Neral Issues On Environment and Ecology

04-11-2020
1 Environment and Ecology
2 Environment
• Environment has been derived from a French word
“Environia” = to surround.
• Environment = surroundings, in which organisms live.
3 Environment
 Environment is the natural component in which biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors
interact among themselves and with each other.


•
4 In biological sense
 Environment constitutes
 Physical factors (nutrients, water, air)
 Biological factors (biomolecules, organisms)
 Chemical interactions (chemical cycles – carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.)
 that affect an organism or a group of organisms.
•
5 Finally
• All organisms are dependent on the environment to carry out their natural life processes and to
meet their physical requirements like
• Food
• Energy
• Water
• Oxygen
• Shelter etc.
•
•
6 Three important constituents environment.

• (a) Physical
•
• (b) Biological
•
• (c) Social
7 Physical
• The Physical Constituent of environment includes

• Soil
• Water
1
04-11-2020
Water
• Air
• Temperature
• Light etc.
•
• These are also called abiotic constituents of the environment.
8 Physical
• This part of the environment mainly determines the type of the habitat .
• This physical constituent of the environment is again divided into three parts as
• (i) Lithosphere (solid)
•
• (ii) Hydrosphere (liquid)
•
• (iii) Atmosphere (gas)
•
•
9 Habitat
• Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives.

• Habitat = address of an organism
• Many habitats = environment.
•
10 Habitat
• A single habitat may be common for more than one organism which have similar requirements.
• Example = a single aquatic habitat may support a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton and many
others.
• The various species sharing a habitat thus have the same ‘address’. E.g. Forest, river etc.
11 Biological
• This component consists of all living things like
• Plants
• Animals
• Micro-organisms like bacteria.
•
• The biological constituent of environment is also called biotic component of environment.
12 Biological
• This component(biotic) interacts with the abiotic component of the environment.
•
• This interaction of two components forms various ecosystems like
2
04-11-2020
This interaction of two components forms various ecosystems like

• Pond ecosystem
• Marine ecosystem
• Desert ecosystem etc.
Biotic  Abiotic = Ecosystem
13 Social
• The social constituent of environment mainly consists of various groups of population of
different living organisms like birds, animals etc.
• Man is the most intelligent living organism.
• Man is a social animal as told by Greek philosopher, Aristotle.
•
14 Four important zones.

• The three components of the environment give rise to four important zones.
• 1. Atmosphere
• 2. Hydrosphere
• 3. Lithosphere
• 4. Biosphere.
•
• There is continuous interaction among these four zones.
15 Biosphere
• The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of earth which includes the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
• The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth.
• Life is the characteristic feature of biosphere.
•
16 Biosphere
• Biosphere is absent at extremes of the
• 1.North and South poles
• 2.The highest mountains
• 3.The deepest oceans
• Existing hostile conditions there do not support life
•
17 Internal and external environment

• External environment
• Internal environment
•
• Example:
• Let’s take the environment of a fish in the pond.
18 External environment of fish
• Its environment consists of abiotic components such as

• Light
• Temperature
3
04-11-2020
• Water in which nutrients

• Oxygen
• Other gases
• Dissolved organic matter
•
• Its environment consists of biotic components such as
• Microscopic organisms = plankton
• Aquatic plants
• Aquatic animals
• Decomposers.
19 Internal environment of fish
• It is enclosed by the outer body surface.

• The internal environment is relatively stable as compared to the external environment.
• However, it is not absolutely constant = Injury, illness or excessive stress upsets the internal
environment.
• Example, if a marine fish is transferred to a fresh water environment, it will not be able to survive.
20 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community
of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials
between them.
• It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro-organisms, water, soil, and people.
• Producers
• Consumers
• Decomposers
•
•
21 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem can be of any size but usually encompasses specific and limited species.
• E.g. Aquatic Ecosystem.
• In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and
energy flows.
• Everything that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements that are
also part of that ecological community.
• If one part of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an impact on everything else.
• Ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large as entire forest.
•
22 Ecology
• ‘Oikos’ (Greek) = home or place to live in
• ‘logos’ = study.
•
4
04-11-2020
• Ecology = the study of the home of nature.

•
• Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each
other and with their environment.”
•
• It deals with the ways in which organisms are moulded by their environment, how they make use
of environmental resources including energy flow and mineral cycling.
23 Difference between Ecology, Environment & Ecosystem

• Ecology = scientific study of student’s relationship with the Srichaitanya IAS Academy.
• Environment = Srichaitanya IAS Academy
• Ecosystem = set of circumstances surrounding the student like teachers, books, benches and
other students, etc
24 Components of an Ecosystem
• The components of the ecosystem are categorized into abiotic or non-living and biotic or living
components.
• Both the components of the ecosystem and environment are the same.
•
25 Abiotic Components
• Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts of the world.
• a) Energy
• b) Rainfall
• c) Temperature
• d) Atmosphere
• e) Substratum
• f) Materials
• g) Latitude and altitude
• h) Salinity
•
26 Energy
• Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.

• In the case of plants, the sun directly supplies the necessary energy.
• Since animals cannot use solar energy directly they obtain it indirectly by eating plants or
animals or both.
• Energy determines the distribution of organisms in the environment.
• The spectral quality of solar radiation is important for life.
• The UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many organisms.
•
27 Rainfall
5
04-11-2020
• Water is essential for all living beings.

• Majority of biochemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium.
• Water helps to regulate body temperature.
• Further, water bodies form the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals.
28 Temperature
• Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which greatly influences survival of organisms.
• Organisms can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and humidity.
• A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures (eurythermal).
• A vast majority of them are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (stenothermal).
•
•
•
29 Atmosphere
• The earth’s atmosphere is responsible for creating conditions suitable for the existence of a
healthy biosphere on this planet.
• Oxygen helps in the survival of many organisms
• Carbon dioxide helps primary producers in the synthesis of carbohydrates.
30 Substratum
• Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and small animals
(invertebrates) thrive in it.
• Roots of plants pierce through the soil to absorb water and nutrients.
• Organisms can be terrestrial or aquatic.
• Terrestrial animals live on land.
• Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in fresh water as well as in the sea.
31 Materials
• (i) Organic compound such as Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc. are essential for energy transfer
in the living world.
•
• (ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates, and ions of
various metals are essential for organisms to survive.
•
32 Latitude and altitude
• Latitude
• Latitude has a strong influence on an area’s temperature, resulting in change of climates such as
polar, tropical, and temperate.
• These climates determine different natural biomes.
• Altitude
• From sea level to highest peaks, wild life is influenced by altitude.
6
04-11-2020
• As the altitude increases, the air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life accordingly.
• Vertical zonation of vegetation is caused due to altitude.
• Change in temperature with altitude is a limiting factor.
•
33 Salinity
• Some organisms are tolerant of a wide range of salinities (euryhaline).

• Others are restricted to a narrow range of salinities (stenohaline).
34 Biotic Components
• Primary producers or Autotrophs (self-nourishing)

• Primary producers are green plants, certain bacteria and algae that carry out photosynthesis.
• In the aquatic ecosystem, microscopic algae (plankton) are the primary producers.
• Consumers or Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs (other nourishing)
• Consumers are incapable of producing their own food.
• They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both.
• Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro consumers.
•
• Macro consumers = They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorized on the basis of
their food sources.
• Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants. E.g. sheep, rabbit, etc.
• Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers. E.g. wolves, dogs, snake, etc.
• Carnivores which feed on both primary and secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers.
E.g. lion (can eat wolves), snakes etc.
• Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals. E.g. man, bear, pig, etc.
• Micro consumers or Saprotrophs (decomposers or osmotrophs)

• They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic substances
(detritus).
• Earthworm and certain soil organisms are detritus feeders and help in the decomposition of
organic matter and are called detrivores.
37 Limiting factor
• A lot of factors determine the survival of an organism.

• One single factor can limit the range of an organism.
• This single factor is called as a limiting factor.
38 Limiting factor
• Example:
7
04-11-2020
Example:
• 1. Seeds don’t germinate quickly in evergreen rain forests in spite of good rains and vegetation
as the surface soil is heavily leached
• Here, poor soil is the limiting factor.
• 2. Germinated saplings may not survive due to lack of light because of the dense canopy.
• Here, the absence of light is the limiting factor.
39 Ecology – Principles and Organizations
• Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the relationship of the living organisms with each other
and with their environment.”
40 Individual
• Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to function.

• It may be plant, animal, bacterium, fungi, etc.
• It is a body made up of organs or other parts that work together to carry out on the various
processes of life.
•
•
41 Population
• Population is a group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying a defined area during
a specific time.
42 Population
• Population growth rate is the percentage variation between the number of individuals in a
population at two different times.
• Therefore the population growth rate can be positive or negative.
• Population growth rate can be positive due to birth and/or immigration or negative due to death
and/or emigration.
• The main limiting factors for the growth of a population are abiotic and biotic components.
• Population density is the relation between the number of individuals of a population and the
area they occupy.
•
43 Pug marks
• In the case of large, mobile animals like tigers, leopards, lions, deer etc., the population density
may be determined by counting the pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the animals in a defined
area.
•
44 Pug marks
• Study of pug marks can provide the following information reliably
• Presence of different species in the area of study.
• Identification of individual animals.
• Population of large cats (tigers, lions etc.).
• Sex ratio and age (young or adult) of large cats
45 Community
8
04-11-2020
• Population of plants and animals seldom occur by themselves.

• In order to survive, individuals of any one species depend on individuals of different species with
which they actively interact in several ways.
• Example:
• 1. Animals require plants for food and trees for shelter.
• 2. Plants require animals for pollination, seed dispersal and soil microorganism to facilitate
nutrient supply.
•
46 Community
• Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form (species).
• For example: A grassland community is dominated by grasses, though it may contain herbs,
shrubs, and trees, along with associated animals of different species.
47 Types of Community
• On the basis of size and degree of relative independence communities may be divided into two
types:
• (a) Major Community
• These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent.
• They depend only on the sun’s energy from outside and are independent of the inputs and
outputs from adjacent communities.
• E.g: tropical ever green forest
• (b) Minor Communities
• These are dependent on neighbouring communities and are often called societies.
• E.g: A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad.
•
•
48 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community

of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials
between them.
49
Goods and Services provided by ecosystems
• Provision of food and fuel

• Provision of shelter and building materials
• Purification of air and water
• Decomposition of wastes
• Stabilization and moderation of the Earth’s climate
9
04-11-2020
Stabilization and moderation of the Earth’s climate

• Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient cycling.
• Pollination of plants, including many crops
• Control of pests and diseases
• Cultural and aesthetic benefits
50 Biome
• Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into ‘biomes’.

• A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area.
• The boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
• Biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within
specific conditions.
• These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions.
• Plants and animals in a biome have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be
found over a range of continents.
• Some of the major biomes of the world are:
• Forest
• Grassland
• Desert
• Tundra.
•
51 Biosphere
• The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic matter
produced by them.
52 Ecotone
• Ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two or more diverse ecosystems.
• Examples:
• Mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
• Grassland (between forest and desert)
• Estuary (between fresh water and salt water)
• Riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet).
53 Characteristics of Ecotone
• It may be very narrow or quite wide.

• It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems.
• Hence it is a zone of tension.
• It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species composition of one in coming community
and a simultaneous decrease in species of the other out going adjoining community.
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms which are entirely different from that of the
adjoining communities.
54 Edge effect
10
04-11-2020
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species is much
greater in this zone than either community = edge effect
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.
• In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between the
forest and the desert.
55 Ecocline
• Ecocline is a physical transition zone.

• It is a variation of the physical Environment.
• Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when there
is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.
• Ecocline occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as
altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc.).
•
•
56 Difference between Ecotone and Ecocline

• Ecotone is basically related with variation in species prevalence
• Ecocline is related majorly with variation of (halocline) salinity, (thermocline) temperature,
(pycnocline)density of water etc.
57 Ecological Niche
• Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.
• The functional characteristics of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that common
habitat.
• In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions
• Niche plays an important role in the conservation of organisms. If we have to conserve species in
its native habitat, we should have knowledge about the niche requirements of the species.
58 Difference between niche and habitat
• The habitat of a species is like its ‘address’ (i.e. where it lives) whereas niche can be thought of as
its “profession” (i.e. activities and responses specific to the species).
• A niche is unique for a species while many species share the habitat.
• No two species in a habitat can have the same niche. This is because of the competition with one
another until one is displaced.
• For example, a large number of different species of insects may be pests of the same plant, but
they can co-exist as they feed on different parts of the same plant.
59 UPSC 2015
• Which one of the following is the best description of the term “ecosystem”?
• a) A community of organisms interacting with one another
• b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living organisms
• c) A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live.
• d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area.
11
04-11-2020
60 ANS
• c) A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live.
•
61 UPSC 2013
• Q. Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an
organism but also its functional role in the community of organisms?
• a) Ecotone
• b) Ecological niche
• c) Habitat
• d) Home range
62 Ans
• b) Ecological niche
•
•
•
• Ecotone – zone of transition between two ecosystems. E.g. grasslands, mangroves etc.
• Habitat – surroundings in which an organism lives (home).
• Home Range – A home range is an area in which an animal lives and moves on a daily or
periodic basis (a little bigger than habitat – home → office → home).
63 UPSC 2011
• Q. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
deciduous forest. This is because
• a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
• b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor viability
• c) the rain forest species are slow-growing
• d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of rain forest.
•
64 Ans
• a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
•
• Propagule ⇒ detachable structure that can give rise to a new plant, e.g. a bud
65 Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

 The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes.
 No two biomes are alike.
 They are characterized, by distinct climate (precipitation and temperature mainly), vegetation,
animal life and general soil type.
 The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and animals found
in each one of them.
•

 Forest
 Tropical Rain Forest Biome
12
04-11-2020
Tropical Rain Forest Biome

 Deciduous Forest Biome
 Taiga or Boreal Biome
 Grassland
 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
 Savanna Biome (Tropical Grasslands)



 Desert
 Desert Biome
 Tundra
 Tundra Biome
68 Tropical Rainforest Biome
• Earth’s most complex biome

• Also called as optimum biome = abundant moisture, water and heat throughout the year =>
continuous growth of plants
• High biodiversity
• Ideal for bacteria and other microorganisms => nutrients recycling
• No annual rhythm to the forest=>rather each species has evolved its own flowering and fruiting
seasons.
• Sunlight is a major limiting factor.
•
69 Climate
• Temperature :
• Mean annual temperature is around 20 °C
• Highest temperature of the year touches 30 °C
• The sun is more or less overhead throughout the year
• There is very little difference between the lengths of day and night
• Daily range of temperature varies between 5 °C and 10 °C
70 Climate
• Rainfall :
• The average rainfall is about >= 2000 mm
• Except 2 or 3 months generally every month receives rainfall of at least 2000mm.
• Most of the rainfall is through convectional mechanism
• Daily downpour.
71 Vegetation
• A vertical stratification of three layer of trees.
• Three layers have been identified as A, B, and C layers
• A layer: the emergent layer.
• Trees of 100 to 120 feet tall, with umbrella-shaped canopies.
13
04-11-2020
Trees of 100 to 120 feet tall, with umbrella-shaped canopies.

• B layer: a closed canopy of 80 foot trees.
• Light is readily available at the top of this layer, but greatly reduced below it.
• C layer: a closed canopy of 60 foot trees.
• There is little air movement
• Consequently humidity is constantly high.
72 Vegetation
• Shrub/sapling layer:
• < 3 % of the light intercepted at the top of the forest canopy passes to this layer.
• Rapid growth when a gap in canopy above them opens.
• Ground layer:
• <1% of the light that strikes the top of the forest penetrates to the forest floor.
• In such darkness few green plants grow.
73 Epiphyte
• An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its
moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
•
74 Common characteristics of tropical trees

• Buttresses:
• Broad, woody flanges at the base of the trunk.
• Gives support to the tree
• They help to send dissolved nutrients to the roots.
• Large leaves
• Common among trees of the C layer.
• The large leaf surface helps intercept light in lower strata of the forest.
• Towards the canopy new leaves will be smaller.
• Drip tips
• Facilitate drainage of precipitation off the leaf to promote transpiration.
• They occur in the lower layers
75 Deciduous Forest Biome

• Forests in which majority of trees shed their leaves, after a particular season are called as
deciduous forests.
• Plants usually grow in the warm temperate climate with abundant moisture and produces new
leaves and flowers in spring.
• In summer, long trees support the growth of shade-tolerant trees and plants by casting their
shade.
• Leaves fall off in autumn and provide required material for decomposers, soil bacteria.

• Especially in eastern North America is known for the turning of the colors of its leaves to brilliant
reds, oranges, and golds.
• Trees withdraw chlorophyll from their leaves, allowing a brief but beautiful display of other
pigments before the leaves are shed completely and plants enter an extended period of
dormancy.
14
04-11-2020
77 Climate
• Warm continental and humid subtropical climates.
• Rainfall : The 75 to 150 cm of precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year.
78 Flora and Fauna

• North American herbivores: include white-tail deer, gray squirrel, and chipmunk.
• Omnivores : include raccoon, opossum, skunk, and black bear.
• Carnivores: include timber wolves, mountain lions, and bobcats.
• Resident bird species: include woodpeckers and the chickadees, are cavity-nesters, blue jay.
• Migratory species: includes warblers, wrens, thrushes, tanagers, and hummingbirds.
• Tropical Deciduous Forest
• Temperate Deciduous Forest
•
80 Tropical Deciduous Forest
• Area has warm summer and moderately cold winter.

• Precipitation is abundant ranging from 75 cm to 150 cm.
• Temperature remains moderate 20 - 27C in summer and - 12C in winter.
• Soil is rich in minerals and organic matter.
• Important species = Bamboo, Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood, Khair, Kusum, Mulberry.
• The dry forest is found in areas of rainfall ranging between 100 cm and 70 cm.
•
81 Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Temperate deciduous forests can be found in the eastern part of the United States and Canada,
most of Europe and parts of China and Japan.
• Temperate deciduous forests get between 30 and 60 inches of precipitation a year.
• Deciduous forests have a long, warm growing season
• The leaves dropped from trees provide a steady source of organic material for the soil.
• With the dropping of their leaves during one season, trees stop photosynthesis and enter a
dormant period.
• Three main types of trees are characteristic of these forests: northern hardwood, central
hardwood, and southeast pine and oak.
•
82 Boreal Forest-Taiga
• Taiga is the Russian name
• It is also called as temperate coniferous forest biome
• The boreal forest or taiga exists as a nearly continuous belt of coniferous trees across North
America and Eurasia.
• Coniferous trees = cone shaped = so that the snow can slide off
• Otherwise the tree would fall under the weight of the snow
•
15
04-11-2020
83 Climate
• The taiga corresponds with regions of subarctic and cold continental climate.
• Long, severe winters (up to six months with mean temperatures below freezing)
• Short summers (50 to 100 frost-free days)
• Mean annual precipitation is 15 to 20 inches
•
•
84 Vegetation
• Needleleaf, coniferous (gymnosperm) trees are the dominant plants
• Needle leaves = to conserve water and to slipoff the snow
• The evergreen spruce , fir, pine and the deciduous larch or tamarack.
85 Podzols
 Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor.
 This is because:
 1.The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments
 2.The litter derived from conifer needle (leaf) is decomposed very slowly and is not rich in
nutrients (humus content is low).
 3.Conifers do not shed their leaves frequently.
 Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or boreal biome.
 The top layer of the soil is very thin and is overlain over sandy or loamy subsurface which has no
organic matter (lost due to leaching of nutrients to the bottom layers).
•
86 Fauna
• Fur-bearing predators like the lynx.
• The mammalian herbivores include the snowshoe or varying hare, red squirrel, lemmings, and
voles.
• Large herbivores include elk or wapiti (known as red deer in Europe) and moose (known as elk in
Europe).
• The beaver on which the early North American fur trade was based
• Among birds
• Insect-eaters = wood warblers are migratory
• Seed-eaters = finches and sparrows
• Omnivores= ravens
87
Tropical Savannas
• Distinct wet and dry seasons

• Savannas are found in parts of the tropics where there is not enough rainfall throughout the year.
• Amount of precipitation supports tall grasses
• Contains the greatest number of grazing animals on Earth.
• The wildfires and the poor soil conditions prevent the growth of most trees.
•
•
16
04-11-2020
88 Climate
• Temperature :
• Temperature do not fall below 20 ° C in any month of the year
• Three seasons on the basis of combinations of temperature and humidity
•
•
89 Flora and Fauna

• Flora: tall, perennial grasses, sometimes drought-tolerant and fire resistant trees or shrubs
• Fauna:
• Predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and jackals,
• Herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, antelopes, and zebras baboons
• Birds such as eagles, ostriches, weaver birds, and storks
• Insects such as termites
90 Temperate Grasslands (Steppe)

• Temperate grasslands grow in the middle latitude regions and receive most of their precipitation
in the early summer.
• Most temperate grasslands are found in the interior of continents, far from large bodies of water.
91 Climate
• The average yearly rainfall is between 51 and 89 cm.
• Summer temperatures can reach over 38 °C.
•
92 Flora and Fauna

• Rodent herbivores include the pocket gopher ground squirrels, and the prairie dog.
• Carnivores include coyote (actually an omnivore), badger, and black-footed ferret.
• On the Russian steppes Bison, tarpan or wild horse, and saiga antelope.
• predators such as coyotes and badgers -- historically included wolves and grizzly bears
• herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, rabbits, prairie dogs, and bison
• birds such as hawks, owls, bobwhite, prairie chicken, mountain plover
• reptiles such as snakes
• Insects such as ants and grasshoppers
•
93 Desert Biome
• A desert is a climate region that averages less than 35 cm of rainfall per year.
• Because of the lack of cloud cover, deserts receive more than twice as much incoming solar
radiation.
• The organisms in this biome can tolerate the extreme conditions.
94 Life in deserts
• Desert areas are rarely devoid of life.
• Adaptation = plants and animals that have evolved various mechanisms for tolerating or
avoiding the extremes of aridity and temperature
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
17
04-11-2020
reduce the loss of water through transpiration.

• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while
they lie dormant.
•
•
95 Plant Adaptations
• Phreatophytes: are plants with long taproots that may extend downward 20 to 30 feet to tap
ground water supplies.
• Ex : Mesquite in North America
•
• Succulents store water accumulated during rains for use during the intervening dry spells.
• Different species store water in different parts of the plant; hence we can recognize stem
succulents, leaf succulents, root succulents, and fruit succulents.
• Most succulents do not tolerate freezing temperatures so they are essentially limited to the hot
deserts.
•
• Ex : Cactacea, agaves in Americas
• Euphorbias Africa
• Ephemeral forbs :this is an especially short-lived annual forb that completes its life cycle in two
or three weeks.
• The seeds are encased in a waterproof coating that prevents desiccation (drying) for years if
necessary.
• Perennial forbs with underground bulbs which store nutrients and water
• They can sprout rapidly after sufficient rains and replenish their underground stores.
•
• Vegetation: Shrubs are the dominant growth form of deserts.
• xerophytes = adapted to tolerate extreme drought.
• They form an open canopy
• The ground between shrubs is bare of vegetative growth except during rains
99 Animal Adaptations
• Behavioural adaptations
• Nocturnal = active at night
• Crepuscular = active at twilight
• Staying in shade during the heat of day

• Morphological adaptations
• Small body sizes and long appendages.
• Pelage (Fur) and plumage (Feathers) is light coloured = to reflect sunlight and help prevent the
absorption of heat form the environment.
18
04-11-2020

• Physiological adaptations
• Aestivation = summer sleep
• Absence of sweat glands
• Concentration of urine
• Localized deposits of fat in tails or humps
102 Flora and Fauna

• Dominant plants: cacti and other succulents; creosote bush and other plants with short growth
cycles
• Dominant wildlife:
• Predators such as mountain lions, gray foxes, and bobcats;
• Herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope, desert bighorn sheep, and kangaroo rats;
bats;
• Birds such as owls, hawks, and roadrunners;
• Insects such as ants, beetles, butterflies, flies, and wasps; reptiles such as tortoises, rattlesnakes,
and lizards
103 Tundra Biome
• Tundra is a Finnish word which means barren land (Least vegetation)
•
•
104 climate
• Absence of insolation and sunlight = low temperatures throughout the year
• Ground surface is covered with snow at least for 7 to 8 months each year
• Temperature is generally below freezing point
• Mean annual precipitation, mostly in the form of snowfall, is below 400mm
• Winters = long and severe
• Summers = short, moderately cool
105 Vegetation
• Most of the vegetation have long life e.g. arctic willow has a life span of 150 to 300 years.
• They are protected from chillness by the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair.
• Only few species of the total world species of plants could develop in the tundra biome
• Cryophytes = any plant as algae, mosses, fungi that grows on ice or snow
• lichens, sedges, perennial forbs, and dwarfed shrubs (heaths, birches and willows)
•
106 Fauna
• Mammals of the tundra region have normal body size, small tail and small ear to avoid the loss
of heat from the surface.
• The body is covered with fur for insulation.
•
• Birds = Waterfowl, ducks, swans, geese, ptarmigan
• Animals = Raindeer, caribou
• Mammals= muskox, arctic hare, arctic fox, musk ox
19
04-11-2020
Mammals= muskox, arctic hare, arctic fox, musk ox

107 Types of tundra
 There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine.
108 Arctic Tundra Biome
• The arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere.

• It encircles the North Pole and extends south to the coniferous forest of the taiga.
• The arctic has cold, desert like conditions.
• The growing season in the tundra region is about 50 to 60 days.
• The average winter temperature is about -34°C, the average summer temperature is about 3 to
12°C, and this enables the biome to sustain life.
• There is about 15 cm to 25 cm of yearly precipitation.
• Soil formation is slow.
• A layer of permanently frozen subsoil known as permafrost exists.
• In this region there is no deep root system vegetation, though there are a wide variety of plants
that can resist the cold climate.
109 Alpine Tundra Biome
• The Alpine tundra is located on the mountain regions throughout the world, there are at the high
altitudes where trees cannot grow.
• The growing season in these regions is about 180 days.
• The temperature during the night is below freezing.
• The soil in the alpine is well drained.
• The vegetation in the alpine tundra is similar to the arctic tundra.
• The vegetation includes plants like tussock grasses, small-leafed shrubs, dwarf trees and heaths.
• The fauna of the alpine tundra are well adapted to its climate.
• The animals of the alpine include
• mammals like marmots, pikas, mountain goats, elk and sheep;
• Insects like butterflies, grasshoppers, beetles, springtails, etc.
• Birds
•
110 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

• Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as aquatic ecosystems.
• Aquatic ecosystems are classified based on their salt content.
• i) Fresh water ecosystems- The salt content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt
(parts per thousand).
• E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, and rivers
• ii) Marine ecosystems - the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of
sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above).
• E.g shallow seas and open ocean
• iii) Brackish water ecosystems – these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt.
• e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps.
111 Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats
20
04-11-2020
• Sunlight and oxygen are most important limiting factors of the aquatic ecosystems
• Moisture and temperature are the main limiting factors of terrestrial ecosystem.
•
• Sunlight
• Dissolved oxygen
•
• Other limiting factors which influence on aquatic productivity are
• Transparency
• Temperature
112 Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats
• Sunlight:
• Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water.
• The depth to which light penetrates a lake determines the extent of plant distribution.
• Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified as
• 1. Photic zone
• 2.Aphotic zone
113 Photic zone
• It is the upper layer of the aquatic ecosystems, up to which light penetrates and within which
photosynthetic activity is confined.
• The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of water.
• Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes place.
• Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the lighted and usually well-mixed portion that extends from the
lake surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface.
114 Aphotic zone
• The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are
restricted forms the aphotic zone.
• Only respiration activity takes place.
• Aphotic zone is positioned below the photic where light levels are too low for photosynthesis.
• Respiration occurs at all depths so the aphotic zone is a region of oxygen consumption.
115 Winterkill
• Snow cover of ice on water body can effectively cut off light, plunging the waters into darkness.
• Hence photosynthesis stops but respiration continues.
• Thus in shallow lakes, the oxygen get depleted.
• Fish die, but we won’t know it until the ice melts and we find floating fish.
116 Dissolved oxygen

• In aquatic ecosystems oxygen is dissolved in water, where its concentration varies constantly
depending on factors that influence the input and output of oxygen in water.
• In fresh water the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 0.0010 per cent (also expressed
21
04-11-2020
as 10 parts per million or 10 ppm) by weight, which is 150 times lower than the concentration of
oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
• Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air water interface and by the photosynthetic
activities of aquatic plants.
• Therefore, the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in an ecosystem depends on the rate at
which the above two processes occur.
•
•
117 Dissolved oxygen

• Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through air-water interface and through respiration of
organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplanktons, etc).
• The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature.
• Oxygen is less soluble in warm water.
• Warm water also enhances decomposer activity.
• Therefore, increasing the temperature of a waterbody increases the rate at which oxygen is
depleted from water.
• When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to die.
118 Transparency
• Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.

• Suspended particulate matter such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc make the water turbid.
• Consequently it limits the extent of light penetration and the photosynthetic activity in a
significant way.
•
119 Temperature
• The water temperature changes less rapidly than the temperature of air
• Larger amounts of heat energy must be added to or taken away from water to raise or lower its
temperature.
• Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have narrow
temperature tolerance limit.
• As a result, even small changes in water temperature are a great threat to the survival of aquatic
organisms when compared to the changes in air temperatures in the terrestrial organisms.
120 EUTROPHICATION
• Greek word – Eutrophia = adequate & healthy nutrition.

• Eutrophication is response to the addition of artificial or natural nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem.
• It is primarily caused by the addition of phosphate and (or) nitrate containing fertilizers from
agricultural lands into lakes or rivers.
•
121 EUTROPHICATION
22
04-11-2020
• The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the physical identification of
an Eutrophication.
• Some algae and bacteria thrive on the excess ions and a population explosion covers almost
entire surface layer is known as algal bloom.
• This growth is unsustainable.
• As Algal Bloom covers the surface layer, it restricts the penetration of sunlight.
•
122 EUTROPHICATION
• Oxygen is required by all respiring animals in the water and it is replenished by photosynthesis of
green plants.
• The oxygen level is already low because of the population explosion and further oxygen is taken
up by microorganisms which feed off the dead algae during decomposition process.
• Due to reduced oxygen level, fishes and other aquatic organism suffocate and they die.
• The anaerobic conditions can promote growth of bacteria which produces toxins deadly to
aquatic organisms.
• All this eventually leads to degradation of aquatic ecosystem and death of its organisms.
• It often leads to change in animal and plant population & degradation of water & habitat quality.
123 Types
• 1. Natural
• Deposition of nutrients
• When the nutrients flow into the system on temporal basis
• It Occurs over centuries
• Eg. Seasonally inundated tropical flood plains
• 2. Manmade
• Occurs in decades
• These inputs may come from untreated sewage discharges, runoff of fertilizer from farm fields,
golf courses, park , etc. & from animal wastes.
• Combustion of fossil fuel [produces gases – nitrogen oxides
• Growing urban population in the coastal areas
•
124 Effects
• Change in ecosystem:
• Eutrophication eventually create detritus layer in the ponds & lakes and produces successively
shallower depth of surface water.
• Eventually the water body is reduced into marsh whose plant community is transformed from an
aquatic environment to recognizable terrestrial ecosystem.
• Decreased biodiversity
• Algal blooms restrict the sunlight to penetrate & affects the photosynthesizing plants.
• It causes death of plants.
• Bacteria consumes all the oxygen on decomposition & results in devoid of oxygen.
• Eventually it leads to death of all living organism in aquatic ecosystem.
23
04-11-2020
Eventually it leads to death of all living organism in aquatic ecosystem.

125 Effects
• New species invasion

• Eutrophication may cause the ecosystem competitive by transforming the normal limiting
nutrient to abundant level.
• This cause shifting in species composition of ecosystem
126 Effects
• Toxicity
• Some algal blooms when die or eaten, release neuro & hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic
organism & pose threat to humans.
• Depletion of dissolved oxygen level.
• Increased incidences of fish kills & loss of desirable fish species & reduction in harvesting
• Loss of coral reefs.
• Decrease in water transparency and increased turbidity.
• Affects navigation due to increased turbidity.
• Colour (yellow, green, red), smell and water treatment problems.
127 HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
• Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally in coastal waters.
• They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of the animals that live in these waters.
• When environmental conditions are favorable for their development, these cells may multiply
rapidly and form high numbers of cells and this is called an algal bloom.
• A bloom often results in a color change in the water.
• Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common ones are red or brown.
• These blooms are commonly referred to as red or brown tides.
• Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine
mammals and humans.
• The toxins may also make the surrounding air difficult to breathe.
• These are known as Harmful Algal Blooms .
128 Why Red Tide is a misnomer?
• Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon where certain phytoplankton species
contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the water to be discolored.
• Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the type of
organism, the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms.
• The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms are not always red, they are not
associated with tides, they are usually not harmful, and some species can be harmful or
dangerous at low cell concentrations that do not discolor the water.
• They are scientifically referred as Harmful Algal Blooms
129 Mitigation
• Riparian buffer
24
04-11-2020
Riparian buffer
• Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land created near the waterways, farms, roads,
etc. in an attempt to filter pollution.
• Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer zones instead of deposition in water.
• Nitrogen testing & modeling
• N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertilizer required for crop plants. It will
reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.
• Treatment of Industrial effluents
• Organic farming.
• Treatment of runoff from streets
• Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorous removal from municipal waste water
130 What are the causes of these blooms?
• Blooms occur when several colonies start combining rapidly when conditions such as nutrient
concentrations, salinity and temperature are optimal.
• Two common causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters.
• Nutrient enrichment of water, especially phosphates and nitrogen, is often the result of pollution
and can cause algal blooms.
• Water temperature has also been related to the occurrence of algal blooms, with unusually warm
water being conducive to blooms.
•
131 How are HABs dangerous to fish and humans?
• HABs can deplete oxygen in water and lead to low dissolved oxygen levels.
• How it depletes oxygen?
• When masses of algae die and decompose, the decaying process can deplete oxygen in the
water, causing the water to become so low in oxygen.
• When oxygen levels become too low, fish suffocate and die.
• Some algae species in blooms produce potent neurotoxins that can be transferred through the
food web where they affect and even kill the higher forms of life such as zooplankton, shellfish,
fish, birds, marine mammals, and even humans that feed either directly or indirectly on them.
132 Botswana: Mystery elephant deaths
• Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, is found worldwide especially in calm, nutrient-
rich waters
• Some species of cyanobacteria produce toxins that affect animals and humans
• People may be exposed to cyanobacterial toxins by drinking or bathing in contaminated water
• Symptoms include skin irritation, stomach cramps, vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, fever, sore throat,
headache.
• Animals, birds, and fish can also be poisoned by high levels of toxin-producing cyanobacteria.
•
•
133 How do we get exposed to HAB toxins?
• Most illness associated with HAB exposure is the result of consuming toxins that are present in
25
04-11-2020
shellfish or finfish.
• Some HAB toxins can become airborne during a bloom and people can become ill by inhaling
toxins.
•
134 Is it safe to eat seafood?
• In general, it is safe to eat seafood.

• However, consuming shellfish that have been harvested from waters with high levels of harmful
algae and consuming fish that were caught in an area during an algal bloom can result in illness.
•
135 HABs and Climate Change
• Because the growth, toxicity, and distribution of harmful algal bloom (HAB) species are all tied to
the environment, changes in climate can change the occurrence, severity, and impacts of HAB
events.
•
136
Wetlands
• What is a wetland?
•
• Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the
associated plant and animal life..
•
• Where do they occur?
• Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at
or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
•
•
137
Wetlands
• Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with
water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine water the depth
of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.
138
Wetlands
• They included lake littorals (marginal areas between highest and lowest water level of the lakes),
floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and periodically
flooded during high discharge in the river) and other marshy or swampy areas where water gets
stagnated due to poor drainage or relatively impervious substrata &Bogs, fens and mangroves
due to similar ecological characteristics
139
26
04-11-2020
What are the major characteristics of wetlands?
• Hydrology: There is the presence of water at or near the surface of the land for a particular
amount of time in a year.
• The sources of water into wetlands include precipitation, surface water (from rivers and sea) and
groundwater.
•
• Soil Type: Wetlands are covered with hydric soils.
• In such soils, the spaces between each grain of soil are filled with water.
• These soils are anaerobic- the soil lacks oxygen.
•
• Biota: Plants that live in wetlands and are adapted to the hydric soil are called hydrophytes.
• Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for atleast seven days during the growing season.
• Examples: cypress, silver maple, mangroves.
•
140 Types of wetlands

• Marine– coastal wetlands including coastal lagoons, rocky shores, seagrass beds and coral reefs
• Estuarine– deltas, tidal marshes and mudflats, and mangrove swamps.
• Lacustrine– wetlands associated with lakes.
• Riverine -wetlands along rivers and streams.
• Palustrine– (meaning “marshy”) – marshes, swamps and bogs.
141
Why are wetlands important?
• They provide a wide range of ecosystem services.

• 1.Flood control : wetlands help in flood control by acting as natural sponges.
• They temporarily store and gradually release stormwater.
• Also, roots of wetland vegetation hold soils in place, thus stabilizing the banks of rivers and
streams.
• 2.Maintaining the quality of water : wetlands play an important role in maintaining the quality of
water
• Wetlands trap the sediments suspended in water- a process called sediment trapping.
• They also remove phosphorus and nitrogen and help prevent eutrophication of lakes and ponds.
• For this function, wetlands are often referred to as “Kidneys of the Earth”.
•
142
Why are wetlands important?
• 3.Host of a large number of species: wetlands host a large number of species of microbes, plants,
insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals.
• 4.Carbon sequestration : wetlands help in carbon sequestration. They act as carbon sinks and
wetland soil contains a high amount of carbon.
• 5.Natural groundwater recharge : wetlands help in natural groundwater recharge.
• They store water that replenishes the groundwater.
27
04-11-2020
143 India’s Wetlands
• India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal
wetlands. Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy
cultivation.
• Natural wetlands in India range from:
• 1.High altitude wetlands in Himalayas
• 2.Flood plains of the major river systems
• 3.Saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions
• 4.Coastal wetlands such as lagoons
• 5.Backwaters
• 6.Estuaries
• 7.Mangroves, swamps and coral reefs, and so on.
•
144 National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)
• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.

• Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent
conservation and management interventions.
• Aim
• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise use for the
benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.
•
145 National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)
• Objectives
• To lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
• To provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified
wetlands.
• To monitor implementation of the programme and to prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
• The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland conservation
programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels.
• It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
• Since the land resources belong to them, the State Governments/ UT Administration are
responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their
wise-use.
146 The World Conservation Union (IUCN)

• International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
• It has recognized eight Red List categories according to the conservation status of species
147
Examples of threatened species in India
• Threatened = CEn + En + Vu
28
04-11-2020
• Red list = contains threatened species (Both plants and animals)
148 UPSC 2011

• The “Red Data Books” published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of: (2011)
• Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots,
• Threatened plant and animal species.
• Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
• Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
• (a.) 1 and 3
• (b.) 2 only
• (c.) 2 and 3
• (d.) 3 only
•
149 Solution
• (b)
•
150
Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance
• Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those
prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as givenbelow:
• Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types
• (i) If it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland
type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
•
151
• Criteria based on species and ecological communities

• (ii) If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or threatened
ecological communities.
• (iii) If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the
biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
• (iv) If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides
refuge during adverse conditions.
•
152
• Specific criteria based on water birds

• (v) If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• (vi) If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of
waterbirds.
29
04-11-2020
153
• Specific criteria based on fish

• (vii) If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families,
species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values
and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
• (viii) If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration
path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
154
• Specific criteria based on water/life and culture

• If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation and
eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage
(historic or religious sites).
155
Ramsar Convention
• Reason?
• Wetlands have been subjected to destruction and degradation due to human activities such as
agriculture, urban and rural development, industrial and municipal pollution.
• According to global estimates, the extent of wetland in the world has declined between 64-71%
in the 20th century.
• As a result, the ecosystem services that wetlands provide to society have declined drastically.
• In order to address this issue, the Ramsar convention was put forward to drive international
attention to wetland decline and degradation.
•
•
156
Ramsar Convention
• Ramsar Convention:
• It is an intergovernmental environmental treaty that calls for international cooperation and
national action to safeguard and sustainably use wetlands.
• Known officially as ‘the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat’ (or, more recently, just ‘the Convention on Wetlands’)
• It is the first and only global treaty for the conservation of a particular ecosystem.
157 How does this convention work?
JOIN
First of all, a country joins the Ramsar Convention.
After that, it gets itself listed into the international effort for the conservation and wise use of
wetlands.
30
04-11-2020
wetlands.
Once a country has joined, there are three commitments which have to be fulfilled:
1.A country has to designate at least one of its wetlands into the list of wetlands of international
importance which is also called a Ramsar list or Ramsar sites. It can later designate more such
wetlands.
CHECK
2.Once a country is part of the Ramsar sites. Being a part of the Ramsar Convention, a country will
gain access to the knowledge of how to conserve and make sustainable use of the wetlands. Some
experts and officials from Ramsar advisory mission may visit the member country, analyze the
situation and define how to tackle the threats.
UPDATE
3.It also makes the member countries cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands,
shared wetland systems and shared species.
160
Ramsar Convention
• The Convention was signed on 2nd February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar.
• This is where it gets its name from-The Ramsar Convention.
• 2nd February is celebrated as World Wetlands Day every year.
• The Convention entered into force in 1975.
• As of 2019, it has 171 member states including India.
• Ramsar Convention is not legally binding i.e. it has no punitive sanctions for violations upon
treaty commitments.
161 Facts about the Ramsar sites
• Ramsar sites are one of the major protected areas in the world.
• There are currently over 2300 Ramsar sites in the world covering an area of 2.1 million sq.
kilometres.
•
• Wetlands exist in every country and in every climatic zone, from the polar regions to the tropics,
and from high altitudes to dry regions.
• Europe has the maximum number of wetland sites. The countries with the most Sites are the
United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
162 Facts about the Ramsar sites:
• India became a member of the Ramsar Convention in October 1981 and designated Chilika Lake
(Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first two Ramsar Sites.
31
04-11-2020
(Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first two Ramsar Sites.
•
• Bolivia has the largest area with 148,000 km2 under Ramsar protection.
•
• The world’s first Site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.
•
163 Facts about the Ramsar sites:
• The Ramsar Convention works with the collaboration of the following organizations:
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
• Birdlife International.
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
• Wetlands International.
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
• WWF International
164
Ramsar Sites in India
• India currently has 37 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites),
with a surface area of 1,067,939 hectares with 10 wetlands from India added to the list in January
2020.
• The 10 new Ramsar sites of India announced by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC) includes:
•
• Nawabganj, Parvati Agra, Saman, Samaspur, Sandi and Sarsai Nawar (Uttar Pradesh)
• Nandur Madhameshwar (Maharashtra)
• Keshopur-Miani, Beas Conservation Reserve and Nangal (Punjab)
•
•
165 Ramsar sites or wetlands in India
• In J&K – Hokera Wetland, Surinsar-Mansar Lakes, Tsomoriri & Wular Lake.

• In Himachal Pradesh – Chandertal Wetland, Pong Dam Lake, Renuka Wetland (This is also the
smallest wetland of India).
• In Punjab – Harike Lake (it is a manmade lake and was formed by constructing the head works
across the Sutlej river, in 1953), Kanjli wetland & Ropar wetland.
• In Rajasthan – Keoladeo National Park and Sambhar Lake .
• In Gujarat – Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary.
• In Madhya Pradesh – Bhoj Wetland.
• In Uttar Pradesh – Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch).
• In Assam – Deepor Beel.
• In Manipur – Loktak Lake.
• In Tripura – Rudrasagar Lake.
• In West Bengal – East Calcutta Wetlands & Sunderban wetland.
32
04-11-2020
In West Bengal – East Calcutta Wetlands & Sunderban wetland.

• In Odisha – Bhitarkanika Mangroves & Chilika Lake.
• In Andhra Pradesh – Kolleru Lake.
• In Tamil Nadu – Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary.
• In Kerala – Ashtamudi Wetland, Sasthamkotta Lake, Vembanad-Kol Wetland ( it is the largest
Wetland of India).
•
166 Montreux Record

• Ramsar Convention keeps a check on all the wetlands that are there in their list which is the
Ramsar list.
• Check means:
• Has there been any kind of ecological change in the wetlands due to climate change, human
interference or any kind of improvement due to technological development.
• If at all there are any notable changes in the wetlands, the convention then updates or changes
the Montreux Record.
167 Montreux Record
• Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or
are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.
•
• It is maintained by the Ramsar convention.
•
•
•
168 Montreux Record
• Montreux Record are employed to identify priority sites for positive national and international
conservation attention.
• Sites may be added to and removed from the Record only with the approval of the Contracting
Parties in which they lie.
•
•
169 Montreux Record

• It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
• The Montreux Record was established by Recommendation of the Conference of the Contracting
Parties (1990).
• Sites may be added to and removed from the Record only with the approval of the Contracting
Parties in which they lie.
• Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record: Keoladeo National Park
(Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
• Chilka lake (Odisha)was placed in the record but was later removed from it in 2002
•
170 Montreux Record sites in India
• Chilika lake, Orissa was placed on the Montreux Record in 1993 due to siltation, which was
33
04-11-2020
choking the mouth of the lake.

• Following the rehabilitation efforts of the government, it was removed from the Record in 2002.
• For this achievement, the Chilika Development Authority received the Ramsar Wetland
Conservation Award for 2002.
•
•
•
171 Montreux Record sites in India
• Loktak lake, Manipur was included on the Montreux Record in 1993 (signifying habitat
degradation), as a result of ecological problems such as deforestation in the catchment area,
infestation of water hyacinth and pollution.
• Keoladeo national park, Rajasthan was placed on the Montreux Record in 1990 due to water
shortage.
• The invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed the ecological character of
large areas of the site, reducing its suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian
crane.
• Loktak lake and keoladeo national park are the two Montreux Record sites in India
•
172 ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM
• Estuaries are located where river meets the sea.

• Estuaries are water bodies where the flow of freshwater from river mixes with salt water
transported, by tide, from the ocean.
• Estuaries partially enclosed coastal areas of brackish water
• Estuaries are the most productive water bodies in the world as it receives the high amount of
nutrients from fresh and marine water.
• Estuaries form a transition zone (ecotone) between river environments and maritime
environments.
• Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas.
•
173 Life in Estuary
• Only certain types of plants and animals specially adapted to the “brackish” estuarine waters
flourish in the estuaries.
• Factors influencing the growth and distribution of organism in an estuary are its salinity and the
amount of flooding.
• Estuaries are homes to all kind of terrestrial or land based plants and animals, such as wood
storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees and butterflies.
• Estuaries are also homes to unique aquatic plants and animals, such as sea turtles and sea lions,
sea catfish, saltworts, eelgrass, saltgrasses, cordgrasses, sea grass, sedge and bulrush.
174 Importance of Estuaries

• They are the most productive water bodies in the world because of the mixing of freshwater and
saline water zone where marine organisms of both the ecosystems meet.
34
04-11-2020
• Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves, estuaries, grasslands etc. have far greater
productivity compared to natural ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean ecosystem, pond
ecosystem, riverine ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc.
• This is because of the wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the
ecotone.
•
• Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the world's
population living along estuaries and the coast.
• Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, traps sediment and forms a buffer between coastal and the
marine environment.
• They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter.
• They are ideal locations for the construction of ports and harbours.
•

• The banks of estuaries form a favoured location for human settlements, which use the estuaries
for fishing but nowadays also for dumping civic and industrial waste.
• The vast mangrove forests on the seaward side of an estuary act as a barrier for the coastal
habitat to check the wind speed during cyclones and high velocity landward winds.
177 Issues of Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
• The specific issues which have affected the estuarine environment in the country are:
• 1. Water flow
• Changes in water flow in various estuaries, either far in excess or much lower than required (e.g.,
Hooghly, Narmada, Krishna, Godavari, Pulicat etc.)
• 2. Pollution & Water Quality
• Pollution through industries and combined city sewage (e.g., all the Indian estuaries)
• 3. Recreation And Tourism
• Recreational boating (e g., Hooghly WB; Chilika, Orissa)
• Recreational fishing (e.g., Chilika)
• Navigation (e g., Hooghly)
•
• 4. Ports & Shipping

• Dredging (e.g., Hooghly) = clear the bed of (a harbor, river, or other area of water) by scooping
out mud, weeds, and rubbish with a dredge.
• Shipping (e.g., Hooghly)
•
• 5. Land-use
• Expansion of urban and rural settlements (e.g, Hooghly, Krishna, Cauvery, Pulicat)
• Agriculture (e.g., all the Estuaries)
• Dumping of solid wastes (eg. all the Indian estuaries)
35
04-11-2020
• Commercial Fishing & Aquaculture

• Over exploitation of target fish stock due to increased demand (e.g., all the Indian estuaries)
• Intensive aquaculture
• Polluting the environment through feeding of stocked fish and prawn in pens (Chilika)
•
• Climate Change
• Submergence of catchment areas due to rise in water level (e.g., all the major Indian estuaries)
• Change in biodiversity profile, affecting the productivity (e.g., all the major Indian estuary)
180 Differences between Lagoon and Estuary

• Estuaries are located where river meets the sea.
• In estuaries, the water flows fast and strong, while in lagoons the water is shallower and flows
sluggishly.
• A lagoon is a stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef.
• Estuaries are usually deeper than lagoons.
• Also, lagoons mostly don’t have any fresh water source while the estuaries have at least one.
• Lagoons are more saline than estuaries.
181 MANGROVES
• A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water.
• Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical coastlines.
182 Characteristics of Mangroves

 These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats,
tidal creeks backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes, lagoons and the barrier
islands of tropical and subtropical regions.
 Mangroves grow below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity
for salt water tolerance.
 The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers.
 Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20 m.
•

 They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.
 They are breeding and spawning ground for many commercially important fishes.
 Their physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to water logged anaerobic mud is high.

•

 Since mangroves are located between the land and sea, they represent the best example of
ecotone.
 Mangroves are shrubs or small trees that grow in coastal saline or brackish water.
 Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted harsh coastal
conditions.
36
04-11-2020
 They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.
 They produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem in the
anaerobic soil conditions.
•
 Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and
25° S.
 They require high solar radiation to filter saline water through their roots. This explains why
mangroves are confined to only tropical and sub-tropical coastal waters.
 Mangrove vegetation facilitates more water loss. Leaves are thick and contain salt-secreting
glands. Some block absorption of salt at their roots itself.
 Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you look closely, you can see crystals of salt
on the back of the leaves.
 They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water
immersion and wave action.

 Mangroves occur in a variety of configurations. Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send
arching prop roots down into the water.
 While other (e.g. Avicennia) send vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.
 Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk of a tree above ground level are
called stilt roots.
 Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself (before
falling to the ground).
 This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the problem of germination in saline water.
187 Mangrove profile in India
• The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal mangroves of the world.
• This mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
• Mangrove areas are being cleared for agricultural use.
• The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the second largest in the Indian sub continent,
harbour high concentration of typical mangrove species.
• Mangrove swamps occur in profusion in the intertidal mudflats of the Godavari- Krishna deltaic
regions of Andhra Pradesh.
• Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded mainly due to construction of
aquaculture ponds and salt pans.
•
188 Mangrove profile in India
• On the west coast of India, mangroves, occur along the intertidal region of estuaries and creeks
in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
• In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora
mucronate are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori creek.
• On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries and the lagoons support a dense
37
04-11-2020
On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries and the lagoons support a dense
and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.
•
189 Role of mangroves
• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, stilt roots, pneumatophores
which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas,
stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• It prevents coastal soil erosion.
• It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove supports numerous flora, avifauna and wild life.
• Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several fishes.
• It supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
190 Threat
• They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and salinization,
minig, oil spills, aquacultural (shrimp farming), use of chemical pesticides & fertilizers, industrial
purposes.
191 Important Tree Species

• Sundari, Agar, Keora, Nipa
•
192 Characteristic Features

• The trees are mainly evergreen.
• Typically they produce tangled webs of arching roots .
• This vegetation is an adaptation to two conditions:
• High water salinity
• Flooded at regular intervals
•
193
Mangrove adaptations to their environment
• Mangroves have had to physically adapt

• 1.Their leaves
• 2.Their roots (stilt roots, Prop Roots, pneumatophores )
• 3.Their reproductive methods
• In order to survive in a harsh, dynamic environment of soft, low oxygen soils and varying
salinity.
194
38
04-11-2020
• Leaf adaptations to saline conditions

• Leaves with glands that excrete salt.
• Reproductive adaptations to tidal environment
• Floating seeds
• They retain their seeds until after it has germinated
195
• Root adaptations to soft, saline, low oxygen soils.

• Stilt roots (also called prop roots)- Far-reaching, exposed roots = extensive root system =
structural support in the soft soils.
• Pneumatophores = above-ground roots = structural support and allow oxygen to be transferred
to the roots trapped below ground in the anaerobic (low oxygen) soils.
• Buttress.
196 Tree and Animal Species

• Important Tree Species: Sundari, Agar, Bhendi, Keora, Nipa
• Important Animal Species: Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are the common animals
found in these forests. Royal Bengal Tiger is found in the tidal forests of Ganga delta.
197 Their services

• Stilt-roots serve a vital socio-economic function.
• 1.They act as “green shields” buffering the coastline against sea erosion, and the potentially
devastating impacts of cyclones and tsunami.
• 2.Mangroves support livelihood, essentially aquaculture.
• 3.They supply medicinal plants, and fuel wood and construction materials.
198 UPSC 2011

• The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge
against coastal calamities. How do mangroves function as a safety hedge?
• (a) The mangrove swamps separate the human settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which
people neither live nor venture out
• (b) The mangroves provide both food and medicines which people are in need of after any
natural disaster
• (c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense canopies and serve as art excellent shelter during a
cyclone or tsunami
• (d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by storms and tides because of their extensive roots
•
199 Ans
• D) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by storms and tides because of their extensive roots
•
200 Corals
• Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic organisms, which live in colonies
• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton.
39
04-11-2020
Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton.
• The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard skeletons.
• The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass,
collectively called corals.
•
201 Corals
• Coral has a symbiotic relationship (each gives something to the other and gets something back
in return) with ‘zooxanthellae’ microscopic algae which live on coral
• The corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals while zooxanthellae are fast growing
plants.
• Instead of living on the sea floor, the algae lives up on the coral which is closer to the ocean
surface and so that the algae gets adequate light.
•
•
202 Corals
• Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthetic activities.
• The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are
instead clear (white).
• The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
• The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live
within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.
• In coral reef ecosystem, many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association to
the corals, allows coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that they
are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’.
•
•
203 Corals
• There are two types of corals
• 1.Hard corals
• 2.Soft corals
• Only hard corals build reefs.
• The builders of coral reefs are tiny animals called polyps.
• As these polyps thrive, grow, then die, they leave their limestone (calcium carbonate) skeletons
behind.
• The limestone is colonized by new polyps.
• Therefore, a coral reef is built up of layers of these skeletons covered ultimately by living polyps.
204 Corals
• When the coral polyps die  shed their skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow the cycle is
repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals
• Shallow rock created by these depositions is called reef.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral islands (Lakshadweep).
•
205 Corals
• Polyps  Corals  new polyps grow  Coral reefs  Coral Islands
40
04-11-2020
206 Corals
• They are mainly of three kinds
• Barrier reef
• Fringing reef
• Atolls
•
207 Formation of coral reef

• Corals can be developed both at the margins of the continents or around islands
• 3 stages of coral formation
1) Fringing reef
2) Barrier reef
3) Atoll
208 Fringing reef

• Coral reef developed along margin of an island
•
•
209 Barrier reef

• Reef is not continuous but broken
• Lagoon can connect to open ocean
• Most extensive
•
•
210 Condition for growth of Corals

• Need submarine shallow platform (50 meter deep)– to receive sun light.
• Temperature- 25-27 degree
• Warm, tropical and low latitude waters.
• Salinity – 33 ppt.
•
•
211 Uses of corals

• Reefs support local tourism and the commercial fishing industry.
• Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
• They generate half of Earth's oxygen and absorb nearly one-third of the carbon dioxide
generated from burning fossil fuels.
• They indicate the health of Marine ecology
• Source of great biodiversity
• Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer
• Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals and plants including avifauna.
•
212 Threat
41
04-11-2020
• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events.
• 1. Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef destroying mechanisms, “bleaching” 
depletion of essential symbiotants.
• Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding, high
and low temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.
•
• 2. Anthrogenic causes – may be due to chemical pollution (pesticides, cosmetics, etc), industrial
pollution, mechanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading, Dredging, shipping,
tourism, mining or collection, thermal pollution, intensive fishing,etc.
•
•
213
El Nino Southern Oscillation =ENSO
• El Nino = Circulation of Water is linked with Pacific Ocean circulation pattern known as the
southern oscillation = circulation of atmospheric pressure
• Inter-annual fluctuation of atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific region.
214 ENSO
• Only El Nino  Cold water in Western Pacific + Warm water in Eastern Pacific
• Only SO  High Pressure over Western Pacific + Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific
• ENSO  [Cold water in Western Pacific + High Pressure over Western Pacific] + [Warm water in
Eastern Pacific + Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific].
•
215 Threat
• Recent accelerated coral reef decline seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
(overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various disturbances
mentioned above.
216 Coral Bleaching
• Bleaching or the paling of coral colour occurs when

• (i) The densities of zooxanthellae decline and / or
• (ii) The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
•
217 Coral Bleaching
• When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella
may lose 50- 80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it decreases in time, the affected corals
usually regain their symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months.
42
04-11-2020
• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae
populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies.
• Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthellae are impaired at temperatures above 30 degrees C, this
effect could activate the disassociation of coral / algal symbiosis.
• Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthellae low.
218 Ecological causes of coral bleaching
• Temperature (Major Cause)

• Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin and anomalously low and high
sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching.
• Bleaching is much more frequently reported from elevated sea water temperature.
• Bleaching events also occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling
episodes, seasonal cold-air outbreaks.
• Solar Irradiance
• Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal temperature and irradiance maxima often
occurs disproportionately in shallow-living corals and on the exposed summits of colonies.
• Solar radiation has been suspected to play a role in coral bleaching.
• Both photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700nm) and ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-
400nm) have been implicated in bleaching.
•
219 Ecological causes of coral bleaching
• Subaerial Exposure
• Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low tides,
ENSO-related sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
•
• Sedimentation
• Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have been linked solely to sedimentation.
• Fresh Water Dilution

• Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been
demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.
• Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, nearshore areas.
•
220 The End
43

Neral Issues On Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Neral Issues On Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Neral Issues On Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

04-11-2020

1 Environment and Ecology

• Environment = surroundings, in which organisms live.

6 Three important constituents environment.

• The Physical Constituent of environment includes

• Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives.

This interaction of two components forms various ecosystems like

14 Four important zones.

17 Internal and external environment

• Its environment consists of abiotic components such as

• Water in which nutrients

• It is enclosed by the outer body surface.

• Ecology = the study of the home of nature.

23 Difference between Ecology, Environment & Ecosystem

• Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life.

• Water is essential for all living beings.

• Some organisms are tolerant of a wide range of salinities (euryhaline).

• Primary producers or Autotrophs (self-nourishing)

• Micro consumers or Saprotrophs (decomposers or osmotrophs)

• A lot of factors determine the survival of an organism.

• Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to function.

• Population of plants and animals seldom occur by themselves.

• An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community

• Provision of food and fuel

Stabilization and moderation of the Earth’s climate

• Terrestrial ecosystem can be further be classified into ‘biomes’.

• It may be very narrow or quite wide.

• Ecocline is a physical transition zone.

56 Difference between Ecotone and Ecocline

65 Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

66 Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

Tropical Rain Forest Biome

67 Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

• Earth’s most complex biome

Trees of 100 to 120 feet tall, with umbrella-shaped canopies.

74 Common characteristics of tropical trees

75 Deciduous Forest Biome

76 Deciduous Forest Biome

78 Flora and Fauna

• Area has warm summer and moderately cold winter.

• Distinct wet and dry seasons

89 Flora and Fauna

90 Temperate Grasslands (Steppe)

92 Flora and Fauna

reduce the loss of water through transpiration.

100 Animal Adaptations

101 Animal Adaptations

102 Flora and Fauna

Mammals= muskox, arctic hare, arctic fox, musk ox

• The arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere.

110 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

112 Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats

116 Dissolved oxygen

117 Dissolved oxygen

• Transparency affects the extent of light penetration.

• Greek word – Eutrophia = adequate & healthy nutrition.

Eventually it leads to death of all living organism in aquatic ecosystem.