Q1) Discuss psychosocial changes and linguistic development during infancy.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated by Erik Erikson, in

collaboration with Joan Erikson,[1] is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that
identifies a series of eight stages, in which a healthy developing individual should
pass through from infancy to late adulthood. All stages are present at birth but only
begin to unfold according to both a natural scheme and one's ecological and cultural
upbringing. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new
challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The
challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as
problems in the future and they may not develop the essential skills needed for a
strong sense of self.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, 0–2 years)

 Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?

The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being
met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined
by Erikson is "an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of
one's own trustworthiness."[5] The infant depends on the parents, especially the
mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and
society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. A child's first trust
is always with the parent or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the
caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If
the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the
infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a
secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust will
result.[6] Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion,
withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. [5]
According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn
whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic
needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant
learns trust—that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or
perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust—that the world is an
undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative,
having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of
what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or
toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child's number
one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for. [6]

Approximate Virtues Psychosocial Significant Existential Examples[4]

 Age crisis[3] relationship question[4]

Infancy Basic trust vs. Can I trust Feeding,

Hope Mother
mistrust the world? abandonment
0 -18 months

There are other types of social behaviour, which are discussed here:

 At 1 month of age, infants express their feelings with alert, widened eyes and a
rounded mouth. The bond grows between parents and their baby during this
stage.
 Around 2 months of age, your baby will have a "social" smile. That is a smile
made with purpose as a way to engage others. Around this same time to about 4
months of age, babies develop an attachment to their caregivers. They more
readily stop crying for familiar caregivers than for strangers. They draw people to
them by making and keeping eye contact, moving their arms, and smiling.
 By about 4 to 6 months of age, babies become increasingly social and love to
cuddle and laugh. They become expressive and may "flirt" with their doctor or
people across a room. Facial expressions now consistently reflect anger, joy,
interest, fear, disgust, or surprise.
 During the period between 6 and 9 months of age, babies who are cared for in a
loving and consistent way develop a powerful bond with their parents and other
significant people in their lives. As this bond strengthens, babies learn to trust
caregivers. They develop a memory and a marked preference for loved ones and
begin to recognize others as strangers. Babies miss their regular caregivers when
they are away and often cry, turn away, or otherwise react strongly, a behavior
called separation protest. Your baby may demonstrate fear and uneasiness
around people he or she does not know, a behavior called stranger anxiety.
 Stranger anxiety and separation protest typically continue but gradually lessen
between 9 and 12 months of age. Your baby has developed a clear preference for
special people and will show affection to them. With the increased mobility that
crawling allows, babies who are secure in their attachment to their caregivers
become more interested in exploring the world around them.

Language development is a process starting early in human life. Infants start

without language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and
engage in babbling. Some research has shown that the earliest learning begins in
utero when the fetus starts to recognize the sounds and speech patterns of
its mother's voice and differentiate them from other sounds after birth. [1] Throughout
the first year of life, infants are unable to communicate with language. Instead,
infants communicate with gestures. This phenomenon is known as prelinguistic
gestures, which are nonverbal ways that infants communicate that also had a plan
backed with the gesture.
Different aspects

 Phonology involves the rules about the structure and sequence of speech

sounds.  Furthermore, they can differentiate between certain speech sounds. A
significant first milestone in phonetic development is the babbling stage (around
the age of six months). This is the baby's way of practicing his control over that
apparatus. Babbling is independent from the language. As the baby grows older,
the babbling increases in frequency and starts to sound more like words (around
the age of twelve months). Although every child is an individual with different
pace of mastering speech, there is a tendency to an order of which speech
sounds are mastered:
 Semantics consists of vocabulary and how concepts are expressed through
words. The average child masters about fifty words by the age of eighteen
months. These might include words such as, milk, water, juice and apple (noun-
like words). Afterwards they acquire 12 to 16 words a day. By the age of six, they
master about 13 to 14 thousand words.
 Grammar involves two parts.

 The first, syntax, is the rules in which words are arranged into sentences.
 The second, morphology, is the use of grammatical markers (indicating
tense, active or passive voice etc.).

 Pragmatics involves the rules for appropriate and effective communication.

Pragmatics involves three skills:
 using language for greeting, demanding etc.,
 changing language for talking differently depending on who it is you are
talking to;
 following rules such as turn taking, staying on topic.

Q2) Elucidate the social changes during school years.

Social development refers to a child’s ability to adjust to the social surroundings i.e.,
home, playmates, school, etc. This means that certain people like parents,
playmates of the same age group, teachers at school, influence the social
development. In the following sections we shall learn about how they actually
influence the social development.

1. Relationship with Parents and siblings

Middle childhood is the stage where children develop self-confidence and acquire
self-esteem. Confident parents provide better opportunity to children to be confident.
Parents who accept their children “as they are” and love them, help the child to
develop self-confidence. Such parents lay down clear rules for the children. They
praise their children for the good things they do and usually do not punish them for
their wrong doings
Siblings play an important role in the development of children’s understanding of
others’ minds, namely their understanding of emotions, thoughts, intentions and
beliefs. Siblings seem to demonstrate an understanding of others’ minds and
emotions during real-life interactions long before they show this understanding on
more formal assessments.  

2. Peer Group
Peer group refers to the playmates of the same age group. Peer group plays an
important role in helping fellow mates develop socio-emotional skills. Peer group
offers a platform for children to compare. All children get angry with their parents but
the peer group helps the children to cope effectively with this anger and not become
rebellious against parents. Thus, peer group provides comfort and emotional security
that adults cannot. Children learn from their peers to keep parents happy and thus,
master the skill of getting along in society. Peer group also teaches children to
become independent.

Selmon (1980) suggests developmental progression in children’s friendship:

 Playmates

(3-7 years) Children at this stage view friends as momentary playmates, and their
friendships are all about having fun together. Their friends are kids who are
conveniently nearby, and who do the same things they like to do

 Assistant

 (4-9 years)

Children at this level care a lot about friendship. They may even put up with a not-so-
nice friend, just so they can have a friend. They also may try to use friendship as a
bargaining chip, saying things like "I'll be your friend if you do this!" or "I won't be
your friend if you do that!"

 Co-operators

(6-12 years)

At this stage, children are very concerned about fairness and reciprocity, but they
think about these in a very rigid, quid pro quo way. So, if they do something nice for
a friend, they expect that friend to do something nice for them at the next
opportunity. If this doesn't happen, the friendship is likely to fall apart.

 Inmates and mutual supporters

(8-15 years)

At this stage, friends help each other solve problems and confide thoughts and
feelings that they don't share with anyone else. They know how to compromise, and
they do kind things for each other without "keeping score," because they genuinely
care about each other's happiness.

 Dependant but Autonomous

(12 years and up)

At this stage, children place a high value on emotional closeness with friends. They
can accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends.
They're also not as possessive, so they're less likely to feel threatened if their friends
have other relationships. Mature friendship emphasizes trust and support and
remaining close over time, despite separations.

3. Social cognition
Social cognition has to do with thoughts and beliefs about the social world. The topic
encompasses beliefs about others, the self, and people in general, about specific
aspects of people (e.g., thoughts, desires, emotions), and about social groups and
social institutions. 

Stages

 Egocentric Role Taking (3–6)

his stage is characterized by two lacking abilities. The first is the failure to distinguish
perspectives (differentiation. More specifically, the child is unable to distinguish
between his perspective, including his perspective on why a social action occurred,
and that of others. [1] The second ability the child lacks is relating perspectives
(integration)

 Social Informational (6–8,)
Children now recognize that they and others in a situation may have different
information available to them, and thus may differ in their views. In other words,
children have matured in differentiation.[
 Self-reflective (8–10,) 
The child’s differentiation ability matures at this age enough so that he/she
understands that people can also differ in their social perspectives because of their
particularly held and differing values and set of purposes In turn, the child is able to
better put him/herself in the position of another person
 Mutual (10–12,) 
In this stage, the child can now differentiate his/her own perspective from the
viewpoint likely for the average member of the group. In addition, the child can take
the view of a detached third-person and view a situation from that perspective.
 Social and conventional (12–15+,)
The adolescent now considers others’ perspectives with reference to the social
environment and culture the other person comes from, assuming that the other
person will believe and act in accord to their society’s norms and values.

4. self-esteem
The term "self-esteem" was first coined by William James in 1890. self-
esteem reflects a person's overall subjective emotional evaluation of his or her own
worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem
encompasses beliefs about oneself, (for example, "I am competent", "I am worthy"),
as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. problems,
and depression later in life. from harm. However, as a baby develops into a toddler
and begins to gain more independence, your role as a parent begins to change. 

during school-aged years, academic achievement is a significant contributor to self-

esteem development. As children go through school, they begin to understand and
recognize differences between themselves and their classmates.

Q3)

Q3) Examine Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories of moral development

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children do (i.e. in whether they
break rules or not) but in what they think. In other words he was interested in
children’s moral reasoning.
Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and punishment
tended to change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages to
children’s cognitive development so also there were universal stages to their moral
development.
Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:
 1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)
2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)
Heteronomous Morality (5-9yrs)
The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality
imposed from the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules
and laws, which cannot be changed.
They accept that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher,
God), and that breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment
(immanent justice).
The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the severity of the
punishment should be related to severity of wrong-doing (expiatory punishment).
During this stage children consider rules as being absolute and unchanging, i.e.
'divine like'. They think that rules cannot be changed and have always been the
same as they are now.
behavior is judged as “bad” in terms of the observable consequences, regardless on
the intentions or reasons for that behavior. Therefore, a large amount of accidental
damage is viewed as worse than a small amount of deliberate damage.
Autonomous Morality

The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism – morality

based on your own rules. Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and
that morality depends on intentions not consequences.
Piaget believed that around the age of 9-10 children’s understanding of moral issues
underwent a fundamental reorganisation. By now they are beginning to overcome
the egocentrism of middle childhood and have developed the ability to see moral
rules from other people’s point of view.
A child who can decentre to take other people’s intentions and circumstances into
account can move to making the more independent moral judgements of the second
stage. As a result children’s ideas on the nature of rules themselves, on moral
responsibility and on punishment and justice all change and their thinking becomes
more like that of adults.
Children now understand that rules do not come from some mystical “divine-like”
source. People make rules and people can change them – they are not inscribed on
tablets of stone. With regard to the “rules of the game” older children recognise that
rules are needed to prevent quarrelling and to ensure fair play.
Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. 
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas.  In each case he presented a choice to be considered, for example,
between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual
who is being unfairly treated.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz
who lived somewhere in Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost
to make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make
money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg
hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older.

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we
don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical
consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in
order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there
is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals
have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the
moral standards of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of
the group to which the person belongs.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order
to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the
approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the
wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the
law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based
on individual rights and justice. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract
thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality).
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes
aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are
times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. 
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set
of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone.

Q4) Discuss the various cognitive changes during early adulthood

period.

It is argued that while Piagetʼs childhood stages describe increasing efficiency in the
acquisition of new information, it is quite doubtful that adults progress beyond the
powerful methods of science (formal operations) in their quest for knowledge.
Therefore, if one is to propose adult stages, they should not be further stages of
acquisition; but, instead, such stages should reflect different uses of intellect. (See
Figure 1 for a depiction of the SchaieWillis stages). In young adulthood, for example,
people typically switch their focus from the acquisition to the application of
knowledge, as they use what they know to pursue careers and develop their families.
This is called the achieving stage. It represents most prominently the application of
intelligence in situations that have profound consequences for achieving long-term
goals. The kind of intelligence exhibited in such situations is similar to that employed
in educational tasks, but it requires careful attention to the possible consequences of
the problem-solving process. Young adults who have mastered the cognitive skills
required for monitoring their own behavior and, as a consequence, have attained a
certain degree of personal independence will next move into a stage that requires
the application of cognitive skills in situations involving social responsibility. Typically,
the responsible stage occurs when a family is established and the needs of spouse
and offspring must be met. Similar extensions of adult cognitive skills are required as
responsibilities for others are acquired on the job and in the community

Q5) Explain the family life cycle during adulthood.

This is a sequence of phases in the development of most families.

Leaving home

This happens now usually in early age than adult. People join school, army or jobs which leads to
leaving homes. Children whose family are unsupportive or chaotic, they leave home for peace.

Joining of families in marriage:

This includes commitment to new system and formation of marital system. Realignment of
relationships happen with extended families and friends to include spouse.

 Traditional marriages: where there is clear division of work between husband (handling
economic condition of family) and wife (making a home and providing for children)
 Egalitarian Marriages: educated woman prefers this marriage as it contains equality in
power and authority.

Marital Satisfaction:

They must deal with the issue of closeness versus fusion, striving to build intimacy while retaining
their individual identities. Men are more happy in marriage than women as it gives feeling of
attachment and social support to man and women desire quality relationship to feel satisfied.

Parenthood

Having a baby impacts new parents in many ways.

Advantages of having children : Positively, many adults report that a baby brings them joy and
fulfillment and contributes to their own growth and development. Many couples report added
work and responsibilities. 

Disadvantages of having children: hey also lose sleep and have added stress. New couples
report, not surprisingly, that they are sleep-deprived, have less time to themselves, and spend
time worrying about their baby's health and well-being.

Career development
When people have stable career they tend to establish a satisfying identity.it gives them sense of
accomplishment.

Establishing a career

After finishing school men tend to starts their careers early. Promotion is granted basis the job
commitment level and competitiveness in the worker. Highly established men tend to prioritize
work over family.

Combining work and family

This type of marriage is called dual-career marriage. Here females suffer due to overload of
responsibilities. This further links to stress, poor marital relationships, poor parenting and child
behaviour problems.

Q6) What is self concept? Discuss the various signs of negative self concept.

The term self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks about,
evaluates or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a concept of
oneself. Baumeister (1999) provides the following self concept definition:
"The individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and
who and what the self is".
Self Concept is an important term for both social psychology and humanism. 
Self-concept has three different components:

1. The view you have of yourself (self image)-

This does not necessarily have to reflect reality. Indeed a person with
anorexia who is thin may have a self image in which the person believes they
are fat. A person's self image is affected by many factors, such as parental
influences, friends, the media etc.

2. How much value you place on yourself (self esteem or self-worth)-

Self esteem refers to the extent to which we like accept or approve of

ourselves or how much we value ourselves. Self esteem always involves a
degree of evaluation and we may have either a positive or a negative view of
ourselves.

HIGH SELF ESTEEM i.e. we have a positive view of ourselves. This tends to lead to

 Confidence in our own abilities

 Self acceptance
 Not worrying about what others think
 Optimism
LOW SELF ESTEEM i.e. we have a negative view of ourselves. This tends to lead to

 Lack of confidence
 Want to be/look like someone else
 Always worrying what others might think
 Pessimism

3. What you wish you were really like (ideal self) –

If there is a mismatch between how you see yourself (e.g. your self image)
and what you’d like to be (e.g. your ideal self ) then this is likely to affect how
much you value yourself.

Signs of Negative self-concept in adolescents

A child with low self-esteem will more than likely be having negative thoughts about
their worth and value as a person. Some general signs that your child has low self-
esteem include:

 avoiding trying new things

 feeling unloved and unwanted
 blaming others for their own shortcomings
 showing emotional indifference
 inability to tolerate normal levels of frustration
 negative self-talk and comparisons to others
 a persistent fear of failure or embarrassment
 difficulty making friends
 low levels of motivation and interest
 being dismissive of compliments irregular feelings of anxiety or stress.

Q7) Discuss the various components of value education.

Value education is the process by which people give moral values to others.[1] It can
be an activity that can take place in any organisation during which people are
assisted by others, who may be older, in a position of authority, or are more
experienced to make explicit those values underlying their own behaviour in order to
assess the effectiveness of these values and associated behaviour for their own and
others' long term well-being, and to reflect on and acquire other values and
behaviour which they recognise as being more effective for long term well-being of
self and others. 
  Vitality is rather a physiological than a mental characteristic; it is presumably
always present where there is perfect health. Where it exists, there is
pleasure in feeling alive, quite apart from any specific pleasant circumstances.
It heightens pleasures and diminishes pains. It makes it easy to take an
interest in whatever occurs, and thus promotes objectivity, which is an
essential of sanity. Vitality promotes interest in the outside world; it also
promotes the power of hard work. Moreover, it is a safeguard against envy,
because it makes one's own existence pleasant. As envy is one of the great
sources of human misery, this is a very important merit in vitality. 
 Courage it’s a major ingredient in building a perfect character. two forms of
courage are: Absence of fear and power of controlling fear. Combination of
self-respect with an impersonal outlook to life is the major requirement of
universal courage. Parental love, knowledge and art are some of the sources
that take us beyond self. Russell said “the perfection of courage is found in
the man of many interests, who feels his ego to be but a small part of the
world.”
 Sensitiveness : it is assumed to be a corrective of mere courage.
Courageous behaviour should not be based on ignorance. Sensitiveness
belongs to emotions and if it’s to be good, the emotional reaction must be in
some sense appropriate.
 Intelligence: it is an aptitude for acquiring knowledge both by exercise and
information. Aptitude for acquiring knowledge can be developed by giving
direction to curiosity that is the foundation of actual life.

All the above values can create a society with ideal characters.

Q8) Explain Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive
development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of
simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are
merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think
in strikingly different ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the
infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using
hypotheses. 
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental
processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their
environment.
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing
sophistication of children's thought:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7)
3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)
4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 yrs)

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden.
It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a schema) of the object.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. This is
the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than
itself.
Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive
development, because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than
physically try things out in the real world).
Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even
though its appearance changes

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into
adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract
concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

The influence of Piaget’s ideas in developmental psychology has been enormous.

He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying
children. His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating
with children, particularly in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning).
Q9) Crytalized Intelligence

Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It

does not equate to memory, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term
memory. Crystallized intelligence is one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as
demonstrated largely through one's vocabulary and general knowledge. This improves
somewhat with age, as experiences tend to expand one's knowledge.

Q10) midlife crisis

A midlife crisis, which can occur anytime between one's thirties and sixties, is
considered to be the consequence of realizing one's own mortality. For some people,
this realization sparks a crisis, and they may begin to feel hopeless, frustrated, or
anxious, which may strain relationships with friends, family, and partners.

Q11) triangular theory of love

The triangular theory of love has three components:
 Passion: Passion can be associated with either physical arousal or emotional
stimulation.
 Intimacy: Intimacy is described as the feelings of closeness and attachment to
one another. 
 Commitment: Unlike the other two blocks, commitment involves a conscious
decision to stick with one another.

Q12) social convoy 

The social convoy can be described as the group of people who accompanies us on
the journey of life. This social grouping is a critical element of good adjustment and
well-being at every stage of development. We are social creatures and thrive on
these interactions and relationships as we grow and develop.

Q13) Growth Spurt

The human adolescent growth spurt is the rapid and intense increase in the rate of
growth in height and weight that occurs during the adolescent stage of the human life
cycle. The human adolescent growth spurt is noted in virtually all of the long bones
of the body and most other skeletal elements. 
Q 14) Egocentrism
Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically,
it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality; an inability to
understand or assume any perspective other than their own.
egocentrism is found across the life span: in infancy early childhood,[4][6] adolescence,
[7]
 and adulthood.[4][8] It contributes to the human cognitive development by helping
children develop theory of mind and self-identity formation.

Q15) exceptional children 

Thus, exceptional children is an inclusive term that refers to children with learning
and/or behaviour problems, children with physical disabilities or sensory
impairments, and children who are intellectually gifted or have a special talent. The
differences among most children are relatively small, enabling these children to
benefit from the general education program. The physical attributes and/or learning
abilities of some children, differ from the norm (either below or above) to such an
extent that they require an individualized program of special education and related
services to fully benefit from education. 

Q16) Remedial programmes for learning disability.

Q17) Role of a teacher for gifted and talented children.

1. The teachers of extremely gifted children try to make positive and physical
relationships that can help the learning of them
2. They give great importance to their creativity.
3. They show a "gifted conduct" for sustaining and maintaining their professional
responsibility which is an important factor for the success of the leaning of
these children.

Q18) Ethical aspects in the study of life span development.

An obstacle scientist’s encounter in study, is emphasis being placed on asking

subject to participate in the experiments or for the very young asking their parents or
guardians. Thus, it is a tendency to bias the sampling as to accommodate in
research people see if the money is worth their while.