lost-in-delusion/Column-Post/00473.html).
The Goan. Archived from the original (http://www.thegoan.net/View-From-Afar/Lost-in-delusi
on/Column-Post/00473.html#.U_oc_flLpfs) on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
72. "PressDisplay.com - Your favorite newspapers and magazines" (http://www.pressdisplay.co
m/pressdisplay/viewer.aspx?noredirect=true&bookmarkid=LNDP1YIXVM48).
www.pressdisplay.com.
73. "Treaty Between the Government of India and the Government of the Republic of Portugal
On Recognition of India's Sovereignty Over Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
Related Matters [1974] INTSer 53" (http://www.commonlii.org/in/other/treaties/INTSer/1974/5
3.html). Retrieved 8 May 2015.
74. Bhargava, ed. S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. (2005). India. Delhi: Kalpaz publ. p. 453.
ISBN 8178353938. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
75. Air Marshal S Raghavendran, 'Eye Witness to the Liberation of Goa', para 8,
Bharatrakshak.com, [6] (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1961Goa/1050-Raghave
ndran.html)
76. de Morais, Carlos Alexandre (1995). A queda da Índia Portuguesa: crónica da invasão e do
cativeiro (https://books.google.com/books?id=7yxuAAAAMAAJ&q=972-33-1134-8). Lisbon:
Editorial Estampa. ISBN 972-33-1134-8.
77. AEIOU. "AEIOU.pt" (http://historiaeciencia.weblog.com.pt/arquivo/049503.html). Retrieved
8 May 2015.
78. "Dossier Goa – A Recusa Do Sacrifício Inútil Summary" (http://www.shvoong.com/books/46
9174-dossier-goa-recusa-sacrif%C3%ADcio-in%C3%BAtil/). Shvoong.com. Retrieved
9 November 2009.
79. India-USSR Relations 1947–71: (From Ambivalence to Steadfastness) PART-I (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=vTEge1JWK8oC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=Goa+vetoes+USSR#v
=snippet&q=%22deploring%20India%27s%20police%20action%20was%20vetoed%20by%
20the%20USSR%22&f=false), Shri Ram Sharma, Shri Ram Sharma, Discovery Publishing
House, 1999, ISBN 81-7141-486-9, ISBN 978-81-7141-486-4
80. Saude, Goa (https://www.forbes.com/2011/01/26/forbes-india-fifty-years-after-liberation-fron-
portuguese-rule-tourism-boom-returns.html), Prince Mathews Thomas Thomas, 01.26.11,
06:00 PM EST, Fifty years after its liberation from Portuguese rule, this tiny tourist state is
rethinking its future again.
81. Life (https://books.google.com/books?id=nE0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=India
+Goa+veto+USSR+indian+express#v=onepage&q=%22U.S.%2C%20over%20the%20Sovi
et%20Veto%22&f=false). 5 January 1962, Vol. 52, No. 1, ISSN 0024-3019.
82. "Changing Perceptions Of India In The U" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091210050251/htt
p://sga.myweb.uga.edu/readings/changing_perceptions_of_india.htm). Sga.myweb.uga.edu.
Archived from the original (http://sga.myweb.uga.edu/readings/changing_perceptions_of_in
dia.htm) on 10 December 2009. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
83. India and the United States: Estranged Democracies, 1941–1991 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=zcylFXH9_z8C) By Dennis Kux Published by DIANE Publishing, 1993, ISBN 0-
7881-0279-6, ISBN 978-0-7881-0279-0, Page 198
84. "India, the Aggressor" (https://www.nytimes.com/1961/12/19/archives/india-the-aggressor.ht
ml?sq=With%2520his%2520invasion%2520of%2520Goa%2520Prime%2520Minister%252
0Nehru%2520has%2520done%2520irreparable%2520damage%2520to%2520India%27
s%2520good%2520name%2520and%2520to%2520the%2520principles%2520of%2520int
ernational%2520morality&scp=1&st=cse), The New York Times, Page 32, 19 December
1961
85. FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1961–1963, VOLUME XXIII,
SOUTHEAST ASIA, DOCUMENT 219. Memorandum From Robert H. Johnson of the
National Security Council Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security
Affairs https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v23/d219
86. Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the Challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=0-4uEqrWC00C&lpg=PA108&vq=%22brazilian%20pain%22&pg=P
A108#v=onepage&q=%22against%20Goa%22&f=false), Jerry Dávila, page 27
87. Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the Challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=0-4uEqrWC00C&lpg=PA108&vq=%22brazilian%20pain%22&pg=P
A108#v=snippet&q=%22brazilian%20pain%22&f=false), Jerry Dávila, page 108
88. Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the Challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=0-4uEqrWC00C&lpg=PA108&vq=%22brazilian%20pain%22&pg=P
A114#v=snippet&q=%22not%20enough%20of%20a%20reason%20to%20prevent%20inde
pendence%22&f=false), Jerry Dávila, page 114
89. Letter From President Ayub to President Kennedy (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocume
nts/frus1961-63v19/d83), Rawalpindi, 2 January 1962.
90. de Souza, Teotonio R. (December 1986). "Unless Ye Become Like Children..." (http://www.g
oacom.com/the-catholic-church-in-goa) Goa Today.
91. Teotonio R. de Souza, Goa to Me, New Delhi: Concept Publ. Co., 1994 (ISBN 81-7022-504-
3) "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110517122848/http://www.goacom.com/c
ulture/biographies/tdesbio.html). Archived from the original (http://www.goacom.com/culture/
biographies/tdesbio.html) on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2010.
92. Costa, Cosme Jose (21 December 2014). "Reminiscences Of Goa's Liberation" (http://www.
heraldgoa.in/Review/Reminiscences-Of-Goa%E2%80%99s-Liberation/82454.html). O
Heraldo. Goa. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
93. Peter Malanczuk (12 April 2002). Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=uwiIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA156). Routledge. pp. 156–.
ISBN 978-1-134-83388-7. "Portugal acquired Goa by conquest in the sixteenth century, and
India recognized the Portuguese title after becoming independent in 1947. However, in the
Security Council debates which followed the invasion, India argued that Portugal's title was
void because it was based on colonial conquest. Such a view is correct under twentieth
century notions of international law, but hardly under sixteenth-century notions. The
sympathies of most of the members of the United Nations lay with India, and neither the
Security Council nor the General Assembly condemned India's actions. But this does not
necessarily mean that they thought India's action was legally justified."
94. Andrew Clapham; Paola Gaeta; Marco Sassòli (15 October 2015). The 1949 Geneva
Conventions: A Commentary (https://books.google.com/books?id=0IGhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA
1465). OUP Oxford. pp. 1465–. ISBN 978-0-19-100352-3. "In the case of the annexation of
Goa by India in 1961, the Supreme Court of India held that the annexation was valid and the
law of occupation no longer applicable. In 1974, Portugal recognized the Indian sovereignty
over Goa by a treaty with retroactive effect."
95. Alina Kaczorowska-Ireland (8 May 2015). Public International Law (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=2fQjCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA268). Routledge. pp. 268–. ISBN 978-1-317-93641-1.
"It is submitted that in the light of the jus cogens rule prohibiting the threat or use of force any
annexation which has taken place after the entry into force of the UN Charter e.g. the
annexation of Tibet by China in 1951, the annexation of Hyderabad by India in 1948, the
annexation of Goa (despite the fact that Portugal relinquished its claim and recognised the
sovereignty of India over Goa by a treaty) should be regarded as illegal and thus without any
effect under international law. Such fundamental illegality can neither be justified by the
subsequent conclusion of a peace treaty nor by the application of the doctrine of historic
consolidation."
96. Sharon Korman (31 October 1996). The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by
Force in International Law and Practice (https://books.google.com/books?id=ueDO1dJyjrUC
&pg=PA275). Clarendon Press. pp. 275–. ISBN 978-0-19-158380-3. "It may therefore be
argued that the recognition of India's annexation of Goa involved the bending of a principle
(the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by the use of force) to accommodate a reality
which was regarded as being, on the whole, beneficial, even if this situation originated in
illegality. But it did not involve the abandonment of the legal principle prohibiting the
acquisition of territory by force-even in respect of territories defined as colonies. The
conclusion that India's successful annexation of Goa cannot be taken to indicate the
existence of a legal right of reconquest in cases where a former colony seeks to recover
what it considers to be its pre-colonial frontiers is reinforced-even more strongly and
conclusively-by the practice of states in connection with Argentina's attempted conquest or
reconquest of the Faulkland islands."

General bibliography
Rotter, Andrew Jon (2000). Comrades at Odds: The United States and India, 1947–1964 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=uPx4vb99RUoC). Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-
8460-X.
Couto, Francisco Cabral (2006). Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961.
ISBN 972-8799-53-5. (Partial online version at GoaBooks2 (http://goabooks2.blogspot.com/
2007/01/remembering-fall-of-portuguese-india.html))

Further reading
 Fernandes, Aureliano (2000), "Political Transition in Post-Colonial Societies: Goa in
Perspective" (http://www.persee.fr/doc/luso_1257-0273_2000_num_7_1_1381), Lusotopie,
7 (1): 341–358
Gopal, Sarvepalli. Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography Vol. 3: 1956–1964 (Harvard University
Press, 1984) pp 190–203.

Heimsath, Charles H. and Surjit Mansingh. A Diplomatic History of Modern India (1971) pp
324–339.
Newman, Robert S. (Autumn 1984), "Goa: The Transformation of an Indian Region" (http://w
ww.revistas.usp.br/viaatlantica/article/view/119337), Pacific Affairs, 57 (3): 429–449,
doi:10.2307/2759068 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2759068), JSTOR 2759068 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/2759068)
Pöllath, Moritz. "‘Far away from the Atlantic...': Goa, West New Guinea and NATO's out-of-
area policy at Bandung 1955." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 11.4 (2013): 387-402.
Rubinoff, Arthur G. (1995), "Political Integration in Goa", Journal of Developing Societies,
vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 36–60, ProQuest 1307824129 (https://search.proquest.com/docview/1307
824129)

External links
Time magazine coverage of the conflict (https://web.archive.org/web/20070713132416/http://
www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827139,00.html)
Photo gallery of the Liberation of Goa (https://web.archive.org/web/20071012221443/http://b
harat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Images-1961.html)
Image: Ram Manohar Lohia (https://web.archive.org/web/20071130122710/http://www.kama
t.org/picture.asp?Name=16333.jpg)
Image: The Protests of 18 June 1946 (https://web.archive.org/web/20071130070445/http://w
ww.kamat.org/picture.asp?Name=16334.jpg)
Image: Foreign journalists rescue a protester shot by Portuguese police officers (https://web.
archive.org/web/20070902030916/http://www.kamat.org/picture.asp?Name=16338.jpg)
Portugal-India relations (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India) (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090619092549/http://meaindia.nic.in/foreignrelation/portugal.pdf)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annexation_of_Goa&oldid=1085018983"

This page was last edited on 27 April 2022, at 23:36 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Timoji
Timoji (also referred to as Timoja or Timmayya)[1] was a privateer who served the Vijayanagara Empire
and the Portuguese Empire during the first decade of the 16th century. He claimed to have been born in
Goa and to have escaped the city after its conquest by the Adil Shahi of Bijapur in 1496. After his support
in the 1510 Portuguese conquest of Goa, he was for a short time appointed aguazil of the city.

Contents
Background
Relations with the Portuguese
References
Bibliography

Background
Since the 14th century the Deccan had been divided in two antagonistic entities: on the one side stood the
Muslim Bahmani Sultanate, and on the other stood the native rajas rallied around the Vijayanagara Empire.
Continuous wars demanded frequent resupplies of fresh horses, which were imported through sea routes
from Persia and Arabia. This trade was subjected to frequent raids by thriving bands of pirates based in the
coastal cities of Western India. Timoji acted both as a privateer (by seizing horse traders, that he rendered to
the raja of Honavar) and as a pirate who attacked the Kerala merchant fleets that traded pepper with
Gujarat. Timoji operated off Anjediva (modern Anjadip) Island, with two thousand mercenaries under his
command and at least fourteen ships.

Relations with the Portuguese

He met Vasco da Gama's fleet off Anjediva in 1498, but the Portuguese admiral suspected him of being a
spy and refused his advances. In 1505, he attracted the Portuguese Viceroy Dom Francisco de Almeida to
an estuary and, after keeping him waiting for three days, appeared before him richly attired and offered him
his services and a token tribute. In 1507 Timoji warned the Viceroy of the upcoming siege of Cannanore by
Calicut forces and supplied the Portuguese St. Angelo Fort during the siege. In the end of 1507, when a
Mamluk fleet under Amir Husain Al-Kurdi (named "Mirocem" by the Portuguese[2]) supplements the
Calicut forces, he becomes the main informant of Dom Francisco de Almeida. Soon after the Battle of Diu,
Timoji met the Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya and offered him a rich tribute. He then prompted the
Portuguese to conquer Goa, the main port for the horse trade. The city had been conquered from
Vijayanagar by the Bahmani Sultans in 1469, and passed to Bijapur. In late 1509, the remains of the
Mamluk fleet defeated in the battle of Diu had taken refuge there.

In 1510 the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque wanted to fight the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate fleet in
the Red Sea or return to Hormuz. However, Timoji convinced him that it would be easier to fight them in
Goa, where they had sheltered after the Battle of Diu,[3] and also of the illness of the Sultan Yusuf Adil
Shah and war between the Deccan sultanates.[3] So he invested in the capture of Goa to the Sultanate of
Bijapur with the support of Timoji.[4] On November, in a second strike, Albuquerque conquered Goa with
a fleet fully renovated[5] and about 300 Malabarese reinforcements from Cannanore.

They regained the support of the native population, although frustrating the initial expectations of Timoji,
who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of
the city, an administrator and representative of the native people, as a knowing interpreter of the local
customs.[3] He then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and started the first Portuguese mint in the
East, after complaints from merchants and Timoji about the scarcity of currency.

Timoji was put in command of the native troops loyal to the Portuguese. However, he soon was relieved of
his command due to his refusal to follow orders. The command of the native troops was given to a
pretender to the throne of Honavar, and Timoji returned to piracy.

Timoji was made prisoner after a raid, and died by opium poisoning soon after being taken to the
Vijayanagar capital. His wife and children, however, returned to Goa where Albuquerque arranged for their
upkeep.

References
1. Not to be mistaken for Timoji Nayak, a VOC's broker later, circa 1678, see [1] (https://archive.
org/details/dli.csl.3386/page/n146/mode/1up?q=timoja)
2. The book of Duarte Barbosa By Duarte Barbosa, Fernão de Magalhães, Mansel Longworth
Dames
3. Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, Charles J. Borges, "Goa-Kanara Portuguese relations,
1498-1763" p. 34-36
4. * Kerr, Robert (1824). A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Arranged in
Systematic Order (http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/kerr/vol06cha
p01sect05.html). Edinburgh: William Blackwood. (volume 6, I chapter)
5. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, p. 253, Diffie, Winius 253, Diffie, Winius

Bibliography
Castanheda, Fernão Lopes de História do descobrimento e conquista da Índia pelos
portugueses (https://books.google.com/books?id=kcMNAAAAYAAJ&hl=pt-PT) (full text in
Portuguese).
Geneviéve Bouchon, "Inde découverte, Inde retrouvée (1498-1630) Études d'histoire indo-
portugaise" ISBN 972-8462-07-7
Bailey, Diffie, "Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC), p. 250-251, University of Minnesota Press, 1977, ISBN 0-
8166-0782-6
Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, Charles J. Borges, "Goa-Kanara Portuguese relations,
1498-1763" (https://books.google.com/books?id=raLL0A3Pb_0C&lpg=1) p. 34-36, Concept
Publishing Company, 2000, ISBN 81-7022-848-4,
Charles Ralph, "The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825", p. 47, Hutchinson 1969,
ISBN 0-09-131071-7 [2] (https://books.google.com/books?id=BChmAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1)
Duarte Barbosa, Mansel Longworth Dames, (1518) "The book of Duarte Barbosa: an
account of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean and their inhabitants" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=r5jnQzwZjOYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=&f=false), Asian
Educational Services, 1989, ISBN 81-206-0451-2
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timoji&oldid=1057818754"

This page was last edited on 29 November 2021, at 21:24 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Comunidades of Goa
The Comunidades of Goa were a form of land association developed in Goa, India, where land-ownership
was collectively held, but controlled by the male descendants of those who claimed to be the founders of
the village, who in turn mostly belonged to upper caste groups.[1] Documented by the Portuguese as of
1526, it was the predominant form of landholding in Goa prior to 1961.[2][3] In form, it is similar to many
other rural agricultural peoples' form of landholding,[4] such as that of pre-Spanish Bolivia[5] and the
Puebloan peoples now in the Southwestern United States,[6] identified by Karl Marx as the dualism of rural
communities: the existence
of collective land ownership together with private production on the land.[7]

Contents
Codified by the Portuguese
Members and dividends
Changes over time
Limited role
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Codified by the Portuguese

Comunidades were a variant of the system of gaunkari system called gramasanstha (ग्रामसंस्था)). Some
scholars argue that the term gaunkari is derived from the name for those who compose it, that is the
gaunkar; i.e. those who make (kar) the gaun or village. This institution pre-existed the arrival of the
Portuguese, but was codified by them.[8][9] The first of these codifications was contained in the Foral of
Afonso Mexia in 1526. The term gram in gramasanstha refers to the village. Comunidades is the
Portuguese word for "communities". The khazan system of managed wetlands in Goa is an offshoot of the
gaunkari system, but now quite distinct from the comunidades.[10]

Members and dividends

Members of the comunidades were called gaonkars, or zonnkars (in Portuguese, jonoeiros). The former
were the members of the village, the latter were entitled to zonn, or jono, which is a dividend paid by the
comunidade to gaunkars and accionistas, the holders of acções (sing. acção), or shares. The system
applied equally to agricultural land and to village housing.

Changes over time

Over time and subject to conflicting land ownership and administration systems, the old institutions lost
their original characteristics and comunidades are now mere societies of rights-holders who are members by
birth.

After Portuguese rule ended in Goa in 1961, the village development activities, which were once the
preserve of the comunidades or more specifically the gaunkaris, became entrusted to the gram panchayat,
rendering the gaunkaris non-functional.

The emergence of private property in land created a new set of socio-economic relationships at the village
level, especially the comunidades and the ghar-bhaatt, the two principal forms of land tenure that came to
characterise Portuguese Goa.[11]

The working of the comunidades is now tightly controlled by the Goa state government, which supporters
of the comunidade movement say leaves little scope for them to act as self-governing units.[12]

Limited role
The sole official function of the comunidades, currently, is to parcel out their land at government-approved
rates. However, supporters of the comunidade movement, have been waging a determined, if small,
campaign to safeguard what they see as their rights, and continue to fight against the erosion of the
comunidade system in Goa, by, for example, bringing land ownership lawsuits.[13] In 2004, the Goa Su-
Ray Party issued a polemic supporting the comunidades.[14]

The Goa Daman and Diu Agricultural Tenancy Act, 1964, passed in the 1964 by the then
Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party government, extended the tenancy rights of the tenants to lands from the
comunidade, for the payment of a quit-rent called the comunidade foro. This has resulted in most field
property of the comunidades passing into private hands, and erosion of the comunidades as a whole.

Thus at present most of comunidade land is in the hills, which is either uncultivated or given over to
cashew plantations, to tenants. Uncultivated comunidade land draws squatters who develop shanty
towns.[13]

In the populous and well-developed central coastal parts of the state, almost all the land that once belonged
to the comunidades has been allotted to tenants or taken over for industrial purpose by the government.

There are provisions under Code of Comunidade (a Legislative Enactment No. 2070 dated 15 April 1961)
to take action against illegal encroachments, however action is usually not taken.

Notes
1. Pereira, Rui Gomes (1978). Goa: Hindu temples and deities. Volume 1 of Goa. (translated
from the original in Portuguese by Antonio Victor Couto). Panaji, Goa, India: Pereira. p. 1.
OCLC 6862661 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6862661).
2. Vanjari, Shrikrishna (1968). "Feudal Land Tenure System in Goa". Economic and Political
Weekly. New Delhi. 3 (22): 843–844.
3. Mascarenhas, Nascimento (25 April 2010). "Comunidades de Goa" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20190425232544/http://saligaoserenade.com/2010/04/comunidades-de-goa/). Saligao
Serenade. Archived from the original (http://saligaoserenade.com/2010/04/comunidades-de-
goa/) on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
 4. Agrawal, A. (2001). "Common property institutions and sustainable governance of
resources". World Development. 29 (10): 1649–1672. doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00063-8
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0305-750x%2801%2900063-8).
5. Weeks, David (1947). "Land tenure in Bolivia". The Journal of Land & Public Utility
Economics. 23 (3): 321–336. doi:10.2307/3158806 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3158806).
JSTOR 3158806 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3158806).(subscription required)
6. Beaglehole, Ernest (1934). "Ownership and inheritance in an American Indian tribe" (http://h
einonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/ilr20&div=31).
Iowa Law Review. 20: 304–316.(subscription required)
7. Potekhin, Ivan I. (1963). "Land relations in African countries". The Journal of Modern African
Studies. 1 (1): 39–59. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00000707 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs00222
78x00000707). JSTOR 158783 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/158783).(subscription required)
8. Menezes, Maximo (1961). Breves Notas sobre a Historia das Comunidades de Goa com
Diversos Mapas Anexes (A Short Note concerning the History of the Comunidades of Goa
with Several Maps Attached (in Portuguese). Goa: Tipografia Nacional.
9. Pereira, Rui Gomes (1978). Goa: Gaunkari (https://books.google.com/books?id=lwQYAAAAI
AAJ). Volume 2 of Goa. (translated from the original in Portuguese by Antonio Victor Couto).
Panaji, Goa, India: Pereira. OCLC 6862661 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6862661).
10. Sonak, Sangeeta; Kazi, Saltanat; Sonak, Mahesh; Abraham, Mary (2006). "Factors affecting
land-use and land-cover changes in the coastal wetlands of Goa". In Sonak, Sangeeta (ed.).
Multiple dimensions of global environmental change (http://www.teriin.org/teri-wr/projects/ap
nbook_abstracts/section1/GOA-Book.pdf) (PDF). New Delhi: TERI Press, The Energy and
Resources Institute. pp. 44–61, page 46 (http://www.teriin.org/teri-wr/projects/apnbook_abstr
acts/section1/GOA-Book.pdf#page=55). ISBN 978-81-7993-091-5.
11. Kamat, Pratima (2000), "Peasantry and the Colonial State in Goa 1946-1961", in Borges,
Charles J.; Pereira, Oscar Guilherme; Stubbe, Hannes (eds.), Goa and Portugal: History and
Development (https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=diISslZgIAkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA
133), New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, pp. 133–159, ISBN 978-81-7022-867-7
12. today the 223 comunidades of Goa are moribund at best Goswami, Rahul (2008). "The
Konkan Packaging Company of Goa". Economic and Political Weekly. 43 (6): 10–12, page
11. JSTOR 40277093 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40277093).(subscription required)
13. "In Agonda, rain makes life a nightmare" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060315072549/htt
p://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1019754581.cms). The Times of India. 31 July
2001. Archived from the original (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/101975458
1.cms) on 15 March 2006. Retrieved 9 November 2005.
14. "Comunidades of Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090409213709/http://www.goasu-raj.
org/gen/articles/19.asp). Goa Su-Ray Party. 12 November 2004. Archived from the original
(http://www.goasu-raj.org/gen/articles/19.asp) on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2009.

References
Report of the Goa Land Reforms Commission. Panaji: Government of Goa, Daman & Diu.
1964. OCLC 5535970 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5535970).
Mazarelo, S. (1966). Report of the Committee of the Problems of Mundkars in the Union
Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. Panaji, Goa: Government Printing Press. OCLC 7903841
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7903841). Note: a mundkar is a tenant or landbound peon.
"III Comunidades". Annual administration report [Goa, Daman and Diu (India)] (https://books.
google.com/books?id=RJIaAAAAIAAJ). Panaji: Government of Goa, Daman & Diu. 1969.
pp. 56–57. OCLC 2335071 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2335071).
Further reading
Mukhopadhyay. Pranab (2002). "Now that Your Land is My Land …. Does it matter? : A case
study in Western India" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070726123515/http://www.beijer.kva.
se/teaching/pranab.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.beijer.kva.se/teaching/
pranab.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2007.

External links
A non-neutral statement of position: Association of Componentes of Comunidades. "The
Comunidades of Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120719060326/http://www.goa-world.
com/goa/comunidades/). Goa-World.com. Archived from the original (http://www.goa-world.c
om/goa/comunidades/) on 19 July 2012.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comunidades_of_Goa&oldid=997218321"

This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 14:35 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 15.2649°N 73.9415°E

Goa Chitra Museum

The Goa Chitra is an ethnographic museum based in the former
Portuguese colony (and now India's smallest state) of Goa. It has a
large collection—over 4000 artefacts [1]—focusing on Goa's
traditional agrarian technology and lifestyle.

Goa Chitra is based in the coastal Goan village of Benaulim. It was

founded and is run (2010) by the artist-curator-restorer Victor-Hugo Goa Chitra Museum
Gomes. TimeOut Mumbai has described the museum as "[o]ne of
Goa's most charming attractions" and add that "this little rural
complex houses thousands of traditional implements, vessels and
tools that evolved over centuries in the agrarian heartland of Goa in
the service of farming and other traditional trades".[2]

Contents
Collection
Eco-use Goa Chitra Museum, entrance.
Topmost contemporary museum
Plans
See also
References
External links

Collection
Goa Chitra's collection includes examples of local pottery, farming
tools, musical instruments, ancient carts and palanquins[3]—from
different points of the past. It also showcases an organic farm for
the cultivation of various vegetables, herbs, spices, sugarcane, and
rice—all staples of the area in coastal western India.
Goa Chitra view.
Eco-use
Fertiliser and pesticides utilised are made from farm waste, using traditional techniques. Rather ingeniously,
human waste from the living quarters is also converted to bio-gas, and together with solar power, provides
the energy needs of the farm.

Topmost contemporary museum

The Goa Chitra Museum has been rated by the Archaeological
Survey of India as the "topmost contemporary museum" in India.[4]

TIME, in a write-up, said: "The exhibits include hundreds of tillage

implements, in testimony to a time when agriculture was Goa's
mainstay. (Now, tourism and mining are the key industries and Goa
depends on neighboring states for such staples as cereals and
vegetables.) A sugarcane grinder standing almost five meters high
is one of the main focal points of the museum. Gomes took over
two years to restore it."[5]

Plans
The museum plans to be a focal point for providing information to
its visitors,; offer workshops for young children from schools and
university students offer the opportunity to work with artisans; help From another era.
artisans with craft development, to make contemporary products
based on the inspiration of their traditions which are saleable and
help them earn towards a dignified life; and build a documentation-
dissemination plan to "guarantee the systematic collection of
information about the operation of the project and provide the basis
for sharing information with other similar projects."[6]

See also Goa Chitra setting.

List of food and beverage museums

References
1. "A quick tour of Goa's heritage through 4,000 artefacts"
(https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/goa-chitra-mu
seum-benaulim/#s-cust0). Architectural Digest. 15
Altars.
August 2018.
2. 15 new things to look out for in Goa this season (http://w
ww.mail-archive.com/goanet@lists.goanet.org/msg5393
0.html)
3. "Goa Chitra : Collections" (http://www.goachitra.com/coll
ections.html).
4. A one-man mission, Goa Chitra Museum houses live
specimen too (http://www.dailypioneer.com/247030/Get-f
resh-with-this-museum.html/)
5. Next Time You're in ... Goa (https://web.archive.org/web/
20100705011138/http://www.time.com/time/travel/article/
0,31542,2000884,00.html) Furniture, etc.

6. Methods for Achieving Goals and Objectives (http://www.

goachitra.com/museum.html)

External links
 Goa Chitra Museum (http://www.goachitra.com/)
Goa Chitra Celebrates International Museum Day (https://web.archive.org/web/2011072116
3457/http://www.navhindtimes.in/iwatch/goa-chitra-celebrates-international-museum-day)
M.K. Narayan's Tryst with Goa's Heritage (https://web.archive.org/web/20100608065746/htt
p://www.navhindtimes.in/iexplore/m-k-narayanan-s-tryst-goa-s-heritage)
Goa Chitra, museum of State’s rich past (http://www.oheraldo.in/news/Local%20News/Goa-
Chitra-museum-of-State-rsquo-s-rich-past/36916.html/)
Goa Chitra launches first heritage trail (https://web.archive.org/web/20100704035010/http://
www.navhindtimes.in/iexplore/goa-chitra-launches-first-heritage-trail)
Goa Chitra (http://www.goa-tourism.com/entertainment.php?id=14/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa_Chitra_Museum&oldid=1080410872"

This page was last edited on 1 April 2022, at 03:20 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goa trance
Goa trance is an electronic dance music style that originated in the
Goa trance
early 1990s in the Indian state of Goa.[2] Goa trance often has
drone-like basslines, similar to the techno minimalism of 21st Stylistic Trance · EBM ·
century psychedelic trance (psytrance). Psychedelic trance origins psychedelic rock ·
developed from Goa trance.[3] acid house · new beat ·
Indian classical music[1]
Cultural Early 1990s, Goa,
Contents origins India[2]
Derivative Psychedelic trance,
History
forms nitzhonot
Sound
Fusion genres
Parties
Psybient
In popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The music has its roots in the popularity of Goa, India, in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a hippie capital,
and although musical developments were incorporating elements of industrial music, New beat and
electronic body music (EBM), with the spiritual culture in India throughout the 1980s, the actual Goa
trance style did not appear until the early 1990s.[2][4]

The music played was a blend of styles loosely defined as techno, New beat and various genres of
"computer music" (e.g., high energy disco without vocals, acid-house, electro, industrial-gothic, various
styles of house and electronic-rock hybrids). It arrived on tape cassettes by traveller-collectors and DJs and
was shared (copied) tape-to-tape among Goa DJs, in an underground scene not driven by labels or the
music industry.

Prior to the 1980s, the music played at parties was performed by live bands and tapes were played in
between sets. In the early 1980s, sampling synth and MIDI music appeared globally and DJs became the
preferred format in Goa, with two tape decks driving a party without a break, facilitating continuous music.

Cassette tapes were used by DJs until the 1990s, when DAT tapes were used. DJs playing in Goa during
the 1980s included Fred Disko, Dr Bobby, Stephano, Paulino, Mackie, Babu, Laurent, Ray, Fred, Antaro,
Lui, Rolf, Tilo, Pauli, Rudi, and Goa Gil.[5] The music was eclectic in style but based around instrumental
dub versions of tracks that evoked mystical, cosmic, psychedelic, and existential themes. Special mixes
were made by DJs in Goa that were the editing of various versions of a track to make it longer.[6]
By 1990–91, Goa had become a hot destination for partying and was no longer under the radar: the scene
grew bigger. Goa-style parties spread like a diaspora all over the world from 1993, and a multitude of labels
in various countries (UK, Australia, Japan, Germany) dedicated themselves to promoting psychedelic
electronic music that reflected the ethos of Goa parties, Goa music and Goa-specific artists and producers
and DJs. Mark Maurice's 'Panjaea's focal point' parties brought it to London in 1992 and its programming
at London club megatripolis gave a great boost to the small international scene that was then growing
(October 21, 1993 onwards). The golden age and first wave of Goa Trance was generally agreed upon
aesthetically between 1994 and 1997.

Goa trance in the music industry and as a collective party fashion did not gain global recognition until
1994, when Paul Oakenfold began to champion the genre[7] via his own Perfecto label and in the media,
most notably with the release of his 1994 Essential Mix, or more commonly known as the Goa Mix.[8]

Sound
The original goal of the music was to assist the dancers in experiencing a collective state of bodily
transcendence, similar to that of ancient shamanic dancing rituals, through hypnotic, pulsing melodies and
rhythms. As such, it has an energetic beat, often in a standard 4/4 dance rhythm. A typical track will
generally build up to a much more energetic movement in the second half before reaching an intense
climax, then taper off fairly quickly toward the end. The tempo typically lies in the 130–150 BPM range,
although some tracks may have a tempo as low as 110 or as high as 160 BPM. Generally 8–12 minutes
long, Goa Trance tracks tend to focus on steadily building energy throughout, using changes in percussion
patterns and more intricate and layered synth parts as the music progresses in order to build a hypnotic and
intense feel.

The kick drum often is a low, thick sound with prominent sub-bass frequencies. The music very often
incorporates many audio effects that are often created through experimentation with synthesisers. A well-
known sound that originated with Goa trance and became much more prevalent through its successor,
which evolved Goa Trance into a music genre known as Psytrance, has the organic "squelchy" sound
(usually a sawtooth-wave which is run through a resonant band-pass or high-pass filter).

Other music technology used in Goa trance includes popular analogue synthesizers such as the Roland TB-
303, Roland Juno-60/106, Novation Bass-Station, Korg MS-10, and notably the Roland SH-101.
Hardware samplers manufactured by Akai, Yamaha and Ensoniq were also popular for sample storage and
manipulation.

A popular element of Goa trance is the use of vocal samples, often from science fiction movies. Those
samples mostly contain references to drugs, parapsychology, extraterrestrial life, existentialism, out-of-body
experiences, dreams, science, time travel, spirituality and similarly mysterious and unconventional topics.

Detroit techno was introduced in 1999 by a group of anonymous artists who performed exclusively Detroit
techno and Chicago house at a venue known as Laughing Buddha (formally known as Klinsons) in Baga,
Goa. They were the first to play this style of music with turntables. Using vinyl was a first for Goa at that
time. Until then DJs usually used mini discs, DATs and CDs, without beat matching to mix. The
introduction of the Detroit sound had a lasting effect on Goa trance, leading to a more industrialized sound.

Parties
The first parties were those held at Bamboo Forest at South Anjuna beach, Disco Valley at Vagator beach
and Arambol beach (c. 1991–1993)[9] and attempts initially were made to turn them into commercial
events, which met with much resistance and the need to pay the local Goan police baksheesh. Events were
generally staged around a bar, even though these were often only a
temporary fixture in the forest or beach. The parties taking place
around the new year tend to be the most chaotic with busloads of
people coming in from all places such as Mumbai, Delhi, Gujarat,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Chennai. Travelers and sadhus from all
over India passed by to join in.

Megatripolis in London was a great influence in popularising the

sound. Running from June 1993 though really programming the
DJ playing Goa trance in Hilltop,
music from October 1993 when it moved to Heaven nightclub it
Vagator, Goa.
made all the national UK press, running until October 1996.

In 1993 a party organization called Return to the Source also

brought the sound to London, UK. Starting life at the Rocket in North London with a few hundred
followers, the Source went on to a long residency at Brixton's 2,000 capacity Fridge and to host several
larger 6,000 capacity parties in Brixton Academy, their New Year's Eve parties gaining reputations for
being very special. The club toured across the UK, Europe and Israel throughout the 1990s and went as far
as two memorable parties on the slopes of Mount Fuji in Japan and New York's Liberty Science Center. By
2001 the partners Chris Deckker, Mark Allen, Phil Ross and Janice Duncan were worn out and all but
gone their separate ways. The last Return to the Source party was at Brixton Academy in 2002.

Goa parties have a definitive visual aspect - the use of "fluoro" (fluorescent paint) is common on clothing
and on decorations such as tapestries. The graphics on these decorations are usually associated with topics
such as aliens, Hinduism, other religious (especially eastern) images, mushrooms (and other psychedelic
art), shamanism and technology. Shrines in front of the DJ stands featuring religious items are also common
decorations.

In popular culture
For a short period in the mid-1990s, Goa trance enjoyed significant commercial success with support from
DJs, who later went on to assist in developing a much more mainstream style of trance outside Goa.

See also
Music of Goa

References
1. The Local Scenes and Global Culture of Psytrance, page 56 (https://books.google.co.uk/boo
ks?id=o_ctCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA56), Routledge
2. Bogdanov, Vladimir (2001). All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to
Electronic Music (https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad) (4th ed.). Backbeat
Books. pp. xi. ISBN 978-0879306281.
3. Graham St John (2010). The Local Scenes and Global Culture of Psytrance (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=o_ctCgAAQBAJ&q=full-on&pg=PA116). ISBN 978-1136944345.
4. "Goa Trance" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080319084451/http://www.moodbook.com/mus
ic/trance.html#goa-trance). moodbook.com. Archived from the original (http://www.moodboo
k.com/music/trance.html#goa-trance) on March 19, 2008. Retrieved August 23, 2016.
 5. "ALTERNATIVE GOA LIFESTYLE GUIDE Alternative Goa Lifestyle Guide" (http://www.joom
ag.com/magazine/alternative-goa-lifestyle-guide-alternative-goa-lifestyle-guide/0921810001
407823837?page=33). Joomag. 21 November 2014.
6. "mind_like_a_laser" (https://mind-like-a-laser.dreamwidth.org/664.html).
7. "25 Most Influential Parties" (http://www.mixmag.net/feature/25-parties-that-changed-dance-
music-forever/46). Mixmag.
8. "Paul Oakenfold 1994" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03lsp8z). BBC Essential Mix.
9. Saldhana, Arund. "Article: Music tourism and factions of bodies in Goa" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20160304083910/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~saldanha/saldanha-ts.pdf) (PDF).
tc.umn.edu. Open University/University of Minnesota, Sage Publications, UK 2002. Archived
from the original (http://www.tc.umn.edu/~saldanha/saldanha-ts.pdf) (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
Retrieved 22 February 2016.

Further reading
vijendra kudnekar. & Hollands, R., Beyond Subculture and Post-subculture? The Case of
Virtual Psytrance, Journal of Youth Studies, Volume 9, Number 4, September 2006, pp. 393–
418(26), Routledge.
St John, G. 2004 (ed.), Rave Culture and Religion, Routledge. (ISBN 978-0-415-31449-7).
St John, G. 2001 (ed.), FreeNRG: Notes From the Edge of the Dance Floor free ebook
download (http://undergrowth.org/freenrg_notes_from_the_edge_of_the_dancefloor),
Common Ground, Melbourne, 2001 (ISBN 978-1-86335-084-6).
St John, G. 2010. (ed.), The Local Scenes and Global Culture of Psytrance. New York:
Routledge. (ISBN 978-0415876964).
St John, G. 2011. DJ Goa Gil: Kalifornian Exile, Dark Yogi and Dreaded Anomaly. (http://dj.d
ancecult.net/index.php/journal/article/view/94) Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music
Culture 3(1): 97-128.
St John, G. 2012. Seasoned Exodus: The Exile Mosaic of Psyculture. (http://dj.dancecult.net/
index.php/journal/article/view/111) Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture
4(1): 4–37.
St John, G. 2012. Global Tribe: Technology, Spirituality and Psytrance. Equinox.
(ISBN 9781845539559).
St John, G. 2014. "Goatrance Travellers: Psytrance and its Seasoned Progeny." (https://ww
w.academia.edu/5527161/Goatrance_Travellers_Psytrance_and_its_Seasoned_Progeny._I
n_Simone_Kr%C3%BCger_and_Ruxandra_Trandafoiu_eds_The_Globalization_of_Musics
_in_Transit_Musical_Migration_and_Tourism_Routledge_2014_) In Simone Krüger and
Ruxandra Trandafoiu (eds), The Globalization of Musics in Transit: Musical Migration and
Tourism. New York: Routledge, 160–182.
Taylor, T., 2001. Strange Sounds: Music, Technology and Culture, Routledge. (ISBN 978-0-
415-93684-2).

External links
Psychedelic Trance (https://curlie.org/Arts/Music/Styles/D/Dance/Trance/Psychedelic_Tranc
e/) at Curlie

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa_trance&oldid=1070220084"

This page was last edited on 6 February 2022, at 10:05 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;
additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Bebinca
Bebinca, also known as bibik or bebinka, is a traditional layer
cake of Goa, India derived from Indo-Portuguese cuisine. Bebinca
Traditionally, Bebinka has between 7 and 16 layers, but it can be
modified per one's convenience and taste.[1][2] It is especially
popular during Christmas, but is available in Goa year round due
to tourist demand.[3][4] It is also easily available to carry and
preserve for a long time or eaten fresh.

Bebinca was also adopted as a typhoon name in the northwestern

Pacific Ocean, contributed by Macau.[5]
It is also prepared in
Portugal and Mozambique. Bebinca with ice cream

Alternative Bibik
Preparation names
Course Dessert and Sweet
Preparing bebinca is a slow process.[4]
The batter is made with Place of Former Estado da
flour, sugar, ghee, egg yolk, and coconut milk.[6][7] The batter is origin Índia Portuguesa
spread thinly onto a grill and the layers are stacked atop one Region or Goa and Macau
another. Bebinca may be garnished with nutmeg or slivered state
almonds.[2] Main Flour, sugar, ghee
ingredients (clarified butter),
See also coconut milk, egg
yolk
Pudding
Food energy 993 kcal kcal
Tropical Storm Bebinca (per serving)

Cookbook: Bebinca
References
1. Clark, Claire (2014). 80 Cakes From Around the World. ISBN 9781472916006.
2. "Bebinca" (https://www.atlasobscura.com/foods/bebinca-goa-cake). Atlas Obscura.
Retrieved 30 January 2021.
3. "Bebinca - Culinary Encyclopedia" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140508042918/http://ww
w.ifood.tv/network/bebinca). ifood.tv. Archived from the original (http://www.ifood.tv/network/b
ebinca) on 8 May 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
4. Fodor's Essential India with Delhi, Rajasthan, Mumbai & Kerala. Fodor's Travel Guide.
2019. ISBN 9781640971233.
5. "Tropical Storm Bebinca lessens threat to Philippines, veers north toward Japan" (https://ww
w.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/2006-10-04-bebinca-philippines_x.htm). USA Today. 4
October 2006. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
6. Banerji, Chitrita (2010). Eating India: Exploring the Food and Culture of the Land of Spices
(https://books.google.com/books?id=c9lJnCpfEDoC&q=Bebinca). Bloomsbury Publishing.
ISBN 978-1408820544.
7. Petrina Verma Sarkar. "Bebinca (layered Goan dessert)" (http://indianfood.about.com/od/swe
etsanddesserts/r/bebinca.htm). About, Inc. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
 Home made Bebinca from Goa, India

Goan bebinca in Lisbon, Portugal

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bebinca&oldid=1037612384"

This page was last edited on 7 August 2021, at 16:39 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 15°29′56″N 73°49′40″E

Panaji
Panaji (/ˈpʌnədʒi/; also known as Panjim) is the capital of the Indian state of
Goa and the headquarters of North Goa district. Previously, it was the Panaji
territorial capital of the former Portuguese India. It lies on the banks of the Panjim
Mandovi river estuary in the Tiswadi sub-district (tehsil). With a population of
114,759 in the metropolitan area, Panaji is Goa's largest urban agglomeration, City
ahead of Margao and Mormugao.

Panaji has terraced hills, concrete buildings with balconies and red-tiled roofs,
churches, and a riverside promenade. There are avenues lined with gulmohar,
acacia and other trees. The baroque Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception
Church is located overlooking the main square known as Praça da Igreja.
Panaji has been selected as one of hundred Indian cities to be developed as a
smart city under the Smart Cities Mission.

The city was built with stepped streets and a seven kilometre long promenade
on a planned grid system after the Portuguese relocated the capital from Velha
Goa in the 17th century.[3] It was elevated from a town to a city on 22 March
1843.[4]

Anticlockwise from the Top:

Contents
1. Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Imaculada
Etymology Conceição
History 2. Typical Portuguese influenced
architecture
Geography
3. Statue of Hindu-Christian Unity
Suburbs
4. Entrance to the Goa Police HQ
Demographics
Religion
Climate
Landmarks
Palace of Adil Shah (Secretariat Building) Panaji
Other attractions
Education
Research centres
Transport
Media and communications
Governance
Politics
Sports
Location of Panaji in Goa
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
See also
References
External links

Etymology
The city was renamed from Panjim in English to Panaji, its present official
name in the 1980s. The Portuguese name was Pangim. The city is sometimes
written as पणजें in (देवनागरी) कोंकणी or Ponnjé in Romi Konkani. The city had
been renamed Nova Goa (Portuguese for "New Goa") when it officially
replaced the city of Goa (now Old Goa) as the capital of Portuguese India,
though the Viceroy had already moved there in 1759.

The justification of the modern word Panaji is derived from the words panjani
and khali, which mean a boat and a small creek respectively, in Sanskrit. Thus
the modern word Panjim is believed to be a corruption of the old word Panaji
Panjanakhani as inscribed on the discovered Panjim copper-plates dated 1059
CE, belonging to the rule of Kadamba king Jayakesi I.[5][6] According to
legend, this northern capital city was mentioned in a stone inscription of
Kadamba king Jayakesi I dated 1054 CE as 'Panjanakhani', giving him the
epithet of Padavalendra which is Kannada for lord of the western ocean.[7] Panaji (India)
Coordinates: 15°29′56″N 73°49′40″E
Some historians state that it was named after a Shia Muslim shrine also called a
"Panja" on one of the coastal hill tops.[7] Country  India
State Goa
District North Goa
History Sub-district Tiswadi
Elevated to Capital 1843
Panaji was made the capital of Portuguese India, after a devastating epidemics
decimated the population of the City of Goa in the mid 18th Century.[8] Government
 • Mayor Rohit Monserrate
Panaji was annexed by India with the rest of Goa and the former Portuguese  • Deputy Mayor Vasant Agshikar
territories after the Indian invasion of Portuguese India in 1961. It became a  • Member of the Atanasio
state-capital on Goa's elevation to statehood in 1987. Between 1961 and 1987, Legislative Monserrate (BJP)
it was the capital of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. A new Assembly of Goa
Legislative Assembly complex was inaugurated in March 2000, across the Area
Mandovi River, in Alto Porvorim. Panaji is also the administrative  • City 8.27 km2
headquarters of North Goa district. (3.19 sq mi)
 • Metro 76.3 km2
(29.5 sq mi)
Geography
Elevation 7 m (23 ft)
Panaji is located at 15°29′56″N 73°49′40″E.[9] It has an average elevation of 7 Population (2011)
metres (23 feet).  • City 40,017
 • Rank 3rd in Goa
 • Density 4,800/km2
Suburbs (13,000/sq mi)
 • Metro 114,759
Panaji has various vāde or sub-divisions, including: Demonym(s) Ponnjekar

São Tomé, Fontainhas, Mala, Portais, Altinho, Cortin, Praça da Languages

Igreja, Tar, Bazar, Japão, and Boça de Vaca.  • Official Konkani, English
 • Additional/Cultural Romi Konkani,[1]
Some areas outlying it are: Portuguese[2]
Time zone UTC+5:30 (IST)
Campal, Santa Inez, Chinchollem, Batulem, Merces, Bambolim,
Caranzalem, Santa Cruz, Siridao, Dona Paula, and Platô de PIN 403 00x
Taleigão. Telephone code 0832
Vehicle registration GA-01, GA-07
Besides lying on the banks of the Mandovi River, Panaji is bound by two Website www.ccpgoa.com
creeks called pői by the locals, namely Ourém creek and Santa Inêz creek. (http://www.ccpgo
a.com/)

Demographics
During the 2011 census of India,[10] Panaji had a population of 114,405. Males constituted 52% of the population and females
48%. It had an average literacy rate of 90.9%; male literacy was 94.6% and female literacy 86.9%. In Panaji, 9.6% of the
population was under 7 years of age.
Religion

Panaji comprises three major religions, with Hinduism being the majority with 64.08% followers, Christianity with 26.51%
followers, and the smallest being Islam with 8.84% followers. 0.4% of the population count as other which include Buddhist,
Jain, and Sikh followers.[11]

Climate
Panaji features a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am). The climate in Panaji is hot in summer and
equable in winter. During summers (from March to May) the temperature reaches up to 32  °C (90  °F) and in winters (from
November to February) it is usually between 31 °C (88 °F) and 23 °C (73 °F).

The monsoon period is from June to October with heavy rainfall and gusty winds. The annual average rainfall is 2,932 mm
(115.43 in).

Climate data for Panaji (1981–2010, extremes 1901–2012)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Record 36.7 39.2

39.0
39.8
38.6
35.9
32.3
34.0
33.2
37.2 37.2 36.6 39.8
high °C (°F) (98.1) (102.6) (102.2) (103.6) (101.5) (96.6) (90.1) (93.2) (91.8) (99.0) (99.0) (97.9) (103.6)

Average 32.4 32.2

32.3
33.1
33.6
30.6
29.2
29.1
30.1
31.8 33.2 32.9 31.7
high °C (°F) (90.3) (90.0) (90.1) (91.6) (92.5) (87.1) (84.6) (84.4) (86.2) (89.2) (91.8) (91.2) (89.1)

Daily mean 26.3 26.4

27.7
29.3
30.1
27.8
26.8
26.7
27.0
27.8 27.9 26.9 27.6
°C (°F) (79.3) (79.5) (81.9) (84.7) (86.2) (82.0) (80.2) (80.1) (80.6) (82.0) (82.2) (80.4) (81.6)

Average 20.2 20.7

23.3
25.3
26.4
24.9
24.3
24.1
24.1
24.0 22.6 20.9 23.4
low °C (°F) (68.4) (69.3) (73.9) (77.5) (79.5) (76.8) (75.7) (75.4) (75.4) (75.2) (72.7) (69.6) (74.1)

Record low 14.4 13.3

16.8
19.4
20.9
20.9
20.5
21.7
21.0
20.0 15.3 15.7 13.3
°C (°F) (57.9) (55.9) (62.2) (66.9) (69.6) (69.6) (68.9) (71.1) (69.8) (68.0) (59.5) (60.3) (55.9)

Average
1.0
0.1 0.0 4.3 81.0
892.3 907.4 596.6 260.3 145.8
26.7 2.5
2,918

rainfall mm
(0.04) (0.00) (0.0) (0.17) (3.19) (35.13) (35.72) (23.49) (10.25) (5.74) (1.05) (0.10) (114.88)
(inches)

Average
0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 3.8 21.2 25.6 23.1 12.8 6.5 2.0 0.2 95.7
rainy days

Average
relative
humidity 57 59 65 67 69 83 87 86 82 76 65 58 71
(%)
(at 17:30 IST)

Mean
monthly
303.8 291.0 288.3 279.0 285.2 132.0 96.1 120.9 180.0 232.5 270.0 294.5 2,773.3
sunshine
hours

Mean daily
sunshine 9.8 10.3 9.3 9.3 9.2 4.4 3.1 3.9 6.0 7.5 9.0 9.5 7.6
hours

Source 1: India Meteorological Department (sun, 1971–2000)[12][13][14]

Source 2: Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1981–2010)[15]

Landmarks
The heart of the city is the Praça da Igreja (Church Square) where the Jardim Garcia de Orta (municipal garden) with the
Portuguese Baroque Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Imaculada Conceição, originally built in 1541. Other tourist attractions
include the old and rebuilt Adilshahi Palace (or Idalção Palace), dating from the sixteenth century, the Institute Menezes
Braganza, the Chapel of St. Sebastian and the Fontainhas area—which is considered to be the old Latin Quarter—as well as the
nearby beach of Miramar. Panaji hosted the relics of Saint John Bosco (also known as Don Bosco) till 21 August 2011 at the
Don Bosco Oratory.
One of the capital city's most discerning assets is the Mahalaxmi Temple. Located on
the Dada Vaidya road (Rua de Saudade during the Portuguese times), the Mahalaxmi
deity is the chief object of veneration for all Panjimites, irrespective of caste, class, sex
or creed.[16]

The carnival celebrations in February include a colourful parade on the streets. This is
followed by the Shigmo / Xigmo, or Holi. The Narkāsūr parade on the night before
Diwali in the city is very colourful.

Well-known places in Panaji are the 18th June Road (a busy thoroughfare in the heart
Our Lady of the Immaculate
of the town and a shopping area for tourists and locals), Mala area, Miramar beach and
Conception Church
the Kala Academy (a cultural centre known for its structure built by architect Charles
Correa). Kala Academy is a place where Goa showcases its art and culture.

Palace of Adil Shah (Secretariat Building)

Situated on the banks of Mandovi River in the heart of Panaji is ‘Old Secretariat’
building popularly known as ‘Adil Shah's Palace’.[17] It was built by Yusuf Adil Shah
of the Bijapur Sultanate in around 1500, as a summer residence and fortress. The
building was armed with 55 cannons and surrounded by a moat. The Palace was
besieged by Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque in 1510[18] and in the mid- Panaji People's Art Gallery & Café
1500s the Portuguese conquerors renamed it as ‘Idalcao's Palace’[19] and was the
temporary residence of the first ‘Viceroy of Goa’. In 1963 this ancient structure was
renovated by Goa government to house Goa Legislative Assembly. This structure today
is 'The Goa State Museum'.

Other attractions

Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary is a bird sanctuary named after the ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali.
The sanctuary, located in the village of Chorão, near Panaji, plays host to rare and
endangered bird species—both migratory and resident. The Menezes Bragança Institute

Goa is famous for its beaches, and Miramar, Bambolim, and Dona Paula are three
popular beaches located near Panaji.

Dona Paula is the meeting point for two of Goa's famous rivers, Zuari and Mandovi. These two rivers meet at the Arabian Sea.
The official residence of the governor of Goa, known as Cabo Raj Bhavan, is situated on the westernmost tip of Dona Paula.

Miramar Beach is one of the more crowded beaches in Goa, which remains full with local and international tourists throughout
the year.

Also located near Panaji, is the Goa Science Centre which was opened to the public in December 2001. The Caculo Mall is
also located in St. Inez near Panaji. Also Madhuban Complex, at St.inez is very popular among Panjimites.

Goa is known for its casinos as well.

Education
Goa's only university, the Goa University, is situated at Taleigão on the outskirts of Panaji. Some other educational institutes in
Panaji are:

Goa Medical College, Bambolim

Goa College of Pharmacy
Goa Polytechnic Panaji
Goa College of Fine Arts
The Rosary High School, Miramar
Our lady of Rosary (Green Rosary), Dona Paula
Santa Cruz High School, Santa Cruz
Don Bosco High School
 Goa Institute of Management
Dempo College of Commerce and Economics, Altinho
Dhempe College of Arts and Sciences, Miramar
Mary Immaculate Girls High School, São Tomé/Fontainhas
Sharada Mandir School,Miramar

Research centres

The National Institute of Oceanography (CSIR-NIO) is situated at Dona Paula, on the The renovated building of Goa
outskirts of Panaji city. It specialises in marine science research. Medical College (established in 1842
as Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de
[Nova] Goa) in Campal. The
Transport institution has since been relocated
and this building now serves as the
The nearest airport is Dabolim Airport which is 30 kilometres (19 miles) away.[20] headquarters of the Entertainment
Transport is done mainly by buses. Society of Goa.

Media and communications

State-owned All India Radio has a local station in Panaji which transmits
various programs of mass interest. The annual International Film Festival of
India (IFFI), is held in Panaji.[21]

Governance
The Goa government, as well as the Indian government, has its major
offices in Goa.

Bombay High Court – Goa bench

Goa Education Development Corporation
Industrial Development Corporation Goa
Junta House – houses government offices
Goa Passport Office.
Press Information Bureau (Government of India's Press Office)
Sports Authority of Goa
All India Radio, Altinho
Doordarshan Complex, Altinho

The Goa Legislative Assembly is situated at Alto Porvorim, about 2  km

(1.2 mi) from Panaji. The hillock called Altinho houses some major central
government offices and the residences of prominent officials and
politicians.

Panaji is part of Panaji (Goa Assembly constituency) and North Goa (Lok
Sabha constituency).

Politics
The current Chief Minister of Goa, Pramod Sawant, resides here. The Corporation of the City of Panaji (CCP) administers the
city and its Mayor is Rohit Monserrate.[22] Vasant Agshikar is the Deputy Mayor.[22][23]

The Governor of Goa stays at the Cabo Raj Bhavan at Dona Paula, about 8 km (5 mi) from Panaji. The current Governor is S.
Pillai.

Sports
Two of Goa's premier association football clubs Dempo S.C. and Sporting Clube de Goa are based in Panaji and they both
compete in India's top-tier league I-League. Clube Tennis de Gaspar Dias in Miramar was founded in the year 1926 and
remains among the most sought after Tennis clubs in Goa.[24] The multipurpose Campal Indoor Complex is planned in Campal
besides the existing football ground. The Don Bosco college football grounds on General Bernardo Guedes road has been long
a long established sports field in the city. It also has a football club named FC Goa in Indian Super League.

International relations

Twin towns – Sister cities

Panaji is twinned with:

Lisbon, Portugal[25]

See also
1961 Indian annexation of Goa
Tourism in Goa

References
1. "HC Notice to Govt on Romi Script" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/HC-notice-to-govt-on-Romi-scri
pt/articleshow/18124209.cms). The Times of India. 22 January 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
2. Portuguese is culturally present as various creoles, and in places like churches.
3. "Corporation of The City of Panaji: Official Site" (http://ccpgoa.com/index.php). ccpgoa.com. Retrieved 7 May
2018.
4. "Panaji Completes 174 Years as State's Capital City" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/panaji-comp
letes-174-years-as-states-capital-city/articleshow/57781746.cms). The Times of India. 23 March 2017.
Retrieved 7 May 2018.
5. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: District Gazetteer, Volume 1. Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of
the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. 1979.
6. Rao, Gopala V. (2003). "Epigraphical And Literary Sources On Worship In Goa's Past" (http://shodhganga.infli
bnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35652/10/10_chapter%203.pdf) (PDF). Temples of Goa: An Architectural Study
(PhD thesis). Goa University. hdl:10603/35652 (https://hdl.handle.net/10603%2F35652).
7. De Souza, Teotonio R., ed. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History, Volume 2 (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=dwYDPnEjTb4C&q=panjanakhani&pg=PA129). Concept Publishing. p. 129.
ISBN 9788170222590.
8. "Rise and Fall of 'Old Goa' " (https://itsgoa.com/rise-and-fall-of-old-goa/). ItsGoa. 14 January 2016.
9. "Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Panaji" (http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/33/Panaji.html). Fallingrain.com.
Retrieved 9 May 2012.
10. "Provisional Population Totals Paper 2, Volume 2 of 2011: Goa State Tables" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2
011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/goa/Tables.pdf) (PDF). censusindia.gov.in. Registrar General and
Census Commissioner of India. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
11. "C-1 Population By Religious Community" (https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW30C-01%2
0MDDS.XLS). censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
12. "Station: Panjim Climatological Table 1981–2010" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpu
ne.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf) (PDF).
Climatological Normals 1981–2010. India Meteorological Department. January 2015. pp. 585–586. Archived
from the original (https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWIS
E%29.pdf) (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
13. "Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)" (https://web.archive.org/web/202002050
42509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%
20upto%202012.pdf) (PDF). India Meteorological Department. December 2016. p. M47. Archived from the
original (https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFAL
L%20upto%202012.pdf) (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
14. "Table 3 Monthly mean duration of Sun Shine (hours) at different locations in India" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20200205042602/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Daily%20Normals%20of%20Global%20&%20Diffuse
d%20Radiations%20%201971_2000.pdf) (PDF). Daily Normals of Global & Diffuse Radiation (1971–2000).
India Meteorological Department. December 2016. p. M-3. Archived from the original (https://imdpune.gov.in/lib
rary/public/Daily%20Normals%20of%20Global%20&%20Diffused%20Radiations%20%201971_2000.pdf)
(PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
15. "Normals Data: Goa/Pangim - India Latitude: 15.48°N Longitude: 73.82°E Height: 58 (m)" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20200301161822/https://ds.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/tcc/tcc/products/climate/normal/parts/NrmMonth_e.ph
p?stn=43192). Japan Meteorological Agency. Archived from the original (https://ds.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/tcc/tcc/p
roducts/climate/normal/parts/NrmMonth_e.php?stn=43192) on 1 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
16. "mahalakshmi temple" (https://www.goa.gov.in/places/mahalaxmi-temple-panaji/). 2021.
17. Sayed, Nida (2017). "Adil Shah Palace Crowded, 18th Century Artefacts Left on Road" (https://timesofindia.ind
iatimes.com/city/goa/adil-shah-palace-crowded-18th-century-artefacts-left-on-
road/articleshow/61192823.cms). The Times of India.
18. "Adil Shah's Palace" (https://www.goa.gov.in/places/adil-shahs-palace/). Government of Goa.
19. "Old Secretariat" (https://goa-tourism.com/GTDC-holidays/adil-shahs-palace.htm). Retrieved 10 January 2018.
20. "Goa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120421123224/http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/goa_generalinfo.jsp).
Airports Authority of India. 21 September 2011. Archived from the original (http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/goa_
generalinfo.jsp) on 21 April 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
21. "International Film Festival of India to host its 51st edition in Goa, check details" (https://zeenews.india.com/bol
lywood/international-film-festival-of-india-to-host-its-51st-edition-in-goa-check-details-2336121.html). Zee
News. 15 January 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
22. "Chopdekar is CCP Mayor" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180315124910/http://www.navhindtimes.in/chopde
kar-is-ccp-mayor/). The Navhind Times. 15 March 2018. Archived from the original (http://www.navhindtimes.i
n/chopdekar-is-ccp-mayor/) on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
23. "Goa: Vithal Chopdekar & Asmita Kerkar to Be Elected Unopposed as Mayor & DY Mayor" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20180313213539/http://theneutralview.com/goa-vithal-chopdekar-asmita-kerkar-to-be-elected-unop
posed-as-mayor-dy-mayor/). The Neutral View. 13 March 2018. Archived from the original (http://theneutralvie
w.com/goa-vithal-chopdekar-asmita-kerkar-to-be-elected-unopposed-as-mayor-dy-mayor/) on 13 March 2018.
Retrieved 23 January 2021.
24. "Club Tennis de Gaspar Dias – GoGoaNow !" (http://gogoanow.com/item/club-tennis-de-gaspar-dias/).
GoGoaNow !. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
25. "Acordos de Geminação, de Cooperação e/ou Amizade da Cidade de Lisboa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
131031202617/http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais) [Lisbon – Twinning Agreements,
Cooperation and Friendship]. Camara Municipal de Lisboa (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.cm-lisboa.pt/municipio/relacoes-internacionais) on 31 October 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013.

External links
Goa: A complete Guide (https://www.ourgoa.com/)

Panaji travel guide from Wikivoyage

Governmen (https://web.archive.org/web/20081205061436/http://goagovt.nic.in/)

t of Goa (https://web.archive.org/web/20081205061436/http://goagovt.nic.in/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panaji&oldid=1079090987"

This page was last edited on 24 March 2022, at 23:54 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree
to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Sunburn Festival
Sunburn is a commercial electronic dance music festival held in
Sunburn Festival
India. From 2007 to 2015, it took place in Vagator, Goa, India
every year, but in 2016 it was shifted to Pune, Maharashtra.
However, for 2019, the festival came back to it home town in
Vagator, Goa. It is Asia's largest music festival. The festival is an
amalgamation of Music, Entertainment, Food and Shopping, and
was ranked by CNN in 2009 as one of the Top 10 Festivals in the
world.[1] Mayank Kataria is the major event promoter. The
Festival was incepted by serial entrepreneur Shailendra Singh,[2]
while Jt MD of Percept. Under his captaincy, the festival grew to
be ranked the 3rd largest dance festival in the world, after Genre Electronic dance
Tomorrowland and Ultra as per the IMS APAC Business Report music
2014.[3] Spread over 3 days, the festival has multiple stages with Dates Last Weekend/3 Days
artists playing simultaneously.[4] Of The Year
Location(s) Vagator, Goa (2007–
2015)
Contents Pune, Maharashtra
(2016–2018)
History
Vagator, Goa (2019–
Sunburn Goa 2007
Present)
Sunburn Goa 2008
Sunburn Goa 2009 Years 2007–present
Sunburn Goa 2010 active

Sunburn Goa 2011 Website sunburn.in (http://sun

Sunburn Goa 2012 burn.in/)
Sunburn Goa 2013
Sunburn concerts in IITs, NITs, LNMIIT, BITS, IIMs,
IISERs& Other Colleges
Sunburn Goa 2014
Sunburn Goa 2015
Sunburn Pune 2016
Sunburn Pune 2017
Overview
Artists line-up
Gallery
See also
References
External links

History
Electronic music parties/events/festivals are not new to Goa and much earlier pioneers of free
party's/events/festivals with live DJs mixing, art, crafts and food stalls started in the late 1980s and
continued through all of the 1990s into the early 2000s where they played Goa trance, Psychedelic trance,
and Techno and were held at Vagator Beach, Anjuna beach and Arambol beach. The arrival of
commercialized events such as Sunburn arrived in Goa when mainstream electronic dance music gained
more widespread popularity within India.

Sunburn Goa 2007

In 2007, Shailendra Singh organized the first International Dance Music Festival in Goa, India. Sunburn
Goa 2007 was sponsored by Smirnoff and took place on 28–29 December at Candolim Beach. In its first
year Sunburn included performances from Carl Cox, Above & Beyond and Axwell as headline acts. Other
acts included John 00 Fleming, Pete Gooding, DJ Pearl, Jalebee Cartel, Super 8 & Tab, held on two stages
with DJs playing simultaneously. The festival was hosted by Nikhil Chinapa and Rohit Barker. The line-up
announcement and early bird passes commenced during the end of October.

Sunburn Goa 2008

Sunburn Goa 2008 was themed Electric Circus and was held on two main stages: "Banyan Tree" for
Trance acts and "Circus Stage" for House music. The event also included a flea market and beach
volleyball games. Having tied up with Defected Records in 2008, the label brought house DJs Simon
Dunmore, Shapeshifters, Copyright and percussionist Shovel playing. Headlining the festival were GMS,
Gareth Emery and John 00 Fleming. The acts were Digital Blonde, Roger Shah, DJ Pearl, Brute Force,
Nawed Khan, Vachan Chinnappa, Jalebee Cartel, Sanjay Dutta, and Ma Faiza. The visuals were produced
by Dan booth, Martin Robins, Vj Kaycee & Inferno. Sunburn Goa 2008 took place on 27–29 December at
Candolim Beach Goa. The title sponsors of Sunburn Goa 2008 were Fly Kingfisher, Carlsberg and Force
India.

Sunburn Goa 2009

Sunburn Goa 2009 had turnout of over 22,000 fans. It also saw the launch of "After Dark" parties which
took place at club Butter from 10.30 pm until 5 am, making Sunburn a 24-hour festival. Sunburn brought
DJ Armin Van Buuren, who headlined the festival along with Latin House DJs Roger Sanchez and John
00 Fleming. Sunburn's line-up also included tech house DJ Sultan and Trance DJ Sander Van Doorn.
Previously in 2008, Sunburn had tied up with Defected Records, but in 2009 Sunburn tied up with UK
clubbing company Gatecrashers. Acts included Jalebee Cartel, DJ Pearl, Ma Faiza, Nawed Khan and
Designer Hippies. The festival was hosted by Nikhil Chinapa and Rohit Barker. In addition to the previous
year's attractions, Sunburn Goa 2009 included a rock climbing wall and Thai foot masseurs.

Sunburn Goa 2010

Sunburn Goa 2010, took place on 27–29 December at Candolim Beach. The festival was sponsored by
Tuborg. The headliners of the 2010 festival were Paul Van Dyk, Ferry Corsten and Axwell along with
Sultan & Ned Shepard with Nadia Ali (Live), Richard Durand, GMS, Pete Gooding, Aly & Fila and DJs
DJ Pearl, Ma Faiza, Anish Sood and Sanjay Dutta.
For the 2010 festival, Percept ran a "Sunburn Anthem Contest"[5] for potential audio and visual producers,
with participants in the visual category allowed to make a visual for a B.R.E.E.D track which is then
submitted to a panel of judges. Participants in the audio category are asked to make a fresh remix of Nadia
Ali's ‘Love Story’ which is the Anthem of the festival.

A fashion show was organized on 27 December at Club Butter. Sunburn passes went live on 5 November
2010 with the early bird passes and pre-booking sale passes being sold out in 22 minutes.[6]

Sunburn Goa 2011

Sunburn Goa 2011 was held on 27–29 December at Candolim Beach. The main attraction was Above &
Beyond, Axwell, Infected Mushroom, Spartaque

Sunburn Goa 2012

Sunburn Festival 2012 was held in Candolim, Goa, India during 27, 28 Dec & 29.[7] Headlining acts in
2012 were by Sander Van Doorn, BT, Fedde Le Grand, W & W, Paul van Dyk, Roger Sanchez.
After-
parties for Sunburn 2012 were held at LPK (Love Passion Karma) and Sinq.

Sunburn Goa 2013

The 7th Edition of Sunburn at Goa took place in Vagator witnessed

around 120 Artists and over 200 hours of Music. it had over
10,000sq.m, of exotic festival area with 7 massive stages. Headline
DJs were Afrojack, Axwell, Pete Tong, Ummet Ozcan and many
more Over 1 Lakh participants were expected.[4]

Sunburn concerts in IITs, NITs, LNMIIT, BITS,

IIMs, IISERs& Other Colleges Shraddha Kapoor among the
audience at Sunburn Festival, 2013
Many IITs, NSIT, NITs IIIT and few AIIMS also witnessed
numerous Indian and International artists. BITS Pilani Goa Campus
was the first college to ever host the sunburn on campus.

This strategy by Sunburn helps grow the craze of Electronic Dance

Music in teenagers and it also shows a new modern trend evolving
in colleges throughout India. NIT Calicut hosted Sunburn in
October 2013 (ft. DJ Clement) as a part of their Annual Technical
Festival Tathva. Thakur College of Engineering & Technology-
Mumbai hosted Sunburn in September 2013 (featuring DJ Candice
Redding and NDS & BLU) additionally, BITS Pilani, Pilani
Campus also successfully hosted Sunburn during Oasis 2014, the
annual cultural festival of BITS PILANI. Annual cultural fest of Sunburnragam
LNMIIT Vivacity was first to host sunburn festival in Rajasthan in
2015. AAROHI, the annual cultural festival of VNIT, Nagpur and
one of the largest and oldest in Central India, witnessed the performance by DJ Kash Trivedi at Sunburn
Campus in 2015. DCSMAT Institutions, Vagamon hosted sunburn in their campus for the first time during
LUMINANCE 2K15 and has been hosting them since then till 2018. Candice Redding along with DJ
Shaan had performed in the second edition of Sunburn at Vivacity 2016. This was the only time when
passes of Sunburn was free of cost. NIT Trichy hosted Sunburn (featuring DJ Candice Redding) during
Festember '14, their annual cultural festival.[8] IIIT-Bhubaneswar also successfully hosted Sunburn in
ADVAITA 2014, Annual Cultural festival of IIIT Bhubaneswar. IIM Kashipur also hosted Sunburn in
January 2015 as a part of their Cultural Fest Agnitraya 2015, other premier Institute like Graphic Era
University, Dehradun in May 2015, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra also hosted Sunburn in March
2015 as a part of their Annual Fest Bitotsav. IIT Indore hosted sunburn in Fluxus 2016.

Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan (HP) hosted Sunburn in LE FIESTUS 2015 include
Sunburn festival with DJ LIZA BROWN and LOST STORIES.

Jaypee University of Engineering & Technology, Guna (MP) hosted Sunburn in D'Equinox 2016 include
Sunburn festival with Ankur Sood, Progressive Brothers and Candice Redding but it turned out to be a
flop event. MBM engineering college, Jodhpur also hosted sunburn in April 2016 as a part of their fest
vigour2k16.

Biggest ever Sunburn Campus was hosted by Antaragni, IIT Kanpur in 2017 where Kshmr performed in
his first ever college show.

In January 2018, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal hosted Sunburn featuring
Ninasuerete and Get Massive as part of the institute's annual cultural fest Enthuzia, 2018.

Recently in March 2018, Government Engineering College Calicut also hosted sunburn with sax dj Ola
Ras and Gaurav Mehta.On 15 December 2019, NIT Raipur also hosted sunburn campus on its annual
sports fest "SAMAR".

In February 2020, Indian Institute Of Information Technology Gwalior hosted Sunburn featuring Olly Esse
and AceAxe. In March 2020 Government Engineering College Palakkad hosting the Sunburn featuring
Olly Esse.
On March 14, 2020 Government Engineering College Trivandrum, Barton Hill hosting the
Sunburn featuring Progressive Brothers.

Sunburn Goa 2014

The 8th edition took place in Vagator on 27 to 30 December 2014 and for the first time the festival was
extended for an extra day and was performed by World no 2 DJ then Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike and
witnessed around 150 DJs. Known artists includes Knife Party, Sander van Doorn, Sasha, Krewella,
Baauer, Danny Avila, Head Hunterz, Deniz Koyu, Dubvision, Paul Oakenfold, Matthew Koma, MAKJ,
Michael and Tarzan Woods performed at the festival.

Sunburn Goa 2015

The 9th edition is another 4 day event at Vagator, Goa. On 20 November 2015 Sunburn Goa's international
ticketing partner, Viagogo, announced that the festival has become one of the largest international music
festivals in Asia,[9] with people from more than 42 countries buying tickets on the viagogo platform. On 24
November 2015, the management of Sunburn Goa also released a statement citing this fact and proving to
fans in India that they did not need to travel halfway around the world to get the same experience as
Festival Tomorrowland. Sunburn Goa 2015 is expected to draw the largest crowds since its inception.[10]
This year's artist lineup will be equally lavish with over 120 artists like Sam Feldt, KYGO, Seth Troxler,
Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike, Martin Garrix, DJ SMITH, Kshmr, David Guetta, Dyro, Felix Jaehn, Zaeden
and Art Department taking the stage.
Sunburn Pune 2016

The 10th anniversary celebration of Sunburn festival took place in Pune, Maharashtra. After much
controversy of festival being moved from Goa and finding a new home in Pune, Sunburn finally took place
from 28 December to 31 December at the Kesanand Hills, Pune. The festival was headlined by the likes of
Trance Legend Armin Van Buerren, Progressive Duo Axwell & Ingrosso, Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike,
Afrojack and finally a 90-minute midnight set by Kshmr.

Sunburn Pune 2017

11th edition of sunburn festival took place in Oxford Golf resort, Pune, Maharashtra. The lineup for its 11th
edition was KSHMR, Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike, DJ Snake, Martin Garrix, Afrojack, Clean Bandit.
Martin Garrix closed the Sunburn Festival 2017.

Overview
 Sunburn Festival 2007 2008 2009 2010
Attendees 10 20 350 495
Artists 36 45 66 92
Local audience 15 35 45 60
National audience 5,500 25,000 38,000 93,215
International 3,000 6,500 32,000 42,075
Fan Base 3,000 6,500 32,000 50,000
Activities
Stalls 10 30 65 90
Flea Market Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fire Jugglers Yes
Volleyball court Yes Yes
Massage centre Yes
Spa Yes No
Rock climbing Yes Yes Yes
Mechanical bull Yes
Digital photo zones Yes
Moonwalker Yes
Makeover lounge No
Sunset lounge Yes
Slippery football No Yes
Slippery volleyball Yes
The Shacks Yes
Experimental Stage Yes
Brandsday
Digital Impressions per 4 days
Peak Facebook page visit per day

Artists line-up
 Line Up In Line Up In Line Up In Line Up In
Line Up In 2008 Line Up In 2012
2007 2009 2010 2011
Above and Armin Van Above and
GMS Paul Van Dyk Fedde le Grand
Beyond Buuren Beyond
John 00 Fleming Roger
Carl Cox Ferry Corsten Pete Tong Sander van Doorn
& Digital Blonde Sanchez
Sander Van Gabriel &
Axwell Shapeshifters Axwell Paul van Dyk
Doorn Dresden
John ganta
Pearl Sied Van Riel Aly & Fila Skazi Roger Sanchez
00 Fleming
Pearl Richard Durand Nick Rafferty Pearl Jalebee Cartel Hilight Tribe
Midival John 00 Sultan & Ned
Roger Shah Funk Agenda Simplicity
Punditz Fleming Sheppard
Richard
Sergio Flores Midival Punditz Gordon Edge Pearl W&W
Durand
Super 8 & Jerome Isma-
Norman Doray Norman Doray Jalebee Cartel Richard Durand
Tab ae
John 00
Pete Gooding Jalebee Cartel Sultan Nadia Ali Norman Doray
Fleming
Shiva Jhonny Deep
Gordon Edge Ma Faiza Ma Faiza AN21
Soundsystem + Simon Sax
Anil Chawla &
Jaytech Ma Faiza Baba Robji GMS James Zabiela
Dale Anderson
John 00
Tuhin Mehta Kris Correya Shy-o Liquid Soul funkagenda
Fleming
Jalebee Perfect The Japanese
Simon Dunmore Domino Sanjay Dutta
Cartel Stranger Popstars
Ritkam & Laughing Sunnery James Ryan
Anil Chawla Sanjay Dutta Pearl
Bansi Buddha Marciano Spartaque
Simon Xerox &
Tatva Kundalini Inferno Sanjay Dutta Showtek
Dunmore Illumination
Ritesh
Sanay Dutta Shovell Pete Gooding Lost Stories Paul Thomas
Gonsalves
Mayaadh
Mahir
Arno Cost &
Order of the Vachan
Norman Protoculture DJ RAE Spektre
Essence Chinnappa
Doray
Vachan Vachan
Shaair n Func Jalebee Cartel Brute Force Joof
Chinnappa Chinnappa
James Grant Ajit Mmat B.R.E.E.D Nawed Khan Filterheadz
Stephen J
Sashanti Freeaatmah Shaan Jes (live)
Kroos
Anil Chawla &
Aldrin Karan Third Eye D Siren Albin Myers
Dale Anderson
Nawed Khan Nawed Khan Greg Pidcock Tuhin Mehta Dirty Vegas
Karan Third Nawed Khan KillerWatts
Charlee Ajit
Eye aka Browncoat (live)
Dj Ajit Maarten Klein Sanjay Dutta Clement Arnej
Karan Third
Clement Reji Ma Fiaza Pearl
Eye
Shetty Kris Correya Tuhin V-Shall Avalon
Janux Tatva Whosane! Ma Faiza (live)
Shy-o Dj Hiren Janux Sanjay Dutta
Pereira Jayant Luthrq Inferno Mash Anil Chawla
Dj Siren Voodoo XP Baba Robijn DJ Ajit
Janux Rohit Barker Anish Sood
Whosane Lost Stories Clement
Marcelo
Rohit Barker Phi Degrees
Vasami
James Bay Beat
Jitter
Harcourt Collective
Nasha Anish Sood Kohra
Vijay Chawla
& Dominic Ajit Sashanti (live)
Ras
Bay Beat
Funkagenda Rohit Barker
Collective
Clement Arjun Shark Vinayak Bhai
Armando
Nawed Khan Talamasca Ferreira
Alvares
Dj Prajwal
Dj Dale Lost Stories
(sunny)
Designer
V-Vek Dewdani
Hippies
BoomBaba Janux

Gallery


See also
List of electronic music festivals
Music festival

References
1. CNN Article (http://articles.cnn.com/2009-05-07/travel/summer.festivals_1_year-s-festival-mu
sic-festivals-major-festival/3?_s=PM:TRAVEL) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121
010052731/http://articles.cnn.com/2009-05-07/travel/summer.festivals_1_year-s-festival-mus
ic-festivals-major-festival/3?_s=PM:TRAVEL) 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
2. Singh, Shailendra (15 December 2014). The True Story of Sunburn. English, India:
Embassy Books India; 1st edition. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-9383359738.
3. International Music Summit. "IMS Business Report 2014: Asia-Pacific edition by Kevin
Watson" (https://www.internationalmusicsummit.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ims-asia-p
acific-business-report-2014.pdf) (PDF). IMS APAC Report.
4. "Sunburn 2013: Goa gears up for Asia's Largest Music Festival" (http://news.biharprabha.co
m/2013/12/sunburn-2013-goa-gears-up-for-asias-largest-music-festival/). Biharprabha
News. 24 December 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
5. Afternoon Articles http://www.afternoondc.in/48-hrs/burn-it-up/article_14722
6. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110929062454/http://www.ragatorock.com/h
news.asp?id=2307). Archived from the original (http://www.ragatorock.com/hnews.asp?id=2
307) on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
7. "Sunburn 2012" (https://www.facebook.com/events/268600889921622/). Facebook.
8. "Sunburn at NITT" (http://sunburn.in/events#sunburn-campus-with-candice-redding-trichy/32
89). Sunburn.
9. http://popdust.com/2015/11/20/sunburn-goa-become-largest-international-music-festival-
asia/
10. sify.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20151209170833/http://www.sify.com/news/sunburn-g
oa-announces-the-biggest-line-up-ever-with-4-massive-headliners-news-default-plytXEadg
dbeg.html)
External links
official website (http://sunburn.in/)
Sunburn Noida 2012 (http://icrave.in/delhi/articles/77-specials/4135-sunburn-noida-2012-su
nburn-festival-2012)
Sunburn (https://www.zee5.com/tvshows/details/sunburn-festival-2018/0-6-1105) on ZEE5

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sunburn_Festival&oldid=1075124105"

This page was last edited on 4 March 2022, at 02:20 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Coordinates: 10°10′N 77°04′E

Western Ghats
The Western Ghats or the Sahyadri Mountain range is a
Western Ghats
mountain range that covers an area of 160,000  km2
(62,000 sq mi) in a stretch of 1,600 km (990 mi) parallel to Paschim Ghats
the western coast of the Indian peninsula, traversing the
states of Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu.[1] It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is
one of the eight biodiversity hotspots in the world.[2] It is
sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India.[3] It
contains a very large proportion of the country's flora and
fauna, many of which are endemic to these region.[4]
According to UNESCO, the Western Ghats are older than
the Himalayas. They influence Indian monsoon weather
patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
sweep in from the south-west during late summer.[1] The
range runs north to south along the western edge of the The peak of Anamudi in Kerala is the
Deccan Plateau and separates the plateau from a narrow highest peak in the Western Ghats, as well
coastal plain called Konkan along the Arabian Sea. A total as the highest peak in India outside the
of 39 areas in the Western Ghats, including national parks, Himalayas
wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests, were designated as
Highest point
world heritage sites in 2012 – twenty in Kerala, ten in
Karnataka, six in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.[5][6] Peak Anamudi, Eravikulam
National Park
The range starts near south of the Tapti river and runs
Elevation 2,695 m (8,842 ft)
approximately 1,600  km (990  mi) through the states of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu Coordinates 10°10′N 77°04′E
ending at Marunthuvazh Malai near the southern tip of Dimensions
India. These hills cover 160,000  km2 (62,000  sq  mi) and
Length 1,600 km (990 mi) N–S
form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage
systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western Ghats Width 100 km (62 mi) E–W
block the southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Area 160,000 km2
Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200  m (62,000 sq mi)
(3,900 ft).[7]
Geography
The area is one of the world's ten "hottest biodiversity
hotspots." It has over 7,402 species of flowering plants,
1,814 species of non-flowering plants, 139 mammal species,
508 bird species, 227 reptile species, 179 amphibian species,
290 freshwater fish species, and 6,000 insect species. It is
likely that many undiscovered species live in the Western
Ghats. At least 325 globally threatened species occur in the
Western Ghats.[8][9][10]

Contents
Etymology
Geology
Geography
Peaks
Water bodies
Climate
Rainfall
Ecoregions
Biodiversity protection
Fauna
Mammals
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fish
Birds
Insects
Mollusks
Flora
Threats
See also
The Western Ghats lie roughly parallel to
Notes
the west coast of India.
References
External links Country India
States Gujarat, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra, Kerala and
Etymology Tamil Nadu
Region South-Western India
The word Ghat is explained by numerous Dravidian
etymons such as the Tamil gattu (hill and hill forest), Settlements List
Kannada gaati and ghatta (mountain range), Tulu gatta (hill Surat
or hillside), and ghattam in Malayalam (mountainous way, Mumbai
riverside and hairpin bends).[11]
Pune
Ghat, a term used in the Indian subcontinent, depending on Belgaum
the context could either refer to a range of stepped-hill such Sirsi
as the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats; or the series of
Shivamogga
steps leading down to a body of water or wharf, such
bathing or cremation place along the banks of a river or Chikkamagalur
pond, Ghats in Varanasi, Dhoby Ghaut or Aapravasi Sakleshpura
Ghat.[12][13] Roads passing through ghats are called Ghat
Mangalore
Roads.
Madikeri

Geology Kasaragod
Kannur
Thalassery
The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded Wayanad
edge of the Deccan Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates Vadakara
that they were formed during the break-up of the
supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years Kozhikode
ago.Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of Tirur
India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya Ponnani
after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break-up,
the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt Malappuram
cliff some 1,000  m (3,300  ft) in elevation.[14] Basalt is the Erode
predominant rock found in the hills reaching a thickness of Ooty
3  km (2  mi). Other rock types found are charnockites,
Coimbatore
granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses
with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, Palakkad
dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores Pattambi
are also found in the southern hills. Thrissur
Pollachi
Geography Idukki

The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the Kochi
north, stretching from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu.[15] It traverses Kottayam
south through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Pathanamthitta
Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between
the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Kollam
Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Tenkasi
Nilgiri Mountains and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains Thirunelveli
intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are
Thiruvananthapuram
consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their
western side. The dense forests also contribute to the Kolhapur
precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for Kanyakumari
condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea,
Biome Tropical rainforests and
and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via
transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as Marshes
rain. Geology
Age of rock Cenozoic
The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the
Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Type of Basalt, Laterite and
Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara and the rock Limestone
southern portion is called Malabar. The foothill region east
of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the UNESCO World Heritage Site
eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as Criteria Natural: ix, x
Malenadu.[16] The range is known as Sahyadri in
Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meet the Reference 1342 (https://whc.unesco.o
Eastern Ghats at the Nilgiri mountains in northwestern Tamil rg/en/list/1342)
Nadu. The Nilgiris connect the Biligiriranga Hills in Inscription 2012 (36th Session)
southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala
Area 795,315 ha
hills. South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamala Hills,
located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala with smaller
ranges further south, including the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, and Aralvaimozhi pass near
Kanyakumari. The range is known as Sahyan or Sahian in Kerala. In the southern part of the range is
Anamudi (2,695 metres (8,842 ft)), the highest peak in the Western Ghats. Ooty is called the Queen of the
Western ghats.
Peaks

The Western Ghats have many peaks that rise above 2,000  m
(6,600  ft), with Anamudi (2,695  m (8,842  ft)) being the highest
peak.[17]

Water bodies

The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India,

feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems
originating in the Western Ghats are the Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Topography: Western Ghats
Thamiraparani and Tungabhadra rivers. The majority of streams (southern part)
draining the Western Ghats join these rivers, and carry a large
volume of water during the monsoon months. These rivers flow to
the east due to the gradient of the land and drain out into the Bay of Bengal. Major tributaries include the
Bhadra, Bhavani, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi and Kabini rivers. The Periyar,
Bharathappuzha, Pamba, Netravati, Sharavathi, Kali, Mandovi and Zuari rivers flow westwards towards
the Western Ghats, draining into the Arabian Sea, and are fast-moving, owing to the steeper gradient. The
rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes with major reservoirs spread across the
states. The Western Ghats account for 80% of India's hydropower generation. The reservoirs are important
for their commercial and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer and common carp.[18] There are about 50
major dams along the length of the Western Ghats.[19] Most notable of these projects are the Koyna in
Maharashtra, Linganmakki and krishna Raja Sagara in Karnataka, Mettur and Pykara in Tamil Nadu,
Parambikulam, Malampuzha and Idukki in Kerala.[16][20][21] During the monsoon season, numerous
streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous waterfalls. Major waterfalls
include Dudhsagar, Unchalli, Sathodi, Magod, Hogenakkal, Jog, Kunchikal, Shivanasamudra, Meenmutty,
Adyanpara, Athirappilly, and Coutrallam. Talakaveri is the source of the river Kaveri and the
Kuduremukha range is the source of the Tungabhadra. The Western Ghats have several man-made lakes
and reservoirs with major lakes at Ooty (34 hectares (84 acres)) in Nilgiris, Kodaikanal (26 hectares (64
acres)) and Berijam in Palani Hills, Pookode lake, Karlad Lake in Wayanad, Vagamon lake, Devikulam (6
hectares (15 acres)) and Letchmi (2 hectares (4.9 acres)) in Idukki, Kerala.

Climate
The area including Agumbe, Hulikal and Amagaon in Karnataka,
Mahabaleshwar and Tamhini in Maharashtra are often referred to as
the "Cherrapunji of southwest India" or the "rain capital of
southwest India". Kollur in Udupi district, Kokkali and Nilkund in
Sirsi, Samse in Mudigere of Karnataka, and Neriamangalam in the
Ernakulam district of Kerala are the wettest places in the Western
Ghats. Heavy precipitation does occur in the surrounding regions
due to the long continuity of the mountains without passes and Munnar hillstation on Western Ghats
gaps. Changes in the direction and pace of the wind do affect the is often called The Kashmir of South
average rainfall and the wettest places might vary. However, India
Maharashtra and the northern part of Western Ghats in Karnataka
on average receive heavier rainfall than Kerala and the southern
part of Western Ghats in Karnataka.
The climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation
and distance from the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in
the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations
of 1,500 m (4,921 ft) and above in the north and 2,000 m (6,562 ft)
and above in the south have a more temperate climate. The average
annual temperature is around 15 °C (59 °F). In some parts frost is
common, and temperatures reach the freezing point during the
winter months. Mean temperatures range from 20 °C (68 °F) in the
south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the north. It has also been observed that Spring blossom in Ooty, the Queen
the coldest periods in the South Western Ghats coincide with the of the Western ghats
wettest.[22]

During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a
barrier to the moisture-laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and
in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 300
centimetres (120 in) to 400 centimetres (160 in) with localised extremes reaching 900 centimetres (350 in).
The eastern regions of the Western Ghats, which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall (about 100
centimetres (39 in)), resulting in an average rainfall of 250 centimetres (98 in) across all regions. The total
amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area; areas in northern Maharashtra receive heavy
rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive lower annual rainfall and
have rain spells lasting several months in a year.[22]

Rainfall

The Karnataka region on average receives heavier rainfall than the

Kerala, Maharashtra and Goa regions. Meanwhile, the Ghats in
Karnataka have fewer passes and gaps and therefore the western
slopes of Karnataka receive heavy rainfall, over 400 cm more than
other regional parts of the Western Ghats.

Some of the wettest places in the Western Ghats are: Chorla Ghat on the Goa-Karnataka
border, during late monsoon
 Mean annual
Location Region
rainfall[23]
Agumbe Thirthahalli, Karnataka 7,624 mm (300.2 in)
Amboli Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra 7,000 mm (280 in)
Hulikal Hosanagara, Karnataka 5,316 mm (209.3 in)
Amagaon Khanapur, Karnataka 4,089 mm (161.0 in)
Sirsi, Uttara Kannada district,
Kakkalli 4,921 mm (193.7 in)
Karnataka
Sirsi, Uttara Kannada district,
Nilkund 4,369 mm (172.0 in)
Karnataka
Mahabaleshwar Satara district, Maharashtra 5,761 mm (226.8 in)
Sirsi, Uttara Kannada district,
Devimane 3,981 mm (156.7 in)
Karnataka
Surli Hosanagara, Karnataka 4,335 mm (170.7 in) Annual rainfall along the
Western Ghat region
Lonavla Pune district, Maharashtra 4,073 mm (160.4 in)
Charmadi Mudigere, Karnataka 4,131 mm (162.6 in)
Samse Mudigere, Karnataka 3,914 mm (154.1 in)
Kollur Udupi district, Karnataka 4,992 mm (196.5 in)
Makkiyad Wayanad district, Kerala 3,714 mm (146.2 in)
Kudremukh Chikmagalur district, Karnataka 4,158 mm (163.7 in)
Rajamala Idukki, Kerala 4,785 mm (188.4 in)
Nyamakad Idukki, Kerala 3,007 mm (118.4 in)
Sholayar Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 4,000 mm (160 in)
Vythiri Wayanad district, Kerala 4,000 mm (160 in)
Pookode Wayanad district, Kerala 3,957 mm (155.8 in)
Dhamanohol Mulshi taluka, Maharashtra 6,255 mm (246.3 in)
Mulshi Pune district, Maharashtra 5,100 mm (200 in)
Tamhini Ghat Mulshi taluka, Maharashtra 5,255 mm (206.9 in)
Chinnakallar Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 3,947 mm (155.4 in)
Castle Rock Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka 5,132 mm (202.0 in)

Ecoregions
The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregions – the North
Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, North Western Ghats montane rain forests, South Western Ghats
moist deciduous forests, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The northern portion of the range
is generally drier than the southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats
moist deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak. Above
1,000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain forests, whose
evergreen forests are characterised by trees of the family Lauraceae.
 The evergreen forests in Wayanad mark the transition zone
between the northern and southern ecoregions of the Western
Ghats. The southern ecoregions are generally wetter and more
species-rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats moist
deciduous forests, with Cullenia the characteristic tree genus,
accompanied by teak, dipterocarps, and other trees. The moist
forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous
forests, which lie in its rain shadow to the east. Above 1,000 meters
are the South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and
Sholas, part of the rainforests wetter than the surrounding lowland forests, and dominated by
evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and stunted
forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western
Ghats montane rain forests are the most species-rich ecoregion in peninsular India; eighty percent of the
flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecoregion.

Biodiversity protection
Historically the Western Ghats were covered in dense forests that
provided wild foods and natural habitats for native tribal people. Its
inaccessibility made it difficult for people from the plains to
cultivate the land and build settlements. After the establishment of
British colonial rule in the region, large swathes of territory were
cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forest in the
Western Ghats has been severely fragmented due to human
activities, especially clear-felling for tea, coffee, and teak
plantations[24] from 1860 to 1950. Species that are rare, endemic Dense rainforests cover the Western
and habitat specialists are more adversely affected and tend to be Ghats.
lost faster than other species. Complex and species rich habitats like
the tropical rainforest are much more adversely affected than other
habitats.[25]

The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological hotspot in 1988 through
the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. The area covers five percent of India's land; 27% of all species of
higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here and 1,800 of these are endemic to the
region. The range is home to at least 84 amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600
flowering plants which are not found elsewhere in the world. The Government of India has established
many protected areas including 2 biosphere reserves, 13 national parks to restrict human access, several
wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species and many reserve forests, which are all managed
by the forest departments of their respective state to preserve some of the ecoregions still undeveloped. The
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, comprising 5,500 square kilometres (2,100  sq  mi) of the evergreen forests of
Nagarahole and deciduous forests of Bandipur in Karnataka, adjoining regions of Wayanad-Mukurthi in
Kerala and Mudumalai National Park-Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu, forms the largest contiguous
protected area in the Western Ghats.[26] Silent Valley in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical
evergreen forest in India.[27][28]

In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire Western Ghats
as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different
regions.[29] The panel, headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, was appointed by the Union Ministry of
Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats.[30] The
Gadgil Committee and its successor, the Kasturirangan Committee, recommended suggestions to protect the
Western Ghats. The Gadgil report was criticised as being too environment-friendly and the Kasturirangan
report was labelled as being anti-environmental.[31][32][33]

In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere

Programme (MAB) for the Western Ghats to be listed as a
protected World Heritage Site.[34] In 2012, the following places
were declared as World Heritage Sites:[35][36]

Kali Tiger Reserve, Dandeli, Karnataka

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park,
Tamil Nadu
Mundigekere Bird Sanctuary, Sirsi, Karnataka The Western Ghats are a UNESCO
Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu heritage site.
Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Kerala
Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala
Srivilliputtur Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
Eravikulam National Park, Kerala
Grass Hills National Park, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Karian Shola National Park, Karnataka
Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu Tiger in Mudumalai National Park,
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala Tamil Nadu
Silent Valley National Park, Kerala
Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Mukurthi National Park, Tamil Nadu
Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka
Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Kaas Plateau, Maharashtra
Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra
Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra
Chandoli National Park, Maharashtra
Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Pambadum Shola National Park, Kerala
Anamudi Shola National Park, Kerala
Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary
Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Mathikettan Shola National Park, Kerala
 Kurinjimala Sanctuary, Kerala
Karimpuzha National Park, Kerala
Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary
Ranipuram National Park
Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, Tamil
Nadu
Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
Bandipur National Park , Karnataka
Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Tamil Nadu
Mudumalai National Park, Tamil Nadu

Fauna
The Western Ghats are home to thousands of animal species including at least 325 globally threatened
species.[37]

Mammals

There are at least 139 mammal species. Of the 16 endemic

mammals, 13 are threatened. Among the 32 threatened species are
the tiger, leopard, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Asian elephant,
Nilgiri langur and gaur.[38][39][40] The endemic Malabar large-
spotted civet is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature
individuals, with no sub-population greater than 50 individuals.[41]
The Nilgiri marten, brown palm civet, stripe-necked mongoose,
Indian brown mongoose, small Indian civet and leopard cat are the
small carnivores living in the forests of the Western Ghats.[42]

The hill ranges constitute important wildlife corridors and form an

important part of Project Elephant and Project Tiger reserves. The Nilgiri tahr, female
largest tiger population lives in the Western Ghats, where there are
seven populations with an estimated population size of 1200
individuals occupying 21,435  km2 (8,276  sq  mi) of forest in three major landscape units spread across
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[43] The Western Ghats ecoregion has the largest Indian elephant
population in the wild with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations.[44][45] The
endemic Nilgiri tahr, which was on the brink of extinction, has recovered and has an estimated 3,122
individuals in the wild.[46] About 3500 lion-tailed macaques live scattered over several areas in the Western
Ghats.[47]

Reptiles

At least 227 species of reptiles are found in the Western Ghats.[48] The major population of the snake
family Uropeltidae is restricted to the region.[49] Several endemic reptile genera and species occur here,
including the cane turtle Vijayachelys silvatica, lizards like Salea, Ristella, Kaestlea, and snakes such as
Melanophidium, Plectrurus, Teretrurus, Platyplectrurus, Xylophis, and Rhabdops. Species-level endemism
is much higher and is common to almost all genera present here. Some enigmatic endemic reptiles include
venomous snakes such as the striped coral snake, the Malabar pit viper, the large-scaled pitviper and the
horseshoe pitviper. The region has a significant population of the mugger crocodile.[50]

Amphibians

The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with more than 80% of the 179 amphibian
species being endemic to the rainforests of the mountains.[51] The purple frog was discovered in 2003.[52]
Several species of frogs, namely of the genera Micrixalus, Indirana, and Nyctibatrachus, are endemic to
this region. Endemic genera include the toads Pedostibes, Ghatophryne, and Xanthophryne; arboreal frogs
such as Ghatixalus, Mercurana, and Beddomixalus; and microhylids like Melanobatrachus. New frog
species were described from the Western Ghats in 2005, and more recently a new species, monotypic in its
genus Mysticellus, was discovered.[53][54]
The region is also home to many caecilian species. There are
many species of amphibians which are yet to be discovered at every elevation of the Western Ghats.[55]

Fish

As of 2004, 288 freshwater fish species were listed for the Western
Ghats, including 35 also known from brackish or marine water.[10]
Several new species have been described from the region since
then (e.g., Dario urops and S. sharavathiensis).[56][57] There are
118 endemic species, including 13 genera entirely restricted to the
Western Ghats (Betadevario, Dayella, Haludaria, Horabagrus,
Horalabiosa, Hypselobarbus, Indoreonectes, Lepidopygopsis,
Longischistura, Mesonoemacheilus, Parapsilorhynchus, Rohtee Denison barb is endemic to only
and Travancoria).[58] three rivers in the Western Ghats

There is a higher fish richness in the southern part of the Western

Ghats than in the northern,[58] and the highest is in the Chalakudy River, which alone holds 98 species.[59]
Other rivers with high species numbers include the Periyar, Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Chaliyar, as well as
upstream tributaries of the Kaveri, Pambar, Bhavani and Krishna rivers.[58] The most species rich families
are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species; including stone loaches, now regarded a
separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species) and Sisorid catfishes (12 species).[10][58][59] The region is
home to several brilliantly coloured ornamental fishes like the Denison (or red line torpedo) barb,[60] melon
barb, several species of Dawkinsia barbs, zebra loach, Horabagrus catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf
Malabar pufferfish.[61] The rivers are also home to Osteobrama bakeri, and larger species such as the
Malabar snakehead and Malabar mahseer.[62] A few are adapted to an underground life, including some
Rakthamichthys swampeels,[63] and the catfish Horaglanis and Kryptoglanis.[64]

According to the IUCN, 97 freshwater fish species from the Western Ghats were considered threatened in
2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 31 vulnerable.[58] All but one (Tor khudree)
of these are endemic to the Western Ghats. An additional 26 species from the region are considered data
deficient (their status is unclear at present). The primary threats are from habitat loss, but also from
overexploitation and introduced species.[58]

Birds
There are at least 508 bird species. Most of Karnataka's five
hundred species of birds are from the Western Ghats region.[65][66]
There are at least 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats
including the endangered rufous-breasted laughingthrush, the
vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon, white-bellied shortwing and
broad-tailed grassbird, the near threatened grey-breasted
laughingthrush, black-and-rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri flycatcher, and
Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue-winged) parakeet,
Malabar grey hornbill, white-bellied treepie, grey-headed bulbul,
rufous babbler, Wayanad laughingthrush, white-bellied blue-
flycatcher and the crimson-backed sunbird.[67]

The Nilgiri wood-pigeon

Insects

There are roughly 6,000 insect species.[68] Of 334 Western Ghats butterfly species, 316 species have been
reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.[69] The Western Ghats are home to 174 species of odonates
(107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69 endemics.[58] Most of the endemic odonate are closely
associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics typically are generalists.[58]
There are several
species of leeches found all along the Western Ghats.[70]

Mollusks

Seasonal rainfall patterns of the Western Ghats necessitate a period of dormancy for its land snails, resulting
in their high abundance and diversity including at least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24
families.[71] A total of 77 species of freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been
recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher.[58] This include 28 endemics.
Among the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussels Pseudomulleria dalyi, which is a Gondwanan
relict, and the snail Cremnoconchus, which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls.[58] According to the
IUCN, 4 species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and 3 are vulnerable. An additional 19
species are considered data deficient.[58]

Flora
The dominant forest type here is tropical rainforest. Montane
forests, tropical dry forests and tropical moist forests are also found
here. Of the 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the
Western Ghats, 5,588 species are native or indigenous and 376 are
exotics naturalised; 1,438 species are cultivated or planted as
ornamentals. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are
endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively
confined to the Western Ghats. Apart from 593 confirmed
subspecies and varieties; 66 species, 5 subspecies and 14 varieties
of doubtful occurrence are also reported, amounting to 8,080 taxa Tropical rainforest, Agumbe
[72]
of flowering plants.
Various plant species are endemic to the
Western Ghats, including the palm tree Bentinckia condapanna and
the flower Strobilanthes kunthiana.[73] A number of plant species are also Critically Endangered, such as
Dipterocarpus bourdillonii and Phyllanthus anamalayanus.
Echinops sahyadricus is endemic to the mountains, and the specific epithet sahyadricus is refers to
them.[74]

Threats
The Western Ghats face a lot of issues. Poaching, Deforestation,
Forest fires, Invasion of alien species and Dangers to native tribes
are the main threats. Despite the 1972 Indian law of that banned
poaching, people still tend to illegally hunt down animals such as
tigers, elephants and chital for skin, fur or tusks. Forests here are
being destroyed for farming or livestock. Animals that eat livestock
are also being killed by farmers. Forest fires take place annually
during the dry summer season, especially in the Nagarhole-
Bandipur-Wayanad-Mudumalai-Satyamangalam-BRT block which Forest fires 2019
has the most biodiverse locations in the Western Ghats with the
largest populations of tigers and elephants residing there.

Native tribes of the Western Ghats are being evicted from their homelands. This results in degradation of
the tribal culture. The rich biodiversity in both flora and fauna have made the Western Ghats a target for
many corporate companies to gain resources. This however is checked by the Government of India and the
State Governments to protect the Western Ghats.

See also
Ghat Roads
Eastern Ghats

Notes
1. "Western Ghats" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342).
2. Myers, N.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Mittermeier, C.G.; Da Fonseca, G.A.B.; Kent, J. (2000).
"Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities". Nature. 403 (6772): 853–858.
Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.403..853M).
doi:10.1038/35002501 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35002501). PMID 10706275 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10706275). S2CID 4414279 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:4414279).
3. Migon, P. (2010). Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. Springer. p. 257. ISBN 978-
90-481-3054-2.
4. "A biodiversity hotspot" (http://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/western_gha
ts/).
5. "Western Ghats" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/multiple=1&unique_number=1921).
UNESCO. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
6. Lewis, C. (2012). "39 sites in Western Ghats get world heritage status" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20120707023508/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-03/mumbai/we
stern-ghats). The Times of India. Archived from the original (http://articles.timesofindia.indiati
mes.com/2012-07-03/mumbai/32523277_1_radhanagari-wildlife-world-heritage-centre-west
ern-ghats) on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
 7. "The Peninsula" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070812064356/http://apmn.icimod.org/mou
ntains/ch2_peninsula.php). Asia-Pacific Mountain Network. Archived from the original (http://
apmn.icimod.org/mountains/ch2_peninsula.php) on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 19 March
2007.
8. Nayar, T.S.; Rasiya Beegam, A.; Sibi, M. (2014). Flowering Plants of the Western Ghats,
India (2 Volumes). Thiruvananthapuram, India: Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden
and Research Institute.
9. Myers, N.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Mittermeier, C.G.; Fonseca, G.A.B.Da; Kent, J. (2000).
"Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities". Nature. 403 (6772): 853–858.
Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.403..853M).
doi:10.1038/35002501 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35002501). PMID 10706275 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10706275). S2CID 4414279 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:4414279).
10. Dahanukar, N.; Raut, R.; Bhat, A. (2004). "Distribution, endemism and threat status of
freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5c915245
a382eabc0650d1e37492c57e6c59e70e). Journal of Biogeography. 31 (1): 123–136.
doi:10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.01016.x (https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.0305-0270.2003.01016.
x). S2CID 83574801 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83574801).
11. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2003). Jainism and Early Buddhism (https://books.google.com/books?
id=5_EdL2FtIqQC&q=etymology+dravidian). Jain Publishing Company. pp. 523–538.
ISBN 9780895819567.
12. Sunithi L. Narayan, Revathy Nagaswami, 1992, Discover sublime India: handbook for
tourists (https://books.google.com/books?id=miZuAAAAMAAJ&q=ghat+means&dq=ghat+m
eans&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_nZnwjpPgAhUHWysKHQcdAjk4ChDoAQgpMAA),
Page 5.
13. Ghat definition (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ghat), Cambridge
dictionary.
14. Barron, E.J.; Harrison, C.G.A.; Sloan, J.L. II; Hay, W.W. (1981). "Paleogeography, 180 million
years ago to the present". Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae. 74 (2): 443–470.
15. "Western Ghats – UNESCO World Heritage Centre" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342).
16. "The Geography of India" (http://www.all-about-india.com/Geography-of-India.html). all-
about-india.com. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
17. "7 major mountain ranges in India: Some of the highest mountains in the world" (https://www.
indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/seven-major-mountain-ranges-of-india-
969214-2017-04-03). India Today. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
18. Sehgal, K. L. "Coldwater fish and fisheries in the Western Ghats, India" (http://www.fao.org/d
ocrep/003/x2614e/x2614e06.htm). FAO. Retrieved 22 September 2008.
19. "Indian Dams by River and State" (http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/resources/statistics/st
at233.htm). Rain water harvesting. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
20. Menon, Rajesh (3 October 2005). "Tremors may rock Koyna for another two-decade" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20071117083928/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=
151253). Indian Express. Archived from the original (http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.p
hp?newsid=151253) on 17 November 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
21. Samani, R.L.; Ayhad, A.P. (2002). "Siltation of Reservoirs-Koyna Hydroelectric Project-A
Case Study". In S. P. Kaushish; B. S. K. Naidu (eds.). Silting Problems in Hydropower
Plants. Bangkok: Central Board of Irrigation and Power. ISBN 978-90-5809-238-0.
22. Ranjit Daniels, R.J. "Biodiversity of the Western Ghats – An Overview" (https://archive.today/
20070228195706/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter2.htm). Wildlife Institute of
India. Archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter2.htm) on 28
February 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
23. "Climate data for cities worldwide - Climate-Data.org" (https://en.climate-data.org/).
en.climate-data.org.
24. "Camp at world's highest tea estate Kolukkumalai" (https://travel.manoramaonline.com/trave
l/beyond-kerala/2019/06/11/camp-worlds-highest-tea-estate-kolukkumalai-munnat-drive.htm
l). OnManorama. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
25. Kumar, Ajith. Impact of rainforest fragmentation on small mammals and herpetofauna in the
Western Ghats, South India (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081219184202/http://www.
wii.gov.in/publications/researchreports/2002/frag.wii.report.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Salim
Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.wii.gov.in/publications/researchreports/2002/frag.wii.report.pdf) (PDF) on 19 December
2008.
26. "The Nilgiri Bio-sphere Reserve" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060928151229/http://www.
cpreec.org/04_phamplets/08_nilgiri_bio_reser/nilgiri_bio_reser.html). Archived from the
original (http://cpreec.org/04_phamplets/08_nilgiri_bio_reser/nilgiri_bio_reser.html) on 28
September 2006.
27. Ramesh (21 November 2009). "No clearance for mining, hydel projects that destroy Western
Ghat" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/article52465.ece). The Hindu.
Palakkad: Kasturi & Sons Ltd. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
28. staff (4 August 2009). "Gundia project has not got Centre's nod" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090808123705/http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/04/stories/2009080456210300.htm). The
Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/04/stories/
2009080456210300.htm) on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
29. Madhav Gadgil (31 August 2012). "Report of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel" (htt
p://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/wg-23052012.pdf) (PDF).
Westernghatindia.org. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Part 1:
summary XIX. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
30. "Vested interests in Western Ghats" (http://www.deccanherald.com/content/395071/vested-in
terests-harm-western-ghats.html). Deccan Herald. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
31. "Report is anti environmental" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kasturirangan-
report-is-antienvironmental/article5533619.ece). The Hindu. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
32. Warrier, Shobha. " 'The Kasturirangan Report is a disaster for the Western Ghats' " (https://w
ww.rediff.com/news/interview/the-kasturirangan-report-is-a-disaster-for-the-western-ghats/20
131230.htm). Rediff.
33. "Paradise lost" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140202023725/http://www.hindustantimes.co
m/india-news/paradise-lost/article1-1179300.aspx). Hindustan Times. Archived from the
original (http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/paradise-lost/article1-1179300.aspx) on
2 February 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
34. "World Heritage sites, Tentative lists, Western Ghats sub cluster" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/t
entativelists/2103/). UNESCO. 2007. Retrieved 30 March 2007.
35. "UNESCO heritage sites" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/multiple=1&unique_number=
1921). UNESCO. Retrieved 30 March 2007.
36. "UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ho
me/environment/flora-fauna/UN-designates-Western-Ghats-as-world-heritage-site/articlesho
w/14595602.cms). Times of India. 2 July 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
37. Nameer, P.O.; Molur, Sanjay; Walker, Sally (November 2001). "Mammals of the Western
Ghats: A Simplistic Overview" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/a782a69ce9472a58528e2
cfbb98e13be3483f992). Zoos' Print Journal. 16 (11): 629–639.
doi:10.11609/jott.zpj.16.11.629-39 (https://doi.org/10.11609%2Fjott.zpj.16.11.629-39).
S2CID 87414084 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87414084).
38. Singh, M.; Kumar, A.; Kumara, H.N. (2020). "Macaca silenus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/sp
ecies/12559/17951402). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12559A17951402.
doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12559A17951402.en (https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUC
N.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12559A17951402.en). Retrieved 11 November 2021.
39. Singh, M.; Kaumanns, W. (2005). "Behavioural studies: A necessity for wildlife
management" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070113063948/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct
102005/1230.pdf) (PDF). Current Science. 89 (7): 1233. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct102005/1230.pdf) (PDF) on 13 January 2007.
40. Malviya, M.; Srivastav, A.; Nigam, P.; Tyagi, P.C. (2011). Indian National Studbook of Nilgiri
Langur (Trachypithecus johnii) (http://www.cza.nic.in/Nilgiri%20Langur%20studbook.pdf)
(PDF). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi.
41. Mudappa, D.; Helgen, K.; Nandini, R. (2016). "Viverra civettina" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/
species/23036/45202281). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016:
e.T23036A45202281. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T23036A45202281.en (https://do
i.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T23036A45202281.en). Retrieved 11 November
2021.
42. Mudappa, D.; Noon, B.R.; Kumar, A. & Chellam, R. (2007). "Responses of small carnivores
to rainforest fragmentation in the southern Western Ghats, India" (https://www.researchgate.n
et/publication/258699798). Small Carnivore Conservation. 36: 18–26.
43. Jhala, Y.V.; Gopal, R.; Qureshi, Q (2008). Status of the Tigers, co-predators, and Prey in
India (https://web.archive.org/web/20130602124630/http://projecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/status_
of_tigers_in_india_2008.pdf) (PDF). TR 08/001. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt.
of India, New Delhi; Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Archived from the original (http://pro
jecttiger.nic.in/whtsnew/status_of_tigers_in_india_2008.pdf) (PDF) on 2 June 2013.
44. "Elephant Reserves" (http://wiienvis.nic.in/Database/eri_8226.aspx). ENVIS Centre on
Wildlife & Protected Areas. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
45. "Census population 2005" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120312060920/http://envfor.nic.in/
pe/PE%20Note.pdf) (PDF). Note on Project Elephant. Ministry of Environment and Forests.
2007. Archived from the original (http://envfor.nic.in/pe/PE%20Note.pdf) (PDF) on 12 March
2012. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
46. "Nilgiri tahr population over 3,000: WWF-India" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimb
atore/nilgiri-tahr-population-over-3000-wwfindia/article7717561.ece). The Hindu. 3 October
2015. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
47. Molur, S.; Brandon-Jones, D.; Dittus, W.; Eudey, A.; Kumar, A.; Singh, M.; Feeroz, M.M.;
Chalise, M.; Priya, P. & Walker, S. (2003). Status of South Asian Primates: Conservation
Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) Workshop Report, 2003. Coimbatore: Zoo
Outreach Organization/CBSG-South Asia.
48. Srinivasulu C, Srinivasulu B, Molur S (compilers) (2014). The Status and Distribution of
Reptiles in the Western Ghats, India. Conservation and Management Plan (CAMP).
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India: Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society. 160 pp.
ISBN 978-81-88722-40-2.
49. Greene, H. W. & R. W. Mcdiarmid (2005). Wallace and Savage: heroes, theories and
venomous snake mimicry, Ecology and Evolution in the Tropics, a Herpetological
Perspective. Chicago University of Chicago Press. pp. 190–208.
50. Harry V., Andrews. "Status and Distribution of the Mugger Crocodile in Tamil Nadu" (https://a
rchive.today/20041220055759/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/crocodile/tnadu.htm). WII.
Archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/crocodile/tnadu.htm) on 20 December
2004.
51. Karthikeyan, V. "A Report on the Survey of Rainforest Fragments in the Western Ghats for
Amphibian Diversity" (https://archive.today/20051215224533/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain
_forest/chapter19.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/cha
pter19.htm) on 15 December 2005.
52. Radhakrishnan, C.; Gopi, K.C. & Dinesh, K.P. (2007). "Zoogeography of Nasikabatrachus
sahyadrensis Biju and Bossuyt (Amphibia: Anura; Nasikabatrachidae) in the Western Ghats,
India". Records of the Zoological Survey of India. 107: 115–121.
53. An evaluation of the endemism of the amphibian assemblages from the Western Ghats
using molecular techniques (https://web.archive.org/web/20081219184326/http://www.wii.go
v.in/publications/researchreports/2005/endemism_amphibian_summary_content.pdf) (PDF)
(Report). WII. Archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/publications/researchreports/2
005/endemism_amphibian_summary_content.pdf) (PDF) on 19 December 2008.
54. "New 'mysterious' frog species discovered in India's Western Ghats" (https://www.bbc.com/n
ews/world-asia-india-47208169). BBC News. 13 February 2019.
55. Environment, The Hindu (2 December 2020). "Into the secret world of frogs and snakes" (htt
ps://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/herping-enthusiasts-on-the-fascina
ting-world-of-reptiles-and-ambhibians-and-the-growing-interest-in-herping/article33232444.
ece). No. December 2020. THG Publishing PVT LTD. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
56. Britz, A.; Philip (2012). "Dariourops, a new species of badid fish from the Western Ghats,
southern India" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200208110138/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.o
rg/1c3b/1c9303d8f968f2541b7e2f30b0d13643f34b.pdf) (PDF). Zootaxa. 3348: 63–68.
doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3348.1.5 (https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.3348.1.5).
S2CID 87261596 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87261596). Archived from the
original (https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1c3b/1c9303d8f968f2541b7e2f30b0d13643f34b.p
df) (PDF) on 8 February 2020.
57. Sreekantha; Gururaja, K.V.; Remadevi, K.; Indra, T.J.; Ramachandra, T.V. (2006). "Two new
species of the genus Schistura McClell and (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae) from Western
Ghats, India" (https://doi.org/10.11609%2Fjott.zpj.1386.2211-6). Zoos' Print Journal. 21 (4):
2211–2216. doi:10.11609/jott.zpj.1386.2211-6 (https://doi.org/10.11609%2Fjott.zpj.1386.221
1-6).
58. Molur, M.; Smith, K.G.; Daniel, B.A. & Darwall, W.R.T. (2011). The status and distribution of
freshwater biodiversity in the Western Ghats, India (https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/librar
y/files/documents/RL-540-001.pdf) (PDF). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Regional
Assessment. ISBN 978-2-8317-1381-6.
59. Raghavan; Prasad; Ali; Pereira (2008). "Fish fauna of Chalakudy River, part of Western
Ghats biodiversity hotspot, Kerala, India: patterns of distribution, threats and conservation
needs". Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (13): 3119–3131. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9293-
0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10531-007-9293-0). S2CID 7563806 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:7563806).
60. Raghavan, R.; Philip, S.; Ali, A. & Dahanukar, N. (2013). "Sahyadria, a new genus of barbs
(Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from Western Ghats of India" (https://doi.org/10.11609%2FJoTT.o367
3.4932-8). Journal of Threatened Taxa. 5 (15): 4932–4938. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o3673.4932-
8 (https://doi.org/10.11609%2FJoTT.o3673.4932-8).
61. "Zoologica" (https://web.archive.org/web/20040716010207/http://zoologica.lifescience.ntu.e
du.tw/Z-10-1/Z-10-1-2.PDF) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://zoologica.lifescience.nt
u.edu.tw/Z-10-1/Z-10-1-2.PDF) (PDF) on 16 July 2004. Retrieved 18 December 2006.
62. Benziger; Philip; Raghavan; Ali; Sukumaran; Tharian; Dahanukar; Baby; Peter; Devi;
Radhakrishnan; Haniffa; Britz; Antunes (2011). "Unraveling a 146 Years Old Taxonomic
Puzzle: Validation of Malabar Snakehead, Species-Status and Its Relevance for Channid
Systematics and Evolution" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123301).
PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e21272. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621272B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2011PLoSO...621272B). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021272 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fj
ournal.pone.0021272). PMC 3123301 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123
301). PMID 21731689 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21731689).
63. Gobi, K.C. (2002). "A new synbranchid fish, Monopterus digressus from Kersla, Peninsular
India". Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 100 (1–2): 137–143.
64. Vincent, M.; Thomas, J. (2011). "Kryptoglanis shajii, an enigmatic subterranean-spring
catfish (Siluriformes, Incertae sedis) from Kerala, India". Ichthyological Research. 58 (2):
161–165. doi:10.1007/s10228-011-0206-6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10228-011-0206-6).
S2CID 39313203 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39313203).
65. "Karnataka birds" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060429032225/http://www.karnatakabirds.
net/). karnatakabirds.net. Archived from the original (http://karnatakabirds.net) on 29 April
2006.
66. "Karnataka forest department (forests at a glance – Bio-diversity" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070927093422/http://www.karnatakaforest.gov.in/English/forest_glance/biodiversity.ht
m). Archived from the original (http://www.karnatakaforest.gov.in/English/forest_glance/biodi
versity.htm) on 27 September 2007.
67. "Restricted-range species" (http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/ebas/index.html?action=EbaHT
MDetails.asp&sid=125&m=0). BirdLife EBA Factsheet 12 : Western Ghats. BirdLife
International. 1998. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
68. Mathew George & Binoy C.F., An Overview of Insect Diversity of Western Ghats with Special
Reference to Kerala State (https://archive.today/20090316112850/http://www.wii.gov.in/envi
s/rain_forest/chapter3.htm), WII, archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_f
orest/chapter3.htm) on 16 March 2009, retrieved 24 July 2007
69. George Mathew & M. Mahesh Kumar, State of the Art Knowledge on the Butterflies of Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve (https://archive.today/20090108105816/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_f
orest/chapter6.htm), WII, archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/ch
apter6.htm) on 8 January 2009
70. Chandra, M. (1976). "On a Small Collection of leeches from Maharashtra State, India" (http://
faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/records/069/01-04/0325-0328.pdf) (PDF). Records of the
Zoological Survey of India. 69: 325–328.
71. Madhyastha N. A.; Rajendra; Mavinkurve G. & Shanbhag Sandhya P. "Land Snails of
Western Ghats" (https://archive.today/20090717093156/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_fore
st/chapter9.htm). WII. Archived from the original (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapt
er9.htm) on 17 July 2009.
72. Nayar, T.S., Rasiya Beegam A., and M. Sibi. (2014). Flowering Plants of the Western Ghats,
India (2 Volumes), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute,
Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. p.1700
73. Dransfield, J.; Uhl, N.W.; Asmussen, C.B.; Baker, W.J.; Harley, M.M.; Lewis, C.E. (2008).
Genera Palmarum: The Evolution and Classification of Palms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
ISBN 978-1-84246-182-2.
74. More, Sushant; Conti, Fabio; Bhosale, Harshal S. (October 2020). "Echinops sahyadricus
sp. nov. (Asteraceae: Cardueae), from the northern Western Ghats, Maharashtra, India" (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/344848901_Echinops_sahyadricus_sp_nov_Asterace
ae_Cardueae_from_the_northern_Western_Ghats_Maharashtra_India). Nordic Journal of
Botany. 38 (10). doi:10.1111/njb.02860 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnjb.02860). Retrieved
18 April 2022.

References
Mahajan, Harshal. A rendezvous with Sahyadri
Ingalhalikar, Shrikant. Flowers of Sahyadri. Corolla Publication; Pune
Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions
of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press; Washington, DC.
Kapadia, Harish. Trek the Sahyadris
Daniels, R.J. Ranjit, Wildlife institute of India, "Biodiversity in the Western Ghats" (https://arc
hive.today/20070228195706/http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/rain_forest/chapter2.htm)
Ajith Kumar, Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore, India, Ravi
Chellam, B.C.Choudhury, Divya Mudappa, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, N.M.Ishwar, Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehra Dun, India, Barry Noon, Department of Fish and Wildlife Biology,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, U.S. (2002) "Impact of Rainforest Fragmentation on
Small Mammals and Herpetofauna in the Western Ghats, South India", Final Report, pp.
146, illus. Full text (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070701040125/http://www.wii.gov.in/f
aculty/publication/frag.wii.report.pdf) retrieved 14 March 2007
Verma Desh Deepak (2002) "Thematic Report on Mountain Ecosystems", Ministry of
Environment and Forests,13pp, retrieved 27 March 2007 Thematic Report on Mountain
Ecosystems (https://web.archive.org/web/20060618233452/http://biodiv.org/doc/world/in/in-n
r-me-en.doc) Full text, detailed data, not cited.
Abstracts, Edited by Lalitha Vijayan, Saconr. Vasudeva, University of Dharwad,
Priyadarsanan, ATREE, Renee Borges, CES, ISSC, Jagdish Krishnaswamy, Atree &
WCSP. Pramod, Sacon, Jagannatha Rao, R., FRLHTR. J. Ranjit Daniels, Care Earth,
Compiled by S. Somasundaram, Sacon (1–2 December 2005) Integrating Science and
Management of Biodiversity in the Western Ghats (https://web.archive.org/web/2013051123
1752/http://www.westernghatsforum.org/abstract_12_05.pdf), 2nd National Conference of
the Western Ghats Forum, Venue: State Forest Service College Coimbatore, Organized by
Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore – 641108, India.
Sponsored by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Supported by The
Arghyam Foundation, The Ford Foundation & Sir Dorabiji Trust Through Ashoka Trust for
Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE)
Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves and Conflicts in Colonial Forest Policy in the Western
Ghats. (http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue30/M%20
D%20S%20Chandran.pdf) M.D. Subash Chandran; Chapter 22

External links
Western Ghats (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342), UNESCO World Heritage site
Western Ghats (http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/western_ghats/), WWF

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_Ghats&oldid=1084726230"

This page was last edited on 26 April 2022, at 06:15 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Outline of Goa
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical
guide to Goa:

Goa – state in southwest India, bounded by Maharashtra to the

north and Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea
forms its western coast. It is India's smallest state by area and the
fourth smallest by population. Goa is one of India's richest states
with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country.[1] It
was ranked the best placed state by the Eleventh Finance
Commission for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the best
quality of life in India by the National Commission on Population
based on the 12 Indicators.[1]

Location of Goa
Contents
General reference
Geography of Goa
Government and politics of Goa
History of Goa
Culture of Goa
Economy and infrastructure of Goa
Education in Goa
Health in Goa
Science and technology in Goa
See also
References
External links

General reference

Names
Official name(s): State of Goa
Common name(s): Goa
Pronunciation:/ɡoʊə/
Etymology: Etymology of Goa
 Local name: Goem
Nickname: Pearl of the Orient
Adjectival(s): Goan, Goenkar, Goykar, Goes
Demonym(s): Goans, Goenkars, Goes/Goesa, Goanese (considered derogatory by some)
Abbreviations and name codes
ISO 3166-2 code: IN-GA
Vehicle registration code: GA, series: List of Regional Transport Office districts in Goa

Rankings (amongst India's states)

by population: 25th
by area (2011 census): 28th (Goa is the smallest state of India)
by crime rate (2019): 23th
by gross domestic product (GDP) (2014): 21st
by Human Development Index (HDI) (2018): 2nd
by life expectancy at birth:
by literacy rate (2011): 4th
Indian states ranking by media exposure (2015-16): 2nd

Geography of Goa
Geography of Goa

Goa is: an Indian state

Population of Goa: 1,457,723
Area of Goa: 3,702 km2 (1,429 sq mi)

Location of Goa
Goa is situated within the following regions:
Northern Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere
Eurasia
Asia
South Asia
Indian Subcontinent
India
Western India
Konkan

Time zone: Indian Standard Time (UTC+05:30)

Environment of Goa
Biodiversity hotspots in Goa
Western Ghats
Climate of Goa
Protected areas of Goa
National parks of Goa
Mollem National Park
Wildlife Sanctuaries of Goa
Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary
Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary
Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary
Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary
Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary
Wildlife of Goa
Flora and fauna of Goa
Birds of Goa
Seabirds of Goa

Natural geographic features of Goa

Bodies of water of Goa
Arabian Sea
Lakes of Goa
Mayem Lake
Rivers of Goa
Hills and mountains of Goa
Nagarhalli Hills
Sonsogor
Western Ghats (range)
Highest Peak of Goa: Sonsogor
Islands of Goa
Konkan Coast
Mountain passes in Goa
Braganza Ghats
Chorla Ghat
Waterfalls in Goa

Administrative divisions of Goa

 Districts of Goa
Talukas of Goa
Cities and Towns of Goa
Municipal Corporations
Panaji
Municipalities
Bicholim
Canacona
Cuncolim
Curchorem
Mapusa (Mapusa Municipal Council)
Margao
Mormugao
Pernem
Ponda
Quepem
Sanguem
Sanquelim
Valpoi
Parishes of Goa
Renamed places of Goa
Villages and Agraharas in Goa and their ancient names

Demography of Goa

Demographics of Goa

Government and politics of Goa

Form of government: Indian state government (parliamentary system of representative
democracy)
Capital of Goa: Panaji
Elections in Goa

1963 | 1967 | 1972 | 1977 | 1980 |

1984 |
1989 |
1994 |
1999 |
2002 |
2007 |
2011 |
2017 |
2022

Political issues in Goa

Goa Special Status
Politics of Goa
Political families of Goa
Political Parties in Goa
Aam Aadmi Party
Bharatiya Janata Party / Bharatiya Janata Party, Goa
 Goa Forward Party
Indian National Congress / Goa Pradesh Congress Committee
Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party
Revolutionary Goans Party

Union government in Goa

Indian general election, 2009 (Goa)
Indian general election, 2014 (Goa)
Indian general election, 2019 (Goa)
North Goa (Lok Sabha constituency)
South Goa (Lok Sabha constituency)
Rajya Sabha members from Goa

Branches of the government of Goa

Government of Goa

Executive branch of the government of Goa

Head of state: Governor of Goa
official residence - Raj Bhavan
Governors of Portuguese India
Head of government: Chief Minister of Goa,
Deputy Chief Ministers of Goa
Cabinet of Goa: Goa Council of Ministers
Departments and agencies
Directorate of Fire and Emergency Services, Goa
Gazetteer of India, Union Territory: Goa, Daman and Diu
Goa Human Rights Commission
Goa Institute of Public Administration and Rural Development
Goa Konkani Akademi
Goa Lokayukta
Goa Public Service Commission
Goa State Election Commission
Goa State Information Commission
Gomant Vibhushan
Kadamba Transport Corporation
Sports Authority of Goa
Yashadamini Puraskar

Legislative branch of the government of Goa

Goa Legislative Assembly
 Constituencies of Goa Legislative Assembly
Goa State Legislative Assembly Complex
Legislative capital: Porvorim

Judicial branch of the government of Goa

Judiciary of Goa

High Court of Bombay at Goa

Judicial capital: Porvorim

Law and order in Goa

Law of Goa

Animal rights in Goa

Capital punishment in Goa
Goa civil code
Human rights in Goa
Freedom of religion in Goa
LGBT rights in Goa
Pride De Goa
Law enforcement in Goa
Goa Police
Polícia do Estado da Índia (1946 - 1961)
Corpo de Polícia e Fiscalização da Índia (pre-1946)

Organised Crime in Goa

Goa mafia
Penal system of Goa
Reservation in Goa

History of Goa
History of Goa

Timeline of Goan history

History of Goa, by period

Portuguese Goa
Portuguese conquest of Goa
Portuguese India
 Goa liberation movement

Indian Goa
Annexation of Portuguese India

History of Goa, by region

History of Goa, by subject

History of Goan Catholics
Printing in Goa

Culture of Goa
Culture of Goa

Architecture of Goa
Architecture of Goan Catholics
Goan houses
Goan temple
Comunidades of Goa
Goan cuisine
Goan Catholic cuisine
Cultural capital: Margao
Galleries, Libraries, Museums and Archives in Goa
Archaeological Museum and Portrait Gallery
Dr Francisco Luis Gomes District Library
Goa Science Centre
Goa State Central Library
Goa State Museum
Goa University Library
Institute Menezes Braganza/Instituto Vasco da Gama
Kala Academy
Naval Aviation Museum
Geographical Indications of Goa
Feni
Khola Mirchi
Languages of Goa
Media in Goa
Mailing list
Goanet
 Newspapers and magazines
Radio
Television
DD Goa
Konkani-language television channels
Monuments in Goa
Azad Maidan
Forts of Goa
Gates of Goa
Monuments of National Importance in Goa
State Protected Monuments in Goa
Public squares in Goa
Susegad
Symbols of Goa
Seal of Goa
World Heritage Sites in Goa
Churches and convents of Goa
Western Ghats

Art in Goa
Arts of Goa
Kaavi art
Cinema of Goa
Konkani cinema
National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani
Cultural and technical festivals of Goan colleges
Dances of Goa
Goan folk dances
Festivals in Goa
Carnival in Goa
Dindi festival
Goa Sand Art Festival
International Film Festival of India
Monti Fest
Sao Joao Festival in Goa
Serendipity Arts Festival
Shigmo
Sunburn Festival
Zagor
Zatra
 Literary festivals in Goa
Literature of Goa
Goan Catholic literature
Goan writers
Fiction writers from Goa
Poets in (and from) Goa
Music of Goa
Bands from Goa
Dulpod
Fell
Goa Trance
Goans in Hindi film music composition
Konkani liturgical music
Mando
Ovi
Traditional Musical Instruments of Goa
Dhol
Ghumot
Kansallem
Mhadalem
Shamel
Ver
Zoti
Theatre in Goa
Sangeet Natak
Tiatr
Tiatr Academy of Goa
Tiatrists of Goa

People of Goa

People of Goa

Caste system in Goa

Ethnic and social groups of Goa and Konkan
Goan Catholics
Culture of Goan Catholics
Goan Catholic names and surnames
Notable Goan Catholics
Goan Hindus
Culture of Goan Hindus
 Goan Muslims
People from Goa

Religion in Goa

Religion in Goa

Christianity in Goa
Christianization of Goa
Pre-Portuguese Christianity in Goa
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman
Hinduism in Goa
Goan temple
Temples in Goa
Rock-cut temples in Goa
Islam in Goa
Goan Mosques
Safa Mosque
Jainism in Goa

Sports in Goa

Sports in Goa

Chess in Goa
Goa State Chess Association
Cricket in Goa
Goa Cricket Association
Goa cricket team
Goa women's cricket team
Goans in cricket
Field hockey in Goa
Goans in field hockey
Football in Goa
AIFF Elite Academy
Goa Derby
Goa Football Association
Goa football team
Goa Police Cup
Goa Professional League
GFA First Division League
 Goan State Football Champions
Goans in football
Goan Sports Association
Goans in sports
Running in Goa
Goa Marathon

Symbols of Goa

Symbols of Goa

State animal: Gaur, (Bos gaurus)

State bird: Ruby Throated Yellow Bulbul, (Pycnonotus gularis)
State fish: Grey mullet/Shevtto in Konkani (Mugil cephalus)
State flower: Jasmine, (Plumeria rubra)
State fruit: Cashew, (Anacardium occidentale)
State heritage tree: Coconut palm, (Cocos nucifera)
State motto:
Devanagari - सर्वे भद्राणि पश्यन्तु मा कश्चिद् दुःखमाप्नुयात्
Latin script - (May everyone see goodness, may none suffer any pain)
State seal: Seal of Goa
State tree: Matti, (Terminalia crenulata)

Economy and infrastructure of Goa

Economy of Goa

Commercial capital: Margao

Communications in Goa
Internet in Goa
Goa Broad Band Network
Currency of Goa:
Xerafim:- Before 1668
Portuguese Indian rupia (1668 - 1958)
Portuguese Indian escudo (1958 - 1961)
Indian rupee (1961 - present)
Dams and Reservoirs in Goa
Hotels in Goa
Mapusa Friday Market
Prisons in Goa
Shopping Malls in Goa
Stadiums in Goa
Arlem Breweries Ground
 Bhausaheb Bandodkar Ground
Campal Indoor Complex
Chowgule Sports Centre
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Stadium
Dr Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Indoor Stadium
Duler Stadium
Fatorda Stadium
GMC Athletic Stadium
Goa Cricket Association Academy Ground
Goa Cricket Association Stadium
Railway Stadium, Vasco da Gama
Tilak Maidan Stadium
Tourism in Goa
Beaches of Goa
Arambol
Chapora Beach
Galgibaga Beach
Palolem
Querim Beach
Casino Goa
Fontainhas
Traditional occupations of Goa
Transport in Goa
Airports in Goa
Bridges in Goa
Atal Setu
Mandovi Bridge
Ponte Conde de Linhares
Zuari Bridge
National Waterways of India
Chapora River
Cumbarjua Canal
Mandovi River
Mapusa River
Sal River
Zuari River
Ports in Goa
Mormugao Port
Railway in Goa
Hubli railway division
Part of South Western Railway zone
Guntakal–Vasco da Gama section (formerly West of India Portuguese Railway)
 Karwar railway division
Part of Konkan Railway
Skybus Metro
Roads in Goa
18th June Road
National Highways in Goa/National Highways in Goa (old numbering)

Education in Goa
Education in Goa

Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education

Goa University
Institutes of Higher Education in Goa
Schools in Goa

Health in Goa
Health in Goa

COVID-19 pandemic in Goa

Hospitals in Goa
Medical Colleges in Goa
Ambulance service
GVK EMRI 108

Science and technology in Goa

Goans in science and technology

See also
Outline of India

References
1. Reports of the finance commissions of India: First Finance Commission to the Twelfth
Finance Commission: the complete report. India. Finance Commission. Academic
Foundation. 2005. p. 268. ISBN 81-7188-474-1.

External links
Wikimedia Atlas of Goa

Government of Goa official website (http://www.goa.gov.in/)

 Goa Review (http://planetrovers.com/excursion-destination/india/goa/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_Goa&oldid=1076676651"

This page was last edited on 12 March 2022, at 10:30 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Goa (disambiguation)
Goa is a state in India, and a former Portuguese colonial possession, while the name was often used for the
whole of Portuguese India.

Goa or GOA may also refer to:

Contents
Places
Abbreviations
People with the surname
Film
Music
Nature
Other uses
See also

Places
Goa, Botswana, a small town in Botswana, near the Namibian border, near the Caprivi Strip
Goa, Camarines Sur, a municipality in the Philippines
Goah, Pakistan, a village in Punjab Pakistan
Sultanate of Gowa, a kingdom in the South Sulawesi region of what is now Indonesia
Goa-eup, a town in Gumi, North Gyeongsang, South Korea
Goa, Burkina Faso
Related to the state of Goa in India
Goa, Daman and Diu, a short lived Indian Union Territory
Ilhas de Goa (also known as Tiswadi), a sub-district within Goa
Goa (island) (Ilha de Goa), an island in the state of Goa
Nova Goa (also known as Panjim or Panaji), the current capital of the state of Goa
Velha Goa (also known as Old Goa), the former capital city of Portuguese India
Goa Velha, a village on the island of Goa, which was once a suburb of the former capital

Abbreviations
Gene ontology Annotation, the practice of capturing data about a gene product
General of the army, a military rank used in some countries to denote a senior leader
Genoa Cristoforo Colombo Airport located west of Genoa, Italy, by IATA code
Government of Afghanistan, a country in central Asia
 Government of Alberta, a province in Canada
Government of Australia, the federal government of the Commonwealth of Australia
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
Gun Owners of America, a gun rights organization in the United States
Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis (for Sankt Goar, German vehicle registration plate code)

People with the surname

Daniel Goa (born 1953), New Caledonian politician
Trygve Goa (1925–2013), Norwegian printmaker

Film
Goa (2010 film), a Tamil film directed by Venkat Prabhu
Goa (soundtrack)
Goa (2015 film), a Kannada film directed by Surya

Music
"Goa", a track from the Frank Zappa album Guitar
Goa trance, a form of electronic music that originated during the late 1980s in Goa, India
Go A, a music band that represented Ukraine at the Eurovision Song Contest 2021

Nature
Goa (antelope), also known as the Tibetan Gazelle, a species of antelope in and around
Tibet
Goa bean, another name for the winged bean

Other uses
Goa, a board game by Rüdiger Dorn
Goa, the gaming division of Orange/France Telecom
Goa, name of the Mahindra Scorpio SUV in Italy
S-125 Neva/Pechora, a Soviet surface-to-air missile system with NATO reporting name SA-
3 Goa
GoA, Grade of Automation, see e.g. Automatic train operation

See also
The dictionary definition of Appendix:Variations of "goa" at Wiktionary
All pages with titles containing goa or goas
All pages with titles containing g-o-a
All pages with titles beginning with GOA
All pages with titles beginning with Goa
All pages with titles beginning with gOa
 All pages with titles beginning with goA
Goas (disambiguation)
Gao (disambiguation)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goa_(disambiguation)&oldid=1047385812"

This page was last edited on 30 September 2021, at 16:04 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
GoaPedia