1.

SMALL-SCALE UNDERRUN-DISC SHELLER WITH VARIABLE SLIP SPEED AND

REPLACEABLE DISC TYPE FOR PEANUT VARIETY

2.

A Research Project
Presented to the Faculty of the Engineering Program
College of Mechanical Engineering
Technological University of the Philippines Visayas
City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

By

Christine Joy B. Barsanas

Christian T. Dequinto

Mary Dell B. Ganancial

Renz Christian G. Gimotea

Mark F. Marcenares

Jude Patrick P. Osianas

Zea N. Tagam

Joemar B. Torrecampo

Engr. Andrew Joseph P. Weber – Adviser

Engr. Dennis Quivis – Adviser

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science Major in Mechanical Engineering

February 2021

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

(............)

2
 ABSTRACT

(.................)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement 2
Abstract 3
Table of Contents 4
Chapter 1- INTRODUCTION 5
Background of the Study 5
Objectives of the Study 6
Chapter 2- REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES 7
Related Literature 7
Related Studies 21
Conceptual Framework 29
Theoretical Framework 30
Operational Definition of Terms 31
Chapter 3- METHODOLOGY 32
Materials and Methods 32
Project Design 32
Project Development 32
Operation and Testing Procedure 42
Conditioning the Groundnuts at Certain Moisture level 42
Operation of Underrun-disc sheller 44
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations
Project Recommendations
Research Recommendations
Disclosures
References
Appendices
Researchers’ Profile

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Dehusking equipment (Wimberly, 1983), often referred to as huskers, dehuskers, hullers, and

shellers, removes the paddy husk from the paddy grain. The most common types are the steel huller,

underrun disc sheller, and rubber rollers. A few other types have been tried or are being studied, but they

have not proved economical for commercial operations. Although these technologies were used originally

in dehusking rice paddy, but it can also be used in other grains as far as removing the outer layer is

concerned.

The underrun disc sheller, more often referred to as a disc sheller, consists of two horizontal iron

discs partly coated with an abrasive layer. The top disc is fixed to the frame housing, and the bottom disc

rotates. The rotating disc can be moved vertically to adjust the clearance between the two discs,

depending on the size and condition of the grain. Paddy is fed into the center of the machine and moves

outward by centrifugal force. It is evenly distributed over the surface of the rotating disc. Under the

centrifugal pressure and friction of the disc, most of the grains are dehusked. The clearance between the

two discs is critical and requires continuous adjustment to avoid excessive breakage.

The main advantages of the disc sheller are its operational simplicity and its low running cost;

moreover, the abrasive coverings can be remade at the site within expensive materials. The main

disadvantages are grain breakage and the abrasions to outer bran layers.

Ideally, the basic principle of underrun disc sheller is by employing the work of friction present in

the interfaces between the shells and the disc by rotational action. However, it is observed that it produces

greater number of breakage compared to other dehusking technology. The reason for this is excessive

friction work created by rapid disc rotation with small radial displacement due to centrifugal pressure. In

5
an attempt to move the grains radially outward by employing a centrifugal effect through disc rotation, an

inevitable consequence is the grains receive excessive friction, thereby causing damage and worse

breakage. The perceived solution is the upper abrasive disc has to rotate also to regulate the friction. By

this we can produce enough centrifugal effect, but we can control the work of friction by regulating the

relative rotational speed (slip speed) between two abrasive discs.

My research problem is development of small-scale underrun disc sheller with variable slip speed

and replaceable discs type for peanut variety.

Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study is to develop a small-scale underrun disc sheller with variable slip

speed and replaceable disc type for peanut variety.

Specifically, the study aims to:

1. Develop an underrun disc shelling technology that minimizes seed breakage percentage by

providing a variable disc speed that regulates centrifugal effect;

2. Test and improve the project prototype; determine the effect of clearance, groove-disc speeds,

and slip speed on the performance indices of the sheller. The performance indices are

percentage effective cracking, percentage of breakage, percentage partially cracked, and

percentage uncracked nuts; and

3. Evaluate the acceptability/performance of the project prototype

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

Husking and Dehulling Husking of corn is the process of removing its outer layers, leaving only

the cob or seed rack of the corn. Dehulling is the process of removing the hulls (or chaff) from beans and

other seeds. This is sometimes done using a machine known as a huller (Cote, 2013). To prepare the

seeds to have oils extracted from them, they are cleaned to remove any foreign objects. Next, the seeds

have their hulls, or outer coverings, or husk, removed. There are three different types of dehulling

systems that can be used to process soybeans: Hot dehulling, warm dehulling and cold dehulling. Hot

dehulling is the system offered in areas where beans are processed directly from the field. Warm

dehulling is often used by processors who import their soybeans. Cold dehulling is used in plants that

have existing drying and conditioning equipment, but need to add dehulling equipment to produce high

protein meal. The different dehulling temperature options are for different types of production, beans

and preparation equipment. In third-world countries, husking and dehulling is still often done by hand

using a large mortar and pestle. These are usually made of wood, and operated by one or more people.

The husk is biodegradable and may be composted.

Rice Huller

A rice huller or rice husker is an agricultural machine used to automate the process of removing

the chaff (the outer husks) of grains of rice (Connelly Ortiz, n.d.). Throughout history, there have been

numerous techniques to hull rice. Traditionally, it would be pounded using some form of mortar and

pestle. An early simple machine to do this is a rice pounder. Later even more efficient machinery was

7
developed to hull and polish rice. These machines are most widely developed and used throughout Asia

where the most popular type is the Engelberg huller designed by German Brazilian engineer Evaristo

Conrado Engelberg in Brazil and first patented in 1885. The Engelberg huller uses steel rollers to remove

the husk. Other types of huller include the disk or cono huller which uses an abrasive rotating disk to

first remove the husk before passing the grain to conical rollers which polish it to make white rice, this is

done repeatedly since other sides of circular side of rice are not husked. Rubber rollers may be used to

reduce the amount of breakage of the grains, so increasing the yield of the best quality head rice, but

the rubber rollers tend to require frequent replacement, which can be a significant drawback.

Threshing Machine

A threshing machine or a thresher is a piece of farm equipment that threshes grain, that is, it

removes the seeds from the stalks and husks (Clark, 2008). It does so by beating the plant to make the

seeds fall out. Before such machines were developed, threshing was done by hand with flails: such hand

threshing was very laborious and time-consuming, taking about one-quarter of agricultural labor by the

18th century. Mechanization of this process removed a substantial amount of drudgery from farm labor.

The first threshing machine was invented circa 1786 by the Scottish engineer Andrew Meikle, and the

subsequent adoption of such machines was one of the earlier examples of the mechanization of

agriculture. During the 19th century, threshers and mechanical reapers and reaper-binders gradually

became widespread and made grain production much less laborious. Michael Stirling is said to have

invented a rotary threshing machine in 1758 which for forty years was used to process all the corn on his

farm at Gateside. No published works have yet been found but his son William made a sworn statement

to his minister to this fact. He also gave him the details of his father's death in 1796. Separate reaper-

binders and threshers have largely been replaced by machines that combine all their functions that is

combine harvesters or combines. However, the simpler machines remain important as appropriate

8
technology in lowcapital farming contexts, both in developing countries and in developed countries on

small farms that strive for especially high levels of self-sufficiency. For example, pedal-powered

threshers are a low-cost option, and some Amish sects use horse-drawn binders and old-style threshers.

As the verb thresh is cognate with the verb thrash (and synonymous in the grain-beating sense), the

names thrashing machine and thrasher are (less common) alternate forms.

Threshing

Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of grain (or other crop) from the straw to

which it is attached. It is the step in grain preparation after reaping (Sl, 2020). Threshing does not

remove the bran from the grain. Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a flail on a threshing

floor. Another traditional method of threshing is to make donkeys or oxen walk in circles on the grain on

a hard surface. A modern version of this in some areas is to spread the grain on the surface of a country

road so the grain may be threshed by the wheels of passing vehicles (Partridge, 1973). Hand threshing

was laborious, with a bushel of wheat taking about an hour(Atack, Jeremy; Passell, 1994). In the late

18th century, before threshing was mechanized (Bob, 1996), about onequarter of agricultural labor was

devoted to it. Industrialization of threshing began in 1786 with the invention of the threshing machine

by Scotsman Andrew Meikle. Today, in developed areas, it is now mostly done by machine, usually by a

combine harvester, which harvests, threshes, and winnows the grain while it is still in the field

(Cyclopedia, 2020; Life & Legacy, 2020). A threshing bee was traditionally a bee in which local people

gathered together to pitch in and get the season's threshing done. Such bees were sometimes festivals

or events within larger harvest festivals. Today the original purpose is largely obsolete, but the festival

tradition lives on in some modern examples that commemorate the past and include flea markets, hog

wrestling, and dances (Be, To, Us, & Year, 2021; “This site can ’ t be reached,” 2020; “Welcome to the

54th Annual Threshing Bee,” 2020).

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Centrifugal Force

In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a "fictitious" or

"pseudo" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is

directed away from an axis which is parallel to the axis of rotation and passing through the coordinate

system's origin (Wilson, Buffa, & Lou, 2007). If the axis of rotation passes through the coordinate

system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially outwards from that axis. The magnitude of

centrifugal force F on an object of mass m at the distance r from the origin of a frame of reference

rotating with angular velocity ω is:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔ଶ𝑟

The concept of centrifugal force can be applied in rotating devices, such as centrifuges,

centrifugal pumps, centrifugal governors, and centrifugal clutches, and in centrifugal railways, planetary

orbits and banked curves, when they are analyzed in a rotating coordinate system. The term has

sometimes also been used for the reactive centrifugal force that may be viewed as a reaction to a

centripetal force in some circumstances.

Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of an object, symbolized by 𝐼, is a measure of the object's resistance to

changes to its rotation. The moment of inertia is measured in kilogram metre² (kg m²). It depends on the

object's mass: increasing the mass of an object increases the moment of inertia. It also depends on the

distribution of the mass: distributing the mass further from the center of rotation increases the moment

of inertia by a greater degree. For a single particle of mass 𝑚 a distance 𝑟 from the axis of rotation, the

moment of inertia is given by

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟ଶ

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Torque

Torque 𝜏 is the twisting effect of a force 𝐹 applied to a rotating object which is at position 𝑟 from

its axis of rotation. Mathematically, 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹, where × denotes the cross product. A net torque acting

upon an object will produce an angular acceleration of the object according to 𝜏 = 𝐼 × 𝛼 just as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 in

linear dynamics. The work done by a torque acting on an object equals the magnitude of the torque

times the angle through which the torque is applied, 𝑊 = 𝜏𝜃The power of a torque is equal to the work

done by the torque per unit time, hence, 𝑃 = 𝜏�

V-belts

V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the slippage and

alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination

of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless,

and their general cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the

belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The

belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases— the greater the load, the greater the

wedging action—improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing

less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high

reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than

three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-

belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-section than flat belts.

For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement

called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or

sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or

there may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may

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be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of

steel or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or Kevlar).

When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. Most

models offer the same power and speed ratings as equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require

special pulleys to operate. A link v-belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite links held

together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link (with metal studs).

These provide easy installation and superior environmental resistance compared to rubber belts and are

length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.

Variable-frequency drive

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) or adjustable-frequency drive (AFD), variablevoltage/variable-

frequency (VVVF) drive, variable speed drive (VSD), AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive is a type of

motor drive used in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying

motor input frequency and voltage (Campbell, 1987).

VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors. About 25% of

the world's electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in industrial applications. Systems using

VFDs can be more efficient than those using throttling control of fluid flow, such as in systems with

pumps and damper control for fans. However, the global market penetration for all applications of VFDs

is relatively small (Jaeschke, 1978).

Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has

improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies,

simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software (Siskind, 1963).

VFD types and ratings

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AC drives can be classified according to the following generic topologies (Paes, 2011):

 Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drive topologies (see image): In a VSI drive, the DC output of the diode-

bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter. The vast

majority of drives are VSI type with PWM voltage output.[d]

 Current-source inverter (CSI) drive topologies (see image): In a CSI drive, the DC output of the SCR-

bridge converter stores energy in series-Inductor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter.

CSI drives can be operated with either PWM or six-step waveform output.

 Six-step inverter drive topologies (see image):[e][44] Now largely obsolete, sixstep drives can be either

VSI or CSI type and are also referred to as variable-voltage inverter drives, pulse-amplitude modulation

(PAM) drives,[45] square-wave drives or D.C. chopper inverter drives.[46] In a six-step drive, the DC

output of the SCRbridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to supply

via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage or current input to an induction

motor.[47]

 Load commutated inverter (LCI) drive topologies: In an LCI drive (a special CSI case), the DC output of

the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six-

step current output of a second SCR-bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine.

 Cycloconverter or matrix converter (MC) topologies (see image): Cycloconverters and MCs are AC-AC

converters that have no intermediate DC link for energy storage. A cycloconverter operates as a three-

phase current source via three antiparallel-connected SCR-bridges in six-pulse configuration, each

cycloconverter phase acting selectively to convert fixed line frequency AC voltage to an alternating

voltage at a variable load frequency. MC drives are IGBT-based.

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 Doubly fed slip recovery system topologies: A doubly fed slip recovery system feeds rectified slip

power to a smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC supply network via an inverter, the speed of

the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC current.

Abrasive

An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through

rubbing which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction (Glossary, 2020). While

finishing a material often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface, the process can also

involve roughening as in satin, matte or beaded finishes. In short, the ceramics which are used to cut,

grind and polish other softer materials are known as abrasives. Abrasives are extremely commonplace

and are used very extensively in a wide variety of industrial, domestic, and technological applications.

This gives rise to a large variation in the physical and chemical composition of abrasives as well as the

shape of the abrasive. Some common uses for abrasives include grinding, polishing, buffing, honing,

cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping, and sanding (see abrasive machining). (For simplicity, "mineral" in

this article will be used loosely to refer to both minerals and mineral-like substances whether man-made

or not.) Files are not abrasives; they remove material not by scratching or rubbing, but by the cutting

action of sharp teeth which have been cut into the surface of the file, very much like those of a saw.

However, diamond files are a form of coated abrasive (as they are metal rods coated with diamond

powder).

Mechanics of Abrasion

Abrasives generally rely upon a difference in hardness between the abrasive and the material

being worked upon, the abrasive being the harder of the two substances. However, is not necessary as

any two solid materials that repeatedly rub against each other will tend to wear each other away;

examples include, softer shoe soles wearing away wooden or stone steps over decades or centuries or

14
glaciers abrading stone valleys. Typically, materials used as abrasives are either hard minerals (rated at 7

or above on Mohs scale of mineral hardness) or are synthetic stones, some of which may be chemically

and physically identical to naturally occurring minerals but which cannot be called minerals as they did

not arise naturally. (While useful for comparative purposes, the Mohs scale is of limited value to

materials engineers as it is an arbitrary, ordinal, irregular scale.) Diamond, a common abrasive, for

instance occurs both naturally and is industrially produced, as is corundum which occurs naturally but

which is nowadays more commonly manufactured from bauxite (Glossary, 2020). However, even softer

minerals like calcium carbonate are used as abrasives, such as "polishing agents" in toothpaste. Grit size

ranging from 2 mm (the large grain) (about F 10 using FEPA standards) to about 40 micrometers (about F

240 or P 360). These minerals are either crushed or are already of a sufficiently small size (anywhere

from macroscopic grains as large as about 2 mm to microscopic grains about 0.001 mm in diameter) to

permit their use as an abrasive. These grains, commonly called grit, have rough edges, often terminating

in points which will decrease the surface area in contact and increase the localized contact pressure. The

abrasive and the material to be worked are brought into contact while in relative motion to each other.

Force applied through the grains causes fragments of the worked material to break away, while

simultaneously smoothing the abrasive grain and/or causing the grain to work loose from the rest of the

abrasive.

Some factors which will affect how quickly a substance is abraded include:

 Difference in hardness between the two substances: a much harder abrasive will cut faster and deeper

 Grain size (grit size): larger grains will cut faster as they also cut deeper

 Adhesion between grains, between grains and backing, between grains and matrix: determines how

quickly grains are lost from the abrasive and how soon fresh grains, if present, are exposed

 Contact force: more force will cause faster abrasion

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 Loading: worn abrasive and cast off work material tends to fill spaces between abrasive grains so

reducing cutting efficiency while increasing friction

 Use of lubricant/coolant/metalworking fluid: Can carry away swarf (preventing loading), transport heat

(which may affect the physical properties of the workpiece or the abrasive), decrease friction (with the

substrate or matrix), suspend worn work material and abrasives allowing for a finer finish, conduct

stress to the workpiece.

Manufactured Abrasives

Abrasives are shaped for various purposes. Natural abrasives are often sold as dressed stones,

usually in the form of a rectangular block. Both natural and synthetic abrasives are commonly available

in a wide variety of shapes, often coming as bonded or coated abrasives, including blocks, belts, discs,

wheels, sheets, rods and loose grains (Marinescu, Hitchiner, Uhlmann, Rowe, & Inasaki, 2006).

Bonded abrasives

A bonded abrasive is composed of an abrasive material contained within a matrix, although very

fine aluminum oxide abrasive may comprise sintered material. This matrix is called a binder and is often

a clay, a resin, a glass or a rubber. This mixture of binder and abrasive is typically shaped into blocks,

sticks, or wheels. The most common abrasive used is aluminum oxide. Also common are silicon carbide,

tungsten carbide and garnet. Artificial sharpening stones are often a bonded abrasive and are readily

available as a two-sided block, each side being a different grade of grit. Grinding wheels are cylinders

that are rotated at high speed. While once worked with a foot pedal or hand crank, the introduction of

electric motors has made it necessary to construct the wheel to withstand greater radial stress to

prevent the wheel flying apart as it spins. Similar issues arise with cutting wheels, which are often

structurally reinforced with impregnated fibers. High relative speed between abrasive and workpiece

often makes necessary the use of a lubricant of some kind. Traditionally, they were called coolants as

16
they were used to prevent frictional heat buildup which could damage the workpiece (such as ruining

the temper of a blade). Some research suggests that the heat transport property of a lubricant is less

important when dealing with metals as the metal will quickly conduct heat from the work surface. More

important are their effects upon lessening tensile stresses while increasing some compressive stresses

and reducing "thermal and mechanical stresses during chip formation" (Marinescu et al., 2006).

Various shapes are also used as heads on rotary tools used in precision work, such as scale

modelling. Bonded abrasives need to be trued and dressed after they are used. Dressing is the cleaning

of the waste material (swarf and loose abrasive) from the surface and exposing fresh grit. Depending

upon the abrasive and how it was used, dressing may involve the abrasive being simply placed under

running water and brushed with a stiff brush for a soft stone or the abrasive being ground against

another abrasive, such as aluminum oxide used to dress a grinding wheel. Truing is restoring the

abrasive to its original surface shape. Wheels and stones tend to wear unevenly, leaving the cutting

surface no longer flat (said to be "dished out" if it is meant to be a flat stone) or no longer the same

diameter across the cutting face. This will lead to uneven abrasion and other difficulties.

Coated abrasives

A coated abrasive comprises an abrasive fixed to a backing material such as paper, cloth, rubber,

resin, polyester or even metal, many of which are flexible. Sandpaper is a very common coated abrasive.

Coated abrasives are most commonly the same minerals as are used for bonded abrasives. A bonding

agent (often some sort of adhesive or resin) is applied to the backing to provide a flat surface to which

the grit is then subsequently adhered. A woven backing may also use a filler agent (again, often a resin)

to provide additional resilience.

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Coated abrasives may be shaped for use in rotary and orbital sanders, for wrapping around sanding

blocks, as hand pads, as closed loops for use on belt grinders, as striking surfaces on matchboxes, on

diamond plates and diamond steels. Diamond tools, though for cutting, are often abrasive in nature.

Other abrasives and their uses

Here the abrasiveness of toothpaste is detailed by its Relative Dentin Abrasivity (RDA). Sand,

glass beads, metal pellets copper slag and dry ice may all be used for a process called sandblasting (or

similar, such as the use of glass beads which is "bead blasting"). Dry ice will sublimate leaving behind no

residual abrasive.

Cutting compound used on automotive paint is an example of an abrasive suspended in a liquid,

paste or wax, as are some polishing liquids for silverware and optical media. The liquid, paste or wax

acts as a binding agent that keeps the abrasive attached to the cloth which is used as a backing to move

the abrasive across the work piece. On cars in particular, wax may serve as both a protective agent by

preventing exposure of the paint of metal to air and also act as an optical filler to make scratches less

noticeable. Toothpaste contains calcium carbonate or silica as a "polishing agent" to remove plaque and

other matter from teeth as the hardness of calcium carbonate is less than that of tooth enamel but

more than that of the contaminating agent. Very fine rouge powder was commonly used for grinding

glass, being somewhat replaced by modern ceramics, and is still used in jewellery making for a highly

reflective finish. Cleaning products may also contain abrasives suspended in a paste or cream. They are

chosen to be reasonably safe on some linoleum, tile, metal or stone surfaces. However, many laminate

surfaces and ceramic topped stoves are easily damaged by these abrasive compounds. Even

ceramic/pottery tableware or cookware can damage these surfaces, particularly the bottom of the

tableware, which is often unglazed in part or in whole and acts as simply another bonded abrasive.

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 Metal pots and stoves are often scoured with abrasive cleaners, typically in the form of the

aforementioned cream or paste or of steel wool and nonwoven scouring pads which holds fine grits

abrasives. Human skin is also subjected to abrasion in the form of exfoliation. Abrasives for this can be

much softer and more exotic than for other purposes and may include things like almond and oatmeal

(Ogilvie, 2005). Dermabrasion and microdermabrasion are now rather commonplace cosmetic

procedures which use mineral abrasives. Scratched compact discs and DVDs may sometimes be repaired

through buffing with a very fine compound, the principle being that a multitude of small scratches will

be more optically transparent than a single large scratch. However, this does take some skill and will

eventually cause the protective coating of the disc to be entirely eroded (especially if the original scratch

is deep), at which time, the data surface will be destroyed if abrasion continues.

Choice of Abrasives

The shape, size and nature of the workpiece and the desired finish will influence the choice of

the abrasive used (Mwfs, 2020). A bonded abrasive grind wheel may be used to commercially sharpen a

knife (producing a hollow grind), but an individual may then sharpen the same knife with a natural

sharpening stone or an even flexible coated abrasive (like a sandpaper) stuck to a soft, non-slip surface

to make achieving a convex grind easier. Similarly, a brass mirror may be cut with a bonded abrasive,

have its surface flattened with a coated abrasive to achieve a basic shape, and then have finer grades of

abrasive successively applied culminating in a wax paste impregnated with rouge to leave a sort of

"grainless finish" called, in this case, a "mirror finish".

Also, different shapes of adhesive may make it harder to abrade certain areas of the workpiece.

Health hazards can arise from any dust produced (which may be ameliorated through the use of a

lubricant) which could lead to silicosis (when the abrasive or workpiece is a silicate) and the choice of

19
any lubricant. Besides water, oils are the most common lubricants. These may present inhalation

hazards, contact hazards and, as friction necessarily produces heat, flammable material hazards.

An abrasive which is too hard or too coarse can remove too much material or leave undesired

scratch marks. Besides being unsightly, scratching can have other, more serious effects. Excessive

abrasion or the presence of scratches may:

1. diminish or destroy usefulness (as in the case of scratching optical lenses and compact discs or dulling

knives);

2. trap dirt, water, or other material;

3. increase surface area (permitting greater chemical reactivity such as increased rusting which is also

affected by matter caught in scratches);

4. erode or penetrate a coating (such as a paint or a chemical or wear resistant coating);

5. overly quickly cause an object to wear away (such as a blade or a gemstone);

6. increase friction (as in jeweled bearings and pistons).

A finer or softer abrasive will tend to leave much finer scratch marks which may even be

invisible to the naked eye (a "grainless finish"); a softer abrasive may not even significantly abrade a

certain object. A softer or finer abrasive will take longer to cut, as it tends to cut less deeply than a

coarser, harder material. Also, the softer abrasive may become less effective more quickly as the

abrasive is itself abraded. This allows fine abrasives to be used in the polishing of metal and lenses

where the series of increasingly fine scratches tends to take on a much more shiny or reflective

appearance or greater transparency. Very fine abrasives may be used to coat the strop for a cut- throat

razor, however, the purpose of stropping is not to abrade material but to straighten the burr on an

20
edge. The final stage of sharpening Japanese swords is called polishing and may be a form of

superfinishing.

Different chemical or structural modifications may be made to alter the cutting properties of the

abrasive (May, 2020). Other very important considerations are price and availability. Diamond, for a long

time considered the hardest substance in existence, is actually softer than fullerite and even harder

aggregated diamond nanorods, both of which have been synthesized in laboratories, but no commercial

process has yet been developed. Diamond itself is expensive due to scarcity in nature and the cost of

synthesizing it. Bauxite is a very common ore which, along with corundum's reasonably high hardness,

contributes to corundum's status as a common, inexpensive abrasive. Thought must be given to the

desired task about using an appropriately hard abrasive. At one end, using an excessively hard abrasive

wastes money by wearing it down when a cheaper, less hard abrasive would suffice. At the other end, if

the abrasive substance is too soft, abrasion does not take place in a timely fashion, effectively wasting

the abrasive as well as any accruing costs associated with loss of time.

RELATED STUDIES

Zyulin (1979) performed an experiment on separation of grain on sieves according to the sifting

rate and stated that shorter particles pass more readily through a sieve of given mesh than longer ones

of the same width. On a sieve of 2.29 mm mesh, it was found that the average size of particles dropping

through was 2.00 mm initially and 2.20 near the end. This partial separation can be attributed to the

probability of a particle passing through the mesh. A theoretical study is made of the sifting process on a

multiple set of sieves utilizing the differences in the ease (speed) with which particles drop through a

sieve as a criterion for separation. The theory was verified in laboratory experiments in which short

(chaff) and long admixtures (oats) were separated from wheat on sieves with a circular mesh of 6.5 and

21
9.0 mm at a feed rate of 18.5 t/h. (Wierzbicki, Pietkiewicz, Choszcz, & Mańkowski, 1991) stated that in

rubber roll paddy dehusker, the faster operating, unadjusted rubber roll wears out faster than adjusted

roll. The rolls are interchangeable, and their location should be changed from time to time to ensure

even wear. Uneven wear on a roll changes the peripheral speed and reduces hulling capacity. For

optimum performance, the grain should be evenly distributed over the full width of rolls. Otherwise the

roll surface wears out unevenly, reducing efficiency and capacity. Unevenly worn out rolls can be

corrected by turning them on a lathe. Heating adversely affects the durability of rubber rollers. To

prolong their life, the rollers are changed when they are too hot, they must be allowed to cool. Most of

the rubber roll huskers incorporate an air cooling system where by air is drawn through the housing to

reduce roll temperature. (S. K. Sharma & Mandhyan, 1988) developed a hand operated pea shelling

machine. They tried three different surfaces (i) punched tin sheet, (ii) cycle tyre treads and (iii) gunny

bag cutting. (S. K. Sharma & Singh, 1989) reported that the size and bulk density decreased with increase

in moisture content, angle of repose increase with moisture content and the shelling efficiency

improved with decrease in moisture content. The best result was achieved at 73.6 per cent moisture

content (w.b.) of green pea pods having about 100 per cent kernel recovery and 4 per cent damaged

kernels. (Ademosun, 1993) designed a medium-scale cocoa dehulling and winnowing machine. The

performance evaluated that the machine is easy to operate with only the adjustment of roller clearance.

The machine was found to have high dehulling and winnowing efficiencies at the optimum roller

clearance. (Nalbant, 1990) studied and investigated that the of damage of corn kernel percentage

caused by the concave and the cylinder after and before the shelling of kernels from the cob and the

effects of kernel moisture content and cylinder velocity on kernel damage. It showed that kernel

percentage increased with an increase in moisture content percentage of corn kernel and cylinder

velocity. There was also effect of properties of corn ear, rate of feeding, types of cylinder and concave

on the mechanical damage. (Gol & Nada, 1991) studied the performance of a power-operated double

22
drum groundnut pod stripper with vertical spikes for stripping groundnut. The machine consists of

stripping cylinders, blowers and sieve as its major functional components for detaching and cleaning

pods. The trials were conducted on ICGS 11 groundnut crop. It operated on maximum cylinder

peripheral speed of 615 m/min (450 rpm) with blower speed 900 rpm (air velocity 2.6 m/sec) with

average stripping capacity of 59 kg/h (At 14% m.c. and 40%pod ratio). (K L Gore, Gupta, & Singh, 1990) )

showed that as shelling speed increased breakage increased for the same clearance, feed rate and

moisture content. Singh (1990) modified a simple rocking type groundnut decorticator to facilitate

fabrication and adjustment of gap between its crushing shoes and concave grate. This was achieved by

eliminating the slots provided on each individual crushing shoes and by fixing them directly to the lower

segment of the rocking arm. The gap was adjusted by increasing or decreasing the length of the lower

segment of the rocking arm through the pivot axle which enabled gap adjustment in all the three shoes

uniform simultaneously. The capacity of the decorticator was 70-80 kg/h with breakage 3.7% - 6.5%. (G.

Singh & Thongsawatwong, 1983) modified two peanut shellers, one manual and other hand power

operated to improve their performance. The modified manual peanut sheller has a mechanism to adjust

the clearance, and round tooth shelling bars, with a capacity of 32 kg (seed)/h with about 4.8% breakage

and 96% shelling efficiency. The modified power operated peanut sheller has, a feeding mechanism and

a blower with a capacity of 175 kg (seed)/h at 145 stroke/min shelling bar speed and 2 cm clearance has

shelling efficiency of 97% with 4.7% breakage, 0.2% blower loss, 98.3% cleaning efficiency with 2.2 kW

power consumption. (Wierzbicki et al., 19 91) examined the effects of rotational horizontal motion and

oscillatory vertical motion on the quality and efficiency of wheat grain cleaning with variable grain

mixture throughput. and studied on a test rig which allowed additional independent circular motion of

the sieve basket in the horizontal plane. Both vertical and horizontal motion and throughput had a

significant effect on grain cleanness and losses. (Adigun & Oje, 1993) reported that nuts whose

23
shells/pods cannot be easily broken by the roller cracker are commonly cracked using a centrifugal

cracker.

Ajav and Igbeka (1995) carried out performance tests on a Nigerian maize sheller using an

International Standard test code (IS: 7052-1973). The tests were intended to study the general qualities

and design of the sheller. The results show that the shelling efficiency of the sheller varies with moisture

content, speed of the shelling unit and the feed rate. The machine has a shelling efficiency of 98%, 95%

and 94% when shelling corn with a moisture content of 11%, 20% and 25% respectively. The sheller has

a cleaning efficiency of 93%, 87% and 85% when shelling corn with a moisture content of 11%, 20% and

25% respectively, with a shelling unit speed of 400 rpm and fan unit speed of 750 rpm. The sheller has a

capacity of 260 kg/h. The performance tests proved that the sheller performs best at a shelling unit

speed of 450 rpm. with minimum losses and high efficiency. Glancey et al (1995) modified a pea shelling

machine in which operation begins by loading whole plants onto the feed conveyor. They found that the

green pea loss was greatest at the highest beater speed. The optimal beater speed for threshing green

pea varieties was in the range of 175 to 200 rev/min. This range corresponded to a beater tip velocity

range of 8.9m/s. (D. S. Singh, 2000) carried out investigations to know the effect of moisture content

and pod size on shelling efficiency of the power operated green pea pod shelling machine developed at

Jabalpur centre of PHTS. Moisture levels of 68.5 to 75.7 % (w.b.) and 20.8-24.5 mm pod size was found

most suitable for each variety of green pea pods. Shelling efficiency of Arkel variety was found best at all

the levels of moisture content and pod size. Shelling efficiency decreased with increase in moisture

content and decrease in size of pods in all varieties of pea under study. (Helmy, Mitrroi, Abdallah, &

Basiouny, 2014) fabricated a reciprocating peanut sheller as a multi-crop sheller to shell peanut,

soybean, bean, etc. and also some modifications were done. After modification it showed better

performance, having values of shelling efficiency of 98.85 %, damaged seeds of 1.36%, unshelled seeds

of 1.15%, total losses of 2.51%. (D. S. Singh, 2003) developed a power operated green pea shelling

24
machine for Arkel and JM-1 cultivars of green pea pods. For both green pea pods varieties the best

suitable level of moisture ranges between 60 to 65% (d.b.) and size of pods were ranges between 23 to

25mm. The maximum shelling efficiency was found in the ‘Arkel’ variety at moisture content of 98.94%

(d.b.) followed by ‘JM-1’ with moisture content of 65.14% (d.b.). It was noted that the shelling efficiency

is inversely proportional to moisture content up to 65% and then after shelling efficiency varied directly

with the moisture. (Oluwole, Aviara, & Haque, 2004) designed, constructed and tested a sheanut cracker

and evaluated its performance. The cracker having controller of flow rate device on which hopper is

fitted, power system, unit of winnowing, works on the impact principle which is using centrifugal force

from a spinning disc. At the moisture content and feed rate of 22.7 %(db) and 11.4kg/h respectively the

performance of cracker was highest. (Butts, Sorensen, Nuti, Lamb, & Faircloth, 2009) did modification in

the two row peanut combine which was formerly used for peanuts which was withdrawn with a view to

shell the peanuts with the harvesting. It was shown that 91% of the captured peanut kernels were

threshed successfully and 99% of the kernels are harvested successfully. Modified peanut combine

reduces the amount of foreign material as compared to peanut harvester from 30 to 16 %. (Ghafari,

Chegini, Khazaei, & Vahdati, 2011) designed and constructed a walnut cracker and tested it to evaluate

its performance. It consists of a feeding hopper having arrangement for flow control, a unit of cracking,

a sorter and the power system. It operates on the principle of force of crushing caused by the helix and

cylinder. 66.66 % of whole kernels were produced and the estimated capacity of machine to be about

25.2kg/h. (Rajput, Mandhyan, & Borkar, 2012) developed a green chickpea pod stripping cum shelling

machine mainly consists of three units which are stripping, shelling and cleaning unit. The shelling unit

was modified by the addition of a third roller having same dimensions as the upper two rollers and also

by covering the upper two rollers by the corrugated metal sheet having holes of diameter 0.5 mm with

0.5 mm edges. It has 8 holes in horizontal direction and 5 holes in vertical direction per inch. This

corrugated metal sheet was pasted on the upper two rollers in such a way that no gap is found between

25
the holes of the sheet. All the holes were made at uniform distance on the surface of the roller for

better shelling action. The third rubber roller was operated at the medium speed and by this third roller

the double shelling action was done on the pods. Hence the shelling occurred in two stages with better

results as compared to earlier shelling with the rolls. (S. P. Singh, 2016) designed, developed, fabricated

and evaluated a hand operated maize dehusker-sheller. The developed machine can be easily operated

with right or left hand of the farm women. The output capacity and the feed rate were found to be 60

and 80 kg/h respectively. At the 5.6 m/s peripheral speed of cylinder the efficiency of dehusking, shelling

and breakage of grain observes was 100%, 98.8% and 0.3% respectively. There was requirements of two

farm women, for feeding and cracking for the operation of the machine. (Ibrahim, El-Shal, Morad, &

Omar, 2012) developed a machine for pea shelling. The machine performance was studied as a function

of change in drum speed, feed rate and grain moisture content for two green pea varieties (Little Marvel

and Master B). Performance evaluation of the developed machine was carried out in terms of machine

productivity, shelling efficiency, crop losses, cleaning efficiency, energy requirements and criterion cost.

The experimental results revealed that crop losses as well as criterion cost were minimum while shelling

and cleaning efficiencies were maximum under the following conditions. The use of the developed

machine for green pea shelling, operate the developed machine at a drum speed of between 620 to 710

rpm (8.26 to 10.26 m/s), carry out the shelling operation at a grain moisture content of between 66.4 to

69.8% and operate the developed machine at a feed rate of between 300 to 360 kg/h. (Ranjeet,

Sukhdev, & others, 2013) developed and evaluated a refined design of centrifugal sheller for muskmelon

seed decortications. At the speed of 1400rpm of emery roll the capacity of 5kg/h was observed by the

developed machine. The seed damage and efficiency of shelling was respectively 32%, 51%. There was

very low cost of decortication found in the case of developed machine, which was Rs. 1.20/kg as

compared to manual decortication methods which was Rs. 100/kg. (Ranjeet et al., 2013) developed a

Green Chickpea pod stripping cum shelling machine at AICRP on Post Harvest Technology, College of

26
Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur. This machine mainly consists of three units viz. stripping, shelling, and

cleaning unit. The capacity, stripping and shelling efficiency was observed to be 24 kg/h, 93.66 % and

89.44 per cent, respectively. (V. Sharma, Pradhan, Naik, Bhatnagar, & Singh, 2013) studied and

evaluated the performance parameters of centrifugal impaction type decorticator for tung fruits. The

performance indicators include the whole seed percentage, broken seed percentage, fruit shelled

partially, unshelled fruit, efficiency of machine and efficiency of decortication. were evaluated at three

different moisture contents (8.65%, 12.13% and 15.61% d.b.) and at different speeds of rotating blades

(1600, 1800 and 2000 rpm). For optimum force, the clearance of 100mm was fixed between the striking

plate and the rotating blade. At the moisture content of 8.65%(db) and having the speed of blade of

1800 rpm the best results obtained of recovery of 52.24% whole seeds and the efficiency of machine of

74.63% were obtained.

The groundnut variety with the largest major diameter (ICGV 99568) produces the highest

shelling efficiency, given the same settings in both wooden beater sheller and rod beater (N. Gitau,

Mboya, K. Njoroge, & Mburu, 2013). This is because larger diameter means higher contact between the

rollers and the shelling unit. The author also noted that bulk density of groundnut pods can determine

the speed in which the pods fall on the shelling chamber. Groundnut with high bulk density will fall with

greater force into the shelling chamber, hence cracking the pods. (N. Gitau et al., 2013) also showed that

the shelling efficiency for removing groundnut pods increases with decrease in moisture content (%

w.b.) for all three varieties: ICRISAT groundnut variety, ICGV 91704, ICGV 12991 and ICGV 99568.

Further, the researcher observed after modification that if the material in contact with the pod is made

of a softer material such as rubber, it would bring the effect of the hand which was seen that reduces

percentage breakages.

27
 Moreover, according to (Kishore L. Gore, Gupta, & Singh, 1990) as the shelling speed increases

the number of breakage increases for the same clearance, feed rate and moisture content. (Ajav &

Igbeka, 1995) carried out performance tests on a Nigerian maize sheller using an International Standard

test code (IS: 7052-1973). The tests were intended to study the general qualities and design of the

sheller. The results show that the shelling efficiency of the sheller varies with moisture content, speed of

the shelling unit and the feed rate. These variables can be used to find their optimal values for minimum

seed breakage percentage and maximum shelling efficiency.

Prototype Evaluation

The prototype will be evaluated using an instrument composed of six main criteria. The

validated instrument was created by the Technological University of the Philippines Manila. The criteria

and their definition are given below:

Functionality is the degree to which the prototype is user-friendly and comfortable, convenient, and

easy to operate.

Workability is the degree to which the machines, tools, equipment, and expertise used on the prototype

are available.

Aesthetics is the degree to which the attributes of the prototype in terms of physical aspects such as

style, structure, form, and hue are appropriate.

Economy is the degree of the required machines, labor, time and material to develop the prototype.

Durability is the degree of the quality of the design, workmanship, and materials that are used on the

prototype.

28
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the articles, journals, and studies that are used to reinforce the

conceptualization or framework of the study. This supports the foundations and processes that will be

involved in the research. It also provides the necessary information for the selection of materials and

components that will be used in the development of the prototype. Lastly, this includes the discussion of

the conceptual model that will be used in the research and the operational/functional definition of

terms.

Conceptual Model of the Study

A conceptual model is created based on the foundations, principles, and conclusions of the

related studies as well as the concepts of the literature presented. Figure 1 shows the conceptual

framework of the study.

29
 The study starts by gathering and collecting data for the study. Related studies and literature are

also gathered to seek for relevant concepts, foundations, and principles that can serve as the basis for

the conceptual development of the prototype. The initial steps will then be designing a prototype that

will address the problem. Careful analysis and calculation will also be conducted for the fabrication of

the prototype. After the prototype is fabricated and developed, it will undergo a pilot testing, calibration

and then preconditioning of the groundnut.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is supported by the theory of (Kishore L. Gore, Gupta, & Singh, 1990) - as the shelling

speed increases, the number of breakage increases for the same clearance, feed rate and moisture

content. The theory states that, with less friction that the two disc creates the less breakage it applies to

the kernel.

To help lessen the breakage of kernel, achieving a certain moisture content was undergone. The

calculated moisture content which are 10% and 14% will be needed to provide quality output.

Where:

m0 is the mass in grams of the container;

m1 is the mass in grams of the test portion, the container and before drying

m2 is the mass in grams of the test portion, the container and after drying.

30
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Underrun-disc sheller — a prototype shelling technology utilizing friction and centrifugal force to peel

off shells of peanuts.

2. Underrun-disc — a compound of two discs, one disc is superimposed on the other with adjustable

clearance. The disc may have a groove design and/or abrasive coatings.

3. Percentage effective cracking — the ratio of the mass of completely shelled and unbroken nuts to the

total mass of nuts.

4. Percentage of breakage — the ratio of the sum of the mass of completely shelled but broken nuts and

the mass of unshelled nuts to the total mass of nuts.

5. Percentage partially cracked — the ratio of the sum of the mass of partially shelled and unbroken nuts

and the mass of the partially shelled and broken to the total mass of nuts.

6. Percentage uncracked nuts — the ratio of the mass of unshelled nuts to the total mass of nuts.

7. Winnowing efficiency — the ratio of the mass of the winnowed shells to the total mass of shells.

31
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Project Design

The prototype comprises lower machine shaft, upper machine shaft, lower mounting plate, upper

mounting plate, transmission shaft, driver pulley, driven pulley, cover, and hopper. The groundnut will

enter the hopper and strike the cover to spread it to the discs groove. The groundnuts will then be shelled

by friction between the shells and the disc grooves, by spinning actions between two discs. Both the shells

and kernels will exit at the periphery of the discs by centrifugal force. The prototype will be driven by a

motor, driving each disc.

Project Development

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Operation and Testing Procedure

Conditioning the Groundnuts at Certain Moisture Level

The select groundnut varieties, adapted from ICRISAT (International Crop

Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) peanut entries, which will be used for the study, will

be purchased from La Granja National Crop Research and Development Center (LGNCRDC) in

La Carlota City and these are ICGVT (SB) ICGV01395, ICGVT (SB) ICGV02234, and ICGVT

(SB) ICGV02227. These varieties are always in the top list in terms of stand count, number of

pods, fresh pod yield, dry pod yield, insect pest rating, etc (Abaquita & Discaya, 2013).

42
 Groundnuts are legumes - typically a pod with multiple seeds that will start to open on

its own as it becomes ready for using. Basically, legumes are considered fruits and so are

groundnuts. Groundnuts will be cleaned manually to remove foreign materials such as dirt,

stones and chaff as well as empty, immature, cracked or germinated pods (Ögüt, 1998). Finally,

good batches of groundnuts are selected. To increase the moisture level of the pods, wet cotton

wools were used by placing the groundnut in the water soaked wools for 20 minutes before

proceeding to drying oven method. Drying oven method was used to determine the moisture

level (w.b.) of the pods before processing. Two levels of product moisture were considered; 10%

and 14% wet basis (Chilakpu, & Ogueri, K., 2018).

ASAE Standard S410.1 (DEC92) - Moisture Measurement – Groundnuts (Peanuts)

A standard has been developed for moisture determination of whole groundnuts with hulls. At

least 200g of peanuts are shelled. Dry the container in the oven at 95-100 C for at least one hour. Drying

the dish is done to remove the moisture content from it. Drying the container is necessary for the reason

that the moisture content of the container may give a false result. Transfer the container to the desiccator

and let them cool for at least 30 minutes to the temperature of the room containing the balance. The

container then placed on the balance machine and subsequently weighed to determine the tare weight

(AOAC Official Method 925.40, 2000; layout, standard, 1956).

The hulls and kernels are placed in separate containers. The kernels are placed in the dish in a

layer that is a maximum of three kernels deep. The container is covered and reweighed. The container is

then put in the oven for a heating period and the standard recommends oven-drying at 130°C for 6 h for

samples with up to 30% w.b. moisture content (Transactions of the ASABE, 2014). At the completion of

the heating period, the containers then put in a desiccator and let it cool at least 30 minutes to the

temperature of the room. They are then weighed and the moisture content is calculated. The moistures of

43
the hulls and the kernels are determined separately and the results are combined to give the whole

groundnut moisture.

Method of calculation and formula

Calculate the moisture content W as a percentage of the mass using the expression

Where m0 is the mass in grams of the container;

m1 is the mass in grams of the test portion, the container and before drying

m2 is the mass in grams of the test portion, the container and after drying.

The second method that can be employed is distillation method. If the initial moisture content is

lower than the target moisture. And to achieve the considered moisture level of groundnuts (10% and

14% w.b.), it can be obtained by adding distilled water.

Operation of Underrun-disc sheller

The machine was started at no load for 10 minutes to ensure that every part is functioning

at a stable condition. After the idling period, while the machine was still running at set speed of

240rpm (Ashish, R. and C.C Handa, 2014), weighed quantity of groundnut with known moisture

level (mc) was introduced into the hopper and the sheller will be set to clearance settings of 13

mm, 14 mm, and 15 mm. And stop watch started for recording shelling time.

The watch was stopped when no more materials was coming out of the outlet this point is

also marked by an audible change in sound of the machine indicating operations at no load. Two

44
rates of product feeding into the machine were considered at 50% and 100% opening of the

metering device. This procedure was replicated three times for each treatment of known quantity,

moisture content, and feed rate their average values were recorded.

The processed materials were collected and reweighed, the broken kernels, chaffs,

unshelled pods and unbroken kernels were handpicked and grouped. The weight of each group

was recorded along with the shelling time. The percentage shelled, percentage unshelled,

percentage of seeds broken and throughput capacity of the machine were determined using

equations 4, 5, 6,and 7.

45
References

J. E. Wimberly, Paddy Rice Postharvest lndustry in Developing CountriesTitle. 1983.

M. B. Abaquita and D. P. I. Discaya, “Performance Evaluation of AVRDC and ICRISAT Field

Legumes under La Granja Agro-Climatic Conditions,” pp. 1–37, 2013.

H. Ögüt, “Some Physical Properties of White Lupin,” J. Agric. Eng. Res., vol. 69, pp. 273–277,

1998.

N. A. Aviara, J. O. Ajikashile, and A. A. Lawal, “Effect of moisture content and impact energy on

the cracking of conophor nut,” Agric Eng Int CIGR J., vol. 14 (2): Ma, 2012.

G. Ayerst, “Hygroscopic Food Materials By a Dew-Point,” J. Sci. Food Agric., vol. 16, no. 2, pp.

71–78, 1965.

Layout Standard, “Economic and Social Council,” in International Organization, vol. 10, no. 3,

1956, pp. 435–441.

AOAC Official Method 925.40, “First Action 1925,” vol. 30, no. March 1996, pp. 2000–2000,

2000.

C. Alimentarius, “Code of hygienic practice for groundnuts (peanuts). CAC/RCP 22-1979. FAO,

Rome, Italy.” 2018.

C. Y. Yang, D. S. Fon, and T. T. Lin, “Simulation and validation of thin layer models for peanut

drying,” Dry. Technol., vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 1515–1526, 2007.

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R. Visvanathan, P. T. Palanisamy, L. Gothandapani, and V. V. Sreenarayanan, “Physical

Properties of Neem Nut,” J. Agric. Eng. Res., 1996.

D. C. Joshi, S. K. Das, and R. K. Mukherjee, “Physical properties of pumpkin seeds,” Journal of

Agricultural Engineering Research, vol. 54, no. 3. pp. 219–229, 1993.

N. Gitau, A., Mboya, P., K. Njoroge, B. N., & Mburu, M. (2013). Optimizing the Performance of

a Manually Operated Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Decorticator. Open Journal of Optimization,

02(01), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojop.2013.21004

Deshmukh, Dnyaneshwar & Praveen, Kona & Teggi, Ashwini & Variath, Murali & Balram,

Marathi & Sudini, H & Durga, Ch. (2018). Rapid measurement of moisture content in groundnut

kernels using non-destructive near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. 6. 1686-1689.

Chilakpu, & Ogueri, K. (2018). Development and evaluation of a serrated disc groundnut
decorticator. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP), 8(6).
doi:10.29322/ijsrp.8.6.2018.p7857

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