Concept Article

Endomembrane System

Endomembrane System

Introduction

What ways is the endomembrane system similar to a factory?

The endomembrane system performs so many different functions in the cell that it is often
compared to afactory with elaborate assembly lines and shipping capabilities.
Endomembrane system is critical for the synthesis, processing, and movement of proteins and
lipids in thecell. The smooth ER functions mainly in lipid synthesis and processing. The
rough ER is the site of secretoryprotein synthesis. These proteins are processed further in the
Golgi apparatus, from where they are dispatchedin vesicles to the plasma membrane.
Lysosomes, whose enzymes and membranes are made and processed bythe rough ER and
Golgi apparatus, function in the hydrolysis of macromolecules, such as in phagocytosis
andautophagy.

Sites of protein synthesis

All proteins are synthesized by ribosomes in the cell. Some ribosomes float freely in the
cytosol, while others arebound to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. Most proteins
made by free ribosomes function in the cytosol.Proteins made by bound ribosomes either
function within the endomembrane system or pass through it and aresecreted from the cell.
Which of the following proteins are synthesized by bound ribosomes?

To determine whether a protein is synthesized by free ribosomes or bound ribosomes, be sure

to consider where the protein ultimately ends up.In general, there are two classes of
proteins:those that function in the cytoplasm or in environments that are in direct contact with
thecytoplasm (Note that although the nucleus is enveloped by two membranes, the interior is
stillconsidered to be in direct contact with the cytoplasm via the numerous pores that allow
transportbetween these two environments.)those that function in locations separated from the
cytoplasm by a cellular membraneThe proteins in the first class are synthesized by free
ribosomes; they will ultimately function in the cytoplasmor within the nucleus. The proteins
in the second class are synthesized by bound ribosomes; they willultimately reside in or pass
through the endomembrane system.
Where in the cell are nuclear proteins made?
Some proteins must pass into and out of the nucleus to regulate a variety of activities,
including the synthesisof DNA, RNA, and ribosomes.
Which of the following pathways would a protein destined for the interior of the nucleus
follow?

Proteins that function in the nucleus, such as DNA polymerase, are synthesized by free
ribosomes in thecytoplasm. The completed proteins then enter the nucleus through nuclear
pores. ANSWER:The protein is translated at the surface of the rough ER and then moves
from the interior of the ER to the interior of the nucleus.The protein is translated on free
ribosomes and then passes between the lipids of the nuclear envelope to enter the nucleus.The
protein is translated at the surface of the rough ER, is packaged into a vesicle, and the
vesiclefuses with the nuclear envelope, depositing the protein inside.The protein is translated
on free ribosomes and then passes through the pore complex to enter thenucleus.
Where are the organelles of the endomembrane system located?
Knowing the structure and locations of the compartments that make up the endomembrane
system can helpyou understand how substances move within and between the organelles.
Drag the labels to their appropriate locations on the diagram.
ANSWER:lysosomal enzymeinsulinribosomal proteinactinDNA polymeraseER protein
How does cargo move through the Golgi?
 As cargo passes through the Golgi apparatus, it is modified in a step-wise manner
prior to being transported tothe plasma membrane or to other locations in
the endomembrane system. These distinct modifications arebased on the presence
of different Golgi enzymes in each cisterna.
Complete this sentence.
Cargo leaves the endoplasmic reticulum and is sent to the cis Golgi cisterna, which
then matures throughthe redistribution of enzymes to become a medial Golgi
cisterna and eventually the trans Golgi cisterna. ANSWER: ANSWER:
cis; trans; medial trans; medial; cismedial; cis; transcis; medial; trans
Correct
As they are being synthesized, secretory proteins enter the lumen of the endoplasmic
reticulum. From the ER,vesicles transport these proteins to the Golgi, where they are
sequentially modified and concentrated in a
Cis
-to-
Trans
Direction. Secretory vesicles bud from the Golgi and move along cytoskeletal filaments to
eventually fusewith the plasma membrane, secreting their protein cargo. Each of these
transport steps requires specializedproteins to ensure that the cargo is sent to the proper
location and is able to fuse with the target membrane.
Part D –
Pulse-chase experiments and protein location
Scientists can track the movement of proteins through the endomembrane system using an
approach known as apulse-chase experiment. This experiment involves
The “pulse” phase
: Cells are exposed to a high concentration of a radioactively labeled amino acid for ashort
period to tag proteins that are being synthesized.
The “chase” phase
: Any unincorporated radioactively labeled amino acids are washed away and largeamounts
of the same, but unlabeled, amino acid are added.Only those proteins synthesized during
the brief pulse phase are radioactively tagged. These tagged proteins can betracked through
the chase period to determine their location in the cell.The data below were obtained from
a pulse-chase experiment in which cells were examined at different times duringthe chase
period. The numbers represent the radioactivity (measured in counts per minute) recorded
at each of theindicated sites. The higher the number, the greater the radioactivity.
Lysosomes – Infamous as the ‘suicidal bags of cell’, these are membrane-bound vesicular
structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and even nucleic acids.
Golgi bodies – Named after Camilo Golgi, the scientist who discovered them, Golgi bodies
are a membraneous disc like sacs or cisternae of varying diameter between 0.5 – 1.0 µm
stacked parallel like a lump of pancakes. Interconnected cis and trans faces or forming and
maturing faces of cisternae are concentrically arranged around the nucleus. It serves mainly
as the packaging center for endomembrane secretions like proteins.

The Human Brain

The human brain has three major divisions namely, the forebrain, the midbrain and
the hindbrain. Refer to Table 1 and Figure 1 for the main parts of the major divisions and
some of their corresponding functions.
The cerebrum of the forebrain, in humans, is so large that it practically envelops the
rest of the other parts of the brain. The cerebrum is divided into two convoluted halves, the
left and the right hemispheres. It looks just like the convoluted edible seed of walnut. The two
hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, a thick bundle containing more than 200
million nerve fibers (axons).
Each hemisphere is further split by deep grooves into four lobes, namely the frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The role of each lobe is mapped out in Figure 2.
Note that sense of smell is located in the frontal, motor, and sensory information of the limbs
in the parietal, vision in the occipital and hearing in the temporal lobes.
Ascending sensory nerve tracts cross descending motor tracts. Thus, sensory
information from the right side of the body iso detected in the left cerebral hemisphere, while
motor commands from the left hemisphere affect muscles and organs on the right side of the
body.
Although the left hemisphere contains exactly the same lobes as the as that of the
right hemisphere, it was noted that muscle control of speech rests largely on the left temporal
lobe. It is further speculated that the left hemisphere is the rational, engineering and debating
part while the right hemisphere is the intuitive, artistic and musical part of the brain.
Differences between the male brain and female brain
One marked difference between the male and the female brains is the size of the
corpus callosum that connects the left and right cerebral hemisphere. Using special procedure
in cats, researchers showed that information reaching one half of the brain was unavailable to
the other half in the absence of the corpus callosum. Who do you think has a larger corpus
callosum, a man or a woman?
Female brains, in general, have larger corpus callosum. This may indicate very close
communication between the two cerebral hemispheres. It was further observed that females
use both sides of the brain equally for verbal and visual activities, emotional responses and in
predicting three dimensional shapes of objects.
Males on the other hand use one side of the brain exclusively for particular activities.
For instance, right-handed men use exclusively the left cerebral hemisphere for verbal
activities and the right for emotional responses, visual tasks and in predicting three-
dimensional from a two-dimensional perspective.
Aptitudes and Attitudes
Based on studies, there is statistically significant difference in the aptitudes and
attitudes exhibited by different sexes. It must be understood however, that all kinds of talents
and behaviors can exist normally in both males and females.
At infancy, baby boys can raise their heads higher but baby girls smile earlier and
more often even in sleep. As they grow older, boys are less fearful, more active and cling less
to their moms. Baby girls are less exploratory, learn to talk early and usually make friends
more easily. Girls have good motor control of their hands and hence have better penmanship
than boys. Boys have good hand-eye coordination hence can control movements involving
large groups of muscles better than girls.
In general, more men excel at solving mathematical problems in school but more
women excel in tests of grammar and spelling. Men can mentally rotate objects in space and
can estimate measurements of size and distance more accurately than women. Women can
better sense emotional messages in conversations, facial expressions and body movement.
Women have better peripheral and night vision but men can see more clearly in bright
light. Women have keener sense of smell, taste, and hearing. Men have a better sense of
direction and can easily locate places using a map.
Why are there differences
Humans exhibit two biological sexes or gender namely, male and female. Aside from
biological gender, there are also other expressions of gender differences such as gender
identity and sexual orientation. While biological gender is largely genetic, gender identity
and sexual orientation are believed to be largely influenced by social and cultural
environment. This remains an issue for debate.
Gender identity is a personal knowledge and recognition of the self as male or female.
Sexual orientation refers to whether one is attracted to a male or female. There are some
researchers who believe that like biological gender, gender identity and sexual orientation are
determined at conception and are controlled at specific centers of the brain.
Differences between males and females begin during pregnancy. The kind and
amount of sex hormones present during pregnancy translate into structural and
organizational differences between male and female brains.
Mothers produce the female sex hormones estrogen while the testes of male fetuses
produce testosterone. The amount of hormones and the sustained production of these
hormones affect the sexual development of the embryos. Estrogen from the mother influences
the development of the female sex organ and the female brain. Testosterone produced by the
testes of the male fetus overcomes the maternal estrogen and promotes the development of
the male brain.
If testosterone levels are not sustained, a male fetus may develop male sex organs but
may not have sufficient testosterone to develop a male brain pattern. This is believed to be
one reason why some biological males experience conflicts in gender identity and sexual
orientation.
Females may also experience gender conflicts. This on the other hand, maybe a result
of accidental exposure to high levels of testosterone produced in the adrenal glands of the
mother or the fetus at conception.
Lessons to Learn
Knowing the structural and functional differences between the sexes can help us
better understand ourselves. Hopefully, we will become more aware of our aptitudes and
attitudes so that we can exert deliberate efforts to overcome our difficulties and enhance our
strengths. At the same time, we can better appreciate why we look and behave differently
from the opposite sex. Moreover, we can be more compassionate and less judgmental for
people who experience conflicts in their biological gender, gender identity and sexual
orientation.
After all, we all share the same need, to be accepted for who we are and to be
recognized as a contributing and useful member of our society.

Evaluation
(e.g., cross-word puzzle, multiple choice, etc.)
References
Benjamin, C., Garban, G., and Feinston, J. Human Biology.
Gadpaille, W.J.1195. Groiler Multimedia Encyclopedia
Raven, P.H. and Johnson, G.B. 1998. Understanding Biology. WCB Publishers, Ubuque.

Table 1. The major divisions of the human brain.

Division Main Parts Function
Forebrain Cerebrum Coordinating center, sensory association, memory
Limbic System Responsible for deep-seated, unconscious drives
and emotions
Thalamus Coordinating center and relay station for sensory
and motor signals
Hypothalamus Regulates body temperature, solute-water balance,
respiration and breathing; directs hormone-
producing pituitary gland
Pituitary gland Master endocrine gland; controls growth,
metabolism and hormone production of other
glands of endocrine system
Pineal gland Endocrine gland that secretes melatonin; as light-
sensing organ, it controls circadian rhythms in
reproductive function.
Reticular formation Regulatory function of accenting sensory
information when awake and dampening them
during sleep
Midbrain Coordinates and relays visual (sight) and auditory
(hearing) information
Hindbrain Pons Transverse connections with cerebrum, also
connects forebrain and spinal cord
Cerebellum Coordinates motor activities for refined body
movement; maintains posture, orientation in space
and balance
Medulla oblongata Reflex centers involve in respiration, cardiovascular
functions and gastric secretions