IM-Principles & Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning-Calvario

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE OF THE VICE PRESIDENT FOR BRANCHES AND CAMPUSES
SANTA ROSA CAMPUS
City of Santa Rosa, Laguna
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
(SEEN 30043)
COMPILED BY:
APRILYN E. CALVARIO
Faculty
“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 – Nature of Language 1
Definition of Language 1
Language as a Human Universal 2
Human Vocal Tract and Language 2
Human Brain and Language 3
Brain Development and Language Development 4
Critical Period Hypothesis 5
Unit 2 – First Language Acquisition Theories 7
Behaviorist 7
Nativist 8
Social Interactionist 8
Connectivist 8
Constructivist 9
Developmentalist 9
Cognitivist 9
Unit 3 - Second Language Acquisition Theories 11
Monitor Model 11
Interlanguage Theories 12
Universal Grammar Theories 13
Cognitive Theories 14
Multidimentional Theories (Natural Order Hypothesis) 14
Acculturization/Pidginization 14
UNIT 4 – Bilingual Language Acquisition 17
The Bilingual Brain 17

Bilingual First Language Acquisition 18
Second language Acquisition in Childhood 18
Bilingual Language Use: Code Switching 19
UNIT 5 – Second Language Learning 21
Psychological Variables 22
Social Variables 25

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UNIT 1 – Nature of Language
OVERVIEW:
‘Nothing is more specifically “human” than the knowledge of language.’
It is impossible to study the acquisition of language scientifically without understanding

what language is, what is acquired? In this unit, we will sketch the basic design of human language
which is the foundation in understanding the nature of language acquisition and learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. understand that language is genetically specific to humankind alone;

2. identify the different parts of the brain responsible for language functioning;
3. become aware that language learning involves highly cognitive processing.
COURSE MATERIALS:
DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE
• Language is first and foremost symbolic.

 Sounds, words and sentences represent and capture an infinity of possible meanings
and intentions.
 Humans can produce, understand and think of an infinity of possible statements,
questions, commands or exclamations. These may concern the future, the past, what
has occurred and what has not, what is possible or impossible.
 Through language, people tell the truth or lie, regret or hope.
 Humans can deploy an infinity of demands, requests, contradictions, ranging from
poetry to propaganda.
 The next sentence we say or understand is almost certainly going to be one we have
never heard or said before, suggesting that this symbolic capacity of language is in a
real sense limitless.
• Language is a system of signs that express ideas.

 Beyond the functioning of the various organs there exists a more general faculty which
governs signs, and which would be the linguistic faculty proper (De Saussure, 1959)
 There is a “coordinating faculty” which organizes language -- the “linguistic faculty
proper” that is represented in the human mind and brain.

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LANGUAGE AS A HUMAN UNIVERSAL
• Language is a universal characteristic of the human species. Not only do all human
societies have language, but in situations where there is no target language to learn,
humans in interaction will spontaneously create language.
• Human language has special properties that have led many researchers to conclude that
such language is both species-specific and species uniform; it is unique to and is
essentially similar in all humans. (Language Bioprogram Hypothesis – Derek Bickerton)
• Language is said to be species unique because he possesses a brain to contribute to that
uniqueness. Moreover, he also has unique cognitive abilities and unique social settings to
acquire language.
• Language creation – each generation learns to speak a language and to some extent,
create a language system
 Pidgin – Circumstances force people to invent a language that typically uses the
lexical items from one or more of the contact language.
Example Hawaiian Pidgin English
 Creole – A language that once was a pidgin but which subsequently became a
native language. Creolization is a process that creates a new language
HUMAN VOCAL TRACT AND LANGUAGE
• The adaptation that permitted the production of articulate speech is altogether peculiar to
human species.
• With the exception of some birds-parrots and mynah birds – that are capable of
unharmoniously reproducing certain aspects of the sounds that constitute speech, only
human beings can articulate the range of sounds employed in spoken languages.
• The capacity to produce speech depends on the structure and the functioning of the
human vocal tract.
• The vocal tract serves other purposes such as biting, chewing, swallowing, taking in air.
• The feature of the vocal tract is best suited for speaking.
• Speech is produced when air from the lungs exits the larynx (glottis) and is filtered by the
vocal tract above the larynx.
• We can change the pitch of the sound we produce by tightening or loosening the vocal
folds in the larynx.
• To speak, it is necessary to control and coordinate the movement of the larynx, glottis,
palate, jaw, lips and tongue.

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HUMAN BRAIN AND LANGUAGE
• Unlike our relatives the apes, humans have areas in the cerebral cortex found in the brain
that are known to be associated with language.
• The two hemispheres of the brain are not symmetrical.
• Right-handers have their language functions represented in their left hemisphere; the left-
handed population have their language areas in the right hemisphere.
• Most people are said to have lateralized function of the language in the brain where the
language center is said to be found in the left hemisphere.
• The right hemisphere also participates in some aspects of language processing such as
the emotional tone of the speech.
Basic Neuroanatomy and its Function
1. Cerebral cortex
• the outer layer of the brain that controls higher mental functions such as reasoning
and planning
• it is divided into two cerebral hemispheres
• the area of the cortex that sits over the ear (the temporal lobe) is larger in the left
cerebral hemisphere than in the right
2. Corpus callosum
• a band of nerve fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain
3. Broca's area
• found in the left frontal region of the brain that is involved in language functioning
• it controls the tongue and the lips
• it is said to be responsible for the development of syntax
Broca’s Aphasia – a condition in which the patient has good comprehension but
has difficulty with pronunciation and the production of words such
as articles and preposition
4. Wernicke’s area
• it is located in the posterior left temporal lobe, near the auditory association areas of
the brain

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• it is said to be responsible for development of meaning
Wernick’s Aphasia – a condition in which patients speak rapidly and fluently but
without meaning as a result of the damage to this area
5. Arcuate Fasciculus
• a band of subcortical fibers that connects the Wernicke’s area with the Brocka’s area
• the incoming message is processed in the Wernicke’s area and then sent over to the
Broca’s area thru arcuate fasciculus
• Damage to this area is called conduction aphasia in which a patient is unable to repeat
words
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• Language development is related to brain development.
• Although some form of left hemisphere specialization for language is present from birth,
developmental changes occur in both the potential and the actual organization of language
functions in the brain.
• As Eric Lennenberg (1967) pointed out, language development in humans is associated

with other maturational events.
• The appearance of language is a developmental milestone, roughly correlated with the

onset of walking.
Lennenberg’s Language as Species Specific and Uniform Special Features
1. The regular onset of speech
The order of appearance of development milestones including speech, is regular in

species – it is not affected by culture or the language learned.
2. Speech is not suppressible
Normal children learn to talk if they are in contact with older speakers.
3. Language cannot be taught to other species
Man has both physiological and cognitive abilities to develop his linguistic abilities.
4. Language have certain universals

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Certain systematic aspects of language such as phonology, grammar, semantics,

pragmatics and syntax are structures in accordance with the principles of human cognition
and that any human can learn a language.
CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS
Critical Period is a biologically determined window of time during which the influence of
experience on a significant behavior is significant.
• The theory that posits that there is a biologically determined period during which
language acquisition must occur.
• There are critical periods for certain linguistic aptitudes but they are not a property of
physiological growth but they do reveal the loss of plasticity that occurs when neural
connections and the brain becomes specialized.
• Lennenberg (1967) thought that the critical period extended until puberty although
current studies suggest that it ends until the age of seven.
• Children past the age of seven who have heard no human language during childhood
will be incapable of acquiring language.
• Newport (1991) suggested that young children are better than learning a language
because their perceptual and memory abilities are limited.
• Small chunks of linguistic information are all that children can extract from input and
store in their memories.
• In case of second language acquisition, studies suggest that other factors beside biology
play a strong role in explaining why children tend to achieve greater mastery of a second
language than adults.
Asynchronous Activity:
Watch the film “Sex and the Split Brain”
Discussion Questions:
1. Discuss how the human brain functions differently between men and women.
2. Are the differences in the brain function of the males and females help explain why they
have gender differences?
3. Who is the better sex? Who is the weaker sex? Justify your answer.

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
1. Discuss the role of the right hemisphere of the brain in normal language functioning.
2. What is critical period hypothesis and what evidences can be drawn for its effect in the
acquisition of language.
3. Discuss the different theories proposed by linguists regarding language as specific only
to human beings.
4. For each of the linguistic phenomena, give an explanation (1) that is consistent with the
view that the process underlying language are basically cognitive process; (2) that
language depends on specifically linguistic capabilities:
a. critical period in language learning

b. creolization
c. pidginization
d. lateralization of the brain
REFERENCES:
De Boysson-Bardies, B. (1999). How language comes to children: From birth to two years.
Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Holf, E. (2001). Language development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Thomson Learning.
Lust, Barbra. (2006). Child Language: Acquisition and Growth.
Steinberg, Danny & Sciarini, Natalia. (2006). An Introduction to Psycholinguistics, 2nd Edition.

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UNIT 2 – FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES
OVERVIEW:
The mystery of how children acquire natural language has intrigued scientists and philosophers
for centuries. For years, experts have developed theories to prove how man acquire and develop
language. Some argued that language is genetically coded and that man is born with the facility to acquire
language and not learn it from his immediate environment. Other experts however posited that man
learns language through his direct contact with his immediate environment. Other experts however
believe that language is an interplay of both cognitive and social development of humankind.
In this unit, we will explore the different theories on first language acquisition to be able to know
how we can best handle the teaching of language in our classrooms.
1. identify different first language acquisition theories;

2. recognize the best first language theory that is suited for young language learners
considering our bilingual setting;
3. Understand that there are several factors affecting a child’s acquisition of his first
language.
COURSE MATERIALS:
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES
A. Behaviorist
• Behaviorism was popular in the early and middle part of this century.
• Behaviorism proposed that children learn language like they learn other complex
behaviors through the principles of classical and operant conditioning as postulated by
Skinner (1957), a staunch advocate of this theory.
• This theory believed that children are not born with the knowledge of a specific language
but learn to speak the language that is spoken to them.
• Language learning is perceived as any kind of learning, as the formation of habits.
• The Behaviorist emphasized the role of parents as models and reinforcers of language.

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B. Nativist
• The theory can be attributed to Chomsky (1957)
• He argued that man possesses a mental organ that is solely dedicated to language use
and it is found in the brain.
• This innate device is called Language Acquisition Devise (LAD).
• The theory proposed that children are biologically prepared to learn language because of
the presence of an innate learning mechanism.
• Language acquisition and development is largely driven by some form of physical

maturation, a pre-programmed growth process based on changes in underlying and
existing neural structures that are relatively independent of environmental conditions and
influences.
• In addition to the existence of a mental organ specially designed to perform the task of
language learning, young language learners have a sort of primitive knowledge about the
structure of language.
• This is called the universal grammar that resides in the brain and could make
appropriations to make the innate theory of syntax match the theory that people around
them use.
C. Social-Interactionist
• This theory examined the interplay between language, cognitive and social development
in language acquisition.
• This theory proposed that the social environment plays a more important role in the
acquisition and development of language.
D. Connectivist
• This theory adhered to basic biological mechanisms in order to account for language
acquisition.
• According to this theory, language is probabilistic learning.
• The child’s brain seeks out patterns in the language input and infers permissible
sequences of output.

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E. Constructivist
• This theory as postulated by Piaget viewed the child as an active participant in language
learning.
• The novice language learner interacts with his/her environment and builds language by
communication with other speakers.
F. Developmentalist
• This theory questions Chomsky’s position regarding language acquisition as innate to all
human beings.
• This theory criticized the Nativists’ view and believed that Nativism is not developmental.
• The faculty for language learning found in the brain may not be enough to explain how
language is really learned.
• There is a missing mechanism that must be able to facilitate language learning.
G. Cognitivist
• A theoretical perspective that seeks to explain behavior in terms of processes that occur
in the mind.
• In language acquisition, this theory postulated that language learning involves highly
mental processes that can help explain how language is learned and developed.
Asynchronous Activity:
Watch the film “Nell”
Discussion Questions:
1. Discuss the linguistic development of Nell, the main character in the movie.
2. Describe Nell’s linguistic behavior.
3. What L1 theory or theories support/supports Nell’s linguistic development?
4. Do you think that the critical period plays an important factor in Nell’s linguistic deficiency?

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1. What first language acquisition theory may best explain the Filipino language learners’
acquisition of their mother tongue given our bilingual linguistic environment?
2. In your opinion, what is the most realistic theory that help explain human beings’
acquisition of their first language?
REFERENCES:
Lust, Barbra. (2006). Child Language: Acquisition and Growth.


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UNIT 3 – SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES
OVERVIEW:
Second Language (L2) acquisition theories were developed along the lines of first
language acquisition theories. Over the years, studies in linguistics have focused on second
language acquisition investigating how a second language is acquired, describing different stages
of development and assessing whether second language acquisition follows a similar
development route to that of first language acquisition.
A number of theories of second language acquisition were formulated, either deductively

or inductively, and research in the second language classroom flourished. With this, many
teachers have explored language strategies and methods which are informed by these theories.
1. understand the different second language acquisition theories;

2. compare and contrast the second language theories with the first language theories;
3. explain which second language theory will support the language acquisition of Filipino
language learners.
COURSE MATERIALS:
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES
A. MONITOR MODEL
• Krashen developed this theory in the late 1970’s which is considered the most influential
and well-known theories of second language acquisition.
• The monitor model is an overall theory that had important implications for language
teaching.
• The Monitor Theory attempts to cover most of the factors involved in L2 acquisition: age,
personality traits, classroom instruction, innate mechanisms of language acquisition, input
and environmental influences.
Five Central Hypotheses Underlying the Monitor Model
1. The Acquisition versus Language Hypothesis
• This hypothesis states that acquisition is a subconscious process, much like first language
acquisition.
• Learning is a conscious processing resulting into knowing about language.

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• Learning does not turn into acquisition and it usually takes place in formal environments,
while acquisition can take place without learning in informal environments.
2. The Monitor Hypothesis
• Learning has the function of monitoring and editing the utterances produced through the
acquisition process.
• The use of the Monitor is affected by the amount of time that the second language learner
has at his/her disposal to think about the utterance he/she is about to produce, the focus
on form, and his/her knowledge of second language rules.
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The natural order of second language rules are early-acquired and some are late-
acquired. This order does not necessarily depend on simplicity of form while it could be
influenced by classroom instruction.
4. The Input Hypothesis
• This hypothesis suggests that receiving comprehensible input is the only way that can
lead to the acquisition of a second language.
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• Comprehendible input will not be fully utilized by the learners if there is an affective filter,
that acts as a barrier to the acquisition process.
B. INTERLANGUAGE THEORIES
• This term interlanguage was first coined by Selinker (1969) to describe the linguistic stage
L2 learners go through during the process of mastering the target language.
• Interlanguage has become a major strand of L2 acquisition research and theory.
• Selinker’s description of the interlanguage system has a cognitive emphasis and focus on
the strategies that learners employ when learning L2.
• Selinker posits that interlanguage is temporary grammar which is systematic and

composed of rules. These rules are the product of five main cognitive processes:
1. Overgeneralization
➢ Some rules of the interlanguage system may be the result of the overgeneralization of
specific rules and features of the target language.

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2. Transfer of Training
➢ Some of the components of the interlanguage system may result from transfer of
specific elements via which the learner is taught the L2
3. Strategies of Second Language Learning
➢ Some of the rules in the learner’s interlanguage may result from the application of
language learning strategies as a tendency on the part of the learners to reduce the
target language to a simpler system.
4. Strategies of Second Language Communication
➢ Interlanguage system rules may also be a result of strategies employed by the learners
in their attempt to communicate with native speakers of the target language.
5. Language Transfer
➢ Some of the rules in the interlanguage system may be the result of transfer from the
learner’s first language.
C. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR THEORIES
• These theories are based on Chomsky’s claim that there are certain principles that from
the basis on which knowledge of language develops.
• These principles are biologically determined and specialized for language learning.
• Originally, UG theory did not concern itself with L2 learning, it referred to the first language
learner.
• UG theories of L2 acquisition were generated in order to provide explanations for empirical

evidence and they were primarily concerned with the internal mechanisms that lead to the
acquisition of the formal aspects of the target language and the similarities and the
differences between acquiring a particular language as L1 and L2.
UG Models
1. Completion Model (Felix, 1985)
Two Sub-systems
a. Language-Specific Cognitive System (LSC-System)

✓ Language learning process that is employed by children.
b. Problem-Solving System (PSC-System)
✓ Language learning process that is employed by adults.

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2. Creative Construction Theory (Dulay & Burt, 1974)
❖ This theory suggests that children engaged in L2 learning progressively by reconstructing

rules for the target language speech they hear guided by a universal innate mechanism
which lead to construct certain types of hypotheses about the target language.
D. COGNITIVE THEORIES
• Psychologists and psycholinguists viewed second language learning as the acquisition of

a complex cognitive skill.
• Some of the sub-skills involved in the language learning process are:
1. Applying grammatical rules

2. Choosing the appropriate vocabulary
3. Following the pragmatic conventions governing the use of a specific language
• From the cognitivist’s point of view, language acquisition is dependent in both the content
and developmental sequencing on prior cognitive abilities and language is viewed as a
function of more general non-linguistic abilities.
• The language acquisition theories based on a cognitive view of language development

regard language acquisition as the gradual automation of skills through stages of
restructuring and linking new information to old knowledge.
E. MULTI-DIMENSIONAL MODEL (Natural Order Hypothesis)

ACCULTURATION/PIDGINIZATION THEORIES
• The learner’s stage of acquisition of the target language is determined by two dimensions:
the learner’s development stage and the learner’s social-psychological orientation.
• This model has both explanatory and predictive power in that it not only identifies stages
of linguistic development, but it also explains why learners go through these
developmental stages and it predicts when other grammatical structures will be acquired.
F. ACCULTURATION/PIDGINIZATION THEORIES
• These theories are greatly affected by the degree of social and psychological distance
between the learner and the target-language culture.
• L2 acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner
acculturates to the target-language group will control the degree to which he acquires the
L2.

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• Pidginization is characterized by simplifications and reductions occurring in the learner’s

interlanguage which lead to fossilization when the learner’s interlanguage system does
not progress in the direction of the target language.
Asynchronous/Synchronous Task:
A. Read the poem “English is a queer language”
English is a Queer Language

(Author Unknown)
We’ll begin with box, and the plural is boxes,

But the plural of ox is oxen not oxes.
Then one fowl is a goose and two are geese,
Yet the plural of moose would never be meese.
You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice,
But the plural of house is houses not hice.
If the plural of man is always men,
Why shouldn’t the plural of pan be pen?
Cow in the plural may be cows or kine,
But the plural of vow is vows, not vine.
I speak of a foot and you show me your feet,
I will give you a boot; would you call a pair beet?
If the singular is tooth and the plural teeth,
Why shouldn’t be the plural of booth be beeth?
If the singular of this, and the plural is these,
Should the plural of kiss rightly be keese?
Then with ONE you use that and with THREE, those
Yet the plural of hat is never called hose.
We speak of a brother and also of brethren;
But though we say mother, we never say methren.
The masculine pronouns he, his and him,
But imagine the feminine as she, shis and shim.
So English I think- and you must agree-
Is a language as queer as any you’ll see.
Discussion Questions
1. Do you agree with the poem that English is indeed a ‘queer language?’
2. Explain why it is difficult to learn the linguistic system of the English language?
B. Read: Christina Gitsaki’s Second Language Acquisition Theories: Overview and Evaluation
<https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/32703109/Second_Language_Acquisition_Theories.pdf>

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1. What SLA theory will help explain the Filipino language learners’ acquisition of English as a
second language?
2. In this unit, we saw how children overgeneralize rules such as the plural rule, producing form
such as womans or leafs. What might an ESL child learning English use instead of the adult word
given. Explain why they might have those plural forms or conjugation:
a. children
b. went
c. sang
d. knives
e. worst
f. best
g. flew
h. geese
3. As a future ESL teacher, what do you think is the best language teaching strategy that you can
use to make the language learners acquire the second language more efficiently and effectively?
REFERENCES:
Gitsaki, C. (2000). Second Language Acquisition Theories: Overview and Evaluation


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UNIT 4 – BILINGUAL LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
OVERVIEW:
Children in some parts of the world acquire two languages simultaneously due to the
linguistic environment they are in. Astonishingly, they are learning two languages at the same
time with much ease and efficacy. These are consequences of a linguistic condition called
bilingualism.
In this unit, we will study the types of bilingualism - simultaneous bilingualism, a type of
bilingualism when children acquire two languages from birth and sequential bilingualism, a type
of bilingualism when children acquire a second language after the development of the first is
underway.
1. distinguish how the brain functions in bilingual speakers;

2. understand how bilingual language learners acquire different languages simultaneously;
3. explain why bilingual code switch.
COURSE MATERIALS:
THE BILINGUAL BRAIN
• Organization of language in the brain differs for bilingual and monolinguals.
• Bilingualism may be neurologically different from monolingualism because the two

languages a bilingual know are often acquired at different times of life.
• Thus, the different ages at which bilinguals typically acquire two languages might cause
the languages to be represented differently in the brain.
• When a bilingual individual suffers brain damage, the two languages are not always
affected equally, and they may follow different recovery paths.
Special Cases
a. Man who was a native speaker of Swiss-German who also spoke Italian, French and
Standard German had a stroke. All the languages suffered initially, but all were
recovered to some extent except Swiss-German. He never spoke his native language
again (Minkowski, 1927).

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b. Woman who had brain tumor, suffered aphasias of different types in her third-and
fourth-learned languages, but experiences little damage to her fluency in her first- and
second-learned languages.
• Obler & Albert (1978) suggest that what matters is how much language is used and that
the language most recently used is the most likely to recover first.
• Studies suggest that if a second language is acquired early in life, it is represented in the
same location and used the same way as a first language.
BILINGUAL FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
• Early bilingualism, bilingual first language acquisition and simultaneous bilingualism are
all terms used to refer to the situation in which a child is exposed to, and acquires two
languages from the very beginning of language development.
1. Phonological differentiation
❖ Volterra & Taeschner (1978) proposed that bilingual children distinguished 2

lexicons but apply the same syntactic rules to both languages and only about the
age of 3 years do children have 2 distinct systems.
❖ The earliest evidence for 2 separate systems could come from studies of the
phonological development of children exposed to 2 languages.
❖ Hoffman (1991) describes reports of bilingual development without apparent

confusion between the phonologies of the two languages.
2. Lexical differentiation
❖ The lexical evidence that is relevant to the issue of language differentiation in

bilingual children is the degree of overlap in the vocabularies in each language.
3. Morphosyntactic differentiation
❖ De Houwer (1995) concluded that there was no evidence of a single, fused system.
Although language mixing occurs, children mix lexical items but keep the rules of
grammar separate (Meisel, 1989).
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN CHILDHOOD
• The learner’s native language influences the acquisition of a second language. e.g.
Children acquiring and learning English make different errors depending on what their first
language is.

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• One account of language transfer argues that children and adults approach learning a
second language as a problem-solving task, and their first language influences what kinds
of solutions they think there might be (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994; Kellerman, 1986).
• Other arguments about how L2 acquisition might differ from L1 acquisition arise from the
UG approach. If L1 acquisition involves parameter setting, then does L2 acquisition
involve resetting those parameters.
• Although virtually all children successfully master a first language, there are enormous
individual differences in the success of L2 acquisition. The view that the human genome
guarantees L1 acquisition but that we are left to rely on our differing memories and analytic
abilities for L2 acquisition.
• L2 acquisition in childhood might also proceed differently and have a more variable
outcome than L1 acquisition because the input conditions are different and highly variable.
• In L2 acquisition, children are thrown into situations in which they must sink or swim and
in which many of their language models are peers (Wong-Filmore, 1991).
• Wong-Filmore (1991) has described the process of L2 acquisition by children as

constituting memorizing large chunks of speech to use for communicative purposes and
then only gradually analyzing these chunks into their component parts.
Characteristics of children that influence L2 learning
a. Aptitude (phonological memory)

b. Social personality
c. Age
d. Children’s proficiency of the L1 (interdependent Theory – Jim Cummins, 1978)
BILINGUAL LANGUAGE USE: CODE SWITCHING
• Codeswitching is the term used to refer to bilingual speakers’ use of two languages in the
same conversation – often in the same utterance.
Types of Code switching
1. Intrasentential switches
➢ Occur within the sentence (e.g. I was really desperado.)
2. Intersentential switches
➢ Occur between sentences
3. Tag switches

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➢ Involve putting a word or phrase in one language at the beginning or end

of a sentence that is entirely in the other language (e.g. Get it for me na
lang.) Use of enclitics at the end of the utterances – ba, pa na, kaya, etc.
• Speakers code switch for a variety of social and communicative purposes.
• Studies of bilingual children as early as 2 years old, use their 2 languages in contextually
sensitive ways.
• Children code switch because they have been learning both languages or simply learning
each language well enough to use it when pragmatically appropriate without dipping into
the other language in order to communicate.
Asynchronous Task:
Read chapter 8 of Steinberg & Sciarini’s ‘An Introduction to Psycholinguistics, 2nd Edition.’
1. Can children learn two languages easily as one?
2. How is second language acquisition in childhood different from first language acquisition,
in process or in outcome?
3. What is codeswitching and why do bilingual speakers do it? Conduct a research and be
ready to share your insights in class.
REFERENCES:
Hoff, E. (2001). Language Development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Thomson Learning.


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UNIT 5 – SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
OVERVIEW:
Many people believe that children are better than adults in learning a second language.
This seems to be backed up by the common observation that young second-language learners
seem to pick up another language quickly, just by exposure and without teaching. There are also
identified factors involved in second language acquisition that are matter of importance to future
language teachers.
In this unit, we will explore this topic in the hope that insights on this matter will help us in
the design of our approaches in teaching language.
1. identify the factors involved in second language acquisition and learning;

2. differentiate child second language learning from that of an adult;
3. recognize the role of attitude and motivation in language learning through survey
research.
COURSE MATERIALS:
FACTORS INVOLVED IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
1. Psychological
✓ intellectual processing, which is involved in an individual’s analytical determination of

grammatical structures and rules
✓ memory, which is essential if language learning is to occur and remain
✓ motor skills, which concern the pronunciation of the sounds involved in the second
language, i.e. the use of the articulators of speech (tongue, lips, mouth, vocal cords, etc.)
✓ the role of motivation and attitude regarding the learning of a second language
2. Social
✓ the types of situations, settings, and interactions which an individual experiences can
affect the learning of a second language -- where and with whom exposure to the second
language occurs. In particular, the natural situation (family, play, workplace)
✓ the classroom situation, in a foreign community (the EFL situation), or in the community
of the first language (the ESL situation)

22
PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
1. EXPLICATION VS INDUCTION
A. Explication
♦ The process whereby the rules and structures of a second language are explained to a
learner. This explanation is given in the first language of the learner. The learner is then
expected to understand, learn, and apply the rule in the second language.
♦ Rarely applicable to young children because explaining is rarely done by parents or others
when children acquire a native language, yet children by the age of 4 or 5 can understand
and speak most of their native language quite well. They have learned language by self-
analysis, induction.
♦ Teaching simple and complex rules. However, rules that are simple can be learned by
explication without much difficulty.
B. Induction
♦ Learning rules by self-discovery is the essence of the process of induction.
♦ The child who is exposed to second-language speech and remembers what he or she has
heard will be able to analyze and discover the generalization or rule that underlies that
speech.
♦ Not only must the learner devise the rule based on the speech that has been heard, but
he or she must also figure out how those rules are to be applied in other cases.
♦ The second-language learner is always trying to figure out language by induction. This is
simply the natural thing to do. So long as the structures involved are not far beyond the
learner’s level of syntactic understanding, there is a good chance that the learner can
discover the rules by self-analysis
.
2. MEMORY
Vocabulary learning and rote memory
 Memory is crucial to learning. It is inconceivable that a person with a severe memory

impairment could ever learn his or her native language, much less a second language.
The learning of the simplest word requires memory.
 The greater the number of related occurrences needed for learning, the poorer a person’s
memory. Second-language learners and teachers are forever talking of practice and
review. The reason that practice and review is necessary at all is because of some lack in
memory ability.

23
Syntax learning and episodic memory
 Memory is similarly crucial for the learning of grammatical structures and rules.
 It is only through memory that a learner can accumulate the vast amount of speech and
relevant situational data that serves as the basis for analyzing structures and formulating
rules. It is not enough to remember whole phrases and sentences; the learner must also
remember the situations in which these sentences were uttered in order to derive the
meaning of those phrases and sentences and their syntax.
 The type of memory that involves situations is what Tulving (1983) and others refer to as
‘episodic memory’.
Children’s memory ability
➢ Children under 7 years display a phenomenal ability at rote memorization.

➢ Older children, however, do not, with some decline beginning around 8 years of
age and with more of a decline from about 12 years of age.
➢ Older children began to apply their cognitive abilities in analyzing the syntactic
rules of the second language while younger children relied more heavily on their
use of rote memory for language learning.
 In this regard, it seems that children’s ages can be usefully divided into at least two
categories, under 7 years and 7 to 12 years.
3. MOTOR SKILLS
Articulators of speech
♦ Motor Skills is a term that psychologists use to describe the use of muscles in performing
certain skills, from general ones like walking to fine ones like writing and speech.
♦ The Motor Skills that are involved in speech include the mouth, lips, tongue, vocal cords,
etc., all of which are controlled by muscles that are under the general control of the brain.
♦ The articulators of speech have to do the right thing at the right time (open the mouth in a
certain way, position the lips and tongue in a certain way, etc.), if one is to utter sounds
accurately.
Decline in general motor skills
▪ We all recognize that to be able to attain a high level of proficiency in a motor skill, e.g.,
gymnastics, skating or piano playing, one should start young because somewhere around
the age of 12 years, the ability to acquire new motor skills begins to decline. The reason
for this decline in the fine control of the muscles of the body is as yet unknown, although,
since the decline is of such a general nature, involving many muscle groups, it seems
likely to be due to some change in central functioning in the brain.

24
▪ Hormonal changes prior to puberty may have something to do with this but this is only
speculation on our part.
Decline in ability for new articulations
▪ As we age and as our ability to acquire new motor skills declines, our ability to command
our articulators of speech is negatively affected.
▪ Consequently, we can expect that children will do much better in the pronunciation of a
second language than adults because children have the flexibility in motor skills that adults
generally have lost.
▪ A number of studies have demonstrated that the earlier the age at which acquisition of the
second language begins, the more native-like the accent will be.
4. MOTIVATION
❑ A 1- or 2-year-old needs no motivation to learn a second language; given language input,

the young child will automatically learn – with learning even occurring in negative
circumstances.
❑ An older child of 4 or 5 years, however, may need motivation in order to learn a second
language since by that age the child may be aware of whether a language is positively or
negatively regarded by others, or the child may prefer other activities.
❑ The planned learning situation such as the classroom, however, presents a very different
problem. There is an element of choice involved in attending class, listening to the teacher,
participating in activities, and in doing assignments. The amount of exposure that one
receives and the amount of attention and effort that one devotes to learning may be
affected by one’s motivation. Dislike of a teacher, for example, could seriously affect
language learning unless it is balanced by a high degree of motivation that enables one
to persist.
❑ There are a large number of variables involved in second-language learning, such as

intergroup attitudes and climate, social situation, personality and self-confidence, desire
to communicate with a particular person, to name just a few (MacIntyre et al., 1998). In an
actual classroom situation any one of them could affect motivation. Teachers are generally
well aware of this possibility and often devise ways to increase positive motivation and
attitudes.
5. ATTITUDE
o A negative attitude towards the target language or its speakers, or the other members of
the class, may also affect one’s determination and persistence to be involved in the
classroom and its activities.

25
o This same negative attitude could impair memory functioning and detract from focusing
on the target language. In the same way, any of a host of personality and sociocultural
variables could have deleterious effects.
o Many variables, such as status and cultural background, become more potent with the
age of the learner and are important considerations in the classroom learning situation.
o Attitude may play a role in the natural situation as well. By 4 years of age children have
developed attitudes towards language. They know how people react to different
languages.
SOCIAL VARIABLES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
A. The Natural Situation
➢ A natural situation for second-language learning is one where the second language is
experienced in a situation that is similar to that in which the native language is learned --
that is, language is experienced in conjunction with the objects, situations, and events of
everyday life.
Example: a young child going to live in another country and learning that country’s
language, not by any explicit teaching, but by interacting with playmates.
➢ With age, language is more essential for social interaction It is important to note that for
adults, social interaction mainly occurs through the medium of language. Few native-
speaker adults are willing to devote time to interacting with someone who does not speak
the language, with the result that the adult foreigner will have little opportunity to engage
in meaningful and extended language exchanges.
➢ Adult second-language learners will typically have significantly fewer good language-
learning opportunities in a new language community than will children. In contrast, the
young child is often readily accepted by other children, and even adults. For young
children, language is not as essential to social interaction. So-called ‘parallel play’, for
example, is common among young children.
➢ The opportunities to experience language in a natural situation decline with age.
B. The classroom situation
➢ The classroom is isolated from other social life.
➢ The classroom for second-language learning is a planned situation. Physically, there is a

room that is isolated from the rest of social life. In the room there is a teacher and a number
of students. The teacher is the one who knows the second language and the students are
there to learn the language. In the enclosed space of the classroom, nothing happens
(linguistically) unless the teacher makes it happen. Students do not act on their own but

26
follow the directions of the teacher. All other aspects of life are suspended or subordinated
to language learning.
Difference between the natural situation and the planned classroom situation
→ Social adjustment to group process (individuals must subordinate their behavior and follow
classroom procedures for the benefit of all), the need to attend class in order to learn, the
need for long periods of concentration, and, when required, having to do home study.
→ As far as language is concerned, the explicit teaching of grammatical structures and rules
may be involved, depending on the method used. Using books and taking notes are often
expected of the student. Students have to get used to learning language as an academic
subject. Thus, when considering overall the demands of the classroom situation, it is clear
that the older one is, the better one is able to adjust and function within that situation.
Young children often will not do as well as older children and adults.
• Generally, the ability to learn in a classroom setting improves with age because older
children and adults can adapt better to the classroom regimen and are more receptive to
materials taught through explication.
C. ESL or EFL community context
Language community context: English as a Second Language

(ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
❖ Whether the classroom is in a school that is in a community where the second language
is spoken is a matter of some importance, for this will allow students to benefit from both
a natural situation outside the class and their classroom learning.
❖ The ESL context provides more language-learning opportunities for the second-language
learner through exposure to natural situations outside the classroom, such learners,
unsurprisingly, will generally progress more rapidly than learners living in an EFL context.
1. Group Task: Conduct a short survey on students’ attitude towards English or students’
motivation in learning English. Be ready to share your findings in class.
2. Between children and adult language learners, who will perform better in a natural setting?
Classroom setting? ESL/EFL setting?
3. Between children and adult language learners, who will benefit from the natural setting?
classroom setting? ESL/EFL setting? Justify your answer.

27
REFERENCES:
FINAL REQUIREMENTS:
Long Test
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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

UNIT 1 – Nature of Language 1

Unit 2 – First Language Acquisition Theories 7

Unit 3 - Second Language Acquisition Theories 11

UNIT 4 – Bilingual Language Acquisition 17

The Bilingual Brain 17

UNIT 5 – Second Language Learning 21

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

UNIT 1 – Nature of Language

‘Nothing is more specifically “human” than the knowledge of language.’

It is impossible to study the acquisition of language scientifically without understanding

1. understand that language is genetically specific to humankind alone;

• Language is first and foremost symbolic.

• Language is a system of signs that express ideas.

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

LANGUAGE AS A HUMAN UNIVERSAL

Example Hawaiian Pidgin English

HUMAN VOCAL TRACT AND LANGUAGE

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

HUMAN BRAIN AND LANGUAGE

• The two hemispheres of the brain are not symmetrical.

Basic Neuroanatomy and its Function

• it is divided into two cerebral hemispheres

• it controls the tongue and the lips

• it is said to be responsible for the development of syntax

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

• it is said to be responsible for development of meaning

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Language development is related to brain development.

• As Eric Lennenberg (1967) pointed out, language development in humans is associated

• The appearance of language is a developmental milestone, roughly correlated with the

Lennenberg’s Language as Species Specific and Uniform Special Features

1. The regular onset of speech

The order of appearance of development milestones including speech, is regular in

2. Speech is not suppressible

3. Language cannot be taught to other species

4. Language have certain universals

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

Certain systematic aspects of language such as phonology, grammar, semantics,

CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS

Watch the film “Sex and the Split Brain”

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

a. critical period in language learning

Holf, E. (2001). Language development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Thomson Learning.

Lust, Barbra. (2006). Child Language: Acquisition and Growth.

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

UNIT 2 – FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES

1. identify different first language acquisition theories;

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES

• Language learning is perceived as any kind of learning, as the formation of habits.

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

• The theory can be attributed to Chomsky (1957)

• This innate device is called Language Acquisition Devise (LAD).

• Language acquisition and development is largely driven by some form of physical

• According to this theory, language is probabilistic learning.

“THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNICU”

• There is a missing mechanism that must be able to facilitate language learning.

Watch the film “Nell”

2. Describe Nell’s linguistic behavior.

3. What L1 theory or theories support/supports Nell’s linguistic development?

IM-Principles & Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning-Calvario

IM-Principles & Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning-Calvario