CALLP REVIEW

CANILLAS, ROSE JOY M

1 BSE ENGLISH A

PRE 1

Human Development is the lifelong process of growth and change that takes place
between birth and maturity. It refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
development of humans throughout the lifespan. Physical development involves
growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and
wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions,
personality, and social relationships.

PRE 2

Theory of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)

The theory of cognitive development, one of the most historically influential theories,
was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher. The theory concerns the
emergence and construction of schemata — schemes of how one perceives the world
— in developmental stages, times when children are acquiring new ways of mentally
representing information. The theory asserts that we construct our cognitive abilities
through self-motivated action in the world. Piaget divided schemes that children use
to understand the world through four main periods, roughly correlated with and
becoming increasingly sophisticated with age.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Period (0–2 years) Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes
that allow them to float in the heavily dense world, according to Piaget, in addition to
a drive to explore their world. Their initial schemes are formed through differentiation
of the congenital reflexes. According to Piaget, this stage marks the development of
essential spatial abilities and understanding of the world.

Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on
objects. During this stage the child learns to use and to represent objects by images
and words, in other words they learn to use symbolic thinking. At the beginning of
this stage, Thinking is still egocentric: The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others. He/she is not aware that other people do not think, know and perceive the
same as him/her. The child can classify objects by a single feature: e.g. groups
together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of
color. In this stage, children develop their language skills. They begin representing
things with words and images. However, they still use intuitive rather than logical
reasoning. Children have highly imaginative minds at this time and actually assign
emotions to inanimate objects. The theory of mind is also critical to this stage. For
example a child is shown 7 dogs and 3 cats and asked if there are more dogs than cats.
The child would respond positively. However when asked if there are more dogs than
animals the child would once again respond positively.
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) The Concrete Operational stage is
characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage
are:

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other
characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color
gradient.

Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view things from another's perspective

(even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Elsa puts
a doll under a box then leaves the room, and then Anna moves the doll to a drawer,
and Elsa comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Elsa will
still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. Children
in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects
or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up) is characterized by acquisition of the
ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information
available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love,
"shades of gray", logical proofs, and values. Lucidly, biological factors may be traced
to this stage.

Sociocultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky) He proposed a seminal learning theory that

has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like
Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on
experiences. His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers
and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. In
Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with
others, learning becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world.
This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which is the gap between what a person can do with help and
what they can do on their own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others that
people are able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of
understanding.

Stages of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg) The theory holds that moral
reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental
constructive stages - each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the
last. In studying these, Kohlberg, like Piaget, also claimed that logic and morality
develop through constructive stages. Expanding considerably upon this groundwork,
it was determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned
with and that its development continued throughout the lifespan, Kohlberg used
stories about moral dilemmas in his studies, and was interested in how people would
justify their actions if they were put in a similar moral crux. He would then categorize
and classify evoked responses into one of six distinct stages which are grouped into
three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and postconventional. He explains that it
is extremely rare to regress backward in stages - to lose functionality of higher stage
abilities. Even so, no one functions at their highest stage at all times. It is also not
possible to 'jump' forward stages; each stage provides a new yet necessary perspective,
and is more comprehensive, differentiated, and integrated than its predecessors.

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) This level of moral reasoning is especially common in

children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners in this
level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. It consists of the first
and second stages of moral development, and is purely concerned with the self in an
egocentric manner.
In Stage one (Obedience and Punishment driven - How can I avoid punishment?)),
individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions will have for
themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong if the person who
commits it gets punished. The worse the punishment for the act is, the more 'bad' the
act is perceived to be. In addition, there is no recognition that others' points of view
are any different from one's own view. This stage may be viewed as a kind of
authoritarianism.

Stage two (Self-Interest driven - What's in it for me?) espouses the right behavior
being defined by what is in one's own best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further one's
own interests, such as you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours. In stage two,
concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect. Lacking a perspective of
society in the preconventional level, this should not be confused with social contract
(stage five), as all actions are performed to serve one's own needs or interests

Level 2 (Conventional) The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of

adolescents and adults. People who reason in a conventional way judge the morality
of actions by comparing these actions to societal views and expectations. The
conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development.

In Stage three (Interpersonal Accord and Conformity driven - The good boy/good
girl attitude), the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive of
approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects society's accordance with the
perceived role. They try to be a good boy/girl to live up to these expectations, having
learned that there is inherent value in doing so. Which now begin to include things
like respect, gratitude and the 'golden rule'. Desire to maintain rules and authority
exists only to further support these stereotypical social roles.

In Stage four (Authority and Social Order Obedience driven - Law and Order
morality), it is important to obey laws, and social conventions because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. In this stage, moral reasoning is
beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three; society must learn to
transcend individual needs. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and
wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism.

Level 3 (Post-Conventional) also known as the principled level, consists of stages

five and six of moral development. Realization that individuals are separate entities
from society now becomes salient. One's own perspective should be viewed before
society. It is due to this 'nature of self before others' that the postconventional level,
especially stage six, is sometimes mistaken for pre-conventional behaviors.

In Stage five (Social Contract driven), individuals are viewed as holding different
opinions and values. Along a similar vein, laws are regarded as social contracts rather
than rigid dictums. Those that do not promote general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is
attained through majority decision, and inevitably compromise. In this way
democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning. In Stage six
(Universal Ethical Principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning
using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust
laws. Decisions are not met hypothetically in a conditional way but rather
categorically in an absolute way. This can be done by imagining what one would do
being in anyone's shoes, who imagined what anyone would do thinking the same. The
resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always
an end in itself; one acts because it is right, and not because it is instrumental,
expected, legal or previously agreed upon. While Kohlberg insisted that stage six
exists, he had difficulty finding participants who consistently used it. It appears that
people rarely if ever reach stage six of Kohlberg's model.

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Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Freud's theory of personality development is one of the best known, but also one of
the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of
childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused
on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the
driving force behind behavior. According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality
development and continue to influence behavior later in life. If the stages are
completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not
resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on
an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage
may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking, or eating.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage (birth to 1.5 years)

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process-- the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting
Anal Stage (1.5 to 3 years)

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to Freud,
success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate
time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
Children also discover the differences between males and females. Freud also
believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and
the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished
by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term
Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child realizes and begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a
means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed
that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated
on this stage.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) During the latency period, the libido interests are
suppressed. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of
calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

Genital Stage (puberty onward) The final stage of psychosexual development is

referred to as the genital stage. From adolescence throughout adulthood, a person is
preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone
levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong.
Freud’s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the
origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural
influences of Freud’s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a
climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education
surrounding human sexuality heavily influenced Freud’s perspective.

The Theory of Psychosocial Development created by Erik Erikson

is perhaps one of the best-known personality theories. The theory differs from many
others in that it addresses development across the entire lifespan, from birth through
death. At each stage, the individual deals with a conflict that serves as a turning point
in development. When the conflict is resolved successfully, the person is able to
develop the psychosocial quality associated with that particular stage of development.
One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development
of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through
social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due
to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also
motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with
becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel
a sense of mastery. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are
centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality.
During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for
failure. Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson’s
theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

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MID 5

Nativism is a theory of language acquisition that claims that language development is

controlled by genetically programmed neural circuits. Noam Chomsky, for example,
argued that the human brain contains a language acquisition device (LAD) which
automatically analyzes the components of speech a child hears. The patterns of
acquiring negation, the age of language mastery, and the speed of acquisition are
similar enough across languages to support the nativist view.