The quest for legitimacy in neo-druidic divination practices

Noah Depner

CHRTP 400, Brigidda Bell

April 16, 2021

 Modern Neopagan movements often built their legitimacy on a strong link to the past.

This is the case with Neo-Shamanism, Wicca and especially Druidry; roots to ancient Celtic

religions are a fundamental selling point for the efficacy of their practices. One would logically

turn towards primary source material to establish these roots, but when surviving primary texts

about the Druids only add up to “ten pages or so,” is it even possible to build an entire religious

movement on them?1 Gaps in knowledge, beliefs and traditions need to be filled somehow, and

in the case of the modern Druid Revival, eclectic belief systems and writers with claims to

ancient Celtic ancestry have attempted to fill in the missing pieces. The modern practice of

Ogham divination is key example of this phenomenon, and Druidic discourse around its use

highlights the way practitioners respond to the unsettling discrepancy between modern

legitimacy and ancient roots. Responses include both ignorance and the implementation of

strict boundaries, but of even greater interest are the groups that embrace their eclectic

practices and establish an internal validity that does not rely on ancient Celtic authenticity.

Historical knowledge about the Ogham is sparse, and the information available is

muddled by centuries of questionable medieval study. Damien McManus, a prominent scholar

in Ogham divination, provides a groundwork that runs counter to popular modern

interpretations of the alphabet. The Ogham is a collection of twenty symbols and is the earliest

known system of writing used by the Irish.2 It first appeared in the 5th century, and while early

work assigned its origin to Germanic runes or Greek alphabets, the modern consensus has

1
John Michael Greer, “What is the Druid Revival?” accessed April 8, 2021, http://aoda.org/publications/articles-on-
druidry/druidrevival/
2
An additional five characters, the Forfeda, were added at a much later date, likely to accommodate more letters
from the Latin alphabet. See Damien McManus, “Ogham,” in The World’s Writing Systems, ed. Peter T. Daniels and
William Bright (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996): 340
settled on a Latin origin.3 The oldest appearance of the symbols is in funerary inscriptions, but

information about their meanings was later written down by poets in various manuscripts. Each

symbol is connected to an acrostic letter-name and each name to a two-word kenning. Most

letters have three distinct kennings stemming from three independent lists, commonly referred

to as “Briatharogaim.”4 These kennings give particular meanings to each letter, with eight of

them explicitly relating to trees.5 Medieval Irish glossators later developed a tradition of

assigning all of the letters to different trees; a tradition that remains dominant today even with

little evidence to support it.6 Gaelic poets created other lists, linking the Ogham to bird species

or colours.7 The most authentic meanings are contained in the aforementioned kennings, while

these variants can be attributed to later medieval scholarship or use as poetic devices.

According to McManus, “no other aspect…has contributed more to the derailment of a serious

study of the history of [Ogham]” than viewing “all the Irish letter-names as names of trees.” 8

However, the connection of all Ogham symbols to distinct trees is a fundamental aspect of the

modern practice of Ogham divination, placing the practice in conflict with historical evidence.

The use of Ogham as a divinatory tool does have some historical basis, appearing in an

old Irish tale, “The Wooing of Etain.” The tale is set in approximately 100 BCE, describing the

“courtship” of the maiden Etain by the fairy Midir. Her husband, Eochaid, the king of Ireland,

3
The timeframe lines up with the arrival of Latin peoples in the British Isles, and the occurrence of 5 vowels in each
script matches the Latin script. Some scholars assert it was developed as a form of cryptography. See McManus,
“Ogham,” 340, 342.
4
Damien McManus, “Irish Letter-Names and Their Kennings,” Eriu 29 (1988): 130.
5
McManus, “Letter-Names,” 137, 150-166. An example is the letter B, Beithe, connected to “withered foot with
fine hair,” “greyest of skin,” and “beauty of the eyebrow,” with the first two describing unique features of the birch
tree. F, S, D, C, O, E and I are all originally in reference to trees as well. The other letters, such as T or G, are
connected to other nouns, specifically “Iron Bar” and “Field” in this case.
6
McManus, “Letter-Names”, 129
7
Damien McManus, A Guide to Ogam, (An Sagart, 1991), 139
8
McManus, “Letter-Names”, 129
searches desperately for her, although the method of searching varies depending on the source

used. The older 12th century “Leabhar na h-Uidre” manuscript concludes the tale with the

rampant destruction of all fairy mounds in the search for Etain, while the 16 th century “Egerton

1782” manuscript concludes with the king’s consultation of the Druid Dalan. 9 Tasked to find the

location of Etain, Dalan “made three wands of yew; and upon the wands he wrote an ogham;

and by the keys of wisdom that he had, and by the ogham, it was revealed to him the Etain was

in the fairy mound of Bri Leith.”10 No other details of the practice are given. Other, less

complete versions of the tale exist as well, but only the most recent “Egerton 1782” manuscript

contains a reference to this practice. There is an obvious discrepancy with the 100 BCE setting

as well given that Ogham originated in the 5th century CE. While this is the only historical

reference to Ogham divination, divination performed by Germanic peoples provides an

additional link to the practice. In Germania (98 CE), Roman historian Tacitus describes a

divination ritual practiced by the Germanic people: “They cut off a branch from a nut-bearing

tree and slice it into strips, these they mark with different signs and throw them at random

onto a white cloth. Then, the state’s priest…offers a prayer to the gods and looking up towards

heaven, picks up three strips, one at a time, and, according to which sign they have been

previously marked with, makes his interpretation.” 11 The identity of the signs is unknown, be it

runes or something else entirely, but the practice described here bears a strong resemblance to

modern Ogham divination rituals. The Celts of the British Isles shared strong connections with

9
Of note, the text states “king Eochaid sent for his Druid,” implying that Druids were integrated in the political
system of the King at the time. See Arthur Herbert Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland, Translated into English
Prose and Verse – Volume 1 (Illinois: Project Gutenberg, 2004), The Courtship of Etain,
http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/5678/pg5678.html.
10
Leahy, Heroic Romances, The Courtship of Etain
11
Tacitus, Agricola and Germany, trans. Anthony Birley (Oxford University Press, 1999), 42
the Germanic peoples of mainland Europe, so there is a distinct possibility the practice

described by Dalan is connected to the one described here; the use of three sticks is a strong

link supporting this. However, one cannot discount the possibility that the modern Druidic ties

to the practice described by Tacitus are a result of historical misinterpretation or attempts at

cultural pluralism.

The modern practice of Ogham divination has been expanded beyond its historical

roots, often incorporating other neopagan elements. Similar to the historical accounts of Dalan

and Tacitus, these symbols are often carved on small tree branches. As modern practitioners

use systems that assign each symbol to a distinct tree, it is recommended that one obtains

wood from the tree itself to maximise connection. Emphasis is placed on “interacting with the

spirits of the trees,” which includes meditation in their presence, asking for their blessing and

leaving offerings.12 Some also encourage learning about the folklore and science behind a

particular tree to enhance understanding of the divinatory meanings. 13 A strong personal

relationship with each tree is a fundamental part of the practice, an element which sets it apart

from similar divinatory practices. The actual ritual is often framed in seeking help from the

Ogham sprits or ancestral wisdom from the ancient Druids.14 Practitioners can pull a single

stave, three staves, five staves to create a Celtic Cross or scatter the staves on a surface. The

three-stave approach is the most common, but meanings of the three positions vary

considerably. Past, present and future is a simple approach that is built on three-rayed Celtic

“Awen,” but more nature-based meanings are common as well, such as land, sea and sky, or
12
Danu Forest, Celtic Tree Magic: Ogham Lore and Druid Mysteries (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2014), Ogham Stave and
Wands, Ogham Divination
13
Raven nic Rhóisín and Kathryn Price NicDhàna, “Tree Huggers: A Methodology for Crann Ogham Work,”
accessed April 6, 2021, http://www.paganachd.com/articles/treehuggers.html
14
Forest, Tree Magic, Ogham Divination
the lower, middle and upper worlds.15 The Celtic Cross includes another two positions

representing masculine and feminine traits, while the scatter method involves the proximity of

staves to oneself as an indicator of past, present and future, as well as connections between

overlapping staves.16 Each letter has meanings beyond the tree it is assigned to, but a

practitioner’s understanding of these meanings in a divinatory context vary widely based on the

literature they use and personal experiences in their tree explorations. Tarot influences are

clear in the spreads, mainly the use of “past, present and future” as well as the modified Celtic

Cross. In the YouTube community, eclectic practices are extremely common, with practitioners

using Ogham in conjunction with tarot, I-Ching and pendulums. Even with its high variability in

practice, the underlying appeal of Ogham lies in its supposed roots to ancient knowledge. The

development of these ritual techniques is relatively recent, but unbeknownst to many

practitioners, foundational elements behind the meanings of many symbols are not as ancient

as they claim to be.

Religious syncretism had a major influence on the emergence of Ogham divination in

the modern Druid revival movement. In his 1937 book, Ogham scholar R.A.S Macalister makes

the claim that Ogham comes from “an early form of the Greek alphabet…borrowed by the

Druids in Southern Gaul for the purpose of writing sometime in the 5th century BC.”17 Distinct

ties to antiquity are established here, but connections with divination are established by the

poet Robert Graves in The White Goddess. By analyzing ancient poetry from a myriad of

different cultures, Graves asserts that much of it implies the existence of a central White
15
Forest, Tree Magic, Ogham Divination; Carrowcrory Journal, “Ogham, The Divination Story,” YouTube, streamed
Nov 19, 2020, 35:00 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AM7HaLQclXU
16
Forest, Tree Magic, Ogham Divination; Purple Bloom Apothecary Presents, “Ogham rune sticks for beginning
divination,” YouTube, posted October 10, 2013, 3:45, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VSVAYrWMro
17
R.A. Stewart Macalister, The Secret Languages of Ireland (Cambridge University Press, 2014), 28.
Goddess worshiped by all of them. This same logic is applied to the Ogham. Graves, using an

unconventional alphabet published by historian Roderic O’ Flaherty (1629-1718) only

containing 13 consonants and 5 vowels, creates the Celtic Tree Calendar. 18 In this, he claims

that each consonant is linked to a tree, zodiac and specific lunar month, while the vowels

represent seasons as well as the “trees particularly sacred to the White Goddess.” 19 The

merging of letters and trees is not a new concept, but in his description of each letter Graves

weaves in ideas from Assyrian sculptures, Greek mystery cults, Shakespearean poetry and a

variety of other cultures.20 The supposed authenticity of Graves’ calendar does not solely rest

on its links to ancient Druidic astrology, but instead to syncretic links between a myriad of

world religions. Graves does not lay out specific divination practices, but his ideas are the

foundation for many interpretations of the meaning behind the symbols. A popular Ogham

deck, the Celtic Tree Oracle, claims to be “based on ancient Celtic wisdom” but is largely rooted

in Graves’ Celtic Tree Calendar.21 In reality, Graves’ theories are based off of a flawed alphabet

and run counter to solid evidence for Vedic forms of Celtic astrology, yet they continue to

garner a high amount of respect. Graves is not the only example of a preference for poets over

professors in the Druid revival; it is an oft-repeated pattern.

The complex history and fragmentation of the Druid revival has resulted in a wide range

of responses to this conflict between Celtic authenticity and modern practice. The Druid revival

has its roots in 18th century Romanticism, largely as a response to rapid industrialization. Early
18
Peter B. Ellis, “The Fabrication of ‘Celtic’ Astrology,” accessed April 4, 2021, http://cura.free.fr/xv/13ellis2.html
19
Robert Graves, The White Goddess: a Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth (London: Faber & Faber, 1961), 166,
189.
20
Graves, The White Goddess, 194-195.
21
“Celtic Tree Oracle,” Tarot Totes, accessed April 3, 2021, https://www.tarottotes.com/item.asp?iid=2797;
Gefensdottir, “Deck Review: Celtic Tree Oracle by Sharlyn Hidalgo and Jimmy Manton,” Adventures in Vanaheim,
WordPress, published June 11, 2017, https://adventuresinvanaheim.wordpress.com/2017/06/11/deck-review-
celtic-tree-oracle-by-sharlyn-hidalgo-and-jimmy-manton/
organizations, such as the Ancient Order of Druids (1781), were based in freemason beliefs,

acting primarily as a social club for those holding Romantic ideals.22 Iolo Morganwg (1747-

1826), a Welsh poet with fictitious claims to ancestral Druidic knowledge, took the movement

in a more religious, ordered direction.23 The latter half of the 20th century was characterized by

fragmentation of organizations and gradual adoption of more eclectic neopagan beliefs. A

reverence for nature and ancestry is a broad link between organizations, but the emphasis on

the individual’s journey and practice allows for members to tie in a myriad of other belief

systems.24 Emic definitions of a Druid vary too; some organizations consider every member a

Druid while other groups require “years of study and practice” before the application of this

label.25 Given this wide diversity in beliefs and structures, every practitioner will have their own

response to internal contradictions. These responses, however, can be broadly divided into

three categories. A lack of knowledge is one ‘approach’ that is common among individual

practitioners. Some neo-Druidic literature asserts the Celtic authenticity of a particular practice

with flawed or non-existent evidence. One author, Danu Forest, discusses the uses of the

Ogham tree alphabet in divination, ironically citing a book from Ogham scholar Damien

McManus that explicitly discounts the historical authenticity of this idea. 26 The second approach

is one taken by the Celtic Reconstructionist movement; the removal of neopagan practices and

emphasis on historically accurate Celtic traditions. Reconstructionists participate in strong

22
“Druidry (modern),” The Spiritual Life, accessed March 30, 2021, https://slife.org/druidry/
23
James R. Lewis, “Celts, Druids and the Invention of Tradition,” in Handbook of Contemporary Paganism, ed.
Murphy Pizza and James Lewis (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 486.
24
“Common Practices and Beliefs within Druidry,” The Druid Network, accessed April 1, 2021,
https://druidnetwork.org/what-is-druidry/beliefs-and-definitions/articles/common-practice-and-beliefs-within-
druidry/.
25
“Are you a Druid?” The CR FAQ, accessed March 29, 2021, http://paganachd.com/faq/druids.html
26
Forest, Tree Magic; McManus, Guide to Ogam, 35-37. Forest cites pages 36 and 37 of McManus for the names of
Ogham symbols on multiple occasions, ignoring McManus’ critique of her “’alphabet vegetal’ fiction” (associating
each letter with a tree-name) on page 35.
boundary keeping, stating that eclecticism and syncretism are “absolutely not a part of [Celtic

Reconstructionism].”27 In relation to Ogham, the movement states the Robert Graves’ Celtic

Tree Calendar has “nothing to do with any of the early Celtic peoples,” instead encouraging an

approach to Ogham grounded in historical documents, folklore and scientific knowledge. 28 The

legitimacy of their practice is rooted in its authenticity, forcing them to establish strict

boundaries. The third approach is based on the idea that historical authenticity is not a

requirement for the validity of modern Druidic beliefs and practices; ancient and modern

practices are fundamentally different. This is the approach taken by many modern Druid groups

and is best explored in the large body of academic work written by members of the Ancient

Order of Druids in America (AODA).

The AODA was originally founded in 1912 as a primarily Masonic organization; the

Ancient Order of Masonic Druids in America (AMODA). 29 The organization was largely dormant

until 2003, when scholar John Michael Greer resurrected it.30 He served as the Grand Archdruid

until 2015, contributing enormous amounts of literature to the field of modern Druidry in that

time. Greer is a particularly interesting figure in his blunt honesty and unique perspective in

dealing with contradictions between ancient and modern practice. In an interview, he admits

27
“Does CR include syncretisms?” The CR FAQ, accessed March 29, 2021,
http://paganachd.com/faq/intermediate.html#syncretisms
28
“Do you use the Celtic Tree Calendar and Celtic Astrology?” The CR FAQ, accessed March 29, 2021,
http://paganachd.com/faq/misconceptions.html#treecalendar; Rhóisín and NicDhàna, “Tree Huggers”; The
divination outlined on this page still falls into the trap of assigning each letter to a tree, but does acknowledge the
wide range of associations each letter has, encouraging readers to conduct rigorous research and find one they
connect to.
29
Betty J.M. Reeves, “History and Heritage of the AODA,” Ancient Order of Druids in America, accessed April 2,
2021, https://aoda.org/history-heritage-of-the-aoda/
30
Dana O’Driscoll, “Letter from the New Grand Archdruid: Into the Future of AODA,” Trilithon 6 (2019): 4,
http://aoda.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/TrilithonVolIV2019_Web.pdf
“quiet deletions” and “a lot of mosaic work” was done in his resurrection of the organization. 31

The Masonic history of the AODA is acknowledged as well, but Greer believes “the AODO isn’t a

neopagan order.”32 Conversely, Greer states that AODO members “don’t pretend to be ancient

Druids”; he even explicitly denounces Druids claiming to hail from a continuous tradition. 33

Instead, Greer assert that the AODA is rooted in the Druid Revival, and more importantly, that

the Revival is both valid and distinct from ancient practice. A distinction between the “content

of a spiritual tradition” and “its pedigree” is drawn; the former does not rely on the latter to be

recognized as a valid tradition.34 The modern movement of nature spiritualty already has “three

centuries of…teaching and practices,” and if these practices have relevance and effectiveness

today, links to ancient Druids are not necessary.35 Greer still maintains some connection to the

ancient Celts, stating “the themes of modern tradition have roots in the past,” but places clear

boundaries between modern and ancient practices.36 Ogham divination is explicitly addressed

by Greer in The Druidry Handbook. He recognizes that Graves’ Celtic Tree Calendar lacks ancient

roots, but emphasizes that because it is useful to many modern Druids, it retains validity as a

practice. Thus, in his descriptions of each symbol, Greer openly states where each piece of

symbolism comes from, ranging from old Ogham texts to very modern developments.

According to Greer, the Ogham texts themselves ask students to “rework symbols to suit their

own experiences and needs,” and since these symbols are fundamentally “tools for…inner

31
Paul Angelini, “Interview with Grand Archdruid Emeritus John Michael Greer,” Trilithon 3 (2016): 12-13,
http://aoda.org/trilithon/Trilithon_Vol3_Web.pdf
32
Angelini, “Interview,” 18
33
“Frequently Asked Questions,” Ancient Order of Druids in America, accessed April 2, 2021,
https://aoda.org/aoda-membership/frequently-asked-questions/; Greer, “Druid Revival.”
34
Greer, “Druid Revival.”
35
“Frequently Asked Questions,” Ancient Order of Druids in America
36
John Michael Greer, The Druidry Handbook: Spiritual Practice Rooted in the Living Earth (Newburyport: Weiser
Books, 2006), 4.
transformation,” any combination of meanings, ancient or modern, are completely valid. 37

Greer’s boundary-keeping between ancient Druids and the Druid Revival has the paradoxical

effect of increasing the legitimacy of modern practices as well as creating a larger space for

individual interpretations of the movement.

Dana O’Driscoll is another prominent figure in the AODA, one that highlights the

individual-focused philosophy that underlies the distinction between ancient and modern

practice. O’Driscoll is the current Grand Archdruid of the AODA, previously serving as the chief

editor for the academic AODA journal, the Trilithon. 38 In her first public correspondence as the

Grand Archdruid, O’Driscoll encourages a degree of eclectic practice, stating Druidry is

“compatible with many other belief systems” and emphasizing the importance of member’s

development of their own personal practices.39 This is echoed in her personal work as well,

specifically in her creation of a tree-themed tarot deck.40 O’Driscoll argues that connection to

nature and to self are the core tenants of modern Druidry. An individual’s path is developed by

“exploring your own meanings and what resonates with you.”41 For the early members of the

Druid Revival, connection to a rapidly deteriorating environment in industrial Europe guided

their practices. The modern world elicits a different response in each individual; hence each

individual practice is just as valid as any other. Furthermore, O’Driscoll believes the

individualisation of practice is essential in the global world, especially in relation to Ogham. She

has developed her own Ogham meanings specific to the Appalachian Mountains, encouraging

37
Greer, Druidry Handbook, 84, 107
38
“Grand Grove Bios,” Ancient Order of Druids in America, accessed April 4, 2021, https://aoda.org/aoda-
structure/the-aoda-grand-grove/grand-grove-bios/
39
O’Driscoll, “Letter,” 3
40
“The Tarot of Trees,” accessed April 4. 2021, https://www.tarotoftrees.com
41
Dana O’Driscoll, “Connection as the Core Spiritual Philosophy in the Druid Tradition,” Trilithon 5 (2018): 47,
http://aoda.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/TrilithonVol5_2018.pdf
other to do the same in their own ecosystems.42 Another AODA writer encourages practitioners

to only study the traditional Irish Ogham after they “personally [know] the Ogham trees”

specific to their area.43 Prioritization of the individual’s needs further de-emphasizes the

reliance on ancient tradition as a measure of legitimacy, consequently allowing for expansion of

Ogham divination beyond its traditional roots.

The creation of historical lineages, real or invented, is a legitimation strategy that occurs

in nearly all major religious traditions.44 Even occultism, a movement that engages with wide

variety of sources, still asserts that truth can only be found in the ancients. The Druid Revival

was born into a similar philosophy but has matured into a religious tradition that can stand on

its own two legs. The lack of a concrete pantheon, wide accessibility of a personal connection to

nature and emphasis on individual practice have created a movement that is appealing to a

growing group that prioritizes spirituality over religion. The current climate crisis provides an

interesting catalyst for further adaptations to modern Druidry, one that will likely cement its

merits as a modern, legitimate practice.

42
Dana O’Driscoll, “The Allegheny Mountain Ogham: An Ogham for the Northern Appalachian Mountains in the
Eastern USA,” The Druid’s Garden, WordPress, accessed April 4, 2021,
https://druidgarden.wordpress.com/2020/06/21/the-allegheny-ogham-an-ogham-for-the-northern-appalachian-
mountains-in-the-eastern-usa/
43
Dana Wyninger, “A Local Ogham, Finding Your Area’s Sacred Plants,” Trilithon 1 (2014): 31,
http://aoda.org/trilithon/TrilithonVol1_Web.pdf
44
Lewis, “Celts,” 491
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