Chapter Three

This chapter entails the basis of transmission of electromagnetic waves based on Maxwell’s
equations, antenna theories, formulas, calculations and the types of antennas used for VHF, UHF
and digital TVs. It also contains diagrams and values of a stimulated antenna from text books.
The most vital piece of equipment in a network is the access point. This is the device that
serves as a bridge between the wireless and the wired network. It has all the logic and the
transmitter necessary for radiating the EM waves. The radiating elements of an access point are
the antennas attached to it. In fact, an antenna’s properties are the same in either operating mode
that is in both radiating and receiving. This is true because Maxwell’s equations are symmetric
with respect to time. When reading antenna specifications the most common unit we find is
P
dB=10 log 10 1 . The three decibel (dB) units usually encountered are dBm where we
P2
compare power to 1mW, dBi where antenna gain is compared with an isotropic radiator and dBd
where antenna gain is compared to a dipole antenna. Where P1 and P2 are the power output and
power input respectively
Antenna gain and loss measurement

Antenna gain is the amount of increase in energy that an antenna appears to add to an RF
signal. The gain of an antenna (in any given direction) is defined as the ratio of the power gain in
a given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in the same direction, or unless
otherwise specified, the gain refers to the direction of maximum radiation. Gain is a
dimensionless factor related to power and usually expressed in decibels. It is standard practice to
use an isotropic radiator as the reference antenna in this definition.

For microwave and higher frequency antennas, gain is usually expressed in dB dipole (dBd).
A dipole is the smallest, simplest, most practical type of antenna that can be made, but that also
exhibits the least amount of gain. A dipole has a fixed gain over that of an isotropic radiator of
2.15 db.

To convert any number from dBd to dBi, simply add 2.14 to the dBd number. Also when a
single number is stated for the gain of an antenna, it is assumed that this is the maximum gain
(the gain in the direction of the maximum radiation). Antenna Gain=¿. Where P is the power
delivered to the actual antenna, P0 is the power delivered to the reference antenna. S and S0 are
the power received in both steps.

It also depends on the strength or the power with which the transmitter is sending the signal,
amount of reduction in signal strength caused by cables, connectors, and other components,
transmission medium (atmosphere or free-space), and the minimum strength of the signal
required by the receiver to be able to properly recover the data sent by the transmitter. An
amplifier boosts the power of a signal; when this happens, the effect is called a gain. Likewise,
cables and connectors offer a resistance to the flow of electricity and therefore, they tend to
decrease the power of a signal. This decrease is called a loss.

In RF, you have to give up something to gain something else. In antenna gain, this comes in the
form of coverage angle, known as beamwidth. Beamwidth is defined as the area or angle in
which the majority of the signal is transmitted. As the gain of an antenna goes up, the beamwidth
angle goes down, allowing further distances to be achieved (at the expense of other directions).

The 3-dB beamwidth (or half-power beamwidth) of an antenna is typically defined for each of
the principal planes. The 3-dB beamwidth in each plane is defined as the angle between the
points in the main lobe that are down from the maximum gain by 3 dB, or the angle between two
vectors from the pattern’s origin to the points of the major lobe where the radiation intensity is
half its maximum. It is often used to describe the antenna resolution properties and it is important
in radar technology, radio astronomy, etc. First null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between
two vectors, originating at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its base, and often
FNBW ≈ 2(HPBW).

The 3-dB beamwidth plot in the figure (1) below shows the angle between the two blue lines in
the polar plot. In this example, the 3-dB beamwidth in this plane is about 37 degrees. Antenna
with wide beamwidths typically has low gain and antenna with narrow beamwidths tend to have
higher gain. In this figure two different representations of radiation patterns are shown. The
quantity plotted is antenna gain in all directions with respect to the maximum gain (at 0◦). The
figure shows the different lobes of the antenna as well as the 3dB-beamwidth.

Radiation Pattern of Antenna

Figure: 1 (Radiation patterns in polar and Cartesian coordinates)

 Gain, Directivity, Radiation Efficiency

The radiation intensity, directivity and gain are measures of the ability of an antenna to
concentrate power in a particular direction, directivity relates to the power radiated by antenna (
P0 ) and gain relates to the power delivered to antenna ( PT ). η is the radiation efficiency.
PT
G ( ϑ , ϕ )=η D ( ϑ , ϕ ) Where η= is the antenna gain and effective area.
P0

Effective area is the measure of the effective absorption area presented by an antenna to an
A
incident plane wave and depends on the antenna gain and wavelength. e=¿ ⋋ G (θ ,ϑ )〔 m 〕¿ Aperture
2
2
4π
Ae
efficiency:ηa = where A: physical area of antenna’s aperture, square meters Power Transfer
A
G T PT ⋋ 2 G R
e (
in Free Space. P R=PFD ( A )=
4 π r2)( )
4π
=P T GT GR ¿. λ: wavelength [m], PR: power available

at the receiving antenna, PT: power delivered to the transmitting antenna, GR: gain of the
transmitting antenna in the direction of the receiving antenna, GT: gain of the receiving antenna
in the direction of the transmitting antenna and matched polarizations. (Basic Antenna Theory by
Ryszard Struzak)

Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the range of frequencies over which the antenna can
operate correctly. The antenna's bandwidth is the number of Hz for which the antenna will
exhibit an SWR less than 2:1. The bandwidth can also be described in terms of percentage of the
F H −F L
frequency of the band. Bw=100 × . Where F H the highest frequency in the band is, F L is
FC
the lowest frequency in the band, and F C is the center frequency in the band. In this way,
bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If bandwidth was expressed in absolute units of
frequency, it would be different depending upon the center frequency. Different types of
antennas have different bandwidth limitations. (Chapter 4: Antennas and Transmission lines)

Return loss

The return loss is another way of expressing mismatch. It is a logarithmic ratio measured in dB
that compares the power reflected by the antenna to the power that is fed into the antenna from
the transmission line. The relationship between SWR and return loss is the following:
SWR
Return Loss ( ¿ dB )=20 log 10 . SWR is the standing wave ratio. (Chapter 4: Antennas
SWR−1
and Transmission lines)

Polarization Efficiency
 The power received by an antenna from a particular direction is maximal if the polarization of
the incident wave and the polarization of the antenna in the wave arrival direction have the same
axial ratio, the same sense of polarization and the same spatial orientation.

Power transfer

The maximum power is delivered to (or from) the antenna when the antenna impedance and the
impedance of the equivalent generator (or load) are matched. When the impedances are matched
half of the source power is delivered to the load and half is dissipated within the (equivalent)
generator as heat. In the case of receiving antenna, a part of the power captured is lost as heat in
the antenna elements, the other part being reradiated (scattered) back into space. Even when the
antenna losses tend to zero, still only half of the power captured is delivered to the load (in the
case of conjugate matching), the other half being scattered back into space. The antenna
impedance must be matched to the transmitter output impedance (or to the receiver input
impedance) and to transmission line between them to assure effective power transfer.
Inexpensive impedance-matching devices are usually narrow-band.

Radiation efficiency

The radiation efficiency (e) indicates how efficiently the antenna uses the RF power. It is the
ratio of the power radiated by the antenna and the total power delivered to the antenna terminals
Rr
(in transmitting mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters: e= where Rr is the
Rr + Rl
power radiated by the antenna and Rr + R l is the total power delivered to the antenna terminals

Antenna Size and Shapes

The size and shape of an antenna depend on three characteristics: Frequency on which the
antenna will transmit and receive direction of the radiated electromagnetic wave, power with
which the antenna must transmit. The size of an antenna is inversely proportional to the
wavelength of the signal it is designed to transmit or receive. Lower frequency signals require
larger antennas.
Wavelength

The wavelength is defined as the length of a single frequency sine wave. The wavelength
determines the size of an antenna. An antenna transmits and receives a signal most efficiently at
a specific frequency when it is as long as the full length of the wave, which is called a full-wave
antenna. In most cases, this is not practical. For practical reasons, antennas are more commonly
designed to be half-wave antennas, quarter-wave antennas, or eighth-wave antennas. The wave
C
length is related to frequency as  λ=  , λ : wave length, c: speed of light, F: frequency
F

Antenna Performance

Antenna performance is a measure of how efficiently an antenna can radiate a signal. The
design, installation, size, and type of antenna can affect its performance.
.
Radiation Patterns

An antenna pattern is a graphic that indicates the direction, width, and shape of the frequency
signal beam coming from the antenna. Antennas emit signals in two dimensions: horizontally
and vertically. Antenna specifications almost always state the vertical beam angle that a
particular antenna emits. The radiation pattern of antenna is shown in figure: 1 above

Polarization

The polarization of an antenna in a specific direction is defined to be the polarization of the

wave produced by the antenna at a great distance at that direction or Antenna polarization is the
orientation of the wave leaving the antenna or Polarization is the orientation of electromagnetic
waves far from the source. (Antenna basics)
There are several types of polarization that apply to antennas. They are linear, which
comprises, vertical, horizontal, and circular polarization is most important to get the maximum
performance from the antennas. For linear polarization, the antenna radiates the electric field of
the emitted wave to a particular orientation also it occurs when the direction of the electric or
magnetic vector is constant. (Antenna Basics)

For circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the wave through
all possible values of its orientation with respect to the earth’s surface. However, circular
polarization can be generated from a linearly polarised antenna by feeding the antenna by two
ports with equal magnitude and with a 90 degrees phase difference between them. (Fundamentals
of Antennas, CEDAR, Department of electrical engineering, University of Mississippi. Ahemed
A. Kishk)

In vertical polarization; the sine waves will travel up and down when leaving the antenna.
(Antenna Basics)

In horizontal polarization, the sine waves travel from side to side on a horizontal plane.

Polarization ellipse is the superposition of two coherent plane-wave components results in an

elliptically polarized wave. The polarization ellipse is defined by its axial ratio, the tilt angle and
sense of rotation Polarization.

The most efficient signal transmission and reception is experienced when the transmitting and
receiving antennas are equally polarized.There are two fields that will radiate from the antenna,
the electrical field and the magnetic field. Polarization of the antenna or the orientation of the
electric filed (E- plane) of the wave is determined by physical structure of the antenna and its
orientation with respect to the surface of the earth. For best performance matching up the
polarization of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna needs to be done.
 At any moment in a chosen reference point in space, there is actually a single electric vector E
(and associated magnetic vector H). This is the result of superposition (addition) of the
instantaneous fields E (and H) produced by all radiation sources active at the moment. The
separation of fields by their wavelength, polarization, or direction is the result of ‘filtration’.

Maxwell’s Equations

The radiating elements of an access point are the antennas attached to it. Antenna’s properties
are the same in either operating mode that is in both radiating and receiving. This is true because
Maxwell’s equations are symmetric with respect to time. Maxwell equations are the basis for
understanding all electromagnetic phenomena. All electrical and electronic devices available
today are possible because of the application of Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell equations explain
the relation between electric and magnetic field.

In communication networks, apart from the electronics involved, Maxwell’s equations explain
the phenomena of electromagnetic waves that make Communications networks possible.
Maxwell’s equations are the core of communication technology. The following are Maxwell’s
−∂ B ∂D
equations in differential form. ∇ ∙ D=ρ, ∇ × E= , ∇ ∙ B=0, ∇ × H= j+
∂t ∂t

In these equations we have the following quantities are E: electric field intensity, D: electric
field Density, H: magnetic field intensity, B: magnetic field Density, ρ: electric charge Density, j:
electric current density. And also the relation between intensity and density for both fields,
D=ε ε 0 E and from the electromagnetic spectrum B=μ μ0 H

Maxwell equations and with the condition that ρ = 0 and j = 0, the wave equations for the
2 ∂2 E 2 ∂2 E
electrical and magnetic fields in matter is ∇ E=ε ε 0 μ μ0 2 and ∇ B=ε ε 0 μ μ 0 2 .
∂t ∂t

The speed with which the electromagnetic wave propagates in matter is c wherec 2=¿ .Here
c 0=¿ is the speed of the wave in vacuum also knows as the speed of light and n=√ εμ is the
index of refraction. The general solution for these equations is a superposition of plane waves:
E ( r , t )=∑ E0 (k , ω)e i(k .r −ωt)
k,ω

B ( r ,t )=∑ B0 (k ,ω)e i(k .r −ωt)

k ,ω
2 2
ω=k c . From the above equations above, the following relation can be deduced to
k × E 0 ( k , ω )=−ω B 0(k , ω).This is the most important property about the EM wave: the vectors
E, B and k are all perpendicular to each other in the figure below. The wave propagates in the
direction of vector k with speed c. The EM wave can be characterized by its frequency ν or
ω ω 2π
wavelength λ :c= = =ν λ
k 2π k
 Figure: 2 (The EM wave)

Communication networks use electromagnetic waves with a specific frequency. The EM

spectrum ranges from the very low (long radio waves) to the very high frequencies (gamma rays
in the figure below.

Figure: 3(The electromagnetic spectrum)

 Figure:4(Range of frequency bands and their usage)

The Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band has long been used for voice, data and video
communication. The lower frequency band of the UHF which is the 470 – 890 MHz is used for
terrestrial TV broadcast. The conventional UHF antennas for receiving TV signals are quite large
and directional. The dipole antenna is one of the omnidirectional that can be easily designed.
This project report describes a conventional UHF antenna for receiving TV signals. One of the
applications of a one way wireless communication is the terrestrial television.

Terrestrial television which is also known as over-the-air(OTA) or broadcast television, is the

method of television broadcast signal (can be analog or digital) delivery by using radio waves
from broadcast stations to televisions at homes using air as the medium. In terrestrial TV system,
the transmitters (broadcast stations) are transmitting the TV signal with high power and very tall
antenna transmitters located on the ground to transmit radio waves to the surrounding area.
Viewers can pick up the signal with a much smaller antenna. The main limitation of broadcast
television is range. The frequency range used by the terrestrial television includes the very high
frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF).

The most common antennas used for receiving TV signals are the Yagi-Uda antenna (variation
of the dipole antenna) which is traditionally placed on the roof of the house.

Antenna elements are based on the size of the waves they are designed to receive. Meaning
that, the lower the frequency, the longer the wave length and a larger antenna surface is required
to receive the waves. UHF TV antennas are significantly large and are intended for roof- or attic-
mounting. The UHF band spanning from 470 MHz - 890 MHz is used for terrestrial TV
broadcast.
TV Antenna Basics

There is no one antenna or antenna type that will deliver excellent TV reception in every
location. The main factors determining reception are the distance and direction from the TV
station transmitters to your home. Other factors include the transmitter's power and the height of
 its tower, the terrain between the tower and your antenna, and the size and location of any large
buildings in the path of the transmission. If the receiver is a few kilometres from the transmitter,
and the signal path is relatively unobstructed, you may be able to get adequate reception using a
small set-top indoor antenna. But as you move farther away, getting usable signal strength
becomes trickier. This is where careful antenna selection and installation becomes very essential.

Terrestrial TV signals can be broadcast over two different frequency ranges: VHF (Very High
Frequency) and UHF (Ultra High Frequency). The VHF channel range is 2- 13, while the UHF
range is 14-83. Over 90% of the stations currently most broadcasting are done in the UHF
frequency band, meaning it can receive them with a UHF antenna. The frequency divisions for
the UHF TV are given in table below. Antenna elements are based on the size of the waves they
are designed to receive, and lower frequencies are lower so the waves are longer, requiring a
larger antenna surface to receive them. It is possible to build a much more elaborate UHF
antenna with more elements for stronger reception while keeping the antenna size physically
manageable. (Design And Development Of Fractal Antenna For Ultra High Frequency Band
Application, by Mohammed Kamal. A. Rahim)

Channe Frequency/M Channel Frequency/M channel Frequency/M chann Frequency/MH

ls Hz s Hz s Hz el z
14 470 - 476 32 578 – 584 50 668 – 692 68 794 – 800
15 476 - 482 32 584 – 590 51 692 -698 69 800 – 806
16 482 - 488 34 590 – 596 52 698 – 704 70 806 – 812
17 488 - 494 35 596 – 602 53 704 – 710 71 812 – 818
18 494 - 500 36 602 -608 54 710 – 716 72 818 -824
19 500 - 506 37 608 – 614 55 716 – 722 73 824 – 830
20 506 - 512 38 614 – 620 56 722 – 728 74 830 -836
21 512 - 518 39 620 – 626 57 728 – 734 75 836 -842
22 518 -524 40 626 – 632 58 734 – 740 76 842 – 848
23 524 - 530 41 632 – 638 59 740 – 746 77 848 – 854
24 530 - 536 42 638 – 644 60 746 – 752 78 854 – 860
25 536 -542 43 644 – 650 61 752 – 758 79 860 – 866
26 542 – 548 44 650 – 656 62 758 – 764 80 866 – 872
27 548 – 554 45 656 – 662 63 764 – 770 81 872 – 878
28 554 – 560 46 662 – 668 64 770 – 776 82 878 – 884
29 560 – 566 47 668 – 674 65 776 – 782 83 884 – 890
30 566 – 572 48 674 – 680 66 782 – 788
31 572 - 578 49 680 – 686 67 788 – 794

TABLE: 1
Construction of an Antenna
 Antennas can be constructed in many different ways, ranging from simple wires, parabolic
dishes, coffee or even tin cans. The two categories of applications considered when constructing
an antenna.

The two application categories are point- to- point and base station. Each one of them suggests
different types of antennas for different purpose. Base stations are used for multipoint access and
there are two choices, which are omnidirectional antennas which radiates equally in all
directions, or sectorial antennas which focus into a small area. In the Point-to-Point case,
antennas are used to connect two single locations together. Directive antennas are the primary
choice for this application. (Antenna Basics)

Building a high gain HD Antenna

Antennas used to receive signals are constructed with three main parts: the elements, mast and
reflector. The reflector is the key element in constructing this type of antenna. It acts as a mirror
to direct the HD broadcast signals back to the elements, this dramatically increasing the antenna's
ability to pull in or boost weak signals from the broadcast towers. Constructing an antenna with a
solid reflector will boost your HDTV's signal reception and picture quality. (By Billy Brainard,
www. eHow.com.htm)

The fol1owing materials are needed to build this antenna:1 x 2 board, 8 feet long , Measuring
tape, Pencil , Wood saw, 14 wood screws, 1.5 inches long , Screwdriver ,1 roll wire mesh, 36
inches wide , Utility staple gun , 1 x 4 wood board, 4 feet long , 14 gauge insulated copper wire,
5 feet ,Wire cutters , Utility knife , Pliers , 14 washers, 1 inch diameter ,75 Ohm balun.

Procedure

First step, measure, mark and cut the 1 x 2 board into four pieces which each measure 30
inches long. Lay the pieces down flat so the corners touch and form a square and attach the four
corners together by tightening a screw into each corner with the screwdriver.
Second step, roll out a layer of the wire mesh over the square wood frame. Cut the mesh to fit,
and secure the mesh to the frame by stapling it every three inches. The framed wire mesh
becomes the reflector for the antenna.
Third step, measure, marks, and cut the 1 x 4 board to 36 inches long. Lay the board flat on the
table and label one end as the top front. Turn the board over and label the same end, opposite
side, as the top back. This will be guide or guide you as you construct the antenna. This board
will be the mast for the antenna.
Fourth step, lay the 1 x 4 board flat on the table so the labelled back side faces upwards. Lay
the framed wire mesh on the board and center it. Slide the frame so one edge is flush with the
labelled top end of the mast. Attach the framed mesh to the mast using two screws and tightening
them down where the wood frame crosses over the mast.
Fifth step, turn the mast over so the front faces upwards. Measure down from the top end and
make a single mark at the 4, 8, 12, and 16 inch measurements. Make the mark 1/2 inch from
 the left edge of the board. Repeat this step to make four additional marks down the right edge
of the board. When complete, there will be eight pairs of marks.

Sixth step, measure and cut eight pieces of copper wire that are 14 inches long. Cut away two
inches of insulators directly in the center of each wire. Using the pliers, bend them in the center
to form the shape of a V. Bend each wire until there is exactly a three-inch spread between the
end of each leg, or top of the V.
Seventh step, attach one of the V-shaped wires to each of the eight marks on the front of the
mast. Attach them to the mast, by tightening down a screw and a washer until the washer
clamps it against the mast.

Eighth step, cut a new piece of copper wire measure 20 inches long, and strip one inch of wire
from one end. Attach this end of the wire under the screw that is in the top right corner of the
mast. Cross this same wire over and attach it to the two middle screws on the left side of the
mast.

Ninth step, cross the wire back and attach it under the screw in the bottom right corner. At
each location where the wire is attached under a screw, strip one inch of insulation away with
the knife.

Tenth step, repeat step eight and attach an identical copper wire to the mast, starting with the
screw in the top-left corner and finishing with the screw in the bottom-left corner.

Final step, attach the two wires from the balun to the third set of wood screws from the top of
the mast. Tight one wire each under the screw. Attach the coaxial cable from the TV to the
female connector on the balun. Turn the TV on, position the front of the antenna (side with the
elements) in the direction of the broadcast towers and test for reception.