JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 98, NO.

E8, PAGES 15,079-15,090, AUGUST 25, 1993

Thermal History of Comets during Residencein the 0ort Cloud'

Effect of RadiogenicHeating in Combination with the Very Low
Thermal Conductivity of Amorphous Ice

JUN'ICHI HARUYAMA

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan

Department of Geophysics,Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan

TETSUO YAMAMOTO AND HITOSHI MIZUTANI

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan

J. MAYO GREENBERG

Haygens Laboratory, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands

The thermal history of cometary nuclei during residencein the Oort cloud is studied with
the use of the very low thermal conductivity of amorphous ice recently obtMned by Kouchi et
al. [19923].The heatsources
includedare (1) radioactive
nuclides
4øK,2•lTh, 13SU,and 13SU
with their chondritlcabundances,and (2) latent heat releasedin transition from amorphousice
to crystalline ice. We model the cometary nucleus as a porous aggregate of gr•ins with each
individual grain being composedof a refractory core and an icy mantle. It is assumed that the
ice is initially amorphous. The bulk thermal conductivity of a comefury nucleus is assumed to be
expressedby the product of the thermal conductivity of individual grains and a reduction factor
resulting from the porous structure of the nucleus. Numerical results of the thermal history are
presented
for variousconditions
includingonecasewhichincludesheatingby lSA1decay.It is
shownthat the thermal historiesare dearly classifiedinto two distinct types dependingmainly
on the nucleusthermal conductivity n. (1) Comets with small n experiencea runaway increase
in the internal temperature to higher than 120K during residencein the Oort cloud, in which
casemost of the ice in the nucleuscrystallizes.(2) Cometswith a sufficientlylarge •, on the
other hand, do not exhibit a runaway heating and the temperature is limited to < 100 K so that
the initial amorphousice is almost completelypreserved.A criterion of nuclear ice crystallization
is presentedin an analytic expressionderived from the analysis of the physical processesof the
crystallization. A brief discussionis given on the implications of the results for the sourcesof
volatile molecules observed in the coma.

1. INTRODUCTION heating and the very low thermal conductivityof amorphous

ice on the thermal history of cometsbefore and during the
Recently,Kouchi et al. [19923]havefoundthat the ther- Oort cloud phase. We shall restrict ourselvesto cometscom-
mal conductivity of amorphous ice is very low
posed of H10 ice on refractory grains and shall not take
(~ lergcm-•s-•K-• at about130 K). This resulttaken into account volatiles other than H10 in the present study.
literally impliesthat a cometcouldpreservethe "memory" The effect of the very low thermal conductivity of amor-
of its formationevenafter4.55x 109yr, the ageof thesolar phous ice is the main thrust of this paper. The refractory
system.Kouchi et al. [1992b]havefirst studiedthe effectof grains are carriersof radioactivenuclides.The thermal his-
the low thermal conductivityon the temperaturehistoryof tory of a cometary nucleus subjected to radiogenic heat-
long-periodcomets,and haveshownthat cometspreserve ing has been studied by many authors since Whipple and
unprocessed interstellardust inside the nucleusevenjust Stefanik[1966]first pointedout this effect(seethe excellent
beneaththe surface.However,their studyignoredpossible reviewby Rickman[1991]).More recently,Yabushita [1993]
internalheat sourcesin the nucleus.A very low thermalcon- discussedthe possibleformation of organic material due to
ductivityalsoimpliesthat, if thereis an appropriatenumber radiogenic heating. However, all the previous studies used
of heatingagentsin the nucleus,heat generatedin the nu- a thermal conductivity of amorphousice much higher than
cleusis not transferredefficientlyoutwardin the nucleusbut the recentvalue obtainedby Ko•chi et al. [19923]. In addi-
may raise the temperature in the nucleus.
tion they did not fully considerthe thermal conductivity of
In thispaperwestudythecombined
effectsof radiogenic mixtures such as the ice and refractory grain mixture now
believedto be the comet nucleusbasicingredients.Further-
more, the physical processof the transition of amorphous
Copyright 1993 by the American GeophysicalUnion.
ice to crystallineice, which is rather gradual at low temper-
Paper number 93JE01325. atures relevant to an early stageof the thermal history,was
0148-0227/93/93JE-0• 325505.00 not treated carefully in some studies.
15,079
15,080 HAIlUYAMA ]STAL.' THERMAL HISTOIIY OF COMBTSIN OOIlT CLOUD

In section 2 the model and its formulation are presented. cr -- 8.9X 104(1-0.Ygar)Tergg
-1K -1 - cr0T (5)
We will derive the averagethermal conductivity of a core-
mantle grain consistingof a refractorycore and an icy man- forT=30~ 100Kfrom(2).
tle, the latter being in generala mixture of amorphousand The ice of the grain mantleis a mixture of amorphousand
crystallineicesduring the courseof the evolution. Section3 crystalline ices, in general. The thermal conductivity and
givesresultsof the calculations of the thermalhistory.It will the heating rate dependon the molefraction • of crystalline
be shown that there are two distinct types of thermal histo- ice in the icy mantle, as will be seen later. The fraction •
riesdependingupon the thermal conductivityof the nucleus. which forms at a temperatureT is given [Espinasseet al.,
Physical processesfor crystallizationof the nuclear ice are 1991] by
discussedtogether with the presentationof the numerical
results. The condition for crystallization of the nuclear ice
øX= _
ot t(T) '
is presentedin analytic form in section4. Conclusionsand
where the time constant tc for the transition from amor-
implications of the results are presentedin section 5.
phous to crystalline ice at temperature T is expressed
2. FORMULATION OF THE METHOD [Rickman et al., 1985] by
t½(T)- A exp(E/T). (7)
2.1. Basic Equations
The constants A and E have been measured by laboratory
We adopt a model of a cometary nucleus proposedby experiments[Dowelland Rin.fret,1960;Schmittet al., 1989].
Greenberget al. [1989] in which a cometsty nucleusis a We adopt the resultsof Schmittet al. [1989],whichgive
fluffy aggregateof refractory core grains whosesurfacesare
coveredwith icy mantles. In the following we shall let the A-9.54x 10-1•s, E-5370K. (8)
silicate-organiccoresbe representedby silicatesalone. Fur- Of course,t½measuredin a laboratory is much shorterthan
thermore, the cores will henceforth be referred to simply the relevant time scale of the thermal evolution of comets,
as dust. Becauseof its porous structure, the bulk density but the relation (7) itself will be valid evenat low tempera-
p and the thermal conductivity • of the nucleus are much tures of our concern,sincethe amorphous-crystallinetran-
lower than those of individual grains. We take two heat sition is a processinvolvingan activationenergy[Kouchiet
sourcesinto account:(1) decayof radioactivenuclidesand al., 1992b].
(2) releaseof latent heat in transitionfrom amorphousto
crystalline ice. The heating rates are denotedby qraaand 2.2. Thermal Conductivity
q•t, respectively,as given below. A sphericalnucleusis
sumed for simplicity. Then the temperature T at distance Kouchi et al. [1992a] obtainedthe thermal conductivity
r from the center of the nucleus at time t is determined by of amorphous
iceto bexu=o,,m= 0.6to 4.1ergcm-•s-•K-'
the equation of heat conduction given by at temperatures125 to ins K. The thermal conductivityat
low temperatures(_< 100K), with whichwe are concerned,
is not completely clear. If we assumethat xu=O,•m oc T
P%OT l Or
Ot ;5 O(r20T)
x W --q•a+O•t (1)
[Kilnget, 1980;seealsoFreemanand Anderson,1986],this
is equivalentto assumingthat % ocT and both soundspeed
where cr is the specificheat per unit massof the nucleus. and phononmean free path in amorphousice are indepen-
We take p = 0.3gcm-a referringto the resultsof the ob- dent of T at low temperatures. In the present calculation
we take
servations of comet Halley, which revealed the density of
the cometarynucleusto be aslow as0.28 to 0.65gcm-a xn=O,•m
-- x•0T, •0 -- 7.1X 10-3 ergcm-ls-'K-= (9)
[Rickman, 1989]. The specificheat cr of the ice-dustmixture
with the dust mass fraction a: is expressedby For crystalline ice, we adopt the thermal conductivity
•n=O,ergiven by Klinger [1975]for 3 < T < 273K. The
xn=o,• is approximated[Klinger,1975]by
where CH=Ois the specificheat of the ice and cau,t that of
XH=O,•-- x½o/T, x½0
-- 5.67X 10•ergcm-ls-1 (•o)
the dust. Since no appreciable difference has been found
between the specific heats of amorphous and crystalline ices for T > 25 K.
[Ldger et al., 1983], we do not distinguishthe specificheats It is difficult at present to p.rovide a precise value of
for both ices. We adopt the data of Giauqueand Stout[1936] the thermal conductivity of the refractory grain component,
for 16 < T < 268K and Flubacheret al. [1960]for 2 < T < •au•t, since there have been no adequate data for cometary
27 K. For Cdu,t,there is no direct measurement. We take the grains. We take thermal conductivity of fused quartz com-
specificheat of amorphousglassfor 10 < T < 273K given piled by Touloukianet al. [1970]as a representativethermal
by Touloukianand Buyco [1970] as a representativevalue. conductivity of amorphous silicates.
For T < 10K, we extrapolate their data. Both CH=Oand To calculate the thermal conductivity of a cometary nu-
cdu,t are approximately proportional to the temperature as cleus quantitatively, we model an individual core-mantle
grain as consistingof a core of radius fa and an icy mantle
-1 1
CH=O-- 8.9X 104Tergg K- , (3) of the outer radius a, where f is a parameter related to the
-1 1 dust mass fraction a: as
c-d,•,t
-- 2.5X 10•Tergg K- (4)

+:cPH•O
for 30 • T • 100K. In consequence
% is approximated
to (tt)
be / - ,pi-i,o -
 HAB.UYAMAET AL.: THERMALHISTORYOF COMETSIN OOB.
T CLOUD 15,081

where plt•o and pa,,t are densitiesof HaO ice and a core where o•(< 1) dependsin generalnot only on the porosity
grain, respectively.Sincethere is no substantialdifferencein but alsoon the spatial configurationof grainsin the nucleus.
thedensitybetween
thetwokindsof ices(0.944-0.02gcm-a At the early stage of crystallization where k << •c<< 1 and
for amorphousice [Ghormley and Hochanadel,1971] and •H•O << •a,,t, • may be approximated by
0.9gcm-• for crystallineice (I½) [La•t]eret al., 1987]),
we take the samedensityof 0.9gcm-a for both amor- '"'
phous and crystalline ices. The dust density is taken to
wih
be pa,,t = 3.2gcm-a [Miyamotoet al., 1981],whichis the factor defined by
density of chondrites. The density of cometary dust will be
a little smaller becauseit is coatedwith an organicmantle
[Greenberget al., 1989]whosedensityis smallerthan the sil-
icate density, but the difference affect little the results. The
g- .
thermal conductivity of the core-mantle grain is approxi-
mated by the followingformula (see Appendix A), which In generalthe geometricalfactor g may be regardedas a free
has the same form as the averagedielectric function given parameter dependingon the grain model. The expressionof
by the Maxwell-Garnet theory: g givenby (20) is basedon a core-mantlegrain model. How-
ever, it should be pointed out that the value of g for other
geometriesdoesnot differmuchfrom that givenby (20). For
gem
--XHaO
[1-{- + 3fa(ga"'*
- - '•H•O)
- ]' example,
g is expressed
by 1](1 - fa) for anextreme
model
of a one-dimensionalrepresentation,in which a sheet core
where •H•o •s the thetraM conductivity of the •cy m•ntle. with unit thicknessis put between two sheet mantles each
Exact evMu•t•on of the thetraM conduct•vk• •H•o of the with thicknessf]2. Even in this extremecasethe ratio of
m•xture of •morphous •nd cr•stMl•ne •ces•s d•cult, s•nce both g is less than 3.
k dependsnot onl• on the fr•ct•on f of cr•stMl•ne •ce but
2.3. The Heating Rates
Msoon the sputUMcon•ur•tion of the cr•stMl•ne ice phase
•n the •ce•xture •nd on the m•nner of crystM •rowth. In For the radiogenic
heating,we take into accounttøK,
•enerM lower •nd upper l•m•tsof the thetraM conduct•vk• of aSaTh,a•sU,andasaUcorrespondingto thechondritic
abun-
multicomposite
material,•%w,randgupp,r,respectively,
are dances[Andersand Grevesse,1989]. In the followingcalcu-
evaluatedwith the use of the variationalprinciples[Hasbin lation we excludea6A1unlessotherwisestated;the effect
and Shtrikman,1962] and are givenby of a6A1heatingwill be discussed
separately.
Denoting
the
massfraction of the jth nuclide at the formation of comets
by X•/0, the decayconstantby Aj, and the amountof energy
releasedper unit massof the jth nuclideby Hi, we havethe
heatingrate qraain (1) as
* = EU•O,cr. (14)
rr.r (3-- + fSO,m qr,a
(t)--p;c
Z )uHjXjøe-X•" (21)
For ( <<1, (13) and (14) reduceto
2
Table 1 summarizes parameter values used in the calcula-
•1ow.r • •Ha O,•m, •upp .r -- tions. We take X•o to be the mass of the jth nuclide per
unit massof CI chondrite
4.55x 10• yr ago.
where the latter holds for k • x.•o.,•/•.•o.,, << ( << 1. The heating rate q•,• in (I) due to latent heat release
We simplyestimate•.•o by an arithmeticmeanof the lower during the phase transition from amorphousto crystalline
and upper limits: ice is expressedby

;½H•O
-- •(;½1ower
q- qh,(t)
- p(1
- (22)

The thermal conductivitygivenby (16) might be an overes- where L is the latent heat per unit massof amorphousice,
timate when each of the crystalline phasesis kept isolated for whichwetakeL = 9 x 10aergg-• [Ghormley, 1968],and
during crystal growth. This estimate, however, is known O(/Ot is givenby (6) togetherwith (7) and (8).
to give practically good agreementwith the experimentsfor
many compositematerials[Mizutani, 1978]. For k << ( << 1, 2.4. Boundary Conditions and Initial Condition
•H•O is approximatedby The boundary conditionat the centerr = 0 is given by

øa"
I -o.
OqT r--0 (as)
The thermal conductivity of a cometary nucleus, •, is The boundary condition at the surfacer = a when the comet
smaller than the thermal conductivity •cm of individual is in the Oort cloud is determinedby the energybalanceof
grainsgivenby eqs(12) becauseof porosityof the nucleus. absorption of solar and interstellar radiation, thermal emis-
Introducing a parameter •, the reduction factor, we express sion, and conductive heat flow at the surface:
•; as

(24)
/g= OfEcm, (18)
15,082 HARUYAMA ZT AL.' THERMAl, HISTORY OF OOMET$ IN OORT 0LOUD

TABLE 1. Parameters Relevant to Radiogenic Heating

Nuclide X•' ),t yr-• Ht ergg

-• •HXo ergg-•yr
-•
4øK 8.30 x 10 -? 5.54 x 10 -lø 1.66 x 1016 7.63
2•2Th 3.69 x 10-a 4.95 x 10-11 1.68 x 10l? 0.307
2•sU 5.10 x 10 -s 9.85 x 10-•ø 1.86 x 10 l• 0.934
2•sU 1.63 x 10 -s 1.55 x 10 -•ø 1.83 x 10 •? 0.462
2øA1 4.34 x 10-? 9.63 x 10-? 1.49 x 10•? 6.22 x 10t

*From Anders and Grevesse[1989]. The valuesare relative to unit massof C1 chondrite. The abundanceof
2øA1is basedon the 2eA1/2•'A1
ratio of 5 x 10-s as wasdeducedfrom CAIs in carbonaceous
chondrites[Clayton
et M., 1988].
tFromHandbook
of Physical
Properties
of Rocks[Robert,1984]for 4øK,232Th,23SU,anda3SU.For•A1,
the data are taken from Tableof RadioactiveIsotopes[Brownet al., 1986].

with it is likely that c• << 1. Greenberget al. [1989] estimate

c• = 5 x 10-2 on the basisof the simpleassumption that
F- + - ,4), eachparticleinterfaceis about10-2 of its total areaandeach
particle is in contact with an averageof five other particles,
as deducedfrom a model of the porosity of 0.8 [Greenberg,
where T• is the temperature at the nucleussurface, Fm the 1988]. Kouchiet al. [1992b]takec• ,-, 0.1 to 10-•. Rus-
flux of interstellar radiation, Lo the solar luminosity, s thesel'sformula, which is sometimesused[e.g.,Espinasseet al.,
emissivity of the nucleus surface, A its albedo, and a the 1991], is based on the specialconfigurationand shape of
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Here we have assumed that the
grains and pores. For a porosity of 0.8 this formula yields
nucleus is a rapid rotator. We take A = 0 and s = 1 in view c• = 0.14. In the following calculationswe investigatethe
of the very low albedo of Halley's nucleus. If the conductive range of casesfor o• = 0.01 to 1.
heat flow is negligible, the interstellar radiation gives the One of the typical thermal historiesis presentedin Fig-
blackbodytemperatureof 3 K [Greenberg,1971]. We adopt ure 1, which showsthe time variation of the temperature at
/t: 5 x 104AU, a typicaldistancein the Oort cloudin the distancesof via = 0 to 0.95 and I from the centerof the
following calculations.
It is assumed that the nucleus has uniform initial tem-
200
pera.ture of To = 30 K, a solar nebula temperature at the
presumed cometary formation region of about 100 AU from
the sun [e.g., Yamamoto, 1985; Yamamoto and Kozasa,
1987]. The ice is in amorphousphase at this temperature
(i.e., •(r,t = 0) = 0). Changein the internal temperature
during the transit from ,,- 100AU to the Oort cloud dis- 150
tance is negligible[I('ouchi et al., 1992b]becauseof the low
thermal conductivity of amorphousice and of the short time
intervalof thetransition
(• 10• yr). Aswill beseenin sec-
tion 3, the value of To doesnot affect the results much unless
To is high enoughto induce crystallization of amorphousice
in the relevant time scale t: e.g., To > 80K is required if lOO
t ,-- 107yr.

3. RESULTS

The parameters involved in the model are the nucleus 50 _ r/a=O, 0.9 _
radius a, the dust mass fraction at, and the reduction fac-
tor c• of the thermal conductivity. For the radius, we take -

a = 5 km as a standard value. The thermal history for other

radii will be discussed
separatelylater. The observedgas-to- - r/a=l -
dust mass ratio of comets varies from comet to comet, and
is roughly in the range from I to 10 [Ney, 1982]. We take o
the three casesof a: = 0.1, 0.5, and 0.8. The value a: = 0.5
correspondscloselyto the value a: = 0.45 based directly on
10
ø , 11.
02 , 10
I4 ,, 10Iø , ,,10t• ,, 1(,
the Greenbergmodel[Greenberg,1982]. The parameterhav- TIME (year)
ing the largestuncertaintyis the reductionfactor c•,because Fig. 1. Time variationof the temperatureat distancesr/a = 0 •o
a dependsnot only on the porosity but also on the spatial 0.95 from the centerand at the surface(r/a = 1) of a cometary
nucleus of radius a = 5 km. The dust mass fraction is assumed to
configurationof grainsin the nucleus,both of which are not
be x = 0.5, and the reduction factor of the thermal conductivity
well known. The low density estimated for Comet Halley is taken as a = 0.01. Note that the difference in the temperatures
[Rickman, 1989] implies that the cometary nucleusis very from r/a = 0 out to 0.95 cannotbe distinguishedin the scaleof
porous and the bulk thermal conductivity is very low, so the figure.
 HAEUYAMA BT AL.' THERMAL HISTORY'OF COMETS IN OOl%TCLOUD 15,083

nucleusfor x = 0.5, a = 5km, and a = 0.01. It should ' I ' I ' I ' I '

be noted that the temperaturedistribution is uniform up to 1.0

r]a = 0.95. As can be seenfrom the figure, the thermal
historyis dividedinto the followingfour stages.
The first stageis characterizedby a gradualincreasein
the internaltemperature
up to 80K at 3.5 x 10?yr. The 0.8
gradual temperature increaseis due to slow decay of ra-
dioactive nuclides. The main sourceof radiogenicheating
is 4øK,whichhasa heatingrate,Fr,a = )•HXo, 10 times 0.6
larger than all other species(seeTable 1). The time inter-
val up to T = 80K is about 4 times longerthan the tran- r/a-O, 0.90, 0.95 .
sition time scale from 100AU to the Oort cloud distance
of R = 50000AU. The effect of solar radiation during the 0.4
transition on the internal heatingis negligible,sincemost
of the transitiontime is spentat largeheliocentricdistances
where the solar flux is small and heat conduction inward is
limited to the regionjust beneaththe surface[Ko•chi et al.,
0.2,,
r/a-1 .
1992b]becauseof the very low thermalconductivityof the
amorphousice. The uniform temperature increaseat this
0.0
stageis the result of in situ heating;namely,eachregionof , I , I , I , I, ,
the nucleusis heated locally by radioactivenuclidesdecay- 10ø ' 10• 104 10ø 1os 1(•o
ing there with little heat conductionawayowingto the low
thermal conductivity of amorphousice.
TIME (year)
When the temperature increasesto about 80 K, there is a
rapid increaseof temperature due to the latent heat released Fig. 2. Fraction of crystallization • versustime for a nucleusof
in crystallizationof amorphousice. The temperatureattains radius a = 5 km, dust massfraction x = 0.5, and reduction factor
a = 0.01.
a maximumof about 150K within a short period of the order
of about106yr. At T •; 80K, thetransition
timetcofamor-
phousicebecomes shorterthan10?yr, a timescaleof this
stage,and a substantialfractionof amorphous icebeginsto The effect of the variation of the dust fraction x on the
crystallize.It shouldbe pointedout that 80 K is muchlower thermal history is examinedin Figure 3, in which the time
than the transition temperature around 130 to 150K often variation of the temperatureis shownfor x -- 0.1, 0.5, and
assumed[e.g., Prialnik and Bar-Nun, 1987, 1990; Prialnik 0.8 and otherparametervaluesare the sameasin Figure1,
et al., 1987; Fanale and Salvail,1987];the transitiontem- i.e., a -- 5 km and a - 0.01. The thermal history is quali-
perature is the temperature at which the transition time is tativelyunchanged comparedwith that shownin Figure1;
on the orderof a laboratorytime scale(daysto minutes). all three caseshave the four stagesdescribedabove. The
The latent heat releasedat crystallizationleadsto a further main quantitative differencesare the time and temperature
temperature increase,which in turn leads to further crystal- T• at whichthe runawaytemperatureincreasebegins,and
lizationbecauseof a decrease in the crystallizationtime scale the maximumtemperatureTm,x. As x becomes larger,the
t,. Although the thermal conductivityalsobecomeshigher runaway temperature increasestarts earlier at higher T•,
and on the other hand, the maximumtemperatureTm,x be-
by crystallization,heating by latent heat releasealwaysex-
at this stagebecauseof comeslower. The higherT• at earliertime for larger x is
ceedscoolingby thermalconduction
the rapid crystallization. As a result, the runaway temper- dueto thehigherconcentrationof radioactive heatingagents
ature increaseoccurstogether with runaway crystallization in coregrains,and the lowerTm,• is due to the correspond-
within a short periodof time asshownin Figure 2. It should ingly smalleramountof water ice, whoselatent heat released
be pointed out that the ice is completely crystallized in the at crystallization
is the majorheatsourcefor elevatingthe
entire interior of the nucleusexceptjust beneath the surface. temperature to Tm,• as stated previously.
When crystallization is completed,the temperature attains Table 2 summarizesthe maximumtemperatureTm,• for
the maximum of 150 K in this case. various values of a and x for a - 5 kin. It should be noted
At the third stagethe nucleuscoolsrapidly by heat con- that no significant differencecan be seen between a _- 0.01
duction after completecrystallization.The time scaleof the and 0.1 for x -- 0.5 and 0.8, and betweena -- 0.1 and 0.5 for
coolingto the ambienttemperatureof ~ 3 K is about106yr. x - 0.1. Furthermore it suggeststhat there is a critical a-
Sincethe coolingtime scaleis very shortowingto the high value, acr, at which Tm,• changesdrastically;0.01 < act <
thermal conductivity of crystallineice comparedwith that 0.1 for x = 0.1, and 0.1 < acr < 0.5 for x = 0.5 and 0.8,
of amorphousice, the radiogenicheatingeffectduringthis The thermal historyfor a > a•r is shownin Figure 4,
period is negligible. which is for a = 0.5 and other parameter values are the
The entire nucleusthen remainsat the ambienttemper- sameas in FigureI (i.e. a- 5km and x = 0.5). In this
atureof about3 K. Thisstagestartsat 3 x 10?yr afterthe case,the thermal history becomesquite different. The first
formation of the nucleus,and continuesfor about 4.5 byr un- stage,wherethe temperatureincreases graduallyby radio-
til the nucleusfalls toward the sun as a long-periodcomet. genicheating,is similarto that for a = 0.01 (Figure1).
It shouldbe pointedout that'theinitialtemperature has However, the runaway increasein the temperature which
no significant effect on the thermal history unlessit is al- characterizesthe secondstagein FigureI doesnot appearin
ready higher than 80 K. this case.Furthermorethe maximumtemperatureof about
15,084 I-]•Al%UYAMA
BT AL.: •HBl%MAL }{/STORY OF COMETS IN OOl%TCLOUD

200 TABLE 2. Maximum Temperaturein degreesKelvin

Versus tx and x for a = 5km

x=O.1
x 0.01 0.1 0.5
0.1 165 80 77
x=0.5 0.5 151 158 81
150
0.8 127 126 81
_

.
.

•
-_ ley [seePrialnik ½tal., 1987; Yabushita,
1993]. We present
here resultsfor large sizesas one of the extreme casesof
lOO the thermal history. Figure 7 showsthe time variation of
temperature for the nucleuswith a = 100km, z = 0.5 and
c• = 0.01. The first and secondstagesare similar to that
for a = 5 km. The main differenceappears at the stage af-

50
- r/a=O / ter the end of the runaway temperature increase; namely,
the central region does not cool down rapidly in contrast
with the case as shown in Figure 1. The high-temperature
(•; 150K) phase
continues
for,,,7 x 10• yr, andevena tem-
perature increasecan be seenafter completecrystallization.
-

The temperature increaseis about 30 K, and Tma,•is 180K

r/a=l in this case. Duration times of the high-temperaturephase
.N - for other a and (x are summarizedin Table 3, where the du-
0 ration time is defined as the period between the time of the
, I , I • I , I.. ,
1C to end of the complete crystallization and the time when the
centraltemperaturebeginsto decrease.The resultsindicate
TIME (year) that largercometshavelongerdurationtime as is expected,
Fig. 3. Effect of the dust mass fraction z on the temperature and that the duration time is roughlyproportionalto 1/c•
history of the nuclei of radius a = ,5km and reduction factor for a •; 10km. Actuallymoleculardiffusionprobablycools
a = 0.01. The temperature at distancesr/a = 0 to 0.9,5from the
center and •rt the surface(r/a --- 1) are shownfor x = 0.1, 0.5,
and 0.8.
200 , ,

80K is much lower than that for c•- 0.1 and 0.01. Con-
sequently only a small degree of crystallization occurs in
contrast with the cases for c• - 0.1 and 0.01. Indeed the
fraction of crystallization at the center of the nucleus is less 150
than 3% at the maximum temperature and less than 5%
evenafter residence
in the Oort cloudfor 4.55x 109yr asis
seen in Figure 5. On the other hand the temperature his-
tory after the maximum temperature is reached is similar to
the caseof c• - 0.01 shownin Figure 1, namely,the whole
nucleus cools down to the ambient temperature in a short 100 _ r/a=O, 0.90
time. For large c•, even the small fraction of crystallization -

is enoughto lead to rapid coolingof the nucleusin the Oort _

cloud.
_ r/a=O.
Comparisonof the casesof c• - 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5 indicates -

that whether crystallization occursor not critically depends

50
on a, or more preciselyon o•t•c,•- •. Figure 6 showsthe
fraction of crystallization for various valuesof c•at the center
-

after 4.55 x 109yrfor z- 0.5 and a- 5km. It is clearly

seen that there is a critical value o•½rfor crystallization. The
critical value is o•½r_• 0.28 for z - 0.5 and a - 5km. For
- r/a=l
c• _( c•½•crystallization occurs completely over the entire
0
nucleus except near the surface and its immediate vicinity, i I , I , I ,

whereasfor a )_ a• lessthan a few percentof ice crystallizes 10

ø ' 10
2 10
4 10
6 1•• ' 1('ø
even at the center. The condition for crystallization and the
physical reason for the appearanceof the critical value of c•
TIME (year)
will be discussed in detail in the next section. Fig. 4. Temperature history of a nucleus with reduction fac-
tor a = 0.5, showing the time variation of the temperature at
Another parameter for determining the thermal history distancesr/a = 0 to 0.95 from the center •nd at the surface
is the radius of the nucleus. Recent observationssuggest (r/a --- 1) of a cometary nucleusof radius a --• 5km and dust
that a fraction of comets is much larger than comet Hal- m•ss fr•ction x = 0.5.
 H•RU¾•M• ST •.' TH•RMM• HmTOa¾Or COMETS•N OO•T CI,OUD 15,085

1.0 beginsto increasearound104yr after the formationand

reaches
a maximumtemperature of 160K at 104yr. Thefirst
gradualtemperature
increase
is dueto 26A1heating,which
afterwards leads to the runaway temperature increasedue to
0.8 crystallization
at 106yr aswasin theprevious
cases without
•'6A1heating.Note,however, that the timeof the runaway
temperature increaseis earlier by one order of magnitude
0.6
than that in the previouscases,implying that the runaway
temperature
increase
is triggered
by •'6A1heating.Further-
more it should be pointed out that complete crystallization
occurs even for a smaller comet of a -- 5 km, in contrast
with the resultsof Prialnik et al. [1987].

4. CONDITIONS FOR CRYSTALLIZATION

It has been shown in section 3 that whether ice of the

nucleuscrystallizesor not is determinedby the competition
betweenthe heatingby latent heat depositionand radiogenic
0.0 heating on one hand and the coolingby heat conductionon
the other hand, and that the ice crystallizes for small c•
0 1 2 3 4 and large a. We shall formulate the condition for the crys-
tallization in general form, which will serve to clarify the
DISTANCE FROM THE CENTER (km) physicsof this competitive process.This will alsobe helpful
in generalizingthe resultsobtained in the previoussection,
Fig. 5. Fraction of crystallization • versus time for a nucleus of
in view of uncertaintiesin the valuesof the suchbasicphys-
radius a = 5 kin, dust mass fraction x = 0.5, and reduction factor
o• = 0.5. ical quantities as the thermal conductivity, the time scaleof
crystallization, and the porosity reduction factor.
Up to the early stageof crystallization,coolingby ther-
the interior during the long period of the high-temperature mal conductionis negligiblebecauseof the very low thermal
phase, so the duration time given in Table 3 shouldbe re- conductivity of amorphous ice as stated in section 3. Thus
garded as an upper limit. the rate of radiogenicheatinggivenby (21) may be approx-
We note here that there must also be many comets of imated by
small size and that for these comets the condition for conver-
sion to crystallinity is lesscritical than for large comets. In with
otherwords,it ishighlylikelythat all comets
witha ;• 2 km
havebeenunaffectedby radiogenicheatinginsofaras degree
of crystallizationis concerned(seealsosection4).
Sofar we haveignoredradiogenic
heatingby 26A1,since 1.0
the time intervalbetweennucleosynthesis
of 26A1and its
incorporation into a cometary nucleus must be very short
(lessthan106yr, seeTable1) in orderfor 26A1heatingto
be effective;
otherwise
26A1woulddecayin thegasphaseor 0.8
in the grains before incorporation into a cometary nucleus.
However, if formation of a cometary nucleusoccurredwithin
the abovetime interval,26A1couldbe a principalheating 0.6
agentbecauseof its high heatingrate. Prialnik et al. [1987]
studiedthe thermalhistoryincluding26A1heatingand
showed thatthemass fractionX0(26Al)should
belessthan 0.4 -
,-,4 x 10-9 = 0.01x X0(•'6A1)
ofcalcium-aluminium-rich
in-
clusions(CAIs) in carbonaceous
chondritesfor a cometwith
a - 30 km in order to preserveamorphousice in the nucleus.
However they used the conventionalhigh thermal conduc-
tivity [Kl•nger, 1980]. We discusshere briefly the effect of
•'6A1heatingusingourvalueof a lowthermalconductivity
of amorphous ice for illustrative purpose. The parameter 0.0
valuesrelevantto 26A1heatingarelistedin Table1, which
shows theabundanceof26A1deduced fromCAIs[Claytonet 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
al., 1988].We takeonehundredth of the 26A1abundance
of
CAIsasX0(•'6A1)(_~ 4 x 10-9) to compare withtheresults
of Prialnik et al. [1987]. Fig. 6. Fractionof crystallization•[at 4.55X109yr afterformation
The result is shownin Figure 8, which is for a = 5 km, as a function of the reduction factor a for a nucleus of radius
x = 0.5, and (• = 0.1. One can see that the temperature a = 5 km and dust mass fraction x = 0.5.
15,086 HARUYAMA lilt AL ß THBR.MAL HISTORY OF COMETS IN OOR.T CLOUD

200 since • << 1, where To is the initial temperature. The in-

tegralcanbe evaluated
by notingthat e-r/T is a rapidly
r/a=O increasingfunction of T in the relevant temperature range
sinceE/T >> 1, and that OT/Ot is a slowlyvaryingfunction
of T when { << 1. Integrating (30) by parts and retaining
the term to first orderin T/E(<< 1), we obtain
150
r 2
-

-
T2e-
l•/T
• = AEOT/Ot Cp0
+(1u
= LOa[:e - (31
)
.

wherewe haveused(1) and (6), and u and © are definedby

L
100 _ r/a=O, 0.90, 0.95 _ =
Pr•a A

_
_

-
_
_

_
E
O- 7-1n•Fr•dAu
L
(33)

_ r/a=0.90 _ As the crystallization proceeds,the coolingby heat con-

5O
_
duction becomesappreciable becauseof increasein the ther-
mal conductivity. The coolingrate A is given by

r/a=l A- r20r •r2-•-

r , (34)

which is roughly evaluated as

0
I I I I I i I I.. ,,
A~--_•
•T o•g•co%oE•u
(35)
a= 3a=L©a[mq-(1 -
TIME (year)
where we haveused(19), (10) and (31).
Fig. 7. Temperature history of a large nudeus of the radius
a = 100 km with the dust mass fraction x = 0.5 and the reduction
factor c• = 0.01, showing the time variation of the temperature
at distancesr/a = 0 to 0.95 from the center and at the surface 300
(•/•= •).

Prad
-- Z A.•H•X•o (27) 250

sinceA•t (( I at this stagefor all of the radioactivenuclides

considered. In addition the heating rate by latent heat re-
lease
(22)maybeapproximated
by •' 200
- -
from(6) and(7)sixme
( <<1 at thisstage.
Thustherateof [- 150
temperatureincreasegivenby (1) is approximately
r/a=O, 0.90, 0.95
aT :S/T](29) -

Thefraction
ofcrystalline
ice{ iscalculated
byintegrat-
• 100 -

ing (6) with the useof (7) as _

•(T)- •- 1fTj
e-i•/T
OT/O---•.aT (30) 50 -

-
.

TABLE 3. Duration Time of the High-Temperature Phltse

Versus P•dius of the Nucleus and the Reduction Factor a
1 1 I 1ø 1s 1 •ø

Radius, km 0.1 0.01 TIME (year)

5 • 1 8.7 x lOs Fig. 8. Effect of =6A1heatingon the temperaturehistoryof a
10 :2.6 x 10 s 3.9 x 106 5 km radius comet with dust mass fraction x = 0.5 and reduction
50 1.1 x 106 1.4 x 10? f•ctor a = 0.1. The 26A1 abundance is taken to be a hundredth of
100 5.2 x 106 7.0 x 107 that deduced from CAIs. The time variation of the temperature
is shown½tdistancesr/a = 0 to 0.95 from the centerand at the
The duration time is in units of years. surface(r/a = 1).
 I'{ARUYAMABT AL.: THERMAL H/STORY OF COMETS IN OORT CLOUD 15,087

If A < qrad+ qlat ------

I •, the temperature continuesto rise, K < Kc, on the other hand, the two curves never cross,and
which will result in crystallization of the ice. The results in the heating rate is alwayshigher than the coolingrate. As a
section 3 suggestthat once this condition is realized near result the temperature continues to increase until the ther-
the center of the nucleus, the crystallization proceedssuc- mal conductivity becomesmuch higher by crystallizationof
cessivelytowards the surface within a short time and most the ice. It should be pointed out that no intermediate sit-
of the regionin the nucleusis eventuallycrystallized.This uation is realized in which one substantial fraction of ice in
is becausethe crystallizationis a sort of a positivefeedback the nucleusis amorphousand the other substantial fraction
processas pointed out in section 3; crystallization deposits is crystalline.
latent heat and this heat leads to further crystallization of for • >> •, f(•) r•h• • minimum•t • = •/(t- •),
the adjacentregion,and so on. For A = P we have
and
K½- f(x/(1
- x))isgiven
from
(36)
by
re,)= + - _.,,r
- m = 4m(1- m)lna[L(1
- z)/Pr,aAm], (38)
with where we have used(33). It is interestingto note that
becomesm•imum at • • 1/2 sinceln(Z/rraA) >> indi-
K -- agrcøcpøE2 (•) cating that heating by the radioactivity and the latent heat
3pa•Li-,r•a ß
act most effectively when the ice and dust mass fractions
are equal.
Figure 9 illustrates schematicallythe conditionfor crys-
•om the above discussionthe condition for crystalliza-
tallization of the ice in the nucleus.The functionf(u) has
tion of the ice is given by
a minimum, which is denotedby K½ and will be given later.
Two differentsituationsoccurdependingon the valueof K. K ag•o%oE•
For K > Kc, the functionsy = K and y = f(u) crosseach
other at two points. The smaller value of u, which we de-
lf• = 12paaLP,,dX(1
--x)ln•[L(1
- x)/P,,dAX]
< 1.
note by u•, is relevant to our problem sincethe temperature Note that the crystallizationcondition(3g) doesnot involve
and thus u are low initially and increase with time. When the thermal conductivity of amorphousice, •a•o,•, in-
u < Ul, the heatingrate is higherthan the coolingrate, and dicating that whether the ice substantially crystallizes or
henceu increaseswith time. When u reachesUl, both rates not does not depend on the value of •a•o,• so long as
balanceand the temperaturedoesnot increasefurther, re- •a•o,• << •a•o,•,. The condition(39) is a generalizationof
sulting in cessationof further crystallization in practice. As the crystallization condition discussedin section3, in which
seenlater the fraction • of crystalline ice at u = u• is much weexpressed the crystallizationconditionin termsof a (Fig-
lessthan unity, and amorphousice is preserved.Note that, ure •). The critical a givenby solvingK = K• for a agrees
evenif u becomeslarger than u• by chance,this will be tem- with the a•, numerically estimated in section3 within a
porarybecause u mustdecrease backto u• sincethe cooling tot of 3 (smallerby a factor of 3); the deviationmay come
rate becomeshigherthan the heatingrate whenu > u•. For from the roughevaluationof A
It shouldbe pointedout that the condition(3g) indicates
that cometsof small a preserveamorphousice. The radius
a for preservation of the amorphousice is estimated from
y (3•) to be a < 2 km for a = 10-• and• = 0.5, the latterof
which leads to a minimum size.
The crystallizationcondition(3•) can alsobe helpfulto
y=f(u ) estimatean initial a•A1abundance
for pr•ervation of the
amorphousice. For a = [km, the 2•A1 abundancemust
be less than 1/•00 times than that of CAIs even for an
extreme case of a = 1 to preservethe amorphousice. For
y=K>K c smallera or largera the 2•A1abundance mustbedecreased
furtherapproximately in proportion
to a/a •. Whenthe2•A1
/ ,
abundanceis lessthan 1/8700 times that of CAIs, heating
by 2•A1is no longerineffective
compar• with that by the
!

other nuclides in Table 1.

,,
The temperature T• and the fraction • of crystallineice
,
at the critical point K = IC• are givenby

y=K < Kc
from (3:2)and
r 2
_ 2L(1
/•½ - x)lnZ[L(1
- -_ 2EL(1
01?
- x)
from (31). It shouldbe notedthat both T½and •c are inde-
0 x/(1-x) Lt pendentof the nucleusradius a. For x = 0.5, for instance,
(40) and (41) giveT½= 82K and/•½= 6 x 10-a. The tem-
Fig. 9. Schematicillustration of the crystallization condition. perature is in good agreementwith the numericalresult for
15,088 HARUYAMA BT AL' THEB.MAL IllSTORY OF COMETS IN OOR.TCLOUD

K _>K½ discussedin section3 (seeAppendix B). It can be tion of mixtures of amorphous H20 ice and volatile species
easily confirmedthat k << ( << 1 and •H•O << •au,t hold at [Bar-Nun et al., 1985, 1987; Schmitt and Klinger, 1987;
T - Tc unless z is extremely close to zero or unity. Since Grim and Greenberg, 1987; Laufer et al., 1987; Moore et
both ( and •H•O are monotonicallyincreasingfunctionsof al., 1988; Sanford and Allamandola, 1988; Sanford et al.,
temperature,( and •;H20/•;du,tare alsomuchlessthan unity 1988; Schmitt et al., 1989; Kouchi, 1990]. If diffusionof
for T < To, which are the assumptionsused for deriving the these moleculesin the nucleusis efficient, the volatiles may
right-hand sideof (35). be concentrated near the surface where the temperature is
low, or may be lost from the nucleusduring residencein
5. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION the Oort cloud. If this is the case, the source of volatile
molecular speciessuch as CO observedin the coma when a
We have studied the thermal history of long-period cornet approachesthe sun is not the volatile component of
comets,which are initially composedof amorphousice. The the grainsbut the refractory organiccomponentfor a comet
very low thermal conductivity of amorphousice yields two
with K/ K• < 1 [Greenbergand Hage, 1990] ( A. Kouchi,
personalcommunication,1992). The spatial distributions
principal types of thermal histories,which are clearly distin-
of CO [Eberhardtet al., 1987] and CN [A 'Hearn et al., 1986]
guisheddependingmainly on the nucleusthermal conduc-
tivity • = a•½mor, in general,on the valueof K/K½ given
observedin comet Halley suggestthat at least so•neof these
by (39). It has beenshownthat cometswith small • experi-
molecules are ejected from grains flowing outward in the
coma. Even for a comet of relatively high thermal conduc-
ence a runaway increasein the internal temperature during
tivity (K/K• > 1), the ice mixturesmay suffervariouskinds
residence in the Oort cloud. The temperature increaseis a
of processingsuch as partial releaseof CO in the ice, since
result of rapid release of the latent heat at crystallization
the maximum temperature (~ 80 K) is enoughto lead to
triggered by gradual heating due to decayof radioactivenu-
clides,ofwhich•øKcontributes
most(when26A1isignored). some processingof the ice mixture. However, a substantial
The timeoftherunaway
temperature
increase
isaround amount of volatile moleculesshould still remain trapped in
on the amorphous ice in this case. In consequencethere may
to 108 yr after the formationof the nucleusdepending
be two kinds of sources of volatile molecules observed in the
the fraction of refractory grains, which contain radioactive
nuclides. It is remarkable that most of the amorphous ice coma dependingon the value of K/K•; for a comet with
in the nucleus except just beneath the surface transforms K/Kc < 1 the sourcewill be entirely refractory organics,
into crystalline ice as a result of the runaway temperature and for a comet with K/K• > 1 the sourceswill be both the
increase. This result implies that the ice in short-period icy componentand the refractory organics. Of course,the
comets is crystalline from the initial time when the long- production rate of the volatile moleculeswill differ whether
period comet became a short-period comet. In the comets K/K• is larger than unity or not. Differencein the observed
of large •, on the other hand, the temperature doesnot rise production rate from comet to comet may at least be partly
much (< 100K) comparedwith the caseof small •, and the due to the differencein the K/K•-value in comets. Further
initial amorphous ice is preserved. This is becauseonly a study of the thermal history of a long-period comet taking
small fraction of crystallization is enoughto raise the ther- into account species more volatile than H20 will be neces-
mal conductivity and consequentlyto cool the nucleus. sary in order to confirm these conjectures.
A criterion of crystallization of the nucleus ice has been
APPENDIX A' AVERAGE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
derived by analyzing the competitive processbetweenheat-
OF A CORE-MANTLE GRAIN
ing by decay of radioactive nuclidesand depositionof the
latent heat at crystallization, and coolingby conductionof
heat. The crystallizationconditionis given by the inequal-
Considerheat flow in the z directionin a mediumhaving
ity K/Kc < 1 (39), which indicatesthat the ice tends to thermal conductivity•(r). The heat flux j,, averagedover
crystallize for a comet of small a and large a. This condi- a volume V is expressedby
tion clarifies the dependenceon other parameters such as
the thermal conductivity, the crystallization time scale, the
latent heat of crystallization and so on, the values of which
have some uncertainties.
The effectof 26A1heatingis brieflyinvestigated.It has For the heat flux and the volume V both symmetric with
beenestimatedfromthe criterion(39) that the initial26A1 respect to the z axis, we define the thermal conductivity •,,
abundanceshould belessthan~ ot/600(a/5 km)2 timesthe averagedover the volume V by
26A1abundance deducedfromCAIs(withinanuncertainty
of factor 3) for preservationof the amorphousice.
One of the notable results obtained in the presentstudy
is that the internal temperature of the nucleusmay become
high(•; 80K) duringresidence
in theOortcloudat t = where e, is a unit vector in the z direction, namely,
to 108yr evenin the absence
of 26A1.The hightempera-
ture stage suggeststhat some chemicaldifferentiationmay
occur in the interior of a cometary nucleus already in the
Oort cloud era. For a comet of complete crystallization
(K/Kc < 1), a substantial fraction of volatile molecules Let a core grain of radius f a and thermal conductivity
like CO trapped in the ice would be squeezedout of the • be placed at r - 0 in a medium of thermal conductiv-
ice as is suggestedfrom laboratory experimentson sublima- ity $2 with uniform temperature gradient in the z direction,
 HARUYAMAET AL.' THERMAL HISTORYOF COMETSIN OORT CLOUD 15,089

(OT/Oz)o. The steadystatetemperaturedistributionis de-

termined by the Laplace equationgiven by (B2)

AT =0, (A4)
K½[=403x(1- x)] givenby (38) andu, - •/(• - •) -- u=
with the boundary conditionsat r = fa of for K - K½ are again derived from D - 0. With the use of
K• and uc, u•/u• is given by
T, = Tz (A5)
and
uc K½ 2K K
OT, OT•
- Or' From the logarithmicderivativeof (32) we obtain

where subscripts1 and 2 denote core and medium quanti-

ties, respectively.The solutionto (A4) with the boundary T:-
conditions(AS) and (A6)is givenby
2K
(B4)
--• rcos0, r <fa (A7)
wherewe put O½= O(u• = uc). SinceO½>> 1 and K is not
much larger than I½• for the parameter values relevant to
the present problem, one seesthat T[Tc _• 1 holds in good
approximation, implying that the deviation of T from Tc is
(AS) very small. For c• = 0.5, a- 5km, and x = 0.5, we have
K/K½ = 5.1 and T/T½ = 0.96.
On the other hand/• is more sensitive to K than T. From
In calculatingra, givenby (A3), the integrationis carried (31),/• is expressedas
out over the volume V of the core-mantlegrain (r _< a),
wherethe temperatureof the coreregion(r _<fa) is givenby
T• and the temperatureof the mantleregion(fa < r _<a) by •'•= I -Fu,/u½' (BS)
T•. Substitutingeqs.(A7) and (AS)into (A3), oneobtains whereu,/u, is givenby (B3) and (c - •(ux - u•) is given
the averagethermal conductivity of the core-mantle grain by For K/K - we have -
as

Acknowledgments.The authors thank A. Kouchi for enlight-

(A9) ening discussionsand supplyinguseful literature sources. They
acknowledgeY. Hamano and M. Miyamoto for sending useful
data on the thermM conductivity and specific heat of silicates.
One of the authors (T.Y.) acknowledgessupport from the SpeciM
Strictly speakingra, givenby (A9) holdswhenf (( 1. It is Research Project on Evolution of Matter, University of Tsukuba.
One of the authors (J.M.G.) acknowledgessupport from NASA
worth pointingout that (A9) is of exactlythe sameform as
grant NGR.
the averagedielectricfunctiongivenby the Maxwell-Garnet
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(Received January 4, 1993;
revised May 19, 1993;
accepted May 19, 1993.)