Industrial Refrigeration Best Practice Guide

Industrial Refrigeration
Best Practices Guide
December 2004
Prepared by
Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc.
6½ N. Second Ave, Suite 310
Walla Walla, Washington 99362
www.cascadeenergy.com
With support from
529 SW Third Avenue, Suite 600

Portland, Oregon 97204
(800) 411-0834
The Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance is a non-profit corporation supported by electric utilities, public benefits
administrators, state governments, public interest groups and energy efficiency industry representatives. These entities work
together to make affordable, energy-efficient products and services available in the marketplace.
Distribution support from

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide
Primary Authors
Marcus Wilcox, Rob Morton, Dan Brown: Cascade Energy Engineering
Document Design and Editing

Jeff Jansen: Modest Systems
Technical Illustration
Elaine Giraud: SeeFigureOne
Document Concept, Contributing Author, and Project Management

Steven Scott: MetaResource Group
Technical Reviewers
Greg Jourdan: Wenatchee Valley College
Anthony Radspieler and Steve Greenberg: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Doug Reindl: Industrial Refrigeration Consortium
Michael Steur: Hixson, Inc.
Manufacturer Photographs and Graphics

Advanced Freezer, APV, Baltimore Air Coil, Cherry-Burrell, Colmac, Evapco, FES, Frick, Hansen,
Honeywell, Imeco, Mercoid, Mueller, Mycom, Northstar, Sporlan, Vilter, Vogt, York
Copyright
© 2004 Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, Inc. All rights reserved. Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance grants
permission to reproduce this material in whole or in part only for information or education purposes.
ISBN: 0-9721077-9-7
Disclaimer
This Guide was prepared by Cascade Energy Engineering for the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance. Neither the
Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance nor any of its contractors, subcontractors, or employees, makes any warranty,
expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability of responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed within this Guide. This Guide and any examples described herein are
intended to be general information and guidelines concerning the subject matter, and are not recommendations with respect
to any specific project or application.
[CD]
ii Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Table of Contents
Table of Contents
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Background ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Goals ................................................................................................................................................. 1
Focus on Industrial Refrigeration ...................................................................................................... 2
Road Map to this Best Practices Guide ............................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2
Best Practices Overview.....................................................................................5
The Scope of Refrigeration Best Practices ........................................................................................ 5
Life-Cycle Costs................................................................................................................................ 5
Energy Efficiency—“The Big Picture” ............................................................................................... 6
How to Implement Best Practices .................................................................................................... 7
Benefits Beyond Energy .................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3
Refrigeration System Basics.............................................................................10
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 10
Purpose of Refrigeration .......................................................................................................... 10
Refrigerants.............................................................................................................................. 10
Basic Refrigeration Cycle ................................................................................................................ 11
Evaporation.............................................................................................................................. 11
Compression............................................................................................................................ 11
Condensing .............................................................................................................................. 12
Expansion................................................................................................................................. 12
Two-Stage Cycle............................................................................................................................. 12
Refrigeration Equipment ................................................................................................................. 13
Evaporators.............................................................................................................................. 13
Compressors ........................................................................................................................... 21
Condensers.............................................................................................................................. 32
Vessels, Valves, Purgers, and Underfloor Heating ................................................................... 35
Controls ................................................................................................................................... 38
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)........................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 4
Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls ...................................46
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 46
Reducing Lift.................................................................................................................................... 46
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 46
Increasing Suction Pressure ..................................................................................................... 46
Reducing Discharge Pressure................................................................................................... 49
Barriers to Reducing Minimum Condensing Pressure ............................................................. 52
Improving Part-Load Performance ................................................................................................. 55
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 55
Improving Evaporator Part-Load Performance ....................................................................... 56
Improving Compressor Part-Load Performance ..................................................................... 59
Improving Condenser Part-Load Performance........................................................................ 62
Upgrading Equipment ..................................................................................................................... 65
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 65
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide iii

Table of Contents
Evaporator Coil Efficiency........................................................................................................ 65
Compressor Efficiency ............................................................................................................. 67
Condenser Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 69
Premium-Efficiency Motors ..................................................................................................... 71
Motor Sizing............................................................................................................................. 71
Improving System Design................................................................................................................ 72
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 72
Multistage Compression .......................................................................................................... 72
Liquid Subcooling ..................................................................................................................... 73
Gas-Pressure Recirculation Systems ........................................................................................ 73
Hot-Gas Defrost ...................................................................................................................... 74
Heat Recovery ......................................................................................................................... 75
Purgers..................................................................................................................................... 75
Reducing Refrigeration Loads.......................................................................................................... 76
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 76
Building Upgrades .................................................................................................................... 76
Process Upgrades .................................................................................................................... 79
Computer Control—The Backbone of Efficiency........................................................................... 79
Efficiency Checklist ......................................................................................................................... 80
What Makes a Compressor Efficient? ...................................................................................... 81
What Makes an Evaporator Efficient? ...................................................................................... 82
What Makes a Condenser Efficient?......................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 5
Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning ..................................................84
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 84
Operation and Maintenance............................................................................................................ 84
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 84
Evaporators.............................................................................................................................. 85
Compressors ........................................................................................................................... 85
Condensers.............................................................................................................................. 86
Commissioning................................................................................................................................ 87
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 87
Evaporators.............................................................................................................................. 87
Compressors ........................................................................................................................... 87
Condensers.............................................................................................................................. 88
System...................................................................................................................................... 88
Controls ................................................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 6
Tools for Implementing Best Practices ...........................................................90
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 90
System Assessment Questionnaire ................................................................................................. 91
An Overview of Life-Cycle Costing .............................................................................................. 102
Estimating the Annual Energy Cost of Your Refrigeration System................................................ 103
Using an Energy Study as a Management Tool ............................................................................. 106
Energy Accounting ........................................................................................................................ 108
Information Sources for Industrial Refrigeration ........................................................................... 110
CHAPTER 7
Case Studies....................................................................................................111
iv Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Table of Contents
List of Figures
Figure 1: Suggested road map to this Guide for various audiences..........................................................3
Figure 2: Refrigeration transfers heat from a medium to the ambient environment .............................10
Figure 3: The basic refrigeration cycle ...................................................................................................11
Figure 4: Thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression.........................................12
Figure 5: Refrigerant-to-air coil (left) and evaporator tube bundle (right) .............................................13
Figure 6: Spiral freezer (left) and freeze tunnel (right)...........................................................................14
Figure 7: Evaporator coil with four fans .................................................................................................14
Figure 8: Evaporator coils in a penthouse ..............................................................................................14
Figure 9: Evaporator coil with centrifugal fans .......................................................................................15
Figure 10: Recirculated (overfeed) refrigerant transport.......................................................................16
Figure 11: Flooded evaporator...............................................................................................................16
Figure 12: Direct expansion refrigerant transport .................................................................................16
Figure 13: Frosted evaporator coil.........................................................................................................17
Figure 14: Defrost controller .................................................................................................................18
Figure 15: Heat exchangers: Shell-and-tube, inside (left top) and outside (left bottom); Plate-
and-frame (center); Falling-film (right).....................................................................................20
Figure 16: Scraped-surface heat exchanger (left) and plate freezer (right)............................................20
Figure 17: Flake ice maker and cutaway view........................................................................................21
Figure 18: Cube ice maker.....................................................................................................................21
Figure 19: Twelve-cylinder reciprocating compressor ..........................................................................22
Figure 20: Cut-away view of compressor ..............................................................................................22
Figure 21: Reciprocating compressor part-load curves .........................................................................23
Figure 22: Twin screw compressor .......................................................................................................24
Figure 23: Screw compressor package ..................................................................................................24
Figure 24: Single-screw compressor ......................................................................................................24
Figure 25: Screw compressor and slide valve mechanism .....................................................................25
Figure 26: Diagram of slide valve unloading (left) and Photograph of slide valve (right)........................25
Figure 27: Screw compressor part-load performance curves for various capacity-control
methods ...................................................................................................................................25
Figure 28: Diagram and photo of liquid-injection cooling system ..........................................................27
Figure 29: Discharge injection system showing pump (arrow) ..............................................................27
Figure 30: Diagram and photo of thermosiphon cooling system ...........................................................28
Figure 31: Direct-contact cooling system ..............................................................................................28
Figure 32: Diagram of overcompression and undercompression ..........................................................29
Figure 33: Compressor control panel ....................................................................................................29
Figure 34: Rotary vane compressor .......................................................................................................30
Figure 35: Rotary vane compressor—internal view...............................................................................30
Figure 36: Evaporative condenser..........................................................................................................32
Figure 37: Forced-draft, axial fan condenser (left); Induced-draft, axial fan condenser (center);
Forced-draft, centrifugal fan condenser (right)........................................................................33
Figure 38: Low-pressure receiver (LPR) with insulation and liquid pump .............................................35
Figure 39: Diagram of an intercooler .....................................................................................................36
Figure 40: High-pressure receiver (HPR)...............................................................................................36
Figure 41: Liquid solenoid (left); Metered liquid solenoid (right) ...........................................................36
Figure 42: Hand expansion valve (left); Thermal expansion valve (right)...............................................37
Figure 43: Pressure regulators ...............................................................................................................37
Figure 44: Automatic purger ..................................................................................................................38
Figure 45: Spring-loaded (left) and Mercury (right) pressure switches ..................................................40
Figure 46: Thermostat ...........................................................................................................................40
Figure 47: Electro-mechanical control system .......................................................................................40
Figure 48: Simple digital controller.........................................................................................................41
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide v

List of Figures
Figure 49: Computer-control system interface......................................................................................41
Figure 50: I/O communications panel ....................................................................................................41
Figure 51: VFD output voltage and current waveform ..........................................................................43
Figure 52: Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) .........................................................................................44
Figure 53: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a constant torque load..................................44
Figure 54: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a variable torque load ...................................45
Figure 55: Ice cream room within a refrigerated warehouse.................................................................48
Figure 56: VFD installation in a food distribution center........................................................................57
Figure 57: VFD with input reactor and output dV/dt filter ....................................................................59
Figure 58: Typical part-load power for a constant-speed screw compressor .......................................59
Figure 59: VFD application to screw compressor..................................................................................62
Figure 60: Comparison of constant speed and variable speed part load power ....................................62
Figure 61: Graph of coil efficiency versus face velocity..........................................................................66
Figure 62: Newer efficient fan-blade design (left) and older less efficient design (right) .......................66
Figure 63: Graph of efficiency versus pressure ratio..............................................................................68
Figure 64: Variation of condenser efficiency within frame sizes.............................................................69
Figure 65: Comparison of the efficiencies of various condenser types ..................................................70
Figure 66: High-performance spray nozzles ..........................................................................................71
Figure 67: Motor efficiencies – 1800 rpm ..............................................................................................71
Figure 68: Thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression.......................................72
Figure 69: Two-stage system with multiple temperature levels ............................................................73
Figure 70: Strip curtain (left), fast-folding door (center), and vestibule-style door (right) for
infiltration control ....................................................................................................................77
Figure 71: Infra-red door heaters for frost control ................................................................................77
Figure 72: Dirty evaporator coil.............................................................................................................85
Figure 73: Slide valve potentiometer .....................................................................................................86
Figure 74: Plugged condenser spray nozzles..........................................................................................86
Figure 75: Examples of tracking energy use normalized to production (left) and temperature
(right) .....................................................................................................................................108
vi Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

List of Figures
List of Tables
Table 1: Qualifying attributes of industrial refrigeration systems.............................................................2
Table 2: Examples of benefits beyond energy..........................................................................................9
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of reciprocating compressors..................................................23
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of screw compressors .............................................................29
Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of rotary vane compressors.....................................................31
Table 6: Sample compressor ratings ......................................................................................................31
Table 7: Relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia at sea level ............................47
Table 8: Weather data for Seattle, WA and Miami, FL ..........................................................................51
Table 9: Mix-and-match compressor staging .........................................................................................60
Table 10: List of coils with a capacity of about 50 TR at 10°F temperature difference .........................66
Table 11: Compressor capacity and power ratings at a condensing temperature of 85°F and
various suction temperatures for ammonia .............................................................................68
Table 12: Example summary of savings and cost from an energy study ..............................................107
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide vii

List of Tables
viii Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Courtesy of Frick
Background
This Guide identifies and discusses best practices for making industrial refrigeration systems both
energy-efficient and productive. The highest levels of efficiency in these systems are achieved
through a combination of design, construction, commissioning, operation, and maintenance. This
Guide provides insights into approaches to industrial refrigeration systems that cost less to operate,
are reliable, can maintain accurate and consistent temperatures in refrigerated spaces, help ensure
that processing equipment operates consistently, and can meet varying production needs.
This Guide was developed with the support of the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance. The
Alliance is a non-profit corporation supported by electric utilities, public benefits administrators,
state governments, public interest groups and energy efficiency industry representatives. These
entities work together to make affordable, energy-efficient products and services available in the
marketplace.
The Alliance is committed to programs that will cause market transformation, wherein energy users
are influenced by example, education, and experience to increasingly consider and make choices in
favor of energy-efficient products and services.
Goals
Ultimately, market transformation for energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration is achieved by
changing the business practices of food processing companies, cold-storage and refrigerated
warehouses, and the trade allies that support and serve them. Design standards and operation-and-
maintenance practices that increase and maintain energy efficiency can also be adopted by users of
industrial refrigeration and their engineering consultants and contractors.
In this context, the goals of this Best Practices Guide are:
To identify opportunities to increase electrical energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration
systems The Guide specifically focuses on energy savings measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 1

Chapter 1: Introduction
It is written primarily for audiences in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, where
energy costs are the largest portion (usually over 80%) of typical electric bills. The Guide does
not specifically address reducing peak monthly power demand, measured in kilowatts (kW).
However, in most cases, a system that saves energy will also reduce peak demand. This Guide
also does not address load-shifting strategies, where refrigeration load is shifted from a high-cost
time period to a low-cost time period, nor does it address reactive power (power factor, or
kVAR) or power-quality issues such as harmonics.
To better understand industrial refrigeration as a system Energy efficiency in industrial
refrigeration includes both selecting efficient components and integrating those components
into an efficient system. The goal is to minimize the energy consumption of the entire system.
Frequently, one or more small constraints in a system can limit the efficiency of the overall
system. In other instances, reducing the energy use of one type of component may increase the
energy use of another. Understanding the way the system behaves as a whole lets us avoid
building in “weak links” and allows us to strike an efficient balance between components.
To motivate system designers, contractors, plant engineers, and owners to consider life-cycle
costs when installing or upgrading industrial refrigeration systems The equipment-supply
and design-build businesses are very cost-competitive, and facility owners have limited capital
budgets. Therefore, system design often emphasizes low initial cost rather than low life-cycle
cost. Energy costs are the most significant ongoing life-cycle cost, and are a major component
of the total present-value cost of a refrigeration system.
To highlight non-energy benefits of energy-efficient practices In most situations, investments
in energy efficiency can also reduce labor costs, increase productivity, increase product quality,
and increase system reliability.
To emphasize that best practices include more than just system design Commissioning and
well considered operation-and-maintenance practices contribute importantly to the long-term
energy performance of the system.
Focus on Industrial Refrigeration

This Guide focuses solely on industrial refrigeration systems, which we define in the following
broad terms.
Table 1: Qualifying attributes of industrial refrigeration systems
Attribute Criteria
Size: 100 tons or larger
Refrigerant: Ammonia (R-717) in the vast majority of cases, with some R-22 applications
System Type: Centralized and built-up, as opposed to commercial refrigeration equipment
which is simpler, more modular, and distributed
Load Temperatures: -60°F to 55°F with normally at least one load below 40°F
Function: Primarily storage and processing of food products
Industries: Refrigerated warehouses, including controlled atmosphere
Fruit and vegetable processors ranging from fresh product storage to highly
processed pre-prepared meals
Breweries and wineries
Dairy and ice cream processors
Meat, poultry, and fish processors
2 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Industrial refrigeration systems are distinct from two related system types, which are not covered in
this Guide:
Commercial refrigeration systems (such as those in grocery stores) which tend to be smaller,
simpler, and more modular.
Large HVAC systems that cool spaces occupied by people and equipment, and that maintain
space temperatures higher than 55°F.
Road Map to this Best Practices Guide

This Best Practices Guide is written for a wide audience. Readers (and users, for it is intended that
this document be used) will certainly include:
Owners, officers, and regional managers of food-processing companies
Plant managers, production and operation managers, and maintenance managers
Corporate engineering staff at food-processing companies
Operators of refrigeration systems
Personnel in utility efficiency programs
Design engineers and energy analysts
Contractors and vendors who serve the industrial refrigeration market
Although most of this Best Practices Guide will be of interest to all readers, some sections will be of
particular interest to specific audiences. The chapters of the Guide and how each audience may find
them valuable are outlined below and illustrated in . We hope that you will find useful information
on best practices for your refrigeration system for energy efficiency, to control operating costs, and
to realize productivity benefits—fundamentally, to improve your bottom line.
Chapter 2: Best Practices
Overview, beginning on
page 5, includes an overview
of design, operation, and
maintenance best practices, an
outline of the major categories
of improvement, and a guide
on how to obtain best
practices in industrial
refrigeration systems.
Chapter 3: Refrigeration
System Basics, beginning on
page 10, reviews refrigeration
Figure 1: Suggested road map to this Guide for various audiences
basics and, if needed, will help
familiarize you with industrial
refrigeration concepts and equipment. If you are already familiar with refrigeration systems and
related components you may want to skip this section, but it may be useful for reference. You may
also want to skip this chapter if you are looking for a higher level view of best practices. You can
refer to this chapter as needed.
Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls, beginning on page 46, describes
energy-efficient concepts, equipment, controls, and system types. This chapter features
recommended best practices. If you are an owner, plant engineer, or operator, we recommend that
you understand these best practices and consider them, if feasible, for your facility. This chapter
also highlights the benefits beyond energy cost savings that are often associated with increased

energy efficiency. This chapter is not an engineering manual and should be accessible to all potential
readers described above.
Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning, beginning on page 84, addresses how
operation, maintenance, and commissioning affect the energy performance of the system. This
chapter is not a training manual for operation and maintenance, but addresses these points on a
higher level that is suitable for most readers.
Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices, beginning on page 90, provides tools and
concepts to help you address your system and work toward best practices. This chapter is geared
more toward management personnel (owners, corporate engineers, and operators) at food-
processing plants. It includes a self-assessment survey that covers many of the concepts featured in
this Guide. This chapter also includes other energy-management tools, concepts, and engineering
references.
Chapter 7: Case Studies, beginning on page 111, includes three short case studies that were selected
to show how some of these best practices have been implemented in the Pacific Northwest.
You will find another useful resource at the end of Chapter 4. Beginning on page 80, under
Efficiency Checklist, are three tables—one each for compressors, evaporators, and condensers—that
summarize the key best practices from Chapter 4.and Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 2
Best Practices Overview
The Scope of Refrigeration Best Practices

This chapter addresses best practices for energy efficiency from a management level. We introduce
four interrelated concepts that contribute to good business decisions. Best practices should
encompass design, operation, maintenance, and commissioning. Attention to all of these activities
will optimize overall system performance.
Design
Designing the facility to reduce loads
Selecting energy-efficient equipment and controls
Integrating that equipment into a system that is optimized for efficiency at both peak loads and
typical loads
Operation
Trained and certified operators with a conceptual knowledge of energy-efficient practices and
an understanding of refrigeration cycles
Scheduled or regular review and documentation of key set points and operational strategies
required for energy-efficient operation
Using a control system to review operations to confirm efficient operation and to automate
complex control strategies
Observing equipment and gauge readings to confirm efficient operation
Maintenance
Trained and certified maintenance staff and contractors
Preventive maintenance practices
Routine calibration of sensors, controls, and actuators that indicate system performance
Routine cleaning and maintenance of evaporators, condensers and heat exchangers
Commissioning
Implementing commissioning for new construction, for major retrofits, and periodically for all
systems to ensure that the system, equipment, and controls meet process and energy-efficiency
objectives
Life-Cycle Costs
Best practices encompass much more than just energy performance. In the broadest sense, best
practices could be defined as follows:
Design, operational, and maintenance practices that help minimize life-cycle costs to the system
owner are based upon factors that include:
Initial capital investment
The expected life of the equipment

Chapter 2: Best Practices Overview
The reliability of the equipment
Life-cycle cost of energy
Life-cycle cost of equipment maintenance
Life-cycle cost of operation labor
Life-cycle cost of labor and equipment for maintenance
Life-cycle costs associated with marginal improvements in product quality
Life-cycle-cost effects on employee and process productivity
Capital and discount rate for the owner
Ideally, all of these costs and their interactions would be well understood, and selecting the “best
practices” for a given situation would be straightforward. Real situations, however, are more
complicated and have more unknowns, but we contend that in most cases, a system that is designed,
operated, and maintained in an energy-efficient manner will typically have low life-cycle costs.
There is no single set of best practices that is ideal for every situation. We do not suggest that every
conceivable energy-efficient option should be integrated into every system. The optimum design for
a system that operates continuously at relatively high load will be different than the design for a
system with a short season with highly variable loads. Instead, we believe that it is warranted to
consider a range of energy-efficiency choices when designing a new refrigeration system or
modifying an existing system. Existing system constraints, energy rates, and utility or government
incentives can all significantly influence which best practices are economically viable for a specific
system.
Energy Efficiency—“The Big Picture”

Strategies for increasing the energy efficiency of industrial refrigeration systems fall into seven
major categories:
Reducing System Lift
Refrigeration system “lift” is the difference between suction pressure and discharge pressure.
Reducing lift by raising suction or lowering discharge pressure increases compressor efficiency.
Improving Part-Load Performance
In most systems, evaporators, compressors, and condensers often operate at less than their full
capacity. There are many ways to control capacity, some more efficient than others.
Upgrading Equipment
Refrigeration equipment—from motors to condensers—can be upgraded or replaced with
efficient design and configuration in mind.
Improving System Design
Designing a refrigeration system to address such issues as multistage compression, liquid
subcooling, defrost configuration, and heat recovery can increase energy efficiency.
Reducing Refrigeration Loads
There are many ways to reduce the load that the refrigeration system must meet. Envelope
upgrades such as increasing insulation, selecting better doors, and installing an efficient lighting
system all reduce the amount of heat within the refrigerated space that the refrigeration system
must remove.
Commissioning
Commissioning is the inspection, review, and adjustment of set points, control strategies, and
equipment features, so as to achieve the design intent and meet original specifications, in a way

that maximizes performance and efficiency. It ensures that you get what you pay for in your
refrigeration system.
Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
O&M can be defined as maintaining originally specified equipment performance through
proper service at specified intervals and with the proper application of system-operation set
points for best efficiency.
How to Implement Best Practices

Fully optimizing refrigeration energy use and thus controlling operating costs requires thoughtful
planning. The checklist below includes steps that we have found helpful in maximizing system
performance.
Efficient System Design and Equipment Selection

In the planning phase for a new-construction or expansion project, conduct or contract an
energy study like the one described in Using an Energy Study as a Management Tool on
page 106.
Even if an expansion is not being considered, owners of existing systems can conduct or
contract an energy study to identify opportunities to improve the existing system, and to
document potential energy-cost savings and upgrade costs.
Define alternates for energy-efficient features when soliciting bids from contractors.
Consider assembling an integrated design team that can account for and take advantage of
system interactions. For instance, more efficient warehouse lighting, doors, and insulation
may allow for a smaller, less expensive refrigeration system.
Investigate incentives or tax credits that allow you to leverage your efficiency investment.
Select options that meet your requirements for return on investment. If you think electrical
costs will escalate, try to “stretch” your economic criteria such that you won’t miss lost
opportunities.
Often individual efficiency investments won’t meet economic criteria, but a package of
measures will. A comprehensive package of measures usually will have synergistic effects and
result in a better overall system as well.
Rely on skilled designers, contractors, and energy analysts with proven track records of
designing and building energy-efficient systems.
Make the energy-efficiency requirements of the project very clear. These requirements should
be as stringent and explicit as any other requirements for the project. Performance
requirements should be defined both for peak design and for typical periods of partial loads
and cooler weather.
Budget for and include a computer-control system and high degree of instrumentation. The
control system will serve as a platform for energy-efficient control features and provide an
invaluable “window” into system operation for the life of the refrigeration system. Ensure
that the control system includes optimizing algorithms, and does not simply replicate the
function of manual or basic electro-mechanical controls.
System Commissioning
Develop and execute a commissioning plan to assure that the system, equipment, and
controls meet their process and energy-efficiency objectives.
Think of commissioning as a way to ensure that you are getting what you are paying for in
your refrigeration system project, not as an additional cost without benefit.

Operation and Maintenance
Make sure that your operators understand energy-efficiency goals and concepts and the
reasoning behind key set points and control sequences.
Invest in training for, and support certification of, your system operators and maintenance
staff. It will result in lower operating costs and improved reliability, process performance,
and product quality.
Encourage a spirit of optimization. A refrigeration control system is most valuable when it is
actively used as a tool to understand and optimize system operation, not as a static control
loop that is set up once and then left alone.
In the performance evaluations of system operators and maintenance staff, consider
recognizing operation-and-maintenance activities that contribute to efficiency.
Diligently perform maintenance tasks including:
Cleaning heat-exchange surfaces
Following water-treatment recommendations
Eliminating non-condensable gas
Regularly calibrating pressure and temperature sensors and slide-valve position indicators
Performing all preventive maintenance on compressors
Track system performance through engine-room logs and control-system histories. Use this
data to identify and address problems and to evaluate future upgrades with high-quality
information.
Track the performance of the plant or system relative to normalized production (for
example, kWh vs. pound of product) or weather (for example, kWh vs. average ambient
temperature). Review performance regularly to identify concerns or progress towards cost-
reduction goals.
Benefits Beyond Energy

Energy-efficiency measures frequently also provide other benefits beyond energy cost savings (also
described as non-energy benefits). Throughout this Guide, we address the relationship between
energy and non-energy benefits. For many industrial energy efficiency projects the value of non-
energy benefits often are on a par with energy cost savings. Table 2 lists a few examples of energy
and associated non-energy benefits for a variety of best practices.

Table 2: Examples of benefits beyond energy
Best Practice Energy Benefit Benefits Beyond Energy

Refrigeration computer- The control system uses energy- Remote access lets operator
control system saving strategies for compressor observe system remotely
sequencing, evaporator and resulting in lower labor costs
condenser control, while meeting associated with troubleshooting
production requirements More consistent levels of service,
typically, more closely held
temperatures
Improved insight into system
operation allows earlier
recognition of problems
Control system history shows
how much system capacity has
been used, which in turn lets
owner make better capital-
investment decisions
Oversized condenser Energy savings resulting from Provides flexibility for future
lower condensing pressures expansion
Condenser fan VFDs Lower and more uniform Longer belt life
condensing pressures result in More stable operation
compressor and condenser fan
energy savings
Condenser maintenance Energy savings resulting from Longer condenser life
practices pertaining to lower condensing pressure and Avoid production limitations
scale, non-condensable gas, lower fan and pump energy during peak loads
and nozzle conditions
Evaporator fan VFDs Evaporator fan and compressor Less product loss due to
energy savings during low load dehydration (for exposed fruits
periods and vegetables)
More comfortable and
productive working environment
for cold-storage employees

CHAPTER 3
Refrigeration System Basics
Introduction
In this chapter, we explain the basic refrigeration cycle and describe the equipment typically used in
industrial refrigeration systems. We discuss the various features and characteristics of this energy-
using equipment and review system-control and variable-frequency drive (VFD) technology.
If you are already familiar with industrial refrigeration, this chapter can serve as a refresher or as
background reference information. If you are unfamiliar with refrigeration, this chapter will
introduce and explain critical basic concepts and terms that underlie best practices for energy
efficiency. In any case, this chapter can serve as the basis of a common understanding of industrial
refrigeration among the parties of various duties, responsibilities, and expertise—managers,
maintenance staff, system operators, vendors, contractors, and so on.
Purpose of Refrigeration
The purpose of refrigeration is to remove heat from some
medium—a fluid or solid—and transfer that heat elsewhere. In
most systems, heat is removed from air (for example, a
refrigerated warehouse), water or glycol (for example, a water
chiller), or a food product (for example, ice cream), and
transferred outdoors to the ambient environment. Although
industrial refrigeration is also used in the chemical industry and
in unique applications such as cooling the concrete during dam
construction, the fundamental purpose and operation is the
same.
If you are familiar with the basics of a refrigeration cycle, you Figure 2: Refrigeration transfers
can skip some or all of the following sections. However, this heat from a medium to the
chapter may be a valuable refresher on the processes and ambient environment
equipment.
Refrigerants
The purpose of refrigeration is to remove heat from a fluid or solid. Because heat transfer is driven
by a temperature difference, to remove heat from something, we need to put it in contact with
some medium at a lower temperature. In the case of industrial refrigeration, this medium is a liquid
refrigerant at a low temperature.
Many naturally occurring substances can be used as a refrigerant,
including air, ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide. There are For food processing and
also man-made refrigerants, such as R-11, R-12, R-22, and R-502. storage, ammonia is the most
Modern replacements for these refrigerants include R-123, R-134,
and R-404, and many new refrigerants are being developed. The efficient refrigerant.
type of refrigerant chosen for a particular application is
determined by the pressure and temperature ranges required by
the application. For typical food-processing and storage applications, ammonia offers the highest
efficiency of any refrigerant. (In certain situations, R-22 is also an appropriate choice.) For building

Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics
air-conditioning systems, R-134 is a better choice. Other properties such as flammability, toxicity,
and materials compatibility should be considered when choosing a refrigerant.
When a liquid refrigerant is heated (absorbs heat), it boils and turns into gas. When a gas refrigerant
(vapor) is cooled, it condenses into a liquid and releases heat. The engineering terms for these
processes are “evaporation” and “condensation.” A refrigerant evaporating is no more complex a
process than water boiling on a stove. Whereas water boils at 212°F at atmospheric pressure,
ammonia boils at -28°F.
Many more issues and refrigerant traits affect the refrigeration cycle. Though there is certainly value
in understanding the constant pressure-temperature relationship of a refrigerant, and issues such as
enthalpy, entropy, and latent heat, for now, understanding that a refrigerant boils and condenses,
absorbing and releasing heat in the process, is sufficient for a basic understanding of the
refrigeration cycle.
Basic Refrigeration Cycle

In a refrigeration system, refrigerant is constantly looping
through the same equipment and physical states. Though there is
not really a start or an end to the process, it is convenient to start
an explanation of the cycle at the point of cold, low-pressure
liquid refrigerant (c in Figure 3) and follow it through a typical
cycle.
Evaporation
Imagine we have a cold liquid refrigerant, such as ammonia, at
0 psig (atmospheric pressure) and -28°F. The liquid ammonia is
located in an evaporator coil. Air that is warmer than the
refrigerant, at say -10°F, is blown across the evaporator by fans.
When that air passes over the fins on the evaporator, it is cooled
by the -28°F ammonia inside the evaporator. As the ammonia
absorbs heat from the air stream, it boils (at a constant pressure
and temperature) and the air exits the evaporator at a colder
temperature than it entered, say -20°F.
Figure 3: The basic refrigeration
The processes within the evaporator in any particular application cycle
are essentially the same. Instead of air blowing over a coil, water
could be flowing through the tubes of a heat exchanger, or a food product such as ice cream could
be opposite a heat-exchange surface from the ammonia. In any case, the result is refrigerant that has
absorbed heat, boiled, and made something else colder, thus achieving the refrigeration effect the
system was designed for.
We now have a volume of ammonia that is still at -28°F and 0 psig, but is now a vapor. So that it
can do more refrigeration, we must return it to a cold, low-pressure condition. To do this, we first
need to raise the temperature of the refrigerant so we can get rid of the heat outside, where the
temperature is likely much higher than -28°F.
Compression
This is where compression comes in. A compressor is a piece of equipment that simply compresses
the refrigerant vapor, raising its pressure and therefore its temperature. In our example, the
compressor would receive the boiled ammonia vapor at -28°F, 0 psig (d in Figure 3), and compress
it to an elevated pressure and temperature, say 85°F and 150 psig (e in Figure 3). (In reality, the
discharge temperature is superheated, but we have used saturated conditions for the sake of

simplicity.) This achieves our goal of a high-temperature refrigerant that can now reject heat to the
cooler ambient environment. We now need a piece of equipment that can release that heat.
Condensing
The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapor now enters a piece of equipment called a
condenser, which, like an evaporator, is similar to a car radiator. The refrigerant vapor at 85°F and
150 psig enters the condenser (ein Figure 3). Fans blow cooler ambient air at, say 70°F, across the
condenser. Within the condenser, the warm refrigerant vapor heats the air. The air leaves the
condenser at a higher temperature, say 80°F, while the refrigerant cools down and condenses from a
vapor to a liquid (f in Figure 3).
We now have a volume of ammonia that is still at 85°F and 150 psig, but is now a liquid. But we
still need to turn this into a low-temperature, low-pressure liquid. For this, we turn to expansion.
Expansion
When a liquid refrigerant at high pressure passes through a restriction such as a narrowed tube or a
barely open valve, the liquid loses pressure. That loss of pressure causes a small portion of the liquid
to vaporize. That vaporization absorbs energy from the remaining liquid refrigerant, causing it to
cool down. This process is called expansion, and in industrial refrigeration systems is achieved using
a piece of equipment called an expansion valve.
In our example, our 85°F, 150 psig liquid enters an expansion valve, and its pressure drops to 0 psig.
The liquid refrigerant temperature drops to -28°F, and we find ourselves back where we started.
Our cold liquid refrigerant is again ready to do more
refrigeration (c in Figure 3).
Two-stage refrigeration is more
Two-Stage Cycle efficient than single-stage in
In applications where a very low temperature (for example, less low-temperature applications.
than -25°F for ammonia) is required, two stages of refrigeration
can be used. A two-stage system (Figure 4) is essentially two
standard cycles stacked on top of each other (with an “intercooler” in between). The first stage of
compression is performed by a “first-stage,” “low-stage,” or “booster” compressor, and the second
stage is performed by a “second-stage” or “high-stage” compressor.
The booster compressor discharges
“superheated” refrigerant vapor—that is, vapor
that is above the saturation temperature (the
threshold boiling temperature) of the
refrigerant. Because compression is most
efficient when the entering refrigerant is at
saturation, the superheated vapor from the first
stage must be cooled down to saturation before
moving on to the second stage. This is where
the intercooler comes in. The booster
compressor discharges its superheated vapor at
the bottom of a vessel—the intercooler—filled
with liquid ammonia. The gas bubbles up
through this liquid, is cooled back to Figure 4: Thermodynamic process associated with
saturation, and is then drawn into the high- two-stage compression
stage compressor.
Expansion can also occur in two stages.

Refrigeration Equipment
Four typical pieces of equipment are associated with the four major processes in the industrial
refrigeration cycle:
Evaporation: Evaporator coils (including fluid coolers and product coolers)
Compression: Compressors (reciprocating, screw, and rotary vane)
Condensing: Condensing coils (evaporative and shell-and-tube)
Expansion: Various expansion valves and devices
The following sections discuss these in greater detail and address issues of performance ratings,
capacity control, and design and selection.
Evaporators
Introduction
All cooling within the refrigeration cycle occurs in a piece of equipment called an evaporator. There
are two primary types of evaporators:
Refrigerant-to-air coils
Heat exchangers Refrigerant-to-air evaporator
coils are most common.
There are two main types of heat exchangers:
Refrigerant-to-secondary fluid
Direct-contact
This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of each.
Courtesy of Frigid Coil (left) and Colmac (right)
Figure 5: Refrigerant-to-air coil (left) and evaporator tube bundle (right)
Refrigerant-to-Air Coils
Overview
The most common evaporator configuration is the refrigerant-to-air coil (also called an evaporator
fan coil), in which the cooled refrigerant is passed through tubes, and air is drawn over the tubes to
refrigerate it. The tubes typically have attached fins to improve heat transfer. Figure 5 shows an
example.

Evaporator coils are used to cool air within a closed space. Examples include a freezer or cooler, a
blast freezer, a spiral freezer (Figure 6, left), a freeze tunnel (Figure 6, right), or an industrial air-
conditioning system.
Courtesy of Advanced Freezer
Figure 6: Spiral freezer (left) and freeze tunnel (right)
Evaporator coils can have from one to eight

fans (Figure 7), ranging from less than one
horsepower (“fractional”) to 20 horsepower
(hp) or more. In most cases, evaporator coils
are suspended from the ceiling. In some cases,
the coil may be located on the floor or in a
remote location, and ductwork transfers air to
and from the coil. In other cases, the coils can
be located in a penthouse (Figure 8).
The following sections explain how the Courtesy of Colmac
refrigerant and air sides of the evaporator work
and how evaporator coils are rated for capacity Figure 7: Evaporator coil with four fans
and efficiency.
Air Transport and Control

Evaporator coils use either axial or centrifugal
fans to move air through the coil.
Axial Fans
Most evaporator coils use axial fans that either
push or pull air through the coil. In larger
evaporator coil applications, the fan motors are
standard NEMA frame units and are normally
mounted to a rigid mounting plate with four
bolts in the motor base. In smaller applications
with fractional horsepower motors, there is Figure 8: Evaporator coils in a penthouse
often a belly-band mount, in which the fan
shroud wraps around the body of a footless (often special OEM) motor, and is cinched around the
motor body. This is important because these special motors are inefficient and create challenges
with VFD installations.

Larger evaporator coils are usually equipped with cast aluminum fan blades, while smaller coils are
equipped with simple stamped-steel propellers attached to a hub.
Centrifugal Fans Custom, fractional horsepower

Less common are evaporator coils that use centrifugal (“squirrel- fan motors are inefficient, and
cage”) fans (Figure 9). These are often floor-mounted, and are
used when low noise levels or high static pressures (such as ducts)
create challenges for VFDs.
are required. Stamped-steel fan blades are
In general, evaporator coils with centrifugal fans require higher- inefficient.
horsepower fans and are less efficient (that is, have a higher
power per unit of delivered capacity) than those with axial fans. On evaporators, axial fans are
more efficient than centrifugal
Fan Controls fans.
Evaporator fans can also be used to control evaporator capacity, Constant operation of
either as the primary means of capacity control or as subordinate
to the valves that control refrigerant as discussed in Valves on evaporator fans is common,
page 36. There are three primary methods of fan control. but wastes energy.
Cycling/Alternating/Shedding
In some systems, the entire evaporator coil fan (or set of fans) is
cycled off when cooling is disabled. This is known as “fan
cycling.” In some scenarios, only a subset of the fans on each coil
are cycled off. Occasionally, an operator will choose to manually
turn off or “shed” a portion of fans based on load or season.
Two-Speed
Evaporator fan motors can have two speeds, allowing full- and
(typically) half-speed operation.
Courtesy of Vilter
Variable Speed Figure 9: Evaporator coil with

Evaporator fans can be managed with variable-frequency drives centrifugal fans
(VFDs) to control fan speed continuously (rather than in steps).
A detailed discussion of VFD technology is presented in Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
beginning on page 42.
Refrigerant System Virtually all evaporators are

either recirculated or flooded.
Refrigerant Transport
There are three major methods of supplying liquid refrigerant to Direct expansion is rare,
evaporator coils: although it sometimes limits
Recirculated or overfeed system efficiency.
Flooded
Direct expansion
Normally, the capacity of evaporator coils is controlled by controlling the flow or pressure of the
liquid refrigerant to achieve temperature control.
The following sections describe each method and explain how evaporator capacity is controlled in
each.

Recirculated or Overfeed
In a recirculated (or overfeed) system
(Figure 10), liquid refrigerant is held in a
remote vessel called a low-pressure receiver
(LPR) at low pressure and temperature.
Refrigerant is pumped either with a mechanical
pump or with a gas-pressure system from the
LPR to the evaporator coil. The rate of flow is
metered by a hand expansion valve to provide
the coils with about three to four times more
liquid than is boiled in the process of removing
heat, resulting in the term “overfeed.” Hence, Figure 10: Recirculated (overfeed) refrigerant
the refrigerant returning from the coil is about transport
three-fourths liquid and one-fourth vapor (by
weight, not volume). The mixture returns to the LPR, where the vapor rises to the top and is drawn
away by the compressors.
In a recirculated system, the capacity of the evaporator coil is controlled by simply turning the
refrigerant flow on and off with a solenoid valve.
Flooded
In a flooded system, low-pressure, low-temperature liquid
refrigerant is held in an adjacent vessel called an accumulator.
The accumulator is physically located above the coil, and
refrigerant simply flows to the coil due to gravity. As the
refrigerant boils, the vapor bubbles rise through the coil to the
top of the accumulator, where the vapor is drawn away by the
compressors.
In a flooded system, a pressure regulator is located on the
accumulator. The refrigerant pressure (and hence temperature) is Figure 11: Flooded evaporator
varied in the accumulator by throttling the gas returning in the
suction line of the compressors. When the regulator is wide open, the refrigerant essentially sees the
full suction pressure of the compressors and the refrigerant is at low temperature, thus maximizing
capacity. As the regulator closes, the pressure rises in the coil, with a commensurate increase in
boiling temperature and decrease in temperature difference between refrigerant and entering air.
Direct Expansion
In a direct-expansion system, high-pressure
liquid refrigerant is piped from the high-
pressure receiver to the evaporator coil. A
thermal-expansion valve meters refrigerant flow
to maintain a target superheat for refrigerant
leaving the evaporator coil.
Similar to a recirculated system, a direct-
expansion system uses a liquid solenoid to turn Figure 12: Direct expansion refrigerant transport
refrigerant flow to the thermal expansion valve
on and off.
Defrosting Evaporator Coils

The surface of most evaporator coils with a refrigerant temperature below freezing will accumulate
frost. Over time, the frost buildup reduces coil performance and must be removed. To defrost the
coils, the refrigerant flow and fans are usually turned off, and some form of heat is added to the coil.

The melted ice drains to a collection pan and then away from the coil and out of the refrigerated
space.
Types of Defrost
There are four common methods of frost removal and a fifth
hybrid method.
Hot-Gas Defrost
In a hot-gas defrost system, high-pressure, high-temperature,
refrigerant vapor is discharged from the compressor and routed
to and passed through the evaporator coil. The gas is often
managed by a pressure regulator at the coil outlet, maintaining a
pressure of 65 to 95 psig within the coil. In addition, there may
be a master pressure regulator on the main hot-gas line that
reduces pressure to about 100 psig. Any liquid or vapor
refrigerant leaving the coil is typically returned in the coil Figure 13: Frosted evaporator
suction line. coil
Water Defrost
In a water defrost system, warm water (typically 40 to 80°F) is sprayed over the coil surface.
Although well or city water is sometimes used directly, there is usually a tank or pit where defrost
water is stored. In a few cases, the water is heated by steam or electric resistance, but normally, it is
heated using heat recovered from the refrigeration system. In most cases, a remote condenser sump
serves double-duty as a defrost water tank, and water is heated
during condenser operation.
Air Defrost Hot-gas and water defrost are

Air defrost is used in spaces where the refrigerant is below most common.
freezing and the air temperature is above freezing. The flow of Hot-gas defrost is often done
liquid refrigerant is interrupted, and the fans continue to operate,
blowing air over the coil surface to melt the ice.
too often for too long, wasting
energy.
Electric Defrost
Electric-resistance defrost is fairly uncommon in industrial
refrigeration systems. Resistance elements are located on the evaporator coil, in contact with the
metal. The elements heat the coil to melt accumulated ice. The size of the elements ranges typically
from 10 to 40 kW per coil.
Hybrid Defrost
Although uncommon, some systems use a simultaneous combination of hot-gas and water defrost.
A typical application would be a freeze tunnel where completely eliminating all frost quickly is
critical to productivity.
Defrost Control
Defrost can be initiated manually, through simple local controls, or through a centralized
computer-control system.
The need for defrost is a function of air flow, the coil temperature, and the amount of moisture in
the air (which can vary seasonally or by product type). In cooled spaces that are seldom accessed
and contain covered or sealed food products, defrost requirements are minimal. Defrost introduces
significant heat to the refrigerated spaces through convection, radiation, and sublimation, so
minimizing defrost cycles while keeping coils frost-free and efficient is a goal of defrost controls.

Manual defrost is sometimes seen in processes such as spiral
freezers or freeze tunnels, but manual defrost is becoming less
common. Defrost is typically scheduled for the same time(s) each
day, such as during plant cleanup in a potato freeze tunnel, and is
initiated by system operators.
Without a central computer-control system, defrosts are usually
initiated with a dedicated local defrost controller. The controller
is essentially a time clock with multiple set points for each phase
of the defrost cycle.
The most sophisticated form of defrost control is the central Courtesy of Hansen
computer-control system that initiates and manages defrost
cycles. It provides the greatest level of customization and is Figure 14: Defrost controller
discussed more fully in Computer Control beginning on page 41.
Unfortunately, many computer-control systems still use a time schedule for defrost and thus are
inherently no more efficient than simple electro-mechanical controls.
The simplest defrost scheme is a time schedule, in which defrost cycles occur at the same time every
day. A more sophisticated option is to trigger defrost based on some measurement of coil load, such
as cumulative refrigerant run time. Approaches to initiating defrost include measuring air-
temperature drop across the coil, air-pressure drop, frost thickness, or fan-motor current, or using
optical sensors that look through coil fins to “see” if they are blocked by frost. Despite the
sophistication of some of these methods, initiating defrost based on sensed conditions has proved to
be challenging. For this reason, most defrost is triggered on a simple time schedule or after a
specified refrigerant run time.
Similarly, the simplest termination event for defrosting is a time schedule. Most industrial defrost
cycles last from 10 minutes to 1 hour, while most hot-gas cycles last 30 to 45 minutes. Early in the
defrost cycle, virtually all hot gas entering the coil is condensed, while later in the defrost cycle
some gas can simply pass through the coil uncondensed. A more sophisticated method of
terminating defrost is to measure the gas temperature leaving the coil with a temperature probe. A
rising gas temperature indicates that the frost has melted and much of the defrost gas is simply
passing through the coil and bleeding into the suction line without losing heat and temperature.
In our experience, the radiation and convection losses from the coil are sufficiently large to cool the
refrigerant to saturation temperature and condense, even after all frost has melted. As a result,
measured temperature does not always accurately indicate when defrost is complete. Hence, direct
observation is the key to adjusting the duration of the defrost cycle.
Rating Evaporator Coils

Virtually all evaporator coils are rated in the following normalized manner:
Normalized Rating = X Btu/hr/°F
where °F is the difference between the temperatures of the entering air and the liquid refrigerant in
the coil. This difference is called the “Temperature Difference” or TD and should not be confused
with the difference between entering and leaving air temperature.
For example a coil might be rated by the manufacturer at 10,000 Btu/hr/°F. With entering air at
40°F and a liquid refrigerant temperature of 30°F, the resulting operating capacity of the coil would
be:
Operating Capacity = Normalized Rating × Temperature Difference
= 10,000 Btu/hr/°F × (40°F – 30°F)
= 100,000 Btu/hr

While this is the general method of rating coils, there are design and selection issues that modestly
affect coil performance. These include the type of liquid feed and whether the coil will operate
frosted or wet.
Heat Exchangers
The second major category of evaporators is the heat exchanger. There are two main categories of
heat-exchange methods and several types of heat exchangers that are appropriate for each:
Heat Exchange Methods

Refrigerant-to-secondary fluid
Direct-contact
Types of Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-tube
Plate-and-frame
Falling-film
Scraped-surface
Plate freezer
Ice scraper and ice maker
Heat-Exchange Methods
Refrigerant-to-Secondary Fluid Chillers

In this method, refrigerant cools a secondary fluid, commonly water, glycol, or brine. This is
usually done with a shell-and-tube, plate-and-frame, or falling-film heat exchanger. The secondary
fluid is pumped to the ultimate cooling application. Examples include using chilled water to cool
milk products in a creamery, or using brine to freeze popsicles or crabs.
Direct-Contact Freezers
In this method, refrigerant is used to cool a food product such as juice or milk. This is usually done
with a plate-and-frame, shell and tube, or other specialty heat exchanger. Also, scraped-surface
exchangers are used for high-viscosity or hardening products such as puree, ice cream, or flake ice.
In other systems, refrigerant cools a plate or surface that is directly opposite a hardening product
such as cartons of ice cream or fish fillets. This is usually done with a plate freezer. Also, batch ice-
cube makers rely on contact between a refrigerated surface and freezing water.
Types of Heat Exchangers
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-tube evaporators (Figure 15) are commonly used for cooling secondary fluids or fluid
products. Until the advent of plate-and-frame exchangers, nearly all fluid cooling was done with this
design. Usually, refrigerant passes through the shell side, and the cooled fluid passes through the
tubes. Nearly all applications use a flooded design with a refrigerant-pressure regulator. In some
advanced designs, liquid refrigerant is agitated by entering high-pressure liquid or gas refrigerant to
improve heat transfer.

Plate-and-Frame Heat Exchangers
Plate-and-frame heat exchangers (Figure 15) have very high heat-transfer coefficients. They are
compact and can be disassembled for cleaning, and the plates can be added or removed as needed.
There are often multiple heating or cooling stages within a single unit, as in milk pasteurization.
Falling-Film Heat Exchangers

In a falling-film exchanger (Figure 15), liquid refrigerant flows within a smooth or dimpled plate
that is vertical or angled upward. A secondary fluid, usually water, is released at the top of the plates
and cascades down the sides of the plates for cooling. A common application is chilled water for
vegetable processing.
Courtesy of Mueller
Figure 15: Heat exchangers: Shell-and-tube, inside (left top) and outside (left bottom); Plate-and-frame
(center); Falling-film (right)
Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers

Scraped-surface heat
exchangers (Figure 16) are
commonly used for ice cream
and vegetable or fruit puree.
Inside the exchanger is a
rotating inner drum with
blades that scrape the cooled
or frozen product from the
refrigerant-filled outer barrel.
Plate Freezers
A plate freezer (Figure 16) is
commonly used to harden or Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell (left) and APV (right)
freeze food products such as
cartons of ice cream or fish Figure 16: Scraped-surface heat exchanger (left) and plate freezer
fillets. The product is placed (right)
on a flat horizontal surface

with refrigerant or a secondary coolant directly on the other side. The product is either slid along
the surface (as with ice cream cartons), or the surface slowly moves (as with fish fillets) until the
frozen product emerges at the other end.
Ice Scraper and Ice Maker

Ice is typically manufactured
in several forms: flake, cube,
tube, and crushed. Flake ice is
often used in seafood or meat
processing facilities, and is
shoveled in and around
products while they are stored
or transported in totes. The
flake ice is made by spraying a
light film of water onto the
inner surface of a vertical
drum (Figure 17 and
Figure 18). Refrigerant is
flooded into the other side of
the drum. Sharp rotating
Courtesy of Northstar
blades scrape the thin frozen
layer of ice from the inner Figure 17: Flake ice maker and cutaway view
surface, and the flake ice falls
into totes or a storage room for later use.
Crushed, tube, or cube is usually made with specialized machines
that manufacture ice in batches.
In the past, ice was manufactured manually in large blocks.
Water was poured into large metal tubs which were then
immersed in a brine solution. The blocks were then placed in
storage or ground into smaller material. These systems were
labor-intensive and very few remain in use.
Compressors
Introduction
The purpose of a compressor is to increase the pressure and
temperature of refrigerant vapor returning from the evaporators.
There are three primary types of compressors:
Reciprocating
Rotary screw
Rotary vane
Courtesy of Vogt
Reciprocating and rotary screw compressors are most common.
Although rotary vane compressors are rarely installed today, Figure 18: Cube ice maker
many are still in use.
This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of reciprocating, screw, and rotary
vane compressors.

Reciprocating Compressors
Applications
Reciprocating compressors are widely used in either low- or high-temperature applications. They
can accommodate compression ratios up to 8:1 with ammonia, and can be installed as boosters,
high-stage, high-suction, and single-stage. Their maximum size is about 300 horsepower.
Configuration
Reciprocating compressors use pistons to
compress refrigerant vapor within a cylinder.
Most compressors have 2 to 16 cylinders.
Figure 19 shows a 12-cylinder compressor.
The pistons are driven by a crankshaft which is
driven either directly, by an electric motor, or
indirectly, via a belt drive connected to a
motor. An inlet valve opens and low-pressure,
low-temperature refrigerant vapor is drawn
into the cylinder as the piston lowers. The inlet
valve then closes and the piston rises,
compressing the vapor. As the gas pressure Courtesy of Vilter
increases, it exits the cylinder through the Figure 19: Twelve-cylinder reciprocating compressor
exhaust valve. Figure 20 shows an internal
view.
In some uncommon applications, a “compound” compressor provides multiple stages of
compression in a single machine. For example, four cylinders might provide a first stage of
compression, and another two cylinders may provide a second stage. Compound compressors are
used to improve efficiency and to extend the operable pressure range of the machine.
Capacity Control
All reciprocating compressors use a form of
cylinder unloading to control capacity. The
inlet valve is held open (either by oil pressure
or discharge-gas pressure), preventing the
cylinder from compressing. Although the
piston still draws suction gas on its downward
stroke, it simply pushes the gas back into the
suction line during the upward stroke. Most
compressors have simple unloading stages (such
as an 8-cylinder machine unloading to 75%,
50%, and 25%).
In general, electric solenoids activate unloaders. Figure 20: Cut-away view of compressor
The electric solenoids can be managed by
pressure switches mounted directly on the compressor, by remote electro-mechanical switches, or
by a modern computer-control system.
Cylinder unloading is an efficient form of capacity control, with a nearly proportional reduction in
capacity and power (see Figure 21).

Cooling
Usually, reciprocating
Sample Reciprocating Compressor Part Load
compressors are cooled by
circulating water through the 100%
heads and cylinder jackets. 90%
Some compressors have 80%
external oil coolers that are 70%
water-cooled. Water is often 60%
Power
supplied from an adjacent 50%
condenser sump, although it 40%
is not uncommon to simply 30%

use a once-through supply of 20%
city or well water that is sent Cylinder Unloading
10%
to the drain (which can be Ideal
0%
costly in terms of water use 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
and possibly sewer charges). Capacity
Less commonly, liquid

Figure 21: Reciprocating compressor part-load curves
refrigerant is used to cool the
heads.
Control
As mentioned before, reciprocating compressors are often provided with simple pressure switches
for cylinder unloading and safety cut-outs. Microprocessor-based controls are rarely provided for
reciprocating compressor packages.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Table 3 lists the advantages and disadvantages of reciprocating compressors.
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of reciprocating compressors
Advantages Disadvantages
Low Cost Frequent Maintenance
Simple Maintenance High Maintenance Cost
Efficient Unloading Limited Capacity/Size
Compact Discrete Unloading
Many Moving Parts
Rotary Screw Compressors

Applications
Rotary screw (“screw”) compressors can be used in virtually any refrigeration application. They can
accommodate compression ratios up to 20:1 with ammonia, and can be installed as boosters, high-
stage, high-suction, and single-stage. Maximum size is about 1500 horsepower, although units above
700 hp are rare in refrigeration applications.

Courtesy of Mycom (right)
Figure 22: Twin screw compressor
Configuration
Screw compressors come in two designs: twin
and single screw.
Twin Screw
A twin screw has a male and female rotor
which rotate and mesh together (see Figure 22).
Refrigerant vapor is drawn into the space
between the rotors, and as the rotors turn and
mesh, the vapor is trapped. As the rotors
continue to rotate, the vapor is compressed and Courtesy of Frick
pushed to the opposite end of the compressor.
The vapor is then opened to the discharge port, Figure 23: Screw compressor package
and pushed from the compressor.
The screw compressor package relies on oil to seal the rotors during compression. In addition, oil is
pumped through bearings for lubrication. After compression, the refrigerant vapor and oil are
mixed and must be separated. The compressor and driving motor are commonly mounted on top of
an oil separator, as shown in Figure 23. The oil separator has coalescing elements that trap the
entrained oil from the refrigerant vapor stream.
Single Screw
The single-screw design is
relatively new and has a single
rotor and two gate rotors, one
on each side (see Figure 24).
The center female rotor is
driven by the motor and the
two male gate rotors mesh
with, and turn alongside, the
female rotor. The resulting
compression is similar to that
Courtesy of Vilter (right)
of a twin screw.
Figure 24: Single-screw compressor

Capacity Control
There are four methods of controlling the capacity of screw
compressors:
Slide Valve
Poppet valve
Inlet throttling
Motor speed
Virtually all compressors use slide-valve unloading to control

capacity. One prominent manufacturer offers a line of
compressors with poppet-valve unloading, and another offers
inlet throttling. (Figure 58 on page 59 shows typical part-load
curves for a screw compressor.)
Slide Valve Unloading Figure 25: Screw compressor and

slide valve mechanism
Figure 25 shows an exploded view of a screw compressor and
slide valve mechanism.
Courtesy of Frick (right)
Figure 26: Diagram of slide valve unloading (left) and Photograph of slide valve (right)
As the slide valve is moved,

Typical Screw Compressor Part Load
the point on the rotors where 100%
compression starts is delayed 90%

(Figure 26). Gas is allowed to
80%
return to the suction port,
70%
uncompressed. The slide valve
can provide infinite 60%
Power
adjustment of capacity, down 50%
to 10% to 30% of capacity. 40%
The slide valve is usually 30%
moved by oil pressure, and, in 20%

Throttled
Poppet
new compressors, is managed 10%
Slide Valve
Ideal
by the package-mounted
0%
micro-processor. Figure 26 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
shows an actual slide valve. Capacity
Slide valve unloading is a

Figure 27: Screw compressor part-load performance curves for various
moderately efficient form of capacity-control methods
capacity control, although the

efficiency of a machine degrades when highly unloaded, particularly in applications with a high
pressure ratio. Fully unloaded power varies from 30% to 50% or more.
Poppet Valve and Suction Throttling

Bypass port (or poppet valve) unloading is used on a line of booster compressors offered by one
manufacturer. Three ports are located along the rotor casing, with valves that can open to bypass
compressed gas back to the suction end of the compressor. The ports provide three discrete stages of
unloading, although the resulting capacity and power for each stage is highly dependent on the
pressure ratio. Poppet valve unloading is very inefficient, with fully-unloaded capacity of
approximately 10% and power as high as 85%.
Suction throttling is rare, but is used on a line of booster compressors offered by one manufacturer.
An inlet valve in the suction line closes, reducing refrigerant flow to a trickle. Although the flow
rate is reduced, the compressor draws a tremendous vacuum between the throttling valve and
rotors. This form of unloading is virtually identical to the inlet throttling seen on many modulating
screw air compressors. This form of capacity control is very inefficient, drawing more than 90%
power when fully unloaded.
Speed Control for Unloading

In the past, screw compressors were available with two-speed motors for added capacity control.
Operating the compressor at half speed provided roughly half capacity at half power. Modern VFD
technology makes two-speed installations increasingly rare. A two-speed motor and starter cost
nearly as much as a VFD.
Most screw compressor manufacturers now offer VFD control as
a factory-provided option. (This is a relatively new development. VFDs are the most efficient
There were few applications before the mid-1990s and most early form of capacity control for
applications were retrofits.) The compressor is allowed to slow
from 100% to 50% speed (the recommended turn-down ratio) screw compressors.
while the slide valve is held at the 100% capacity condition. Once
at 50% speed, the slide valve is then allowed to unload. The VFD
and slide are managed by the microprocessor or a stand-alone computer-control system.
VFD control provides better efficiency than any of the other methods of capacity control. A
detailed discussion of VFD control is found in Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) beginning on
page 42.
Cooling
Screw compressors use oil for lubrication and cooling during the compression process, so heat must
be removed from the oil continuously. There are several methods of cooling screw compressors,
including:
Liquid injection
Thermosiphon
Water or glycol cooling
Direct cooling
Liquid Injection Cooling

Liquid injection is a simple and inexpensive form of cooling (Figure 28). High-pressure liquid
refrigerant is injected into the side of the rotors, and flashes to low pressure and temperature within
the rotors. This flashing and evaporation of the injected refrigerant cools the refrigerant and oil, and
the discharge temperature is kept at about 125°F with a thermal expansion valve on the feed circuit.

Figure 28: Diagram and photo of liquid-injection cooling system
Liquid injection cooling imposes a small capacity penalty, and can impose a power penalty of 1% to
10% or more. The power penalty results from the need to recompress the refrigerant that was
injected into the compression process. In general, the power penalty increases with pressure ratio,
and is greatest in single-stage applications with a low suction pressure.
An additional disadvantage of liquid injection is
the need to elevate condensing pressure to
ensure adequate pressure to inject properly.
Older designs had a minimum pressure
requirement of 100 to 125 psig, although
modern designs with electronic expansion
valves are capable of operating at lower
pressures.
In a small number of applications, the injection
occurs in the compressor discharge line. This
eliminates the power penalty, but requires a
booster pump. A small liquid pump boosts
liquid pressure sufficiently to allow injection
into the compressor discharge piping. Figure 29
shows one manufacturer’s discharge injection
system.
Courtesy of Vilter
Thermosiphon Cooling Figure 29: Discharge injection system showing pump

Thermosiphon oil cooling (Figure 30) is a (arrow)
passive method of cooling compressor oil. A
shell-and-tube (or small plate-and-frame) heat exchanger is mounted on the side of the compressor
package, angled slightly from the horizontal. High-pressure liquid ammonia is piped from a pilot
vessel (usually either a separate vessel located in the ceiling of the engine room, or the upper portion
of a vertical high-pressure receiver with a catch basin) to one side of the exchanger, and the hot
compressor oil is passed through the other side of the exchanger. The warm oil causes the liquid
ammonia to boil, cooling the oil. The ammonia vapor from this process floats upward and is piped
back to the condenser.
There are three advantages to the thermosiphon system. First, there is no capacity or power
penalty. Second, there is no artificial lower limit to discharge pressure. And third, all heat rejected
from the oil is routed directly to the condenser, which provides energy savings with booster
compressors in a two-stage system (discussed in Multistage Compression beginning on page 72).
Thermosiphon cooling is not cheap: about $10,000 to $25,000 more per machine than injection
cooling. In addition, the heat exchanger requires adequate space next to the compressor package.

Figure 30: Diagram and photo of thermosiphon cooling system
Water or Glycol Cooling

Water or glycol can be used to cool screw compressor oil, but this method is fairly uncommon. As
with thermosiphon cooling, a heat exchanger is mounted on the compressor package. In this case,
water or glycol (rather than ammonia) is pumped through the exchanger for cooling. The heat can
be rejected in several ways, including cooling towers, condenser sumps, or even to freezer
underfloor heating systems. These systems have the same advantages as thermosiphon, but are less
popular because of the possibility of fouling the water-side of the heat exchanger.
Direct-Contact Cooling
A recently developed
technology is direct-contact
cooling between the
refrigerant and oil. A layer of
liquid refrigerant is
maintained on top of the oil
within the oil separator. The
refrigerant boils in the
separator, cooling the oil. A
mixture of oil and liquid
refrigerant is injected into the
discharge end of the rotor Courtesy of Vilter
casing, providing cooling Figure 31: Direct-contact cooling system

following the compression
process. Figure 31 is a sample diagram of this cooling alternative.
This method of cooling is relatively new in the marketplace. Claimed advantages include lower cost
and higher efficiency.
Internal Volume Ratio

A discussion of screw compressor basics would not be complete without a review of the internal
volume ratio, or VI. In the simplest terms, the VI is the ratio of the gas volume at the beginning of
the compression process (just as the rotors seal off the suction port) to that at the end of the
compression process (just as the rotors open to the discharge port). The VI is determined by the
location and dimensions of the discharge port and, in some cases, the design of the slide valve.
The simplest design includes a fixed VI. That is, the VI of the compressor is determined by the
physical design of the machine (the shape of the slide valve and discharge port) and cannot be
adjusted except by machining or replacing parts.

Some screw compressors are equipped with a Overcompression and Undercompression
variable VI feature. The VI can be continuously 160
adjusted as the compressor operates, or can be 140
Beginning of Compression
Discharge
set manually through mechanical adjustment. 120
Pressure
Pressure (psi)
The location and shape of the discharge port is 100 Overcompression
changed by moving a slide stop, a block of
End of Compression
80
metal adjacent to the slide valve. 60
Undercompression
Why does the VI matter? It can significantly 40
affect energy efficiency. If the VI doesn’t 20

Suction
Pressure
properly match the actual pressures of the 0
Compression Process
system, overcompression or undercompression
occurs (Figure 32).
Figure 32: Diagram of overcompression and
In the case of undercompression, the gas within undercompression
the compressor does not rise to the pressure
outside the discharge port. As the rotors turn and open to the discharge port, gas actually rushes
into the compressor from the discharge line. This gas must be recompressed and discharged from
the machine. This results in inefficiency.
In the case of overcompression, the gas within the compressor
rises to a pressure higher than that outside the discharge port.
Unnecessary work on the gas within the compressor also results
in inefficiency.
Ideally, the gas pressure within the compressor perfectly matches
the pressure outside the discharge port. Correctly selecting a
fixed-VI compressor, adjusting a manual VI port, or upgrading to
an auto-VI feature will improve efficiency (see Screw Compressor
Volume Ratio on page 68 for details).
Compressor Control
Virtually all new screw compressors are controlled by a
microprocessor panel mounted on the compressor package (see
Courtesy of Frick
Figure 33).
Figure 33: Compressor control
Although many older packages were originally equipped with panel
simple electro-mechanical controls, these can be upgraded to a
modern panel for additional features and improved integration with a central computer-control
system.

Table 4 lists the advantages and disadvantages of screw compressors.
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of screw compressors
Long maintenance intervals High initial cost
Available in large capacity Factory-level service requirements
Slide valve with infinite control Inefficient unloading
Few moving parts Large package size

Rotary Vane Compressors
Applications
Rotary vane compressors are rarely used in new
installations, but are found in many existing
facilities. For this reason, they are included
here.
Rotary vane compressors are exclusively
applied as booster compressors in low-
temperature applications. They can only
accommodate compression ratios up to 5:1
with ammonia. Maximum size is about 400
horsepower.
Configuration Figure 34: Rotary vane compressor

Figure 34 shows an external view of a rotary
vane compressor.
The center shaft is offset, and flat blades called
“vanes” are located in slots of the rotor. As the
compressor turns, the vanes are thrust outward
and slide along the case. Gas is drawn in one
side of the compressor, and discharged at the
other side. Figure 35 shows an internal view.
The compressors can move a tremendous flow
of refrigerant, although they have limited
pressure ranges. In addition, the compressors
are frail and the vanes are highly susceptible to
shearing when liquid accidentally enters the
compressor. In addition, these compressors are
very loud.
Figure 35: Rotary vane compressor—internal view
Capacity Control
Virtually all rotary vane compressors have no capacity control. Rarely, a gas bypass feature is
available that recirculates high-pressure gas from the discharge line back to the suction line. This is a
very inefficient method of capacity control.
Cooling
In many rotary vane booster applications, no cooling is required because of the very low operating
suction temperature. However, water cooling is used when needed.
Control
Virtually all applications are operated manually or with simple pressure switches or a computer-
control system.

Table 5 lists the advantages and disadvantages of rotary vane compressors.

Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of rotary vane compressors
High-volume capacity No or limited capacity control
Compact Susceptible to vane damage
Noisy
Performance Ratings
Full-Load Ratings
All compressors are rated for capacity and power at various suction and discharge pressures and
temperatures. Ratings are often available as a table, performance curves, or through factory-
provided software.
Capacity is rated in tons of refrigeration (TR), where 1 TR = 12,000 BTU/hour. Power is
universally rated in brake horsepower (BHP), the input power required at the shaft. Table 6 shows
sample ratings.
Table 6: Sample compressor ratings
Condensing Suction Temperature and Pressure

Temperature -40°F (8.7") 0°F (15.7 psig) +40°F (58.6 psig))
& Pressure BHP TR BHP/TR BHP TR BHP/TR BHP TR BHP/TR
75°F (126 psig) 269 108 2.49 347 317 1.09 350 773 0.45
85°F (152 psig) 301 103 2.92 389 308 1.26 419 751 0.56
95°F (181 psig) 336 99 3.39 436 296 1.47 496 729 0.68
105°F (214 psig) 374 94 3.98 486 290 1.68 582 705 0.83
There are three general rules that can be applied to any set of full-load compressor ratings:
Raising suction pressure increases compressor capacity.
Lowering discharge pressure decreases power.
In all cases, raising suction or lowering discharge pressure improves BHP/TR.
These rules will be used in later sections to improve compressor and system efficiency (see
Increasing Suction Pressure, page 46 and Reducing Discharge Pressure, page 49).
Part-Load Ratings
Traditionally, full-load ratings have been the focus for designing and assessing the overall
performance of compressors. Only recently has part-load performance become prominent,
particularly in response to increased energy awareness. Unfortunately, part-load ratings for
compressors are developed and presented less consistently than full-load ratings, making it difficult
to compare the part-load performance of equipment from different manufacturers.
Historically, only general part-load ratings were published. That is, performance at specific
operating conditions was not rated. In addition, manufacturers would “take liberties” with
performance curves, for example, claiming reduced discharge pressure when unloaded to mask
inefficiency. It was difficult to accurately assess compressor performance at reduced load.

However, most manufacturers now offer rating software that allows detailed part-load curves to be
developed, and variable speed performance to be documented.
There are only two absolute rules that can be taken from any set of part-load compressor ratings:
Compressor efficiency degrades as the compressor operates at decreasing percentages of full
load.
Speed control provides the best part-load performance.
These rules will be used in later sections to improve compressor and system efficiency (see
Improving Compressor Part-Load Performance, page 59).
Condensers Most existing, and nearly all

new applications, use
Introduction evaporative condensers.
The purpose of a condenser is to reject the heat absorbed by the
refrigeration system. This condenses, or returns to a liquid, the
high pressure, high temperature vapor refrigerant discharged by the compressors. This includes not
only the heat absorbed by the evaporator, but all other energy entering the cycle, including
compressor shaft power and other minor loads. In nearly all cases, this heat is released to the
ambient (outdoor) environment.
Though a few refrigeration systems use air-cooled or shell-and-tube condensers with cooling towers
or even river water, we will focus on evaporative condensers, which are used for the vast majority
of modern industrial refrigeration systems.
This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of evaporative condensers in
industrial refrigeration systems.
Basic Operating Principles

An evaporative condenser combines heat and
mass transfer in a single package. Refrigerant
from the compressor discharge is piped to a
tube bundle inside the upper portion of the
condenser. Water is sprayed over the top of the
tubes, and falls by gravity over the tube bundle
down to a sump in the bottom of the
condenser. This water cools the refrigerant in
the tubes, eventually condensing the vapor
refrigerant into liquid at the same pressure and
temperature. The liquid refrigerant drains to
the lower portion of the tube bundle and
eventually out of the unit and back to the
engine room. The water in the sump is pumped
back to the top of the condenser to be sprayed
over the tube bundle again.
As the water falls over the tube bundle, air is
blown or drawn upward, counter to the water Figure 36: Evaporative condenser
flow. The air causes some of the water to
evaporate, thereby cooling the water. The air stream leaving the condenser is warm and moist,
carrying away all heat released by the condensing refrigerant.
Figure 36 shows a simple internal diagram of an evaporative condenser.

Common Configurations
There are three common configurations of evaporative condensers:
Forced-draft with axial fans
Induced-draft with axial fans
Forced-draft with centrifugal fans
Forced-Draft, Axial Fan Condensers

In forced-draft axial fan condensers, fans are located on the end or side and blow air into the volume
below the tube bundle (Figure 37, left). These units are often rectangular in shape, and can have
from one to six fans (with one to four motors driving one or two fans each) and one or two pumps.
The fans are always belt-driven. The benefit of this design is high efficiency and simple access to
fans and motors.
Courtesy Imeco (left), Evapco (center), and Baltimore Air Coil (right)
Figure 37: Forced-draft, axial fan condenser (left); Induced-draft, axial fan condenser (center); Forced-draft,
centrifugal fan condenser (right)
Induced-Draft, Axial Fan Condensers

An alternative to the forced-draft axial fan unit is the induced-draft condenser. In these units, the
fans are on the top and draw air in the sides of the condenser and upward over the tube bundle
(Figure 37, center). The units can have from one to four fans (each driven by a dedicated motor),
and one or two pumps. The fans are driven by belts on smaller units, and by a shaft and gearbox on
large units. The benefit to this design is higher efficiencies, and vertical air discharge for quiet
operation.
Forced-Draft, Centrifugal Fan Condensers

In forced-draft centrifugal fan condensers fans are located underneath the tube bundle and blow air
into the volume below the tube bundle (Figure 37, right). The units have from one to eight fans
(driven by one to four motors, each turning a shaft), and one to or two pumps. The fans are always
belt-driven. The benefit of this design is very quiet operation and the ability to produce high-
pressure air flow, as might be required inside a building or with ductwork.
In all three designs, pump motors range from 1/3 hp to 7.5 hp, and fans from ½ hp to 50 hp each.
The largest designs can have between 150 and 200 hp of combined fan and pump power.

Capacity Control
Condenser capacity is managed by interrupting or varying the water and/or air flow.
Fan and Pump Cycling

In the simplest configuration, pressure switches cycle pumps and fans on and off. The set points are
often staggered, bringing on different stages of capacity over a range of pressures. The pressure
switches are almost always spring-loaded or mercury units, which are discussed under Pressure
Switches on page 39.
Air Flow Control

Many modern condenser installations use VFDs to control fans. Fan speed can be varied
continuously from 0% to 100% (although the manufacturer should be consulted to avoid resonant
frequencies). Although VFDs are discussed in condenser product literature, the VFD is rarely
provided by the condenser manufacturer. It is usually provided by the electrical or other installing
contractor.
Before VFDs gained prominence, both two-speed and pony-motor options (a half-speed motor
driving the same shaft) were available. However, advances in VFD control technology have made
these options all but obsolete.
A seldom used option for air flow control is a damper that is closed by an actuator, thereby
reducing air flow and capacity. Again, VFD technology makes this option virtually obsolete.
Water Flow Control

In almost all cases, the capacity of the condenser should not be controlled by varying water flow.
Although doing so would work, varying water flow can cause solids to build up on tube surfaces as
they dry and are rewetted. For this reason, pumps should only be operated at full flow, and
frequent cycling should be avoided unless effective water treatment eliminates the possibility of
build-up.
Design and Installation Options

Besides capacity control, there are few configuration options for condensers that affect energy
efficiency. The primary remaining option is the choice of integral or remote sumps. An integral
sump design holds the water in a pan at the bottom of the condenser, and a factory-installed pump
simply lifts the water from the sump to the spray nozzles above.
In a remote sump design, a large tank is located below the condensers, often 15 to 30 feet below.
Pumps must be two to three times larger to overcome the increased pumping head pressure.
Remote sumps are often installed to simplify water treatment, to provide a reservoir of water for
defrosting or compressor cooling, or where frigid climates make integral sump designs troublesome.
Capacity Ratings
Full Load
All evaporative condensers are rated at nominal conditions (in thousands of Btu/hr, or MBH), and
are corrected based on condensing temperature and entering wet-bulb temperature. These
correction factors are virtually universal across all manufacturers and models.

Part Load
Condenser manufacturers do not provide part-load performance data in standard published
literature. However, there are experimental or theoretical formulas that can be applied to rated
capacity at reduced air or water flow. To be conservative, you can assume that capacity decreases
proportionally with air flow. In reality, performance is slightly better due to more effective heat
transfer.
Dry Operation
If a condenser must be operated without water (conditions below freezing), the fans can be operated
alone. In this situation, heat transfer is very poor. Condenser manufacturers provide ratings for dry
operation, but, as discussed in Wet vs. Dry Operation (page 64), dry operation is very inefficient
and should be avoided unless absolutely necessary.
Vessels, Valves, Purgers, and Underfloor Heating
Introduction
Some important components of an industrial refrigeration system do not use energy directly but
nonetheless affect the overall energy efficiency of the system. Examples include vessels, valves, heat
exchangers, purgers, and other miscellaneous equipment. It is important to be familiar with these
components and their role in system efficiency.
Vessels
Low-Pressure Receivers
A low-pressure receiver (LPR) is an insulated
tank that holds low-pressure, low-temperature
liquid ammonia to be sent to evaporators
(Figure 38). The liquid is pumped to the coils,
and some of it (typically 1/4 to 1/3) boils in the
evaporator coil. The mixture of vapor and
liquid returns to the LPR where the gas rises to
the top and is drawn away by the compressor
suction. Since only some of the refrigerant is Figure 38: Low-pressure receiver (LPR) with
boiled in the evaporator, this system is often insulation and liquid pump
called “overfeed” or “liquid recirc.”
We address the LPR and its piping and valves in Chapter 4:Best Practices for Equipment, Systems,
and Controls because overfeed rates and other related issues can affect efficiency.
Accumulators
An accumulator is also an insulated tank that holds low-pressure, low-temperature liquid ammonia.
It is located above an evaporator coil or heat exchanger, and the liquid ammonia level is held about
midway in the accumulator and thus completely floods the evaporator below it. Virtually all
accumulators have a manual, dual-position, or motorized pressure regulator between the vessel and
the compressor suction line that manages ammonia pressure and temperature within the coil.
We address adjusting and controlling pressure regulators on these coils in Optimum Evaporator
VFD Control and Set Points on page 57.

Intercoolers and Subcoolers
An intercooler is a vessel that contains liquid
refrigerant at an intermediate pressure in a
multistage system. As discharge gas from a
booster compressor bubbles up through the
liquid, all superheat is removed and it returns
to saturation temperature. A subcooler is a
vessel containing liquid refrigerant in an
economized system for subcooling. It is a key
component in multistage systems and systems
with economizers. In Chapter 4: Best Practices
for Equipment, Systems, and Controls, we Figure 39: Diagram of an intercooler
discuss these systems and the effect of
intercoolers and subcoolers on efficiency.
High-Pressure Receivers
A high-pressure receiver (HPR) is an
uninsulated tank that holds the high-pressure
liquid draining from the condensers (Figure 40).
Virtually all refrigeration systems have some
kind of HPR. It is usually located in the engine
room, but it is sometimes located on the roof
immediately below the condensers, or outdoors
adjacent to the engine room. These vessels can
be horizontal or vertical designs.
Controlled-Pressure Receivers
Figure 40: High-pressure receiver (HPR)
A few systems use a gas-pressure design, where
compressor discharge gas is used to move liquid refrigerant throughout the coils and between
vessels. In lieu of a high-pressure receiver, these systems use a controlled-pressure receiver (CPR). In
a system with a standard HPR, the pressure inside the vessel floats with system condensing pressure.
With a CPR, pressure in the vessel is held at a constant level, typically 65 to 100 psig. Gas-pressure
systems are often inefficient, and the CPR often presents a bottleneck to reducing condensing
pressure.
Valves
Liquid Solenoids
A liquid solenoid is a valve
that opens and closes to
manage liquid )or gas)
refrigerant flow (Figure 41,
left). Almost all refrigeration
Courtesy of Hansen
systems include liquid
solenoids. A liquid solenoid Figure 41: Liquid solenoid (left); Metered liquid solenoid (right)
opens and closes to manage
the flow of liquid refrigerant. Solenoids are commonly used for evaporator feed in recirculated
systems, for make-up liquid to LPRs and intercoolers, and for miscellaneous applications such as
compressor liquid injection.

In a newly developed type of solenoid, the valve doesn’t just
open and close abruptly, but rather modulates to meter the flow Poorly performing solenoids,
(Figure 41, right). This smoothes out system pressure changes, pressure regulators, and valves
which often fluctuate wildly during liquid feed. This can have
secondary energy effects on such issues as sequencing can reduce system efficiency.
compressors or selecting a compressor for operation.
Hand Expansion Valves

Hand expansion valves are
used to meter flow, usually in
conjunction with a liquid
solenoid (Figure 42, left). A
common application is with
recirculated evaporator coils
where the overfeed rate is set
by the hand expansion valve.
Thermal Expansion Courtesy of Hansen (left) and Sporlan (right)
Valves Figure 42: Hand expansion valve (left); Thermal expansion valve (right)
Thermal expansion valves are
used on the rare applications that include a direct-expansion evaporator coil, on screw-compressor
liquid-injection systems (Figure 42, center, right), and on less common applications. Older thermal-
expansion valves use a classic bulb-and-diaphragm design, although new electronic versions are
becoming increasingly popular for greater flexibility and control.
Pressure Regulators
Pressure regulators maintain a
steady pressure at their inlet
or outlet (Figure 43).
Examples include a suction-
pressure regulator on a
flooded evaporator coil, or a
hot-gas-defrost regulator.
Pressure regulators are
common in industrial
refrigeration systems. They
can either be manual (set to
maintain a fixed pressure), Courtesy of Hansen
dual-pressure (with high and Figure 43: Pressure regulators

low settings), or motorized
(continuously adjustable). They play a large part in system performance, and adjusting them to the
most appropriate pressure set points often improves efficiency.
Purgers
Systems operating with negative suction pressures (below atmospheric pressure) can draw air into
the system. Left unresolved, the added air results in increased condensing pressures. We discuss the
benefits of purgers (Figure 44) in Purgers on page 75.

Underfloor Heating
Virtually all systems with freezers (below 32°F) need underfloor
heating to prevent the floor from frost heaving. There are three
common types of underfloor heating:
Glycol
Air
Electric
Underfloor heating can have dramatic direct and secondary

impacts on energy efficiency. Heating can limit system operating Courtesy of Hansen
pressures, can put too much heat under the floor, and can use
Figure 44: Automatic purger
inefficient forms of heating (for example, electric resistance).
Glycol Floor Heating

In this system, glycol at 60 to 90°F runs through 1"–3" PVC pipe set into the floors beneath the
freezer. The piping runs beneath the floor insulation and is spaced several feet apart. A pump
circulates glycol through a heat exchanger located in the engine room and the underfloor piping.
In most applications, the glycol is heated with ammonia from the compressor discharge header. In
some systems, the entire discharge of refrigerant gas flows through the exchanger, and the glycol is
warmed by simply absorbing some of the superheat in the refrigerant. In other systems, a portion of
the gas is diverted through a small condensing exchanger, with the refrigerant condensing into
liquid as it heats the glycol. It is rare that the glycol is heated with anything other than refrigerant
heat.
Air Floor Heating

Similar to glycol, warm air is blown under freeze floors in 3” to 5” PVC piping. In many systems,
the air is simply ambient or engine room air that is not heated. However, some systems utilize
refrigerant heat recovery, electric, or gas heating to raise the air temperature.
Electric Floor Heating

In some cases, underfloor heating is done with strips of heat tape or cable laid underneath or in the
slab, or heating elements actually located within the concrete. These applications are usually small,
although some large applications can have hundreds of kW in heating installed.
Controls
Introduction
All industrial refrigeration systems must be controlled to keep temperatures, pressures, and other
critical variables within suitable ranges. Refrigeration controls affect production, safety, and
efficiency. The basic features of most computer-control systems are:
Evaporator liquid solenoid and pressure regulator control
Evaporator fan on/off control
Evaporator defrost control
Compressor on/off and unloading control
Condenser pump and fan on/off control

In the simplest sense, evaporators are controlled in response to zone temperature, compressors are
controlled in response to suction pressure, and condensers are controlled in response to condensing
pressure.
In addition to these basic functions, refrigeration control systems can also provide additional
advanced functions including:
Advanced compressor sequencing
Advanced condenser control algorithms
Advanced demand defrost initiation and termination control
Two-speed motor and variable frequency drive control
Underfloor heating system monitoring and control
Recording of system variables (trending)
System alarms
Remote control
The presence of advanced control features depends on the control system capabilities and the
customer’s needs.
There are four basic categories of control systems:
Manual control
Electro-mechanical control
Simple programmable logic controllers (PLC)
Computer control
Manual Controls
Manual control is simply the complete management of equipment by attending personnel.
With manual control systems, system operators simply turn on equipment (such as a compressor,
condenser pump, or fan) and, in some cases, adjust capacity as needed. Simple push-button controls
or hand switches are most common for equipment start and stop. Manual control is increasingly
uncommon.
Electro-Mechanical Controls
Electro-mechanical controls use simple pneumatic or electronic circuitry to manage refrigeration
equipment.
Electro-mechanical controls are still relatively common, particularly for small systems where
computer control is not cost-effective, and with equipment such as reciprocating compressors where
pressure switches are often integrated with the equipment by the manufacturer.
Pressure Switches
Simple pressure switches are most often used to unload the cylinders in reciprocating compressors
and to control the cycling of condenser pumps and fans. There are two common types of pressure
switches:
Spring-loaded
Mercury

Spring-loaded pressure
switches all have a “cut-in” set
point and either a
“differential” or “cut-out” set
point. They are adjusted with
a screwdriver, are difficult to
set accurately, and are
susceptible to drift. Figure 45
shows an example.
Mercury pressure switches use
a liquid mercury switch, and
offer a cut-in and cut-out Courtesy of Mercoid (right)
setting. These switches are
Figure 45: Spring-loaded (left) and Mercury (right) pressure switches
easy to set and are most
common on condenser
controls. Figure 45 shows an example.
Thermostats
A thermostat senses temperature changes and activates a switch
that controls a piece of equipment. In refrigeration systems, they
are most often used to control evaporator coils and associated
liquid solenoids and fans. Figure 46 shows a sample application.
Packaged Electro-Mechanical Systems

In larger refrigeration systems, electro-mechanical controls can
be assembled into a package. This example is a control panel for
a screw compressor that is used to manage all compressor Figure 46: Thermostat
controls, alarms, and safeties.
On a larger scale, electro-mechanical control centers can be used to sequence and control
equipment, as shown in Figure 47.
Though electro-mechanical
control systems were once the
most effective option, they
are increasingly rare in new
installations. PLC and
computer-control systems
have superseded electro-
mechanical systems on nearly
all new construction projects,
and are replacing many aging
electro-mechanical systems in
existing installations.
Simple Programmable
Logic Control (PLC)
Figure 47: Electro-mechanical control system
Small systems can be
controlled using simple programmable logic controllers, or PLCs (Figure 48). These types of
controllers perform the same basic functions as electro-mechanical controls, using solid-state
hardware in lieu of pneumatic, thermostatic, and electrical (relay) controls. Common PLCs include
the Honeywell Universal Digital Controller (UDC) series and the Allen-Bradley SLC 500. UDC

controllers are used for simple applications, such as taking a temperature-probe input and
outputting a control signal to a pressure regulator. These units can perform simple math and can
have multiple inputs and outputs. They are self-tuning, and have push-button set point adjustments.
A PLC system like the SLC 500 is capable of more advanced
control. This type of PLC is mounted on a rack panel, and can
be expanded to meet a variety of input and output requirements.
The system can be tied into a central interface computer or
process display, and can provide trending and other advanced
features.
Computer Control
Introduction
Courtesy of Honeywell
Computer-control systems for refrigeration first became
Figure 48: Simple digital
available in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These systems were a
controller
remarkable leap forward in control, trending, alarms, and other
operations. Since these early systems, the capabilities of computer-based controls have expanded
dramatically, with easy-to-use graphical interfaces, remote access, and advanced features.
Central vs. Distributed

There are two primary varieties of computer control:
Central
Distributed
In a central control system, the computer directly executes all

control code and trending. In a distributed system, individual
PLC controllers are located throughout the system. These PLCs
are accessed through a central interface computer, but each PLC
operates independently. The central computer could be turned
Figure 49: Computer-control
off and the system would continue to operate.
system interface
Figure 49 shows a sample computer-control system interface.
Both central and distributed systems have advantages and disadvantages. Both designs operate well,
and as hardware and software continue to be refined, any differences between the two designs may
narrow.
Input/Output and Communications

All refrigeration control systems use a system of analog and
digital input/output (I/O) modules to communicate with sensors
and equipment. For example, an analog signal may measure a
pressure transducer (with a variable setting), while a digital signal
might control a liquid solenoid (which is either on or off). The
I/O modules are contained in one or more panels located
throughout the facility, as shown in Figure 50.
The development of serial communications led to RS-232,
RS-485, and standards such as Modbus to communicate with
Figure 50: I/O communications
refrigeration equipment. For example, virtually all modern
panel
microprocessor panels for screw compressors can accommodate

Modbus communications. Rather than using discrete analog and digital I/O to manage and monitor
the compressor, a single communications cable can not only control the compressor
microprocessor, but have access to every control parameter. Modbus is also useful in VFD control.
Vendors and Installers

There are two categories of vendors of computer-control systems for refrigeration systems:
Refrigeration-specific
General control
Refrigeration-Specific Control Systems

Most of the major suppliers of industrial refrigeration equipment offer computer-control systems
for their equipment. Also, control firms offer systems specifically designed for refrigeration systems
(as opposed to general-purpose control systems adapted to refrigeration systems). Also included in
this category are design-build refrigeration contractors that design and install refrigeration systems.
Some of these contractors employ control specialists who design, assemble, and implement
refrigeration control systems for them.
General Control Firms and In-house Personnel

General control firms provide controls applicable to a variety of commercial and industrial
applications. In general, they do not specialize in industrial refrigeration, and the success of the
application depends on the experience and skills of the assigned programmer. In these applications,
the operator of the customer’s refrigeration system must often be involved in developing the proper
control algorithms.
Also included in this category are in-house or corporate control specialists. For example, industrial
food processing facilities often have process-oriented control systems that can be expanded to
manage the refrigeration system. Also, in some cases, the facility may have staff with sufficient
control or refrigeration expertise to successfully implement a stand-alone computer-control system.
Control Software
In the earliest systems, computer control depended on Unix, DOS, Assembly Language, C++, and
other low-level languages. These systems were usually proprietary, and have mostly given way to
systems with modern, open software platforms such as Wonderware, Intellution, Allen Bradley,
GE, Think-N-Do, and others. However, there are still many systems that use proprietary or low-
level software for control. Advanced features, brought about by Microsoft Windows and its
graphical user interface, networking, and the Internet, have expanded the abilities of control
software. In general, there has been an evolution away from proprietary and low-level software
toward open architectures that require less arcane coding.
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
Introduction
Until the early 1990s, the use of variable frequency drives (VFDs) in industrial refrigeration was
rare. Throughout the 1990s, VFDs began to appear as a standard factory-offered option for other
equipment such as centrifugal water chillers. In the early 2000s, even rotary-screw air compressors
offered VFD options. Only relatively recently have manufacturers of industrial refrigeration
equipment embraced VFD technology. Now, virtually all prominent manufacturers of screw
compressors for industrial refrigeration offer VFD control as a factory option. It is also possible to
retrofit VFDs on many existing compressor systems. In addition, all prominent condenser

manufacturers now discuss fan VFD control in marketing literature. And VFD control of
evaporator fans, although common in the Pacific Northwest, has been more widely embraced
nationally by refrigeration design firms and their customers.
Standard Motors
Whether driving fans, pumps, or compressors, virtually all industrial refrigeration motors are three-
phase induction units that operate at fixed speeds of 900, 1200, 1800, or 3600 rpm. Motor speeds for
typical equipment are:
Evaporator Fans: 1200 or 1800 rpm
Compressors – Reciprocating: 1200 rpm (direct) or 1800 rpm (belt)
Compressors – Rotary Screw: 3600 rpm
Compressors – Rotary Vane: 900 or 1200 rpm
Condenser Fans: 1800 rpm
The operating speed of the motor is determined by the frequency of the line current (in North
America, 60 Hertz, or 60 cycles per second), and the winding configuration (number of poles) of the
motor. When running unloaded a motor turns at its nameplate-listed speed, slowing a few percent
as load is placed on the shaft. Equipment run by motors at a single, fixed speed meet peak loads
requirements, but do not accommodate part-load conditions well, which account for most operating
hours.
Purpose of Variable Frequency Drives

The purpose of a VFD is to allow a motor to be operated at speeds other than design. Although
VFDs can actually increase motor speed, this is seldom a goal when trying to improve energy
efficiency.
In the simplest view, a VFD converts the 60 Hz line current into discrete voltage pulses. The
frequency of the pulses can be varied by electronics internal to the VFD and as motor speed is
dependent on the frequency of the line current, a VFD can continuously vary motor speed.
Figure 51 shows a sample VFD output voltage and current waveform.
Waveform Sample - VFD Output Voltage Waveform Sample - VFD Output Current
1600 600
1200 400
800
200
400
Voltage
0
Amps
0
-200
-400
-400
-800
-1200 -600
-1600 -800
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (milliseconds) Time (milliseconds)
Figure 51: VFD output voltage and current waveform
VFDs are available in a wide range of capacities, from fractional horsepower to thousands of
horsepower. In the United States, virtually all industrial refrigeration applications are 480-volt,
although some 240 volt applications still exist. Although rare in refrigeration, medium voltage
units—2300 to 4160 volts—are also available. Figure 52 shows a VFD installation.

It is important to note that a VFD itself does
not reduce energy use. Rather, energy savings
occur by operating the driven equipment at a
lower speed and possibly reduced torque.
Placing a VFD on a motor that always operates
at full speed will not reduce energy, but will
actually increase power slightly as VFD are
themselves only about 95% efficient at full
speed.
Constant and Variable Torque

Loads
Motors and VFDs see two types of shaft loads:
Constant torque
Variable torque.
Figure 52: Variable-frequency drives (VFDs)
Since power (in horsepower or kilowatts) is
defined as torque × speed, the torque characteristics of a shaft load dictate the actual power required
by the motor and VFD.
In situations of constant torque, the torque load on the shaft does not vary with speed. For
example, the twisting force at 30 Hz (half speed) is the same as that at 60 Hz (full speed). In
industrial refrigeration applications, compressors are the only constant torque load of interest. For
constant torque loads, shaft power varies in direct proportion to speed. That is, the power at 30 Hz
is only (30÷60) or one-half the power at 60Hz. Figure 53 is a chart of torque and power versus speed
for a constant torque situation.
In situations of variable
torque, the torque load on the
shaft varies with the square of
speed. That is, the twisting
force at 30 Hz is only (30÷60)2
or one-quarter the twisting
force at 60 Hz. In industrial
refrigeration applications,
evaporator and condenser fans
are the variable torque loads
of interest. For these variable
torque loads, shaft power
varies in proportion to the
cube of speed, often called the
“cube law.” That is, at 30 Hz,
the load would require
(30÷60)3, or one-eighth the Figure 53: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a constant
power. Figure 54 is a chart of torque load
torque and power versus
speed for a variable torque situation.
Note that for both the constant and variable torque applications, capacity varies in direct
proportion to speed. So a screw compressor operating at half speed provides half the capacity.
Likewise, for a fan operating at half speed, the fan moves half the air flow. Operating a screw
compressor or fan at reduced speed provides higher efficiency than other methods of capacity
control.

VFD Features and Design Issues
Although VFDs have become
very common, proper
selection and application is
very important. Issues
commonly encountered in
industrial refrigeration
applications include:
VFD Issues
Size of VFD
Need for bypass feature
Input reactor or
harmonic filtering
Output reactor or dV/dt
filtering
Grouping of multiple Figure 54: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a variable
motors torque load
Setup of internal parameters

Temperature of environment
Need for external cooling
Cleanliness of environment
Motor Issues
Cooling at reduced speed
Insulation dielectric capabilities
Current in bearings
Driven-Equipment Issues
Minimum and maximum allowed speeds
Resonant frequencies
Control Issues
Serial or discrete I/O for control
Control algorithms
Control set points
Alarms and faults
In the Best Practices chapters, we address these issues and the proper application of VFDs to
evaporator fans, screw compressors, and condenser fans; we identify inappropriate refrigeration
applications such as reciprocating compressors and condenser pumps; and we discuss proper control
algorithms.

CHAPTER 4
Best Practices for Equipment, Systems,

and Controls
Introduction
This chapter covers engineering opportunities to improve refrigeration system design, select
efficient components, and control the system optimally. The chapter methodically addresses the
“Big Picture” efficiency categories introduced in Chapter 2: Best Practices Overview:
Reducing Lift (below)
Improving Part-Load Performance (page 55)
Upgrading Equipment (page 65)
Improving System Design (page 72)
Reducing Refrigeration Loads (page 76)
At the end of this chapter, we highlight the importance of computer controls (page 79) and provide
three checklists (page 80) pertaining to evaporators, compressors, and condensers that help tie
together these concepts.
Reducing Lift
Introduction
“Lift” in a refrigeration system is the difference between suction pressure and discharge pressure at
the compressor. Reducing lift by raising suction pressure or lowering discharge pressure improves
compressor efficiency. Three general rules apply to lift:
Increasing suction pressure increases compressor capacity.
Reducing discharge pressure decreases power.
Increasing suction or reducing discharge pressure reduces BHP/TR (brake horsepower per ton
refrigeration) and thereby increases efficiency.
This section presents methods for reducing lift, discusses some of the barriers to doing so, and
presents the potential energy savings. Note that suction and discharge pressure are often referred to
as temperatures, as there is a direct, proportional and consistent relationship between the pressure
and temperature of saturated ammonia vapor. This section will sometimes use one or the other
description. Table 7 describes the relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia.
Increasing Suction Pressure
Effect of Increasing Suction

The efficiency of a compressor in an industrial ammonia refrigeration system increases by about 2%
per degree Fahrenheit increase in suction temperature. Although the efficiency improvement

Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls
depends on actual operating pressures, compressor design, and refrigerant, the relationship of
pressure change and savings is relatively consistent.
Table 7: Relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia at sea level
Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature

-15 in. Hg -51.4 °F 50 psig 33.8 °F
-10 in. Hg -42.1 °F 60 psig 41.0 °F
-5 in. Hg -34.5 °F 70 psig 47.3 °F
0 psig -27.9 °F 80 psig 53.2 °F
5 psig -17.3 °F 90 psig 58.5 °F
10 psig -8.5 °F 100 psig 63.5 °F
15 psig -1.0 °F 120 psig 72.6 °F
20 psig 5.6 °F 140 psig 80.7 °F
25 psig 11.3 °F 160 psig 87.9 °F
30 psig 16.6 °F 180 psig 94.7 °F
40 psig 25.8 °F 200 psig 100.8 °F
Regulating Suction Pressure Best Practices:

Suction Pressure
Suction pressure is maintained by compressor
set points. Regulating suction can be as simple Suction pressure should be held where
as adjusting the set point in a computer-control
system. With other control systems, you may compressor power and evaporator fan power
need to adjust a micro-processor panel on a are at a “combined minimum.”
screw compressor or a pressure switch on a
When no fan savings are possible, set suction
reciprocating compressor.
pressure as high as possible.
Selecting Larger Evaporator Coils A small increase in suction pressure will often
let the operator shut off a compressor. This
The cooling capacity of an evaporator is
directly proportional to the difference between strategy should be pursued aggressively—
the temperature of the air entering the coil and particularly for systems with screw
the temperature of the refrigerant within the
coil. This difference in temperature is called the
compressors.
temperature difference, or TD. Evaporator coil
capacity is also proportional to the area of the
heat-exchange surface of the coil. So by using a larger evaporator coil (one with more surface area),
you can reduce the TD and still maintain cooling capacity. This lets you increase suction pressure
while providing the same amount of cooling in the space.
Typically, evaporator coils are selected based on their capacity at a TD of 12 to 15°F. By using a
larger coil that allows a TD of 10°F or even 8°F you can increase suction temperature. For
example, reducing coil TD from 15°F to 10°F will allow a 5°F increase in suction temperature and
reduce compressor energy consumption about 10%:
(15°F – 10°F) × 2%/°F = 10% savings
You can also increase the number of evaporator coils to increase the area of the heat-exchange
surface, and achieve similar savings.

Note that the savings from increased suction is Best Practices:
seen at the compressor. When you increase the Highest Allowable Suction
capacity of the compressor, it will operate at a Pressure
lower fraction of its full-load capacity when
meeting a given cooling load. Hence, the part- For loads that limit the suction pressure, select
load performance characteristics of the
compressor ultimately dictate the magnitude of oversized evaporator coils with a temperature
the energy savings. In the same way, an increase difference of 8 to 10°F.
in suction may actually allow a compressor to
Get extra coil capacity with more surface area,
be turned off, or a large compressor to be shut
down in favor of a smaller one. So although the not more evaporator fan power.
2% rule of thumb is good for estimating, a Size suction line losses for a pressure drop that
complete analysis of compressor operation
equates to 2°F or less at design for critical
would be needed to determine savings
precisely. loads.
Choosing a larger evaporator coil may make it
necessary to use a larger (higher horsepower)
evaporator fan. The increased energy use by the larger fan may offset some or all of the savings
achieved by the compressor, and may even result in a net increase in energy use, so be sure to
evaluate that interaction.
The same issues apply to heat exchangers or any other evaporator loads, such as chillers or process
loads. Pressure drop and pumping energy should be considered when assessing larger heat
exchangers.
Worst-Case Load or Zone Issues

In nearly all refrigeration systems, the worst-
case evaporator load or the zone with the
largest cooling requirement determines the
maximum allowable suction pressure. This can
be a room that requires a lower temperature
than others, or a process load that requires a
lower suction pressure.
Consider the example of a food distribution
warehouse with a small -20°F ice cream room
served by the same refrigeration suction as a
-10°F main freezer, as shown in Figure 55.
Although the main freezer creates most of the
refrigeration load, the lower temperature of the
ice cream room dictates the eventual Figure 55: Ice cream room within a refrigerated
evaporating temperature. Where the main warehouse
freezer could be served by a suction of -20 to
-25°F, the ice cream room requires -30 to -35°F—a full 10°F lower. Using our 2%/°F rule of thumb,
the refrigeration for the main freezer could be about 20% more efficient if it were served by a
dedicated compressor (separate from the ice cream room) with a higher suction.
Reducing Suction Line Pressure Drop

Typical design often allows for a suction line pressure drop equivalent to 5°F in saturation
temperature. Increasing pipe diameter by even one size can dramatically reduce pressure drop, since
pressure drop varies as the square of pipe diameter. For example, increasing a pipe from 6" to 8" in
diameter would decrease refrigerant velocity by 44% and would reduce pressure drop (which is

proportional to the square of the velocity) by 69%. Increasing suction line piping is often more cost-
effective than buying larger evaporator coils.
Decreasing pressure drop in the suction line Best Practices:
will only save energy if compressor suction Load Aggregation
pressure can be increased, or if evaporator fan
control (cycling, VFDs, etc.) is implemented. Avoid having loads with different temperature
The same issues apply to main compressor requirements on the same suction system. In
discharge header piping to the condensers,
particular, do not let a small, lower
where compressor power and/or condenser fan
and pump operation is reduced. temperature load dictate the suction pressure
for a larger, higher temperature load.
Barriers to Raising Suction Serve each load with the highest possible
Pressure suction system, even if it means additional
There may be system- or equipment-related compressors, piping, and complexity.
barriers to raising suction pressure. For Additional suction systems can mean more
example, higher suction pressure causes the
refrigerant flow rate and resultant velocity to
simultaneously unloaded compressors.
increase in the oil separator of a screw Improving compressor part-load efficiency must
compressor. If the separator cannot handle the also be addressed.
increased velocity, it may not completely
remove the oil from the refrigerant. In
addition, raising suction often increases the shaft horsepower of the compressor (even though
higher capacity improves overall efficiency), and may overload the motor. In this case, current-
limiting would be required to unload the compressor. In both new and retrofit applications, you
should review the performance of the oil separator and the sizing of the motor before increasing
suction pressure.
Balancing Compressor Savings and Fan Energy

In some applications, a conflict can arise between increasing suction pressure to reduce compressor
energy, and maintaining an adequate coil temperature difference so that fan cycling or VFD control
will be effective. The optimal balance will be unique for each application, and is particularly
sensitive to the ratio of compressor and fan power and the non-linear nature of fan VFD energy
savings.
In some cases, the evaporator fan horsepower is low enough that operating the compressor at the
highest possible suction pressure and operating the evaporator fans at full capacity is the most
efficient strategy. In other cases, the combination of a large fan horsepower and VFD control might
make fan savings a higher priority than compressor savings. The problem gets even more
complicated with multiple refrigerated spaces and different process loads all on a common
compressor. In such cases, detailed energy analysis is the only way to assess the optimal operating
strategy. However, in all cases, the goal is the lowest total system energy use.
Reducing Discharge Pressure

This section addresses reducing “discharge pressure,” sometimes called “condensing pressure” or
“condensing temperature.” These terms are essentially interchangeable, as long as there is not a large
pressure drop between the compressor discharge and the condensers.

Effect of Reducing Discharge Best Practices:
Reducing Condensing Pressure
The efficiency of a compressor in an industrial
ammonia refrigeration system increases about All Systems: Operate at the lowest possible
1½ to 2% per degree Fahrenheit of reduction in
condensing temperature. The magnitude of the condensing pressure.
savings is almost entirely dependent on the New Construction: In the Pacific Northwest, use
operating pressure ratio of the compressor.
a target condensing pressure of 90 psig.
Retrofit projects: Every system is different. 90
Regulating Discharge Pressure
to 110 psig should be possible in most systems.
Discharge pressure is maintained by condenser
Never let a small or low-cost barrier dictate
pump and fan set points. Regulating minimum
discharge can be as simple as adjusting the set minimum pressure.
point within a computer-control system. On
other systems, condenser pressure switches may Benefits Beyond Energy
need to be adjusted. Lower pressure puts less stress on equipment,
particularly reciprocating compressors.
Minimum Condensing Pressure Lower condensing pressure increase both
versus Approach compressor capacity and system capacity.
It is important that the issue of “minimum Lower condensing pressure requires more
allowable condensing pressure” and “approach”
be clarified. This is a common misconception attention to maintenance and operation, but
when discussing reduced discharge pressure. this attention often helps identify and
ultimately fix underperforming components.
Reducing Minimum Condensing
Pressure
The minimum allowable condensing pressure is the lowest pressure at which the refrigeration
system will function properly. Compressor limitations, liquid transfer issues, defrost, and many
other factors affect the minimum allowable pressure and must be considered when pursuing
strategies to reduce discharge pressure.
Systems in cool climates may operate for thousands of hours per year at minimum condensing
pressure, while systems in warm climates or with limited condenser capacity may operate for only a
few hours per year at minimum pressure. In any case, there will be times during the year when it is
impossible to achieve the minimum pressure set point, such as in the heat of summer.
For industrial ammonia refrigeration systems, a minimum pressure of 80 to 90 psig is a relatively
aggressive target for energy efficiency. The number of hours per year when condensing pressure can
fall this low will determine how aggressively this target range can be pursued.
To illustrate, we will compare systems in Seattle, WA and Miami, FL. To assess the opportunity to
operate at reduced condensing pressure, we must look at weather data for each location. Table 8
shows the number of hours per year that fall within 5-degree ranges of dry bulb temperature and
the mean coincident wet-bulb temperature for each dry-bulb range.
Since evaporative condenser performance is dictated by the condensing temperature relative to the
ambient wet-bulb temperature, the distribution of wet-bulb temperature is the key factor. The table
shows that the average wet-bulb temperature for Miami is almost 25°F higher (70.2°F – 46.3°F)
than that for Seattle.
Now, consider a system with a condenser designed for a 15°F approach (ambient wet-bulb
temperature minus refrigerant temperature). With a target minimum condensing pressure of 90 psig

(at which ammonia is 58°F), we need to determine how many hours per year the system would
operate at this pressure.
Table 8: Weather data for Seattle, WA and Miami, FL
Dry Bulb Seattle, WA Miami, FL Condensing Temperature

Range Annual Wet Bulb Annual Wet Bulb with 15°F Approach
(°F) Hours (°F) Hours (°F) Seattle, WA Miami, FL
95 to 99 12 67.2 82.2
90 to 94 11 67.7 70 77.4 82.7 92.4
85 to 89 36 66.3 910 76.8 81.3 91.8
80 to 84 76 64.4 2,046 74.6 79.4 89.6
75 to 79 137 61.9 2,680 71.8 76.9 86.8
70 to 74 234 60.1 1,692 67.9 75.1 82.9
65 to 69 376 58.0 743 63.2 73.0 78.2
60 to 64 764 55.5 307 57.2 70.5 72.2
55 to 59 1,220 53.0 158 52.7 68.0 67.7
50 to 54 1,554 49.0 92 48.1 64.0 63.1
45 to 49 1,433 44.2 38 43.5 59.2 58.5
40 to 44 1,405 40.1 14 40.4 58.0 58.0
35 to 39 863 35.2 10 34.5 58.0 58.0
30 to 34 523 30.6 58.0
25 to 29 114 25.4 58.0
20 to 24 2 24.0 58.0
Weighted Averages: 46.3 70.2
In both Seattle and Miami, these conditions correspond to the dry-bulb temperature ranges from
44°F and below. In Seattle, there are 2,907 hours—about one-third of the year—when the system
could operate at 90 psig. In Miami, however, there are only 24 hours—about 0.3% of the year—
when the system could operate at 90 psig.
As this example shows, trying to reduce minimum condensing pressure to this 90-psig target will be
a more fruitful exercise in Seattle than in Miami.
Reducing Condenser Approach

Reducing condenser approach is another way to reduce condensing pressure. The effect of increased
condenser capacity on energy consumption depends on outdoor conditions which vary by season
and geographical location.
Whenever the refrigeration system operates above the minimum allowable condensing pressure set
point, condensing temperature will float above the ambient wet-bulb temperature. Additional
condenser capacity will reduce the approach to wet-bulb temperature, and hence the condensing
pressure. This will reduce compressor energy use.
If the system operates at the minimum allowable condensing pressure, then additional condenser
capacity does not affect pressure and compressor power. However, the condenser system will be
allowed to operate at reduced capacity (for example, with slower fan speeds under VFD control). In
this situation, the condenser will use less energy.

The economic return on increased condenser Best Practices:
capacity can be assessed incrementally. That is, Condenser Sizing
a baseline condenser designed for a 20°F
approach can be compared to a condenser In the Pacific Northwest, select a condenser
designed for an 18, 16, 14, or even 12°F
approach. At some point, the incremental with a 15°F or lower approach to design wet-
return on investment will diminish, bulb temperature.
particularly when the additional structural, To do this, select a condenser with larger
piping, electrical, and water-treatment costs are
considered. surface area, not higher fan power.
In selecting incrementally larger condensers, it Benefits Beyond Energy
is better to rely on more surface area than on
higher air velocity, air-pressure drop, and fan Oversized condensers provide:
power.
In the field, many condensers underperform Flexibility for the future and help maximize
relative to their design ratings. That is, they do
production
not attain the condenser approach that is
expected based upon condenser rating, heat A safety margin that helps avoid production
rejection load, saturated condensing slow-downs under peak loads.
temperature, and ambient wet-bulb
temperature. Many factors contribute to this
underperformance, including:
Humid micro-climate brought on by condenser placement, spacing, or proximity to steam or
other humidity sources (for example, boiler stack)
Inadequate piping that, among other things, can create pressure drop, causing the effective loss
of condensation surface area, and contribute to problems with non-condensable gases
Inadequate maintenance that impedes condenser performance because of, for example, tube
scaling, unaddressed non-condensable gas, poor spray water dispersion, belt slippage, inadequate
water pressure, and blocked or clogged drift eliminators
Barriers to Reducing Minimum Condensing Pressure
System and Equipment Barriers

There are a number of potential system or equipment barriers to reducing minimum condensing
pressure. Some of these barriers and possible solutions are summarized below:
Hot Gas Defrost Many ammonia refrigeration systems use hot-gas defrost. Usually, hot gas is
regulated within the coil to a pressure of 65–90 psig. In addition, some systems are equipped with a
master regulator in the engine room (often set at 100 to 110 psig). Although there is little difference
in the latent heat of ammonia at 150 psig versus 90 psig, the reduced delivery pressure can result in a
lower flow rate of ammonia early in a defrost cycle. After the coil has warmed and the regulator
begins throttling flow, the system condensing pressure no longer matters. Defrosts can take slightly
longer at reduced pressure.
Solutions The simplest solution is to tolerate a longer defrost cycle. In systems with a high
defrost regulator set point, the set point can be reduced to 65–75 psig to eliminate the regulator
as a barrier. Similarly, master hot-gas regulators can be reduced to 15–20 psig above coil
regulator set points. In facilities with multiple compressors, one or more compressors can be
dedicated to “defrost duty.” A regulator is installed in the discharge line of that particular
compressor to elevate its discharge pressure, and all hot gas can be supplied from this one
machine. To maximize savings, a computer-control system would elevate pressure in this

header only when necessary, and the capacity of the hot-gas compressor would vary to supply
the needed hot gas and maintain header pressure.
Heated Zones In some facilities (for example, 40°F to 55°F zones in food distribution centers),
some evaporator coils may use high-pressure ammonia vapor to heat the space. This may require a
minimum gas pressure of 110 to 120 psig or higher, depending on zone temperature and coil size.
Solutions The same general solutions to hot gas defrost apply here. The most common
solution is to use a dedicated compressor to supply hot gas for the heated zones. Another
option is to equip these zones with steam, hot-water, or gas-fired heaters. Although this will
cost more than the “free” hot gas from the engine room, it is easier to control.
Water Defrost and Common Sumps Some facilities (for example, fruit storage) use water defrost,
with water from a common defrost tank and condenser sump. Water temperatures of 55°F to 65°F
usually defrost coils fully and promptly. Condensing pressure is elevated to maintain warm water in
the tank.
Solutions The simplest solution is to tolerate cooler water and slightly longer defrosts. A more
aggressive solution is to provide separate tanks for defrost water and condenser water. Defrost
water can then be heated using heat recovery (for example, compressor jacket cooling or oil
cooling), or with an ammonia desuperheater. This latter option provides warm water at low
head pressure—the best of both worlds.
Oil Separator Performance Oil separators on screw compressors are often sized for lower
refrigerant velocities than will be experienced at the target 80 to 100 psig. In addition, some
reciprocating compressors discharge through master oil separators to trap oil. In some cases, oil
carryover can be a barrier to reducing discharge pressure. Gas density decreases at reduced discharge
pressure, resulting in increased velocity. This can be exacerbated by efforts to increase suction
pressure, further increasing mass flow and separator velocity.
Solutions On new construction projects, all oil separators should be sized at the factory for 80
to 100 psig discharge pressure. On most retrofit projects, the existing separator works fine,
although the factory should be consulted. In rare cases, the internal baffling of the separator can
be improved, or an external oil separator and return system can be installed. This is also the
case for reciprocating compressors that discharge through master oil separators.
Hot Gas Unloaders Some compressors use hot gas to activate cylinder unloaders. These unloaders
may not work correctly at reduced condensing pressure.
Solutions This barrier is rare. In the case where unloader operation becomes a barrier, a source
of high-pressure gas can be supplied, or the unloaders can be converted to electric solenoids.
Flooded System Liquid Delivery In flooded systems, liquid ammonia is piped from the high-
pressure receiver directly to flooded accumulators. In systems with improperly sized piping,
excessive pressure drop may prevent adequate liquid delivery to loads, starving the coil.
Solutions For new construction projects, the solution is to specify a design minimum
condensing pressure of 80 to 100 psig for the design engineer or refrigeration contractor.
Retrofit projects may require the installation of a pump on the liquid ammonia line from the
high-pressure receiver. The pump can be sized to provide an additional 20 to 40 psig of pressure
to ensure proper liquid distribution.
Liquid Injection Oil Cooling Liquid injection oil cooling is one of the most common barriers to
reducing condensing pressure. Depending on compressor design and system operating pressures, a
minimum pressure of 115 to 125 psig is often specified by compressor manufacturers. Below these
pressures, there is inadequate liquid flow into the compressor, either due to limited expansion valve
performance, or simply insufficient pressure differential between the liquid supply and the injection
port of the compressor.

Solutions The most popular solution is to convert to external cooling, usually a thermosiphon
system. This not only eliminates the barrier to reducing condensing pressure, but eliminates the
injection efficiency penalty, improving efficiency by 3–10% or more. A second option is a
liquid pump to pressurize the high-pressure liquid line serving the injection systems. This could
be coupled with converting to discharge injection, also eliminating the standard efficiency
penalty. A third option is to apply electronic expansion valves that require less pressure
differential. These valves are available on some compressor models. Finally, several injection
ports could be machined into the compressor. The injection can be relocated to a port earlier in
the compression process, although this could increase the net injection penalty.
Underfloor Heating At warehouses and distribution centers with freezers or blast cells, warm
glycol (typically at 50°F to 80°F, or as high as 100°F for uninsulated floors) may be circulated
under the concrete slab to prevent frost heaving. This glycol is usually heated in a shell-and-tube
desuperheater that is piped in series or parallel to the main condensers, although some systems use
small condensing heat exchangers. Reducing condensing pressure can reduce the glycol temperature
and risk from floor frost heaving.
Solutions Floor heaving is a serious issue. Underfloor temperature probes should be
monitored closely for proper ground temperatures. Converting from a condensing heat
exchanger to a desuperheater might maintain higher glycol temperatures. In more severe cases,
a dedicated compressor operating at an elevated discharge pressure or a larger heat exchanger
may be required. In some cases, experimentation and underfloor temperature probes have
shown that heating is unnecessary because of insulation levels or low water tables.
Pumper Drum Systems Some systems use a pumper-drum transfer system. In these systems, the
high-pressure receiver is replaced by a “controlled-pressure receiver” (CPR) at 65 to 100 psig. These
systems are usually liquid recirculated, with liquid from the CPR passing overfed through the coils
and returning to an accumulator. The liquid then drains into one or two liquid transfer units
(LTUs) or “dump traps,” which are emptied by introducing high-pressure compressor discharge gas
into the top of the LTU and pushing the liquid back to the CPR. These systems can have multiple
barriers, including a high CPR pressure, pressure requirements for proper transfer, and balance gas
introduced into the CPR when pressure inadvertently falls.
Solutions For new construction projects, the system should be designed for a minimum
condensing pressure of 80 to 100 psig, or installed as a standard pump-based recirculation
system. For retrofits, the pressure of the CPR can be reduced (possibly requiring the
adjustment of system expansion valves), and dump tank transfers can be modified for reduced
pressure. In stubborn cases, a dedicated compressor can be set up to deliver high-pressure gas
when needed. Finally, it may be necessary to convert to a pump-based recirculation system.
Direct Expansion Valves Evaporators and process equipment (for example, scraped-surface heat
exchangers) may use thermal expansion (TX) valves. These valves are designed for particular
minimum pressure ratio, and may not operate correctly at reduced head pressure. In fact, direct
expansion (DX) evaporator coils are fairly rare with ammonia, because controlling them is
troublesome.
Solutions For new construction projects, DX coils can be upgraded to a flooded or
recirculated design. For retrofit projects, the TX valves can be upgraded to electronic versions,
the coils can be retrofit or converted, or a liquid ammonia pump can be installed.
Process and Door Hot Gas Some process equipment may use high-pressure ammonia vapor.
Examples include the thaw cycle in ice makers, or agitation in some flooded water chiller packages.
In addition, some freezer doors use hot gas for heating. These applications can require elevated hot
gas pressure for proper operation.
Solutions The equipment manufacturer should be contacted to determine the minimum
allowable pressure. If operation at reduced pressure is not allowed, a source of high-pressure gas
may be required.

Oil Circulation Some compressors use the pressure difference between suction and discharge to
drive the circulation of oil. This is an unusual barrier to discharge pressure, but it does occur.
Solutions Contact the equipment manufacturer to determine the minimum allowable lift for a
given set of operating conditions. A supplemental oil pump is sometimes an option.
Common Misperceptions
In addition to equipment or system barriers, there are also some common operational
misperceptions that limit efforts to reduce minimum condensing pressure. Some of the common
misperceptions are:
Concern About Increased Condenser Power In nearly all cases, reducing condensing pressure will
increase condenser pump and/or fan power. However, compressor energy savings will nearly
always exceed the increase in condenser energy consumption. Only when available condenser
capacity far exceeds operating compressor capacity (for example, in a processing facility in
“holding” mode on the weekend) could increased energy use by the condenser outweigh compressor
savings. In this case, applying a wet-bulb approach algorithm will operate an adequate amount of
condenser.
Issues of Screw Compressor Volume Ratio A screw compressor with a fixed internal volume ratio
(VI) can experience overcompression or undercompression when external pressure ratios do not
match the internal design of the compressor. Although this reduces the adiabatic or isentropic
efficiency of the compressor, compressor efficiency (in terms of brake horsepower per ton, or
BHP/TR) always increases when suction increases and discharge pressure decreases. Compressor VI
should never be used to justify maintaining an artificially high discharge pressure.
Operator Tradition Unfortunately, the preferences or traditions of system operators may result in
high condensing pressure. System operators often mark “target” or “acceptable” pressure levels on
master discharge pressure gauges in the engine room. When they grow accustomed to seeing system
pressure steady at some elevated value, they can find it disconcerting to see condensing pressure fall
to unprecedented levels during cool weather, even though that may be a perfectly reasonable
condition under a newly implemented control strategy. Ultimately, as system operators become
more familiar with new operating parameters and strategies, they will become more comfortable
with variations in operating conditions.
Improving Part-Load Performance

Introduction
Improving the part-load performance of refrigeration systems, particularly those with computer
control and VFDs, has become a major focus for energy savings. Although all refrigeration systems
are designed to meet peak loads, many spend few hours at peak load. Hence, part-load operation
and performance can play a large role in overall efficiency.
This section will discuss improved part-load operation for:
Evaporators
Compressors
Condensers

Improving Evaporator Part-Load Performance
Introduction
In the simplest and least efficient scenario, evaporator fans operate non-stop at full speed except
during defrost. All evaporator capacity control (and hence, space temperature management) is
achieved with liquid solenoids (in recirculated or direct-expansion systems) or pressure regulators
(in flooded systems). Energy use of the evaporator fan is constant. Because of this, any reduction in
fan energy use through improved part-load operation has the added benefit of reducing space
refrigeration load from fan and motor energy. This can be done with fan cycling, two-speed fans, or
with VFDs.
Best Practices:
Fan Cycling Evaporator Fan Control
Computer controls for refrigeration systems
can allow evaporator fans to cycle—that is, turn Evaporator fan VFD control is the most efficient
off and on periodically. The most common option.
strategy is to cycle all evaporator fans off when Use VFD-rated motors or protect existing
the desired space temperature is reached.
Another strategy (used, for example, in motors with filters.
controlled-atmosphere fruit storage) is to Install temperature probes at worst-case
schedule fan cycling; for example, the fans are
locations to ensure uniform temperatures.
on for two hours and off for two hours. Some
systems even use an alternating strategy, where Tailor minimum speeds to the specific
every other evaporator fan operates for a set application.
period of time, and then the remaining fans
operate for the same duration. This is used in Benefits Beyond Energy
some fruit storage with the idea that the scheme
provides diversity in air flow patterns while More stable storage temperatures than with fan
saving energy. cycling.
Another strategy is to cycle fans off a few Lower moisture losses for exposed products.
minutes after shutting off refrigerant flow with Flexibility associated with continuous fan speed
the liquid solenoids. And some systems use a
“swirl” strategy where the evaporator fans adjustment.
operate periodically—say, 5 of every 30 More comfortable working environment when
minutes—to move air around. loads are low (lower air movement and
In some situations, entire coils or zones are quieter).
manually turned off by the system operator.
An example is a refrigerated dock in a food
distribution center, where dock cooling is not
needed for a season. A similar approach is to manually turn off one (or more) of several fans (often
using overloads or by pulling fuses). An example is a fruit storage facility in holding mode.
With any form of fan cycling, savings are maximized by operating as few fans for as little time as is
necessary to maintain the required space temperature. This is usually best accomplished using
computer-control systems that operate evaporator fans strictly as needed.
Two-Speed Fans
Two-speed fans can operate at three conditions—off, half speed, and full speed—and require special
two-speed starters. They offer a level of control between fan cycling and VFD control. At half
speed, fan power obeys the affinity (or cubic) laws and draw about 1/8 the power needed to run at
full speed while still moving about one-half the air.

Computer-control systems can optimize operation to prioritize half-speed operation, particularly
with multiple coils serving a single zone or room. For example, with two evaporators in a room, it
is better to operate both fans at half speed than to turn one off and operate the other at full speed.
In addition, liquid solenoids should be kept on, and suction-pressure regulators at 100% capacity as
long as possible when running fans at half speed, as the evaporators are ideally four times more
efficient (1/2 capacity for 1/8 power) than at full speed. As much heat as possible should be
removed during half-speed operation before switching to full speed.
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Fan Control

VFD control is the most efficient form of evaporator capacity control. With a full range of speed
control, VFDs let you achieve the closest match of delivered capacity to refrigeration load,
compared to fan cycling and two-speed fans. VFD control also minimizes the variations in room
temperature associated with the discrete capacity steps of the other control methods.
The number of VFDs required by a particular
application depends on the number of
evaporator coils and zoning. Where each
evaporator coil is a control zone, each
evaporator has one VFD. Where a single zone
has two or more coils, a single VFD can
manage all fans in the zone. Typical
applications require VFDs of 1–40 hp. Most are
between 5 and 20 hp.
Figure 56 shows a VFD installation in a food
distribution center.
A common misperception is that controlling
evaporator fans with VFDs causes unacceptable
stratification or “warm spots” within a cold-
storage space. Although the temperature
gradient throughout the room does increase
somewhat, it is usually within acceptable Figure 56: VFD installation in a food distribution
tolerances. Temperature probes should be center
placed at the far end of zones to monitor
temperatures and manage VFDs accordingly.
Optimum Evaporator VFD Control and Set Points

Optimal control algorithms and set points are critical to maximize the performance and energy
savings of evaporator fan VFDs. Given the effect of the affinity laws, simultaneous speed control
and minimum speed set points should be carefully implemented.
Minimum Fan Speed Minimum-speed set points can range from 30% to 70%, but are usually
between 40% and 50%. With the affinity law, there is little benefit in operating below 40% speed,
since fan shaft power is only about 8% at that speed.1
In refrigerated warehouses and food distribution centers, minimum-speed set points of 40% are
reasonable. In applications such as controlled-atmosphere fruit storage, or those containing sensitive
products, higher minimum speeds may be desired.
1
Field measurements, which include motor and VFD losses, indicate that the “real-life” affinity-law exponent
is about 2.7 (instead of the theoretical 3.0). That is, fan power= (fraction of speed)2.7.

Maximum Fan Speed Maximum-speed set points of 90% to 95% are typical. At 95% speed, the coil
is providing close to full capacity due to improved effectiveness, but is only drawing 87% power.1
Grouped Control Operating as many evaporators as possible at the same speed within a given
room maximizes energy savings. An example is the common penthouse configuration, where four
coils are located in a back-to-back configuration in a rooftop “room.” Since these coils all see a
common return air temperature, the coils should be operated as one until a particular zone
temperature probe calls for additional speed from a coil.
Rate of Change It is more efficient to change speeds slowly and operate at a midrange speed than
to overcorrect and bounce between minimum and maximum speeds, which essentially mimics two-
speed control.
Swirl Cycle When minimum-speed set points are particularly low, or when temperature gradients
are a concern, a swirl cycle can ramp fans up to full speed temporarily, as discussed under fan
cycling.
Optimal VFD Parameters Particularly with evaporator fans, the internal control parameters of the
VFD can dramatically affect input power. Critical parameters include the type of torque load
(selecting “square” or “variable” is better than “constant” or “linear”) and carrier or switching
frequency. In addition, any energy-saving features such as motor optimization should be enabled.
Finally, VFDs tend to be more efficient with the lowest carrier frequency setting. Since each VFD is
different, experimenting with a three-phase RMS power meter on the input to the VFD will let you
identify the combination of parameters that will minimize power.
Liquid Solenoid and Pressure Regulators Fan speed should be used as the first stage of reducing
coil capacity. The fan should be reduced from full to minimum speed while the liquid solenoid or
pressure regulator calls for full cooling from the coil. When the fan is at minimum speed, then you
can reduce capacity further by reducing refrigerant flow. (It may be tempting or easy to vary fan
speed along with regulator position, but doing so squanders savings since maximum savings comes
from reducing speed while keeping the regulator wide open.)
Proper Evaporator VFD Implementation

Evaporator fans are one of the most challenging applications of VFD technology. Three aspects of
the technology are particularly difficult for a satisfactory implementation:
Multiple motors
Small motors
Long lead lengths
Some of the key design and implementation issues for a successful installation are discussed below.
Multiple / Small Motors A VFD can drive from two to more then thirty motors. In applications
with many small (<1 hp) motors, the total impedance seen by the VFD output circuitry can be
very high.
Harmonics and Input Reactors To limit harmonic feedback into the system and to protect the
input circuitry of the VFD, a 3% input reactor should be considered for all VFDs. Some VFDs offer
built-in reactors or harmonic filters.
Motor Protection with Output dV/dt Filters Because of the square-pulse waveform of the drive
voltage output and the fast switching of VFD transistors, the VFD and the motors it controls
exhibit a reflected-wave phenomena. This reflected wave can have voltage spikes above the rated
capacity of the motor insulation system. The increased potential between motor windings results in
corona that can break down winding insulation. Over time (anywhere from hours to years), the
breakdown will result in a ground fault within the motor. An output reactor or dV/dt filter should
be installed to reduce or eliminate this danger.

Inverter-Rated Motors Standard motors operating on 480 volts have winding insulation rated for
1200 volts. Most motor manufacturers now offer inverter-rated motors that have insulation that
complies with the NEMA MG1-Part 31 standard of 1600 volts. In new installations, you should
specify motors for evaporator coils that meet this standard.
Custom and 56-Frame Motors Some
evaporators use small 56-frame motors from
1/3 to 1.5 hp. These 1200- and 1800-rpm
motors are very frail, and their windings may
fail even with proper dV/dt filtering. In some
cases, a retrofit with inverter-rated
replacements may be required. One
complication is the belly-band design, where
the fan shroud wraps around and cinches down
on the motor body. These motors are often
custom OEM designs. In some cases, these
manufacturers can provide replacements that
comply with NEMA MG1-Part 31.
Figure 57: VFD with input reactor and output dV/dt
Bypass Feature A bypass feature may be filter
necessary where a VFD failure or trip can cause
operating problems. A bypass feature is usually built into the VFD package from the factory, and
allows the motors to run directly across the line when needed.
Figure 57 shows a VFD control for an evaporator fan.
Improving Compressor Part-Load Performance
Introduction
The efficiency of all industrial refrigeration compressors degrades as they operate at a fraction of full
capacity. Figure 58 shows the relationship of power input and part-load fraction for a screw
compressor.
In general, the following
Sample Screw Compressor Part Load
strategies improve the
efficiency of the compressor 100%
system: 90%
80%
1 Limit part-load operation.
70%
2 Use compressors with the 60%

Power
most efficient part-load 50%
performance as trim. 40%
3 Improve part-load 30%
performance of the 20%
trimming screw 10%

Slide Valve
Ideal
compressor. 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Capacity
Also, keep these part-load
characteristics in mind:
Figure 58: Typical part-load power for a constant-speed screw
Reciprocating compressor
compressors with

cylinder unloading have excellent part-load performance characteristics.
Screw compressors have poor part-load performance characteristics, but can be improved with
VFD control.
These criteria can help you configure equipment and select control algorithms to operate your
compressors efficiently.
Best Practices:
Improved Compressor Sequencing Compressor Sequencing
Basic control systems often stage compressors
in a fixed order. Although this method is Use computer control to manage compressor
popular because it is simple, it virtually sequencing.
guarantees that at least one compressor operates The control-system programmer must address
at partial capacity (and therefore inefficiently).
For example, consider a bank of three load variations in a way that avoids excessive
compressors of 100, 200, and 400 hp. Unless the motor starts and stops.
system operator manually selects compressors
Use a mix-and-match compressor sequencing to
or stages the control system, the larger
compressors could run significantly unloaded. best meet the load.
This situation is even worse for systems with Keep base-load compressors fully loaded.
identically sized compressors.
The trim compressor on each suction system
An alternative is to “mix and match” the should be a VFD-driven screw or reciprocating
combination of compressors that operate to
meet the varying load, as shown in Table 9. In compressor.
this strategy, each increment of required
compressor capacity is met as closely as Benefits Beyond Energy
possible with the best combination of available Less compressor run-time means less frequent
compressors. Compressor capacity is added in
100-hp increments—1/7 of the total capacity. maintenance and lower maintenance costs.
The penalty for part-load inefficiencies is
significantly reduced.
Table 9: Mix-and-match compressor staging
Stage Number
Unit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
100 hp z z z z
200 hp z z z z
400 hp z z z z
Screw compressors benefit much more from improved sequencing than reciprocating compressors
which have excellent part-load performance characteristics.
In systems with both screw and reciprocating compressors, a good strategy is to use screw
compressors (operating continually at full capacity) for base loads, and use reciprocating
compressors to meet fluctuating loads as the trim compressor.
System operators often hesitate to have screw compressors (particularly large units) turn on and off
throughout the day. A compressor in disrepair may fail to restart when instructed by a control
system, or there may be anti-recycle issues that limit the effectiveness of the mix-and-match strategy.
Any barriers to implementing this mix-and-match strategy should be addressed.

Reciprocating Compressor Unloaders
Reciprocating compressors use cylinder unloading to control capacity, although some have little or
no unloading capability as delivered from the factory. In these situations, capacity is controlled by
suction pressure which is problematic, and the system may thus operate at a lower average suction
pressure because of these control limitations. Additional cylinder unloaders let you consistently
maintain the highest possible suction pressure. Improving reciprocating compressor unloading can
reduce average lift and thereby reduce energy
consumption.
Best Practices:
Screw Compressor VFD
Screw Compressor VFD Control
As shown in Figure 58, screw compressors Apply one screw compressor VFD per suction
perform poorly at partial loads, and can draw system.
30% to 50% or more power when fully Allow VFD-driven screw compressors to slow to
unloaded. One way to improve the part-load
performance of screw compressors is to 50% speed before unloading slide valves.
upgrade from a standard motor starter to VFD On a suction system with different compressors
control. Figure 59 shows a VFD application.
sizes, consider applying a VFD on the larger
VFDs for screw compressors in industrial compressor. This approach simplifies
refrigeration systems are typically between 100
and 500 hp. Choosing the proper compressor compressor sequencing and minimizes slide
for VFD control in a multicompressor system valve unloading.
is key to optimal economics and smooth
system operation. Benefits Beyond Energy
One additional benefit of VFD control is the VFDs provide the same soft-start capabilities
ability to maintain economizer performance.
and benefits as solid-state motor starters.
Economizers allow screw compressors to
mimic two-stage performance and improve VFDs provide smoother suction pressure control.
efficiency. Unfortunately, economizer
performance degrades and eventually disappears
as a screw compressor unloads. VFD control better maintains the economizer port function.
Optimizing Screw Compressor VFD Control and Set Points

Some important issues for screw compressors under VFD control are:
Proper Speed vs. Slide Operation When using VFD control, capacity is controlled first by
slowing the compressor from 100% (3600 rpm) to 50% (1800 rpm), while the slide valve remains at
100% capacity. At minimum compressor speed, capacity is controlled further by adjusting the slide
valve. Applying VFD control to the previous example yields the improved part-load curve shown
in Figure 60. (This graph shows compressor shaft power. A VFD will impose a 2% to 4% efficiency
penalty due to VFD and motor losses.)
VFD as Trim Compressor It is important to always use the VFD-driven compressor as the
dedicated trim machine, and other compressors for base load.
Selecting a VFD Compressor Selecting a VFD-driven compressor should be based on the relative
sizes of the compressors on a given suction system, and the typical magnitude of refrigeration load
swings. The compressor should be large enough to prevent rapid-cycling of the remaining
compressors and should be capable of handling typical load variations with speed.
Minimum and Maximum Speed In retrofit applications, the compressor manufacturer should be
consulted about minimum and maximum speed capabilities. Overspeeding the compressor can push
the equipment beyond its intended capacities. Underspeeding the motor and compressor can

thermally damage the motor but, more importantly, may damage the compressor because of
insufficient lubrication.
Proper Screw Compressor VFD Implementation

Some important design and installation issues
are summarized below.
Factory Option Most major screw-compressor
manufacturers now offer VFD control as a
factory-provided option. Some manufacturers
are experimenting with increasing maximum
speed and reducing minimum speed for
increased flexibility. A factory-configured VFD
has been optimized for efficiency and
equipment longevity.
Retrofit vs. New Construction VFD control
can be retrofitted to existing compressors, but
is most cost-effective in new construction Figure 59: VFD application to screw compressor
where the additional cost is only the
incremental cost of the VFD control above that of a basic solid-state starter.
Inverter-Rated Motors Due
Sample Screw Compressor Part Load
to the limited speed reduction 100%
(2:1), virtually all existing 90%
ODP (open drip-proof) and
80%
TEFC (totally enclosed fan-
70%
cooled) motors can be used
for VFD control of screw 60%
Power
compressors. To be safe, 50%
contact the motor 40%
manufacturer for written 30%
authorization to operate at 2:1 20% Slide Valve

speed reduction with a 10%
VFD
Ideal
constant-torque load. If the
0%
motor normally operates into 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
the service factor, note that Capacity
motors are often down-rated

from 1.15 to 1.0 service factor Figure 60: Comparison of constant speed and variable speed part load
with VFD control. power
Improving Condenser Part-Load Performance
Introduction
In the simplest configuration, the capacity of evaporative condensers is controlled by using simple
pressure switches or computers to cycle the pumps and fans of this equipment. In most cases,
pumps are turned on before fans. This section discusses ways to improve fan control and control-
system algorithms.
Two-Speed Fans
Manufacturers have offered two-speed fans for condensers for some time. One variation is a half-
speed pony motor driving the same shaft. In either configuration, the fans can be operated at full or

half speed, adding an additional discrete operating point that is highly efficient due to the affinity
laws. Because of the advantages of VFDs, the use of two-speed motors with new condensers is
uncommon and will likely disappear.
VFD Fan Control

VFD control for condenser fans has become very popular. In addition to energy savings, advantages
include improvements in belt wear, pressure control, reduced water drift, and other operational
advantages.
Optimal Condenser VFD Control and Set Points

Some important control issues are summarized
below.
Best Practices:
Minimum Condenser Fan Speed Minimum Condenser Control
fan speed can be set as low as 0% to 10%. Due
to the affinity laws, there is virtually no torque VFD control is the most efficient choice for
load on the motor at these low speeds, and
cooling the motor is not necessary. However, condenser fans.
optimum control of multiple condensers may Avoid dry operation. Operate condensers wet
actually call for minimum speeds of 20% to except in extreme cold weather.
40%.
Avoid pump-only operation.
Maximum Condenser Fan Speed A maximum
condenser fan speed of 90% to 95% provides
Operate condenser fan VFDs simultaneously.
nearly full capacity with a significant reduction Target mid-range VFD speeds for peak system
in power, because of the affinity laws. efficiency, between 30% and 80%.
However, optimum control of multiple
condensers may actually call for maximum Use a wet-bulb approach algorithm.
speeds around 80%. In systems where Stage condensers in order of decreasing
condenser capacity is limited, the maximum efficiency.
speed should be set to 100%.
Stage Condensers in Order of Efficiency Benefits Beyond Energy:
Condensers should be staged so that the highest Condenser Fan VFD
efficiency units (for example, axial-fan units
with integral sump) come on-line first. Using VFDs on condenser fans:
Operate Condensers Wet with Fans Running
Avoid operating a condenser “wet” (that is, Produces more stable condensing pressures and
with pumps running) without running the fans, operating conditions.
because condenser efficiency is poor. Similarly,
Reduces belt wear from fan cycling.
avoid operating a condenser “dry” (that is, with
pumps not running) with the fans running. Runs quietly when at reduced speed.
(For more on dry condenser operation, see Wet
vs. Dry Operation on page 64.)
Simultaneous Control It is best to operate a group of condensers wet and with the fans running in
the highly efficient mid-range speeds. This means operating multiple VFD-driven condensers at the
same speed.
Optimal Control Algorithms—Single Condenser A system with a single condenser should have a
very low minimum fan speed (0% to 10%), and a maximum speed of 90% to 95%. The pump should
be turned on first (before fans) unless frigid weather dictates an alternative strategy.
Optimal Control Algorithms—Multiple Condensers Optimal control algorithms for multiple
condensers will include all of the previous recommendations in a single strategy. Only the first

condenser in the staging sequence will be allowed to operate at very low speeds (for example, 0% to
10%), and only when all condensers are running should the maximum speeds be allowed to rise to
100%. At all intermediate stages of capacity, the condenser fans will operate between about 30% and
80% of full speed. In addition, as each condenser comes online, its fans and pumps will be running.
These strategies ensure that condensers only operate wet, and in their most efficient speed range.
Wet-Bulb Approach Algorithm Instead of using a simple target condensing pressure, use an
integrated wet-bulb approach algorithm to prevent “overcondensing,” that is drawing much more
condenser capacity than is needed to reject heat. (An example would be a processing facility that
drops to one compressor on the weekend, but has a large assembly of condensers trying to drive
condensing pressure down). A wet-bulb approach algorithm adds a user-input approach value
(typically 12 to 15°F) to the ambient wet-bulb temperature, and converts this to a target condensing
pressure.
Proper Ambient Probe Locations If you use a wet-bulb approach algorithm, the placement of
ambient dry-bulb and wet-bulb (or humidity) sensors is critical. Placing a temperature sensor where
it receives direct solar radiation, or a humidity sensor near a process exhaust steam outlet, produces
false readings and will result in improper control operation. Periodically calibrating the probes and
cross-checking with local weather stations are also important for the same reason.
Optimal VFD Parameters The internal parameters of the VFD can dramatically affect input
power. (See Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Fan Control on page 57.)
Proper Condenser VFD Implementation

Some important design and installation issues are summarized below.
Fan Resonant Frequencies Consult the condenser manufacturer to ensure that there are no
resonant frequencies in operating speed between 0% and 100% of speed. If there are, be sure to lock
the resonant speed ranges out of the VFD (this is a standard VFD feature).
Bypass Feature In systems with only one or two condensers, a bypass feature is a good backup
strategy. In systems with many condensers, a bypass feature is less critical because a VFD failure
will have less of an effect.
Grouping Fans On condensers with multiple fan motors, it may be more cost-effective to control
two or more motors with a single VFD. The specific grouping arrangement will depend on the
number of condensers and complications associated with retrofit wiring.
Harmonics and Input Reactors Input reactors help limit harmonic feedback into the system and
protect the input circuitry of the VFD. (See Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Fan Control on
page 57.)
Motor Protection with Output dV/dt Filters An output reactor or dV/dt filter should be installed
to limit or eliminate the possibility of damaging motor insulation. (See Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD) Fan Control on page 57.)
Inverter-Rated Motors In new installations, use condensers that meet the NEMA MG1 Part-31
standard. (See Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Fan Control on page 57.)
Wet vs. Dry Operation

Because condensers are very inefficient when operated dry (fans only), avoid any manual or
automatic control strategy that causes dry operation except when required to protect against ice
damage.
Ice can damage fan blades, fan shrouds, or other components of a condenser. In climates susceptible
to frigid conditions, frost can accumulate on those components and on the inlet grates of forced-

draft units. Because this ice must be removed manually, condenser pumps are, in most cases, retired
during the winter.
With computer control, ambient-temperature sensors can be used to turn off pumps in frigid
conditions, usually from 20°F to 28°F. This would minimize dry operation.
One rarely used feature of condenser-fan VFDs is the ability to operate fans in reverse. You can use
this strategy with units that accumulate frost on the inlet grates. The VFDs can be gently operated
in reverse to melt or sublimate frost from the grates, using heat from the condenser tube bundle.
However, operating a fan in reverse at high speed for extended periods can damage the fan; consult
the manufacturer before doing so.
Best Practices:
Upgrading Equipment Evaporator Selection
Oversize evaporator coils by adding surface

Introduction area rather than higher fan power.
Major refrigeration components, including Choose flooded or liquid recirculation controls
evaporator coils, compressors, and condensers,
can all be ordered or retrofitted with features
over direct expansion evaporators.
or options that improve efficiency. This section
discusses the available options that improve Benefits Beyond Energy
efficiency independent of operating conditions Oversized evaporators minimize moisture loss
or part-load considerations. Note that system-
for exposed food products.
equipment considerations are also important in
achieving energy efficiency. We discuss those in
Improving System Design on page 72.
Evaporator Coil Efficiency
High-Efficiency Coil Selection

Although refrigeration capacity is the primary consideration when choosing an evaporator coil,
many coil options affect coil efficiency. Design parameters such as the number of rows, the number
of fins per inch, air velocity, and others can all affect the fan power load. Ultimately, the goal is to
select a coil with a high TR/BHP (tons of refrigeration per horsepower) rating.
In general, fan power is proportional to the product of total air flow volume (cfm) and air pressure
drop (in. H2O). Since air flow and velocity depend on the surface area of the evaporator coil, more
surface area often reduces fan power requirements (and sometimes increases suction pressure as
discussed earlier). The tradeoff for lower air velocity is increased coil cost.
Most evaporator manufacturers provide coil-selection software that generates a list of coils that meet
user-defined criteria. The data in Table 10 was generated by such a program when asked to list coils
with a capacity of about 50 TR at 10°F temperature difference.
Plotting this data (Figure 61) reveals the relationship between fan power and air velocity.
In general, coils designed for higher air velocity are less efficient, but also less expensive. Since coil
design affects other installation costs (for example, weight, electrical, etc.), you should also take
these attributes into account when assessing the life-cycle cost of a coil selection.

Table 10: List of coils with a capacity of about 50 TR at 10°F temperature difference
Surface Air
Capacity Fan Total Efficiency
Option area Velocity
(TR) Configuration BHP (TR/BHP)
(sq ft) (fpm)
#1 52.3 15,627 595 4 × 2 hp 8 6.54
#2 48.7 11,313 647 4 × 2 hp 8 6.09
#3 49.8 14,650 615 4 × 2 hp 8 6.23
#4 49.5 12,503 632 4 × 2 hp 8 6.19
#5 51.1 12,067 625 4 × 2 hp 8 6.39
#6 47.5 11,722 655 4 × 2 hp 8 5.94
#7 47.6 15,627 595 4 × 2 hp 8 5.95
#8 51.5 11,722 733 5 × 2 hp 10 5.15
#9 52.8 11,313 725 5 × 2 hp 10 5.28
#10 54.3 14,650 682 5 × 2 hp 10 5.43
Refrigerant Feed
Liquid overfeed or flooded
evaporators are more efficient
than direct expansion (DX)
evaporators. There are three
reasons to avoid DX coils.
First, DX coils are derated
since some of the coil surface
area is not internally wetted.
Second, DX coils can limit the
reduction of condensing
pressure. Third, evaporator
fan VFDs are difficult to
implement on DX coils.
Figure 61: Graph of coil efficiency versus face velocity
Efficient Fan Blades
Some evaporator coils, particularly those with
small (less than 1 hp) fans, may have stamped-
steel fan blades of an older, inefficient design.
Modern alternatives provide the same fan
performance (in terms of air flow and pressure)
but require less shaft power.
In Figure 62, the fan blade on the right is the
original four-blade version provided with the
coil. The fan blade on the left performs nearly
identically, but uses about 1/3 less shaft power.
(In this example, the fan blade was teamed with
a premium-efficiency motor and VFD control Figure 62: Newer efficient fan-blade design (left)
for a package upgrade.) Purchased in bulk, the and older less efficient design (right)
new fans cost about $10 to $15 each. (It is

important to get a fan-performance curve for the existing fan blade. If none is available, a testing lab
can generate one.)
Penthouse Applications
Locating evaporator coils in a penthouse (Figure 8, page 14) offers many advantages, including
simplified maintenance. However, a penthouse design can be energy intensive for several reasons,
including:
Additional nozzles or ductwork increases pressure drop and fan power.
The coils are centrally-located, requiring additional air flow and velocity for proper air
movement.
The coils may discharge air perpendicular to aisles, requiring higher air velocity for air
movement.
For these reasons, you should evaluate penthouse designs by comparing them to ceiling-hung
evaporators based upon all quantifiable life-cycle costs. If you implement a penthouse design, use
fan-control strategies (for example, VFD control, simultaneous speed control) to minimize energy
use.
Evaporator Fin Design

Choose coils with a fin spacing of four fins per inch (fpi) or less with evaporator coils that frost.
This will reduce the number of defrosts required. Consider a variable-fin-spacing design where fin
spacing is wider at the air inlet to the evaporator coil and narrower at the middle and back of the
evaporator coil.
Best Practices:
Compressor Efficiency Screw Compressor Options
Thermosiphon oil cooling is the most efficient

Efficient Compressors
cooling option.
One common misconception is that one type
Specify automatically variable VI for
of compressor (for example, reciprocating
versus screw) is inherently more efficient than applications where suction or discharge
others. This is simply not true. Given the same pressures will vary.
suction and discharge conditions, the full-load
performance of reciprocating, rotary-screw, and Benefits Beyond Energy
rotary-vane compressors are very similar.
Rather, it is the options available for screw Thermosiphon oil cooling:
compressors that affect their full-load
efficiency. These primary options are cooling,
volume ratio, and economizer. Lowers compressor maintenance costs compared
to liquid injection cooling.
Screw Compressor Cooling Does not require cooling circulation pumps like
The lowest-cost form of screw-compressor water- or glycol-cooled compressors.

cooling is simple liquid injection. Compressor Sometimes produces a small increase in
oil is cooled by injecting high-pressure liquid
compressor capacity.
refrigerant directly into the midpoint of the
rotors during compression. Not only does this
inflict power and capacity penalties, but liquid
injection can impose an artificial limit on minimum condensing pressure.

Thermosiphon and other external (for example, water or glycol) cooling not only eliminate the
efficiency penalty and the artificial limit on minimum discharge pressure, but in booster compressor
applications they allow all rejected booster-oil heat to bypass the high-stage compressors and go
directly to the condensers. This reduces refrigeration load on the high-stage compressors, increasing
energy savings.
The emerging use of direct cooling of oil by liquid ammonia in the separator offers the same
improvement in power and capacity ratings, but not the booster-heat benefit.
Screw Compressor Volume Ratio

All screw compressors are characterized by internal volume ratios, or VI. In a fixed-VI application,
selecting the proper VI is critical to maximize efficiency. In some cases, an automatic VI adjustment
feature constantly matches VI to the external pressures seen by the compressor.
Table 11 shows compressor capacity and power ratings at a condensing temperature of 85°F and
various suction temperatures for ammonia.
The VI with the highest
BHP/TR vs Pressure Ratio
efficiency at each pressure
ratio is highlighted. Figure 63 2.6
shows the relationship 2.4
between efficiency and overall 2.2
pressure ratio. 2.0
1.8
This figure shows that, for
BHP/TR
pressure ratios from about 4 1.6
to 6, different values of VI 1.4
have little effect on efficiency. 1.2 2.2 VI

2.6 VI
But outside that range, the 1.0 3.7 VI
4.8 VI
wrong VI can significantly 0.8 Var. VI
reduce efficiency. In 0.6

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
applications where the
Pressure Ratio (Discharge/Suction)
pressure ratio is steady (for
example, a booster), a pro-
Figure 63: Graph of efficiency versus pressure ratio
perly selected fixed-VI com-
pressor is fine. However, in applications where pressure ratio can vary significantly, such as a high-
suction application with floating condensing pressure, a variable-VI feature can be a valuable option.
Table 11: Compressor capacity and power ratings at a condensing temperature of 85°F and various suction
temperatures for ammonia
Brake Horsepower (BHP) BHP/TR

Suction Pressure Tons of
Volume Ratio Volume Ratio
(°F) Ratio Refrigeration
2.2 2.6 3.7 4.8 2.2 2.6 3.7 4.8
-28 11.2 94.4 309.8 280.8 243.4 231.1 3.28 2.97 2.58 2.45
-10 7.0 155.3 314.2 291.5 267.9 266.1 2.02 1.88 1.73 1.71
0 5.4 199.7 314.2 296.7 284.5 291.7 1.57 1.49 1.42 1.46
10 4.3 253.2 313.0 301.8 304.0 322.7 1.24 1.19 1.20 1.27
20 3.4 317.1 310.5 307.5 327.0 359.8 0.98 0.97 1.03 1.13
30 2.8 392.6 306.8 312.8 353.9 403.8 0.78 0.80 0.90 1.03
40 2.3 481.4 301.9 319.0 385.4 455.6 0.63 0.66 0.80 0.95

Screw Economizers
Screw compressors used in applications with low suction pressure can benefit dramatically from an
economizer or “side port” feature. In the simplest of economizer configurations, liquid refrigerant
leaving the condenser is subcooled in a flash or shell-and-coil economizer. The purpose is to send
colder liquid refrigerant to the evaporator coils, increasing overall system capacity.
You can think of an economizer as a “poor man’s” two-stage system (see Multistage Compression
on page 72).
Best Practices:
Condenser Efficiency Efficient Condenser Selection
Choose a condenser with a high nominal

High-Efficiency Condenser
efficiency (MBH per fan hp).
Selection
Induced draft (draw-through) axial-fan
Evaporative condensers are usually selected
after the heat-rejection capacity at design
condensers are more efficient.
conditions has been determined. There are Specify rotating, self-cleaning condenser spray
many condenser designs to choose from, nozzles.
including forced-draft, induced-draft, axial-fan,
and centrifugal-fan.
All evaporative condensers are rated relative to nominal conditions. Plotting the efficiency of
several condensers at these nominal conditions can help you identify high-efficiency units. Figure 64
is an example of such a graph.
The vertical lines in this chart represent points of nominal heat-rejection capacity where the surface
area of the tube bundle (or ammonia volume) increases. Within each band, surface area remains
almost constant, and higher capacities (at the right end of the band) are achieved by higher air flow.
This chart shows that condenser efficiency is highest at the left side of each band, where heat
transfer is dominated by surface area rather than high air flow. As you move left-to-right within
each band, capacity is increased by increasing air flow, and the condenser efficiency steadily drops.
The lowest efficiencies occur at the maximum air flow for a given tube bundle size.
It also helps to plot, on a
Sample Condenser Series Efficiency
single graph, the condenser
efficiencies of a variety of 400
basic designs from a single 350
manufacturer. Figure 65
MBH per Fan/Pump HP
300
shows an example of such a
graph that compares forced- 250
and induced-draft designs, as 200
well as axial- and centrifugal-

150
fan designs.
Ammonia Charge
100
In general, centrifugal-fan
condensers are least efficient. 50
The forced and induced axial- 0
fan units are both more 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
Nominal Heat Rejection (MBH)

efficient, but the induced-draft
design is slightly more
Figure 64: Variation of condenser efficiency within frame sizes
efficient than the forced-draft
design.

The following rules will help you select high-efficiency condensers:
Axial fans are more efficient than centrifugal fans.
Induced-draft designs are slightly more efficient than forced-draft designs.
A tube bundle of a given surface area is more efficient with a low air-flow rate than a high air-
flow rate.
When low-efficiency condensers are installed, the reason is usually that they cost less. The
condenser cost (in $/MBH) is the lowest at the greatest capacity for a given tube bundle size range
(that is, at the right end of the bands on the graph). Increased air flow is a relatively low-cost
method of adding capacity, albeit at the expense of efficiency.
It is important to compare condenser models or manufacturers at the same wet-bulb and condensing
temperatures. Some manufacturers use different nominal conditions, making direct comparison
difficult.
Evaporative Condenser Efficiency Comparison

Integral versus Remote
Sump Design
400
350
Condensers can be installed

MBH per Fan/Pump HP
300
with either integral (built-in)
sump pumps, or they can be 250
piped to a large remote sump 200
tank, often located in the 150

engine room. Integral sumps
100
are the most efficient design, Forced Draft - Axial
because pump head and the 50 Induced Draft - Axial
Forced Draft - Centrifugal
associated power are 0
minimized. - 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
Nominal Heat Rejection (MBH)

Remote sumps are popular for
water treatment, freeze
Figure 65: Comparison of the efficiencies of various condenser types
protection, and pump backup.
Unfortunately, pump head in remote sumps is commonly doubled or tripled, and requires a
proportional increase in pump size. In addition, these pumps are often selected with excess flow
capability, and a discharge butterfly valve is frequently throttled to maintain the target 2–4 psig of
water pressure at the spray header, further
reducing efficiency.
Best Practices:
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to convince a Condenser Application
refrigeration designer or operator that integral
sumps are worth the inconvenience, Avoid creating a warm humid “micro-climate”
particularly for water treatment or freeze
protection. Creative solutions such as hybrid near condensers (confined spaces, inadequate
integral/remote sump design can often be spacing, and proximity to steam or humid
implemented. Also, using computer control to exhaust sources).
automatically operate condensers dry during
freezing weather can help. Use integral sumps instead of remote sumps in
temperate climates.
Improved Spray Nozzles Install an automatic non-condensable gas
Traditionally, evaporative condensers have purger for systems that operate under vacuum.
relied on very simple spray nozzle designs. Use modern high-performance spray nozzles.
These metal or plastic nozzles were equipped
with a small hole for water spray, and would

clog easily. This would cause poor water distribution, dry tubes, and poor condenser performance
and efficiency. These nozzles required manual cleaning, which is a time-consuming and often-
neglected task.
Recently, condenser manufacturers have begun offering innovative spray nozzle designs (Figure 66)
that offer both better water distribution and immunity to clogging.
Unlike standard stationary nozzles, the modern designs spin, providing better water distribution
(often in a square pattern). In addition, the new nozzles are spring-loaded, allowing debris to push
through the nozzle and preventing clogging. These new nozzles are available on new condensers,
and can also be retrofitted to older condensers.
Premium-Efficiency Motors
All major pieces of refrigeration equipment can be ordered with
premium-efficiency motors. Most evaporator and condenser
manufacturers offer two or three brands of motors, each
available with a premium-efficiency line. You can ask
manufacturers about their current products, and select the motor
with the highest efficiency.
Compressors are treated somewhat differently. Most motor
manufacturers offer a premium-efficiency series through the Courtesy of Frick
largest NEMA frame size (400 to 450 hp). Anything above this
Figure 66: High-performance
size is considered custom and often built to order. Premium- spray nozzles
efficiency motors cost more, so you should specify them with
care; the energy savings from the increased efficiency may not outweigh the higher initial
equipment cost.
Many motor manufacturers offer their Motor Efficiencies - 1800 rpm
premium line as their recommended inverter- 100
duty line. For many applications, the 98
96
designation of “NEMA Premium” indicates a 94
motor meeting a certain efficiency standard.

Efficiency (%)
92
Most motors achieve their improved efficiency 90
through a higher loaded rpm. In some fan and 88
pump applications this may slightly increase

86
84
energy use because of the affinity law. 82
ODP-Highest Available
ODP-EPACT
80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Motor Sizing
Power (hp)
It is important that a screw compressor motor Figure 67: Motor efficiencies – 1800 rpm
be adequately sized to prevent current-limiting.
Current-limiting occurs when a motor exceeds its full-load amps (FLA) rating, and operates into the
service factor. Virtually all modern screw compressors use forced unloading to protect the motor
from overheating. A compressor that is current-limiting is inefficient (since it is unloaded), and may
cause another compressor to start to satisfy the load. You should carefully assess both maximum
discharge pressure and suction pressure to prevent current-limiting.

Improving System Design
Introduction
In addition to selecting individual refrigeration system components, you need to consider the
overall system design. Multistaging, subcooling, heat recovery, defrost, and gas pressure pumping
are design elements that play a prominent role in achieving energy efficiency.
In this section, though we do not address the details of system design, we do address some common
high-level issues. Two topics already covered in this chapter—reduced lift and improved part-load
performance—are important system-design
considerations.
Best Practices:
System Design
Multistage Compression
Install a two-stage system for low temperature
Compression is more efficient if done in stages.
The more stages, the better, particularly for loads.
low-temperature or multiple-temperature Avoid aggregating loads with dissimilar
systems. In low-temperature industrial
refrigeration applications, this nearly always
temperatures on the same suction system.
means two-stage compression. For ammonia Subcool the liquid for all low temperature loads.
systems, two-stage compression is typically Avoid system constraints on condensing
considered when operating in a vacuum, below
0 psig (-28°F). The efficiency improvement of pressure imposed by gas pressure recirculation
two-stage operation increases with overall systems.
system lift, and is particularly effective in deep
suctions of -50 to -60°F (20" vacuum).
Figure 68 shows the thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression.
Energy savings occurs on both sides of the process. The use of an intercooler between stages reduces
the energy consumption of the high-stage compressor. Also, subcooling the liquid refrigerant
between stages of expansion increases system capacity, as colder liquid refrigerant is expanded to
serve low-temperature loads.
Two-stage systems are popular when multiple
suction levels are required for a processing or
storage facility. For example, a warehouse may
have coolers on an intermediate suction, and a
freezer on a low suction. Food processing
facilities with multiple production and storage
requirements may have three, four, or even five
suction levels, such as an ice cream factory with
loads served at -65°F, -45°F, -35°F, +5°F, and
+35°F. In this example, the -65°F, -45°F, and
-35°F systems would be served by “booster”
compressors discharging to the +5°F system.
The +5°F suction would be served by “high-
stage” compressors, and the +35°F system Figure 68: Thermodynamic process associated with
would be served by dedicated single-stage two-stage compression
compressors. This arrangement is shown in
Figure 69.

Compared to single-stage systems, multistage systems are more
complex and expensive. Additional vessels, controls, and engine
room space, and more compressors may be associated with a
two-stage system.
In many applications, a screw compressor with an economizer
can substitute for a two-stage system. This is a good compromise
in systems where suction pressure is not too low, and the
number of suction levels is limited.
In deciding between a single-stage system (with or without an
economizer) and a multistage systems, you should weigh long-
term energy savings against the increased initial cost.
Some screw compressor packages are provided with two
compressors on a single oil separator. In some cases, one
compressor is a booster and one a high-stage, with the booster
discharging directly into the high-stage with no intercooling.
Avoid this design because the lack of intercooling reduces
efficiency.
Liquid Subcooling
Liquid subcooling is a process of cooling liquid refrigerant below
the saturated condensing temperature for the purposes of Figure 69: Two-stage system
increased capacity and efficiency. Whenever multistaging or with multiple temperature levels
economizers are applied, subcooled liquid is available. Serving
loads with subcooled liquid increases efficiency by reducing the total amount of refrigerant that
must be supplied and compressed from evaporator loads. Hence, additional stages of subcooling,
and using subcooled liquid whenever possible are two methods of increasing efficiency.
In the previous example of five suction levels, the +35°F system could serve liquid to the +5°F
system. The +5°F system could then serve the -65°F, -45°F, and -35°F systems. These lowest
suctions would benefit from two stages of subcooling, substantially increasing efficiency.
In applications with single-stage economized screw compressors, the economizer port on an
unloaded screw compressor will become inactive as the compressor unloads (for example, at 70%
capacity). Unless there are other operating economized compressors or a stand-alone subcooling
system, efficiency will suffer due to diminished or eliminated liquid subcooling.
Gas-Pressure Recirculation Systems

A gas-pressure recirculation system design relies on gas pressure rather than mechanical pumps to
move liquid ammonia through the system. The systems are often referred to as “pumper drum”
designs, and are characterized by components such as controlled-pressure receivers, liquid transfer
units, floats and timers, and other unique features.2
There are many arguments for and against these systems. Intuitively, moving cold liquid refrigerant
by pushing it around with hot compressor discharge gas would seem to be inefficient. In addition,
the systems require sensitive balancing, timer setup, and other tuning to operate properly.
However, proponents argue that a gas-pressure system that is properly designed and tuned can be as
or more efficient than a standard recirculation system. Unfortunately, thermodynamic analysis of
these systems is complex. We present three positions on pumper drum design.
2
Detailed explanations of these systems are beyond the scope of this guide.

Proper Design of Pumper Drum Systems
If you intend to install a pumper drum system, make sure it is efficient. Many published technical
papers address the efficient design of liquid transfer units and other components. However, one of
the most frequent inefficiencies encountered is the need for high minimum condensing pressures.
These systems rely on a controlled-pressure receiver (CPR) in lieu of a standard high-pressure
receiver. Unfortunately, systems are often designed and installed with CPRs set for 80, 90, or even
100 psig pressures. This increases the required minimum condensing pressure, compromising system
efficiency. Designing for CPR pressure of 65 to 75 psig will prevent barriers to reduced condensing
pressure, and reduces the hot gas required to pump liquid return from accumulators to the CPR.
Proper Control and Operation of Pumper Drum Systems

Pumper drum systems are typically recirculated or overfeed designs. These systems typically
operate evaporator coils at a 3:1 or 4:1 overfeed rate. In standard mechanically pumped systems,
excess overfeed rates affect efficiency minimally. However, in a pumper drum system, efficiency
drops rapidly as overfeed rates climb, either as the result of diminishing loads or improperly
adjusted hand expansion valves. Excessive overfeed rates cause unnecessary transfer cycles and poor
overall efficiency. It is important to tune these systems frequently to ensure optimum overfeed
rates.
Conversion to Standard Liquid Circulation

In some cases, it is cost-effective to convert a pumper drum design to standard liquid circulation
using a mechanical pump. Doing so can increase energy savings and reduce system complexity and
maintenance.
Best Practices:
Hot-Gas Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost
In the Reducing Lift section of this chapter
Only defrost when needed.
(page 46), we addressed the importance of
avoiding high condensing pressures for defrost. Only defrost for as long as needed.
Four other basic tenets apply to energy- Return hot gas defrost to the highest available
efficient defrost:
suction system.
1 Use free sources of heat for defrost (hot gas
or water). Avoid any form of electric Benefits Beyond Energy
resistance heating.
Reduces system loads, which frees compressor
2 Only defrost when needed.
capacity and reduces compressor run time.
3 Only defrost for as long as needed. Results in more stable operation.
4 Return hot gas defrost to the highest
available suction system.
Water defrost has relatively little effect on system efficiency. Since the evaporator coils are heated
during every defrost, minimizing the frequency of defrosts will maximize efficiency.
On the other hand, hot-gas defrost can have a significant effect on system efficiency. Ideally, all hot
gas entering the evaporator coil would condense and return to the engine room as liquid to be used
in the refrigeration cycle. In practice, hot gas passes through the coil and defrost pressure regulator
toward the end of the defrost cycle, returning to a compressor suction line. This gas must be
recompressed in the engine room, often placing a significant load on the compressors. Obviously,
using computer controls to minimize the frequency and duration of defrost will save energy.

One important design issue is the defrost return piping. Defrost gas should be returned to the
system with the highest available suction. This is often possible in multistage systems where piping
for multiple suctions are available for defrost return. This will minimize the energy consumption of
any compressor that receives gas returning from the defrost system.
Heat Recovery
Heat recovery, particularly for food processing facilities, is popular. Many systems use hot
compressor discharge gas for underfloor heating (using glycol), boiler makeup water, or plant
cleanup water. The greatest opportunity to recover heat is through a desuperheater, where water
can be heated as high as 100 to 120°F in a circulating loop. Unfortunately, about 10% or less of total
compressor heat rejection is superheat, so the total heat (Btus) available for recovery is limited.
If a condensing heat exchanger is installed, water temperature is limited to the condensing
temperature which, at 90 psig for ammonia, is only 58°F. Although most of the total rejected
compressor heat is released in condensing, the quality of the heat recovery is limited by saturated
condensing temperature. In this case, the water could not be heated higher than the 58°F
temperature of the condensing ammonia.
The economics of heat recovery often depend on the relative costs of electricity and natural gas or
other fossil fuels. In some situations, it may be cost-effective to operate at elevated discharge
pressure to increase heat recovery. In most cases, however, the energy cost savings from reduced
condensing pressure outweighs the savings afforded by increasing heat recovery. In addition, any
analysis should include the effect on compressor energy of the pressure drop on the ammonia side
of the heat exchanger.
In some multicompressor applications, one or more compressors can be operated at increased
discharge pressure to act as heat pumps. An example would be a large vegetable processor that uses
steam or other sources to heat defrost water. In this case, heat recovery from the refrigeration
system may be cost-effective, because compressor heat pumps can produce water temperatures up to
85 or 90°F.
Best Practices:
Purgers Non-condensable Purger
Refrigeration systems operating with a suction
Install an automatic purger for systems that
pressure below atmospheric pressure inevitably
pull air into the system. The air ultimately ends operate in a vacuum some or all of the time.
up in the condenser, where, as an ideal gas, it As a non-condensable gas check, the computer-
drives up condensing pressure (due to partial
pressures of the mixed air and ammonia vapor)
control system should monitor the temperature
and therefore decreases efficiency. One way to of the high-pressure liquid ammonia draining
gauge the effect of air in the system is to from the condenser.
measure the pressure within the condenser, and
measure the liquid temperature leaving the Benefits Beyond Energy: Effective
condenser. With no air in the system, the Non-condensable Gas Purge
condensing temperature and liquid temperature
should be the same. An increasing difference Effective purging helps avoid overloading or
between these two values indicates the buildup current-limiting the compressor motors, which
of air in the system.
can reduce production or product quality.
The effect of air in the system is increased
condensing pressure during summer months,
and possibly increased condenser fan and pump energy during winter months.
Automatic purgers can be installed to remove air from the system. Even if the air adds only a few
pounds to condensing pressure, the entire compressor system discharging to the condenser is

penalized. Purgers are almost always a good investment in systems that operate at vacuum suction
pressures.
Purger piping (and condenser piping) are essential for proper purger operation. Foul-gas piping is
the term for piping that runs from the condenser circuits to the purger. Each condenser circuit
should have a separate foul-gas line. The foul-gas piping should have no low points that can trap
liquid condensate.
Even positive-pressure systems can benefit from manual or automatic purging. Although the system
does not operate in a vacuum, air can enter the
system during maintenance.
Best Practices:
Reducing Loads
Reducing Refrigeration Loads Benefits Beyond Energy
Allows smaller components and less expensive
Introduction refrigeration systems.
Although an efficient refrigeration system is Reduces equipment run-time and maintenance
important, reducing refrigeration loads is expense.
equally important. On new construction
projects, reduced loads can result not only in
energy savings, but in reduced installation cost (such as smaller or fewer compressors). This section
discusses ways to reduce refrigeration load.
Best Practices:
Building Upgrades Fast-Acting Doors
Use fast-acting doors with floor loops or motion

Insulation
sensors.
Increasing the insulation levels in the roof,
Select doors with little or no supplemental heat.
walls, floors, piping, and vessels saves energy by
reducing heat flow into the refrigerated space Select doors that are robust and protect them
or refrigerant piping. Increasing insulation is from damage.
possible in both new construction and retrofits,
but is usually more cost-effective in new Encourage traffic patterns that avoid false door
construction where the installation cost openings.
includes only the incremental cost of higher
insulation compared to a less efficient Benefits Beyond Energy
alternative. (In some cases, such as roof
insulation, there may be costs associated with Properly managing doors and openings will:
additional structural capacity to account for
additional weight.) In retrofits, on the other
Increase employee safety.
hand, installation costs include the full cost of
all-new insulation and the costs of removing Reduce defrost requirements and frost buildup.
and disposing of the old insulation. Create more consistent temperatures on both
sides of the door.
Doors
For coolers and freezers, air infiltration
through main doorways can be a significant source of heat gain. These doors are often 8 to 10 feet
wide, and 10 to 12 feet high. In worst cases, a manual door is the only barrier, and is left open
during periods of heavy traffic. A strip curtain (Figure 70, left) or air curtain is often used in this
situation, but strip curtains often fail or are purposefully trimmed by the staff to minimize the
bother of moving through the doorway. Air curtains only reduce infiltration modestly, but are
bothersome due to noise and the velocity of air blown on personnel.

Fast-acting doors can be effective in reducing infiltration. Among the available door designs are bi-
parting doors, roll-up doors, and horizontal sliding doors. These doors open in only a few seconds
or less, and ideally are controlled by magnetic sensing loops in the floor, optical motion detectors or
remotely controller by forklift operators. In some applications, a simple pull-cord is used to open
and close the door. Unfortunately, pull-cord systems without a closure timer allow a door to be left
open out of laziness, convenience, or indifference about energy. Fast-folding doors typically cost
$10,000 to $15,000 to install.
Figure 70: Strip curtain (left), fast-folding door (center), and vestibule-style door (right) for infiltration
control
Fast-acting doors used in

freezer applications are often
equipped with heating to
prevent frost accumulation
and ensure clear sight through
door windows. One design
places radiant heaters, from
3 kW to 20 kW or more, at
the top of the doorway.3
Other designs use electric
heating elements and fans to
blow warm air on the
doorway. Other designs use
heat tape or heater strips on
or in the door. In many
existing facilities, the energy
use of those heating elements
is greater than the infiltration
Figure 71: Infra-red door heaters for frost control
load eliminated by the door
itself, and a retrofit to a more effective door can be justified based simply on eliminating the heater
loads. Several manufacturers now offer innovative bi-parting door designs that require minimal
heating.
Another type of doorway is the engineered vestibule, with multiple air curtains, electric- or
refrigerant-heated blowers, and no physical barrier. These systems are quite expensive, ranging from
3
These heaters use more energy than is wasted from infiltration through a fully open doorway.

$30,000 to $100,000 or more. They are popular because they allow a clear line of sight through the
doorway. Unfortunately, some of these vestibules are installed with very high amounts of electric
resistance (up to 60 kW), or they use compressor discharge gas at high minimum pressures to heat
the air. You can avoid these drawbacks with careful design and equipment selection, but a careful
assessment of the life-cycle economics is well advised.
Following these guidelines when considering energy-efficient door options:
For fast-acting door applications, install motion or loop sensor activators.
Avoid all door designs that require excessive electric-resistance heating.
Avoid door designs that require high-pressure (>90 psig) ammonia gas for heating, particularly
in the engineered vestibule design.
Protect the door hardware with “goal post” structures or bollards and select doors that can
withstand forklift impact without incurring permanent damage. A damaged door is generally
an inefficient door.
Encourage traffic patterns that avoid false
door openings.
Best Practices:
Warehouse Lighting
Lighting
Using efficient lighting in refrigerated spaces Minimize connected lighting load.
reduces the refrigeration load. Most existing Select efficient fixtures that focus foot-candles
refrigerated warehouses and distribution where employees need to see.
centers use metal halide or high-pressure
sodium fixtures. There are now aisle-style Use efficient fluorescent, pulse start metal
fixtures that put out a narrow rectangular light halide, or high pressure sodium
pattern, allowing fixture spacing to be
Install occupancy controls for automatic
increased. By selecting high-efficiency fixtures
and modern pulse-start metal halide ballasts, dimming or on/off control.
you can reduce total connected load. Use time clocks on lighting circuits in areas
In addition, both metal halide and high- with consistent schedules.
pressure sodium can be equipped with bi-level
controls that allow the fixture to immediately Benefits Beyond Energy
transition to and from a low-level light output
and power condition. Motion detectors are Fluorescent and pulse-start metal halide
installed in one or more zones within an aisle, provide good color rendering and better lamp
or each fixture can have its own motion lumen maintenance.
detector. Time clocks are another option that
can be effective in areas with consistent Efficient lighting improves safety and labor
schedules. efficiency.
Increasingly, modern fluorescent lighting
systems are being considered for refrigerated
warehouse applications. Both T8 and the emerging T5 lamps have high color-rendering qualities.
They can be applied at cooler (32°F) and freezer (0°F) temperatures provided they are integrated
into enclosed fixtures. Fixture heaters may be required in freezer applications. Often, one of the
lamps within a fixture is left on for safety, and the rest can be turned off with motion detectors.
In warehouses that still have incandescent or mercury vapor lighting, switching to a more efficient
alternative is very often cost-effective.

Process Upgrades
Clearly, any system improvement that reduces process refrigeration loads will be beneficial. The
following are some commonly encountered scenarios in food processing.
Cooling Towers, Ambient Coolers, and Regeneration

In food processing applications, a portion of product heat can often be removed with non-
refrigerated means to reduce refrigeration load. One example is to cool fluids such as milk or juice
indirectly with cooling tower water, which reduces the load on the chilled water or glycol system.
Another example is using ambient air to cool products like potatoes before freezing. Finally, a
regenerative process, such as using hot milk as it leaves a pasteurizer to heat entering cold milk, can
reduce refrigeration (and often heating) loads. In each application, you should assess the cost-
effectiveness of installing or expanding the
alternative cooling system.
Best Practices:
Multistage Cooling
Transfer Loads to Higher Suctions
Though it doesn’t actually reduce the Remove heat from products in stages, using
refrigeration load, you can cool or freeze a higher suction pressure systems first, and lower
product in stages with multiple suction suction systems for final heat removal.
systems. Consider cooling a product in scraped-
surface heat exchangers (such as vegetable puree
in a Contherm or Votator) before freezing. The
heat exchangers often operate at a higher suction pressure than a freezer. Removing additional heat
in the heat exchangers will ultimately reduce loads on the more costly freezer suction, saving
energy. Again, you should assess the cost-effectiveness of installing or expanding heat exchangers to
reduce freezer load.
Inappropriate Uses of Chilled Water or Glycol

Chilled water or glycol is often used in cooling applications where a cooling tower or other less
costly means could be used. A particularly inappropriate application is using chilled water to
aftercool oil and air for air compressors. Another inappropriate application is gearbox or oil cooling
on production-line equipment. In most applications, you can substitute a cooling tower or closed-
loop fluid cooler for chilled water or glycol
with much lower operating costs.
Best Practices:
Computer Controls
Computer Control—The Benefits Beyond Energy
Backbone of Efficiency Better insight into system operation.

Easier debugging of system problems.
This chapter has highlighted many energy-
efficiency opportunities. A central element of Greater operation flexibility.
many of these opportunities is improved Safer operation.
control—not just of individual components, but
also of the interaction between components. Remote system diagnosis.
We consider a refrigeration computer-control More consistent storage conditions.
system to be the backbone of these efficiency Better documentation of storage temperatures.
improvements.
Better information to evaluate future capital
A computer-control system:
purchases.
provides centralized management of all

energy-efficient features associated with compressors, condensers, evaporators, and VFDs.
makes commissioning more effective.
provides a window into the system that helps operation and maintenance.
Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics outlines various control system types. We recommend that
you refer to that chapter to review the options. Although there are several variations on computer
control, we generally recommend that the control solution have these three attributes:
It is designed and built by a firm that specializes in industrial refrigeration control. These
systems consistently have the highest level of functionality. Their designers have typically already
encountered and addressed many issues that are specific to industrial refrigeration. Control systems
put together by generalists can work just as well, but the design process will likely be less efficient.
If you use a generalist, make sure a knowledgeable refrigeration consultant, either in-house or
contracted, is on the team.
It is designed and built by a control-system firms that is willing to customize the system for the
specific application. Every system is different and although most control solutions have already
been developed, there are almost always some control issues that are unique to a given project.
It has extensive trend-logging capabilities Extensive trend-logging, including the ability to export
data, are valuable for commissioning, O&M, and evaluating capital projects.
Efficiency Checklist
In this chapter, we have separated best practices into the several categories (listed under Energy
Efficiency—“The Big Picture” on page 6). However, most of these practices and the systems they
affect are interactive, so treating them separately may result in missed opportunities or in solutions
that are less than optimal. To foster a comprehensive approach, the following tables pull together
all of the major concepts related to compressors, evaporators, and condensers from the preceding
sections. The tables also preview the effects of proper maintenance procedures, which are addressed
in the next chapter.

What Makes a Compressor Efficient?
Attribute Primarily Applies to The Issue in a Nutshell Page
Operating All Minimize lift. Operate at a high suction pressure 46
conditions and a low condensing pressure.
Oil cooling Screw Thermosiphon or direct-contact cooling are 67
more efficient than liquid injection at the same
conditions and does not limit condensing
pressure.
Volume ratio Screw Optimal volume ratio minimizes power 68
requirements for a given set of operating
pressures. Sometimes, one volume ratio is all
that is required, provided it is the right one.
Variable volume Screws that operate Provides flexibility to operate at or near optimal 68
ratio control over a wide range of volume ratio over a wide range of conditions.
conditions.
Economizer Low temperature Improves BHP/TR performance for low 69
single-stage temperature loads by providing subcooling
screws effect. Essentially a poor man’s two-stage
system.
Motor efficiency All Premium-efficiency motors reduce input power 71
from one to several percent.
Motor sizing All Adequate motor sizing precludes peak-load 71
current-limiting and can eliminate suction-
pressure constraints.
Oil circulation All Ideally, an oil circulation system will not 55
preclude “low-lift” compressor operation
without adding significant supplemental oil
pumping hp.
Part-load All Many options: VFD-driven screws and cylinder 59
efficiency unloading of reciprocating compressors are the
most efficient.
Oil separator All Should be sized for the “lowest lift” set of 53
sizing conditions to be encountered.
Inefficient Various uncommon Avoid dual screw booster and high stage 26,
compressor models packages that do not support liquid subcooling 30,
configurations or intercooling. 72
Avoid rotary vanes, and screw compressors
with suction throttle or poppet valve control.
Belt-drive Reciprocating and Belt drive increases input power about 3%. 85
rotary vane Belts in poor condition cost you much more.
Mechanical All Compressors in poor mechanical condition are 85
condition less efficient.

What Makes an Evaporator Efficient?
Attribute The Issue in a Nutshell Page
Refrigerant feed Flooded or liquid recirculation are more efficient than direct 15, 54,
expansion and do not constrain condensing pressure. 66
Fin spacing Coils with four or fewer fins per inch help avoid excessive air 65
blockage from defrost.
Coil sizing 10°F temperature difference or less is the best. 47, 65
Use surface area to achieve your sizing, not high fan power.
Face velocity 600 fpm or less is best. 65
Defrost method Hot gas or water are the preferred methods, depending on 74
application.
Defrost control Use computer control to perform defrosts only when required 74
and for the minimum duration.
Defrost regulator Regulator setting should be low enough to avoid limiting 52
condensing pressure.
Motor efficiency Premium-efficiency motors save several percent in this size 71
range.
Motor selection Choose robust motor designs for VFD application. 58
Part-load efficiency Many options. VFD control is the most efficient. 57
Coil placement Strive for a layout that avoids long air “throws” as this may 67
drive up evaporator fan power.
Before committing to penthouse configurations, consider their
energy intensive nature.
Regulators and hand- Proper settings are essential to achieve rated performance. 85
expansion valves
Suction line losses Generous sizing maximizes evaporator capacity 48
Evaporator maintenance Cleaning coils and fixing leaking valves are essential. 85

What Makes a Condenser Efficient?
Page or
Attribute The Issue in a Nutshell
Section
Capacity In the Pacific Northwest, ammonia at 85°F saturated condensing 51
temperature (152 psig) at design wet-bulb is an efficient level.
Achieve capacity with surface area, not fan horsepower.
Configuration Axial-fan draw-through condensers are most efficient 33, 69
Sump location Integral is more efficient than remote, if your weather conditions 70
will allow it.
Location Strive for well-spaced condensers that are unaffected by steam 51
sources and adjacent structures at the air intake.
Fan control Simultaneous VFD-speed control while maintaining mid-range 63
speeds is the most efficient.
Pump and fan Pump first, then fan, starting with your most efficient condenser. 63
staging
Set point and Push condensers hard to achieve low-pressure set points that will 49
control reduce compressor energy use, while balancing compressor and
condenser energy use with a wet-bulb control algorithm.
Winter operation Minimize dry operation. 64
Piping issues Good piping practices minimize pressure drop, help rid the system 51
of non-condensable gas, and keep liquid from backing up in the
condensers.
Operation and There are potential problems to address (scale, non-condensable gas, 86
maintenance water dispersion, belt maintenance, ambient sensor calibration)
Motor efficiency Premium-efficiency motors save several percent in this size range. 71

CHAPTER 5
Best Practices for O&M and

Commissioning
Introduction
This chapter discusses best practices for achieving energy efficiency through the operation,
maintenance, and commissioning of refrigeration systems.
Operation and maintenance (O&M) can be defined as maintaining originally-specified equipment
performance through proper service at the specified intervals. Even the most efficient system design
and equipment can be rendered inefficient by inadequate operation and maintenance. It is important
that proper O&M practices be followed throughout the life of the system.
Commissioning can be defined as the inspection, review and adjustment of set points, control
strategies, and equipment features, to ensure that the system achieves the design intent and meets
original specifications in a way that maximizes performance and efficiency. Systems should be
commissioned when they are built (or modified) and should be periodically recommissioned.
Operation and Maintenance

Introduction
Without proper O&M there is a natural degradation in equipment capacity that will occur due to
dirt build-up, scaling, equipment wear, and drift or error in sensors or controls.
On a high level, best practices for O&M involves:
Practicing Preventive Equipment Maintenance Normally maintenance is equated with the
reliability and longevity of equipment. Energy performance is another factor. Without exception,
equipment that is in poor mechanical condition is less efficient than well-maintained equipment. In
addition, leaky valves and other low profile elements of the system that are not addressed can have a
serious negative impact on system performance.
Maintaining Evaporators and Condensers for Peak Performance These heat exchangers must be
cleaned. Metal conducts heat readily. Dirt, oil, and scale are impediments to effective heat transfer.
Eliminating non-condensable gas and assuring good condenser spray water coverage across the
condenser surface area are two related concepts that contribute to peak performance. When
evaporator or condenser performance is reduced, it can effect the system detrimentally as follows:
Force the system to operate at less efficient operating pressures
Force fans or pumps to operate more frequently (or at a higher speed).
Sacrifice space or process temperatures.
Reduce the system capacity
Performing Periodic Calibration Calibration is primarily associated with maintaining process or

space temperatures at targeted levels. However, instrumentation and controls that are out of
calibration can negatively affect energy performance. Poorly calibrated pressure gauges, temperature
sensors, and slide valves can lead to:

Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning
Overly conservative settings that compensate for the unknown.
Faulty interpretation of problems with the system.
Less effective control algorithm performance.
Tracking Equipment and System Performance Best practices include establishing habits and
procedures that allow the emerging problems to be identified and fixed before they impact process
or energy performance. This includes maintaining daily engine room logs, trend-logging control
points with a computer-control system, and comparing performance over time.
Seeking Optimization The operators that attain the highest levels of efficiency make regular
adjustments to control system settings and adjustments to equipment. These adjustments are
followed by observation or measurement to see how the system responds.
Being Well-trained Knowledgeable maintenance staff and operators have a better understanding of
all of the items on this list. They also have a better conceptual understanding of the overall
performance goals. Plus, training often is used to satisfy PSM requirements as per federally
mandated OSHA standards.
The following sections address some key O&M issues for evaporators, compressors, and condensers
that affect energy performance.
Evaporators
Clean Coils Clean evaporator coils regularly.
Pressure washing can remove dirt that
accumulates on evaporator fins and tubes. This
is especially true in dirty or dusty
environments.
Fix Leaking Valves Rebuild liquid and gas
valves when leaking or other improper
operation is detected. For example, a leaking
hot-gas defrost valve will impart false
refrigeration loads by leaking gas into the
suction line.
Calibrate Temperature Probes and Sensors
Calibrate temperature probes and sensors
regularly using a consistent and traceable
standard (for example, an ice bath).
Figure 72: Dirty evaporator coil

Compressors
Calibrate Slide Valves on Rotary Screw Compressors Rotary or linear potentiometers are often
used to measure slide valve position on a screw compressor. The potentiometers eventually drift or
wear, preventing the compressor from properly determining slide valve position. Where slide valve
position is used for sequencing or other advanced control, accurate slide position is important.
Calibrate Pressure Transducers All screw compressors have built-in pressure transducers for
information, control, and safeties. Errors in these pressure readings can result in poor control of
suction pressure, and possibly operating at a lower pressure than desired.
Maintain Belt Drives Many reciprocating or rotary vane compressor applications use V-belt drives.
Slippage and inefficiency can result from worn and improperly adjusted belts. Manufacturers of
reciprocating compressors normally recommend allowing 3% BHP for belt losses. Poorly adjusted
belts will have higher losses.

Maintain Compressor Unloading Controls
Properly maintain the controls that manage
unloader operation on reciprocating
compressors. This allows correct control of
suction pressure. In the same way, make sure
that screw compressors are capable of fully
loading and unloading with their slide valve or
other mechanism.
Condensers
Clean Water-Spray Nozzles and Strainers
Proper flow and water distribution to
condenser tube bundles is critical. Check for
spray pattern and clean nozzles and strainers as
needed to ensure full flow and wetting of coil
surface.
Figure 73: Slide valve potentiometer
Clean Condensers Remove build-up of solids
and other foreign material from all condenser surfaces. In particular, a clean tube bundle is critical
to maximum heat transfer. Also, pressure-wash drift eliminators regularly, as they accumulate solids
that can reduce air flow.
Maintain Belt Drives Adjust and replace fan Best Practices:
belts as necessary. A slipping belt is not only Condenser Maintenance
inefficient, but results in less air flow and heat
transfer in the condenser. Stay on top of the three big threats to condenser
Prevent Recirculation and Saturation performance with proper maintenance at correct
Normally located on building roofs,
intervals:
evaporative condensers are susceptible to
recirculation between each other, where the Non-condensable gases.
warm, moist discharge air of one condenser Scale on the condenser tube bundle.
enters the inlet of a neighboring condenser. In
Poor spray water dispersion.
addition, food processing facilities often have
multiple sources of steam exiting stacks or
vents, such as blanchers, washers, and boiler
blow-down. Preventing or correcting warm, moist air from entering the condenser will ensure full
performance.
Treat Condenser Water Treating condenser
water is critical to equipment performance and
long life and to control potential
contamination. Condenser tube bundles are
particularly susceptible to solid build-up
because of the alternate wetting and drying of
surfaces. In addition, the warm water of a
condenser is an attractive environment for
biological growth.
Check and Purge Non-Condensable Gas To
test for non-condensable gas, measure the
temperature of liquid condensate draining from
each condenser circuit and compare it to the
Figure 74: Plugged condenser spray nozzles
saturated condensing temperature. Ideally, the
refrigeration control system would measure the average liquid temperature draining from the

condensers and check for the presence of non-condensable gas in real time. When problems are
identified, manually purge the system or check the performance of the automatic purger and overall
purging system.
Best Practices:
Commissioning System Commissioning
Develop a commissioning plan.

Introduction Make sure all parties with a commissioning or
Commissioning can be defined as the start-up role are aware of energy performance
inspection, review and adjustment of set points,
control strategies, and equipment features, as
goals.
compared to the design intent or original Methodically address all key set points and
specifications, in a way to maximize equipment adjustments.
performance and efficiency. Commissioning is
most effective in systems where proper O&M Review system operation over time.
procedures are already followed.
Commissioning should include reviewing
system performance over time to see how control strategies react to varying system operations.
Evaporators
Coil Overfeed Rates Adjust overfeed or recirculated evaporator coils for the specified overfeed
rates. Proper overfeed rates are typically 3:1 to 4:1 (rates that maximize overall heat transfer). This
adjustment is particularly critical in gas pressure recirculation systems where excessive overfeed
rates can reduce system efficiency.
Adjust Pressure Regulators In some flooded systems, evaporator coil pressure regulators are
manually set to limit refrigerant pressure and temperature within the coil. This means that with the
regulator operating at 100% capacity, the refrigerant pressure within the coil is well above the
compressor suction pressure. These limitations are appropriate to avoid excessive temperature
differences that cause evaporators to frost rapidly. However, excessively high regulator settings
limit the capacity of the evaporator coil, and limit savings from evaporator fan cycling or VFD
control. Adjusting the pressure regulator for maximum capacity will increase capacity and
maximize efficiency.
Compressors
Adjust Economizers for Effectiveness On economized rotary screw compressors, the economizer
port should always be enabled to operate (valved open). Closing an economizer port can reduce
compressor efficiency by 5% to 10% or more. In addition, most economizer ports are equipped
with pressure regulators to maintain pressure in the subcooler or economizer vessel. Adjust these
regulators for the lowest possible pressure acceptable to the design.
Manually Adjust VI Properly For compressors with manually adjusted internal volume ratio,
review factory recommendations for proper setting at the given operating pressures. Improper VI
adjustment can reduce compressor efficiency, particularly after adjusting system pressures, or
reassigning the compressor to an alternative duty.
Investigate Current-Limiting Virtually all screw compressors implement a current-limiting feature
into the microprocessor panel. If motor load exceeds the nameplate capacity or the service factor,
the compressor can limit further loading or actually be forced to unload. This occurs most often
when a motor is undersized or a compressor is operating at elevated suction or discharge pressure
relative to design conditions. Since operating unloaded is inefficient, you may need to reassign the

compressor or replace the motor. Also, ensure that the compressor microprocessor is properly set
up with motor full-load current value and factory-recommended limiting parameters.
Ensure Full Loading Some screw compressors have hardware, often called a “slide stop,” that
limits compressor loading or unloading. Consult the manufacturer to ensure the compressor is set
to fully load, and also to fully unload.
Adjust Oil Feed Rates Excessive oil injection can reduce the efficiency of oil-flooded screw
compressors. Adjust oil-feed rates to factory-recommended pressures and flows.
Condensers
Review Purger Operation Inspect automatic system purgers for proper operation and capacity. If a
system has increased in size and capacity over time, a purger may not be capable of handling all
non-condensable load. Make sure that the foul-gas piping from the condenser circuits to the purger
does not trap liquid.
System
Review Crossover Piping and Valves Ensure that any crossover piping between various suction
systems is open or closed to best optimize energy efficiency. In general, every load should be served
by the highest possible suction unless part-load issues override the suction pressure advantage.
Optimize Underfloor Heating The underfloor heating system should use the lowest possible air or
glycol temperature required to prevent frost heaving. Due to the slow thermal response of the slab
and underfloor system, you should experiment slowly and carefully.
Controls
Maximize Suction Pressure Set Point Set the suction pressure as high as possible. Maximum
pressure is often dictated by one bottleneck load, such as a low-temperature zone or process.
Compressor Sequencing Carefully review and optimize compressor sequencing set points,
including order and criteria for starting and stopping compressors.
Remote vs. Local Compressor Control Ensure that the computer is in full control of all
compressor functions, including start/stop and load/unload. Leaving compressor microprocessors
in Local control mode prevents centralized suction pressure control and compressor sequencing.
Minimize Condensing Pressure Set Point Set the minimum condensing pressure as low as possible,
until problems are encountered. Recognize that advice on condensing pressure from manufacturers,
contractors, and technicians is often very conservative. When a barrier is encountered, assess the
cost and energy savings that are possible by correcting it.
Optimize Condenser Staging Operate evaporative condensers wet as often as possible. In addition,
stage condensers in order of decreasing efficiency, using axial-fan and integral sump units first,
before other units without these features. Finally, stage condensers as entire units. That is, avoid the
temptation to stage all pumps online first, then all fans. Rather, implement a pump-fan-pump-fan
strategy. If VFDs are used, follow the staging recommendations discussed in Improving Condenser
Part-Load Performance on page 62.
Ambient Temperature Probe Location Locate ambient-temperature and relative-humidity probes
in locations that are unaffected by direct sun or humidity sources. Check temperature and humidity
relative to nearby weather stations. Accurate measurement of ambient conditions is important for
successful implementation of wet-bulb approach condenser control.
Maximize Zone Temperatures Set all freezer or cooler zones to the highest acceptable temperature
set point allowed by product, customer, or corporate temperature criteria.

Enable Fan Cycling If your computer-control system has an evaporator fan-cycling feature, enable
it. If there is an option to choose between scheduled cycling (for example, two hours on, two hours
off), and cycling on demand, the latter provides the greater savings. If a fan-cycling feature is not
available, add it to the control system.
Optimize Defrost Settings Defrost only when necessary, and for only as long as necessary.
Experimenting will help determine the necessary defrost schedule parameters. If the system uses
time clocks, a seven-day time clock is better than a 24-hour time clock, because often defrost is only
necessary at intervals greater than 24 hours. If the control system offers a more advanced method of
initiating defrost (for example, liquid run-time), take advantage of the feature and experiment with
extended time between defrosts.
Optimize Pumper Drum and LTUs In a pumper-drum design, set controlled-pressure receiver
(CPR) pressure at the minimum possible pressure to minimize the amount of high-pressure gas
required to push the liquid from liquid transfer unit (LTU) vessels. Verify that the transfer vessel
float controls are terminating the transfer process prior to the vessel being fully empty. This
minimizes transferring high pressure gas into the liquid receiver.
VFD Parameter Settings Confirm that VFDs for evaporators and condensers are set for variable
torque and that VFDs for compressors are set for constant torque. Also, VFDs should generally be
set for low switching frequency (4 kHz or less). Finally, confirm that the VFDs and control system
are programmed correctly for speed settings and speed conversions. We have seen many control
systems where the indicated speed and the actual VFD speed are different. These discrepancies must
be addressed.

CHAPTER 6
Tools for Implementing Best Practices
Introduction
This chapter provides a variety of tools, information, and approaches that can help you to
understand and control your refrigeration system energy costs.
The common element of these tools is that they are geared toward raising awareness of energy use
and operating costs. All plant staff should have full knowledge of the costs of running the
refrigeration system—from plant engineers, process operators, to maintenance personnel. And
owners and plant management also need to see energy costs as a variable rather than a fixed expense.
We believe that if you are aware of your energy use, the related energy costs, and the options
available to control them, you are more likely to select efficient choices that minimize life-cycle cost
and maximize profits.
This section includes the following:
A self-assessment questionnaire that allows you to consider how all aspects of your refrigeration
system can influence operating costs. This includes equipment choices, control methods, system
design, operation and maintenance, and management techniques.
An overview of life-cycle cost analysis.
An example of how to estimate the annual energy cost of your refrigeration system.
An overview of the techniques and benefits of refrigeration energy-efficiency studies.
A discussion of energy-accounting practices and their benefits.
A reference section that includes a variety of sources for information on industrial refrigeration
engineering and operation.

Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices
System Assessment Questionnaire
This questionnaire covers most aspects of equipment and operations for industrial ammonia
refrigeration systems found in a “typical” food processing facility. We have assigned relative
weighting to various questions as a rough approximation of their importance to overall efficiency
and thus, impact on operating costs. The questions do not cover every possible efficiency scenario.
You can compare the subtotals from each section of the questionnaire and also your total score to
the table at the end to assess the efficiency or efficiency potential of your refrigeration systems. The
first line in each section of the questionnaire refers you to relevant pages of the Best Practices Guide
for more information. There’s more information on interpreting your score at the end of the self-
assessment.
Section 1: Suction Pressure

See Reducing Lift, page 46.
1 The saturated suction temperature on your system is about how many degrees less than the
lowest air temperature or liquid temperature served? The scores acknowledge that closer
temperature approaches are practical for liquid loads than for air loads. Base your answer on
the single lowest-temperature load in your system.
For air loads: For liquid loads: Points
20°F or more ......................... 10°F or more ........................................................ 0
15°F to 20°F .......................... 7.5°F to 10°F........................................................ 1
12°F to 15°F .......................... 6°F to 7.5°F.......................................................... 2
10° to 12°F ............................ 5°F to 6°F............................................................. 3
10°F or less ............................ 5°F or less............................................................. 4
Score
2 The controls for our system allow space temperatures to pull down below the required
temperature by more than 2°F.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
3 Which of the following descriptions best describes your system:
Points
We maintain our suction pressure below its design suction level
to be conservative and run all evaporator fans at full speed. ........................... 0
We maintain our suction pressure at its design suction pressure
and run all fan evaporator fans at full speed. ................................................... 1
We allow our suction pressure to float above the design suction
pressure while running all evaporator fans ...................................................... 2
We operate at the highest allowable suction pressure that still
allows some fan cycling or fan-speed reduction. .............................................. 3
Score

4 A small but colder load on our refrigeration system determines the suction pressure we run,
while a larger load on the same system could handle a higher suction pressure. (An example is
an ice cream room on the same suction as a main freezer.)
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
5 We have expanded our system. After the expansion, we see noticeably more pressure drop in
our suction lines; or, sometimes we have trouble maintaining temperature in zones far from the
compressor room.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
Points for Section 1: Suction Pressure 10 points possible
Section Score
Section 2: Discharge Pressure4

See Reducing Lift, page 46.
6 In Spring or Fall weather, our refrigeration system allows condensing pressures to float as low
as:
Points
150 psig or higher ................................................................................................. 0
130 psig ................................................................................................................. 2
110 psig ................................................................................................................. 4
90 psig or lower .................................................................................................... 6
Score
7 Our peak summer condensing pressure is about:
Points
above 180 psig ...................................................................................................... 0
170–180 psig ......................................................................................................... 1
160–170 psig ......................................................................................................... 2
150–160 psig ......................................................................................................... 3
below 150 psig ...................................................................................................... 4
Score
8 We have direct expansion (DX) evaporators or other DX loads in our system.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
4
Questions in this section are geared toward the Pacific Northwest region of the United States.

9 Our high-stage or single-stage compressors are forced to unload (current-limit) in the summer
to avoid overloading the motors because of high condensing pressures.
Points
Sometimes ............................................................................................................ 0
Never .................................................................................................................... 2
Score
Points for Section 2: Discharge Pressure 13 points possible
Section Score
Section 3: Evaporator Part-Load Control

See Improving Evaporator Part-Load Performance, page 56.
10 Which of these statements best describes your evaporator fan control strategy?
Points
We run evaporator fans at full speed at all times except defrost. ......................... 0
We manually shut off some evaporator fans during low load
periods. ............................................................................................................ 2
Our control system cycles evaporator fans to maintain space
temperature. .................................................................................................... 4
Our control system uses two-speed or VFDs to maintain space
temperatures. ................................................................................................... 6
Our control system includes VFDs and employs “group control”
such that all zones in the same room to operate at the same
speed provided that space temperatures are reasonably
uniform. .......................................................................................................... 8
Score
Points for Section 3: Evaporator Part-Load Control 8 points possible
Section Score

Section 4: Compressor Control and Sequencing
See Improving Compressor Part-Load Performance, page 59.
11 Which of these statements best describes your compressor sequencing?
Points
We run our compressors manually, and do not usually have an
opportunity to confirm that they are fully loaded. ........................................ 0
We start and stop our compressors manually. Operating
compressors remain fully loaded, but these compressors
sometimes pull the suction pressure well below the required
level. ................................................................................................................ 2
We run our compressors manually, but are diligent about
turning off unloaded machines most of the time. ............................................ 4
We use a control system to sequence compressors in fixed order. ....................... 6
We use a control system that automatically mixes and matches
compressor capacity and efficiency to best match the load. ........................... 8
Score
12 Which of the following best describes the typical unloading of our compressors?
Points
It is common to have two or more screw compressors operating
at less than 100% capacity on the same suction system. ................................ 0
All operating compressors remain fully loaded, but operate at
lower than necessary suction pressures. .......................................................... 2
Our control system fully loads our “base-load” compressors with
one screw compressor acting as “trim” compressor by
unloading the slide valve to maintain suction pressure at set
point. ............................................................................................................... 4
Our control system fully loads our “base-load” compressors with
either a reciprocating compressor or VFD-driven screw
compressor acting as the "trim" compressor. .................................................. 6
Score
Points for Section 4: Compressor Control and Sequencing 14 points possible
Section Score
Section 5: Condenser Control and Sequencing

See Improving Condenser Part-Load Performance, page 62.
13 Which of the following best describes our condenser sequencing?
Points
Our system cycles fans for condensing pressure control. Each
condenser fan stage has a distinct "cycle on" set point and
"cycle off" set point. The set points for successive stages are
staggered such that all condenser fans are not on-line until the
system pressure is above the minimum allowable discharge
pressure. .......................................................................................................... 0
Our system cycles fans for condensing pressure control. There is
a single set point for all condenser fan stages. When the

pressure climbs above the set point, another fan stage is
brought on-line. .............................................................................................. 1
Our condenser fans are controlled with two-speed fans or VFDs.
There is a single set point for all condenser fan stages. The
system ramps one VFD to full speed, prior to bringing the
next VFD-driven fan on-line. .......................................................................... 2
Our condenser fans are controlled with two-speed fans or VFDs.
There is a single set point for all condenser fan stages. We
ramp all fans at the same speed. ...................................................................... 3
Score
14 We operate our condenser fans first and our pumps second.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 2
Score
15 We run our system dry for several months each winter, which often includes a month or more
when the weather is above freezing.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 2
Score
Points for Section 5: Condenser Control and Sequencing 7 points possible
Section Score
Section 6: Equipment and System-Design Choices

See Upgrading Equipment on page 65.
16 When we have purchased evaporators or condensers in the past, we have compared and selected
units based upon fan (and pump) horsepower per ton of capacity.
Points
No ........................................................................................................................ 0
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 3
Score
17 Our screw compressors are cooled with liquid injection.
Points
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 0
No ........................................................................................................................ 3
Score

18 Our system has no suction systems below -10°F saturated suction temperature that are not
either single-stage economized or two-stage.
Points
True ...................................................................................................................... 0
False ...................................................................................................................... 3
Score
19 Our system has no suction systems below -30°F saturated suction temperature that are not
served with a two-stage system.
Points
True ...................................................................................................................... 0
False ...................................................................................................................... 3
Score
20 We have refrigeration computer-control system.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 3
Score
Points for Section 6: Equipment and System-Design Choices 15 points possible
Section Score
Section 7: Defrost Control

See Improving System Design on page 72.
21 Which of the following best describes our evaporator defrost schedule?
Points
We initiate defrost with a time-clock. We do the same number of
defrosts for the same duration throughout the year. ....................................... 0
We initiate defrost with a time-clock. We vary the interval and
timing of the defrost as we see moisture loads change..................................... 1
We initiate defrost based upon evaporator cooling run-time. We
use the same run-time interval and duration throughout the
year................................................................................................................... 2
We initiate defrost based upon evaporator cooling run-time or
some other means or measuring or inferring frost build-up.
Defrost intervals and durations are changed manually or
automatically throughout the year. ................................................................. 3
Score
Points for Section 7: Defrost Control 3 points possible
Section Score

Section 8: Operation and Maintenance
See Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning, page 84.
22 Our condenser water treatment program is effective and our condensers are free of scale.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
23 We measure the liquid ammonia temperature returning from our condenser. It is normally
within 2°F of the saturation temperature corresponding to the discharge pressure.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
24 We check, clean, and replace condenser nozzles, water distribution trays, and strainers such
that system is clog-free and our water spray coverage is complete.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
25 We calibrate temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and slide valves at least once a year.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
26 We routinely clean our evaporator coils and condensers tube bundles.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
27 We practice preventive maintenance on our compressors including regularly scheduled oil
changes, filter changes, oil analysis, vibration analysis, and clearance checks.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score
28 We routinely inspect our hot gas solenoid valves to confirm that no gas is leaking through to
the suction system.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 2
Score

29 Which of the following statements best describes how you manually record and track variables
that have a significant energy or process impacts (examples include space or process
temperatures, system pressures, compressor motor current, slide valve positions, compressor
hour meter readings, etc.).
Points
We don't formally track these variables................................................................ 0
We manually record engine room and space temperature logs on
at least a daily basis. This technique allows us to recognize
problems early, but we seldom refer back to previous logs for
comparison....................................................................................................... 1
We record engine room logs on at least a daily basis. We use this
for early recognition of problems and we periodically
compare performance over time to identify emerging
problems. ......................................................................................................... 2
Score
30 Which of the following best describes our use of our computer-control system for control?
Points
We either don't have a computer-control system or we have
overridden and disabled most/all of its control functions. .............................. 0
Our control system provides most/all of the control for our
system, but we largely rely on the original settings......................................... 1
We consider the control system a tool for active use. We
routinely make control changes with a particular emphasis on
minimizing energy use. ................................................................................... 2
Score
31 Which of the following describes the use of our computer system for "trend-logging"? Trend-
logging is defined as storing important system variables (space temperatures, system pressures,
etc.) that can be reviewed in graphs or tables.
Points
We either do not have a control system, or we have a control
system that we do not use for trend-logging.................................................... 0
We use the trend-logging capability of our computer on an
occasional basis................................................................................................. 1
We review trend-logging on a regular basis and trend most/all of
the control points that the system allows. ....................................................... 2
Score
Points for Section 8: Operation and Maintenance 20 points possible
Section Score

Section 9: System Commissioning
See Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning, page 84.
32 After our system was built or last expanded, we commissioned our system to assure that all
major equipment was operating consistent with design specifications. This included
examination of control algorithms, checking for appropriate system set points, and ensuring
that all process needs and any energy goals were being met.
Points
False ...................................................................................................................... 0
True ...................................................................................................................... 5
Score
Points for Section 9: System Commissioning 5 points possible
Section Score
Section 10: Energy Management

See Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices. page 90.
33 We track our refrigeration energy use on a macro-basis (for examples, kWh versus unit of
product, or kWh versus average ambient temperature) and compare plant to plant or year to
year.
Points
No ........................................................................................................................ 0
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
34 We have installed electrical submetering of our refrigeration system and we use it as a tool to
optimize energy use and identify emerging trends.
Points
No ........................................................................................................................ 0
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 1
Score
35 During the course of our plant construction or last expansion, we had contractors provide bids
on energy efficiency upgrades and evaluated incremental investments in energy efficiency. We
selected options with low life-cycle costs that met our return on investment criteria.
Points
No ........................................................................................................................ 0
Yes ........................................................................................................................ 3
Score
Points for Section 10: Energy Management 5 points possible
Section Score

Summary of All Sections
Section Possible Points Our Score
Section 1: Suction Pressure 10
Section 2: Discharge Pressure 13
Section 3: Evaporator Part-Load Control 8
Section 4: Compressor Control and Sequencing 14
Section 5: Condenser Control and Sequencing 7
Section 6: Equipment and System-Design Choices 15
Section 7: Defrost Control 3
Section 8: Operation and Maintenance 20
Section 9: System Commissioning 5
Section 10: Energy Management 5
Total 100
Interpreting Your Score

Your Total Score Interpretation
85–100 Excellent
Your system and your maintenance are outstanding in terms of energy efficiency.
70–84 Good
Your system and maintenance standards are very good.
50–69 Fair
Your system is working well, but some upgrades might be examined.
Below 50 Opportunity for Improvement
Your system has good potential for efficiency improvement.
This self-assessment tool is intended to give you an idea of where your refrigeration system stands in
terms of energy efficiency and potential. You’ve probably noted that more expensive or complex
options are represented by higher scores. In most circumstances this also indicates greater energy
efficiency. But there are many operation-and-maintenance options for reducing energy costs with
minimal investment.
This self-assessment tool was developed with a “typical” refrigeration system of cold storage
warehouse in mind. Remember that your refrigeration system is customized and unique to your

situation. If you have significant process loads for fluid cooling or freezing, or your system is older,
some of the scoring choices may not apply well to you.
You can assess your score for each section individually and for your total. Even if your score would
be ranked “excellent” there are likely still options for controlling costs. The only way to keep such
a refrigeration system in top condition is by regular and comprehensive maintenance and
thoughtful operation.
The efficiency of some systems ranked “Fair” or with “Opportunity for Improvement” could even
be increased at little or no cost. Many industrial refrigeration systems will have a chance to become
more efficient when undertaking a major renovation or new construction. During these times
various options can be considered in an energy study that includes a life-cycle cost analysis.

An Overview of Life-Cycle Costing
Life-cycle costing is an evaluation method that accounts for initial, ongoing, and future costs, and
the value of future benefits of an investment, typically over the life of a project. It lets you compare
alternative systems based on the differences between their respective initial costs, operating costs
(including energy savings), and maintenance costs over their lifetimes. To achieve this, each
alternative project is placed on the same economic footing, and the cost of capital over time is
considered.
The basic equation for life-cycle cost is:
LCC = CostInitial + CostOperation + CostMaintenance – ValueBenefits – ValueSalvage
where:
LCC = total life-cycle cost in current dollars
CostInitial = initial project cost in current dollars
CostOperation = operating costs over the project life, discounted to current dollars
CostMaintenance = maintenance costs over the project life, discounted to current dollars
ValueBenefits = the value of any project benefits over the project life, discounted to current
dollars (this could include things like production rate, product quality, or
labor productivity)
ValueSalvage = the salvage or resale value of the project (if any) at the end if its life,
discounted to current dollars
Many of these items are straightforward, but because several components of the life-cycle cost are
spread over many years, they must be converted to comparable units of cost—usually current-year
dollars. This is done by “discounting,” which accounts for things like inflation (or deflation) and
depreciation (or appreciation).
To determine which alternative project is most economically attractive, you should determine and
compare their life-cycle costs. The alternative with the lowest life-cycle cost is usually the most
economically desirable. Life-cycle cost analysis lets you determine which alternative project with
the lowest overall cost to the organization over the life of the project.
In practice, life-cycle costing can be complex when it accounts for the effects of things like inflation,
taxes and tax credits, escalation of energy costs, and system components with different economic
lifespans.
In summary, a life-cycle cost analysis involves converting all project costs and benefits, initial and
future, into current dollars, comparing each project alternative, and selecting the one with the
lowest total costs. Because this is often not the project with the lowest initial cost, performing a life-
cycle cost analysis can be justified.
The U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) Information Resources Catalog
(www.eere.energy.gov/catalog) offers a free download of the Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the
FEMP, a resource for Federal energy managers that is also a useful resource for non-Federal projects.

Estimating the Annual Energy Cost of Your
Refrigeration System
One of the first steps toward thinking of refrigeration energy efficiency in terms of life-cycle costs is
developing an understanding for how much your system uses per year and the resulting energy
costs.
Calculating energy costs is very straightforward for facilities where the refrigeration system is by far
the largest electrical load. This would occur, for example, in some refrigerated warehouses. In these
cases, an analysis of electric utility billing history would be all that was required.
For systems where refrigeration represents only a fraction of the total electrical consumption,
estimating energy use is a little more challenging. We have included below a sample calculation for a
hypothetical refrigeration system. The calculation also points out several suggested sources for data
and suggests some analytical shortcuts. With reasonable data, you should be able to estimate energy
use and cost within about +/- 15%.
It is more difficult to make these estimates while planning new construction. However, it is even
more important to try to estimate annual energy costs in those situations. Planning and design is by
far the best opportunity to evaluate life-cycle costs, assess efficiency potential and implement
measures found cost-effective in terms of energy and other benefits. Detailed energy studies (see
Using an Energy Study as a Management Tool on page 106) involve more rigorous estimates of
energy use and cost and are an excellent idea when planning new construction or major renovation.
An energy estimate is also helpful to understand which pieces of equipment in your system are the
largest contributors to total energy use. In some systems (controlled atmosphere facilities for one),
the large compressor motors are not the largest energy users (since energy use is the product of both
horsepower and operating hours). This insight can sometimes help you concentrate your efforts on
the equipment with the most potential.

Compressor Energy Estimate
Typical
Motor Motor Typical
Compressor input Hours per Annual Energy
nameplate Full Load motor
Number power year (kWh)
(hp) Amps amps
(kW)
1 300 330 250 182 7,000 1,272,727
2 300 330 275 200 4,000 800,000
3 200 220 180 131 3,000 392,727
4 200 220 175 127 2,000 254,545
5 200 220 180 131 2,000 261,818
Total 2,981,818
From motor nameplate kWh are simply

kW x hours
Possible data sources would include manually

recorded engine room logs, refrigeration control
Engine room logs that
system history, or amp measurements at typical
include hour meter readings
operations.
are an excellent source for
estimating hours per year.
Technically:
kW = motor shaft power x .746 / motor efficiency
but a decent approximation is:
kW = Motor Nameplate hp x typical motor amps / motor full load amps * 0.8
Evaporator Energy Estimate

Typical Average
Fan Total Fan Input Annual
Evaporators Fans per Duty Shaft Hours per
Zone Motor Power Control Power Energy
per zone evaporator Cycle or Power year
hp (hp) (kW) (kWh)
speed (hp)
1 1 4 3 12 Constant 100% 12.0 9.6 8,000 76,800
2 1 4 3 12 Constant 100% 12.0 9.6 8,000 76,800
3 1 4 3 12 Constant 100% 12.0 9.6 8,000 76,800
4 1 4 3 12 Constant 100% 12.0 9.6 8,000 76,800
5 2 3 2 12 Fan Cycling 40% 4.8 3.8 8,000 30,720
6 2 3 2 12 Fan Cycling 50% 6.0 4.8 8,000 38,400
7 2 3 2 12 Fan Cycling 60% 7.2 5.8 8,000 46,080
8 2 5 4 40 VFD 70% 13.7 11.0 8,000 87,808
Total 124 79.7 63.8 510,208
Average shaft power should address control type (constant, fan cycle, or speed control).
A rough estimate is: kW = shaft power x 0.8

Condenser and Ammonia Pump Energy Estimate
Avg Avg
Condenser Condenser
Annual
Pump Fan Duty Fan/Pump Fan/Pump Hours per
Load Pump hp Fan hp Energy
duty cycle Cycle Shaft Input year
(kWh)
Power Power
(hp) (kW)
Condenser #1 5.0 20 100% 50% 15 12.0 8,760 105,120
Condenser #2 7.5 15 100% 30% 12 9.6 8,760 84,096
Ammonia Pump 5.0 0 100% 5 4.0 8,760 35,040
Total 32 25.6 224,256
Total System Energy Use for Major Components

Compressors 2,981,818 kWh
Evaporators 510,208 kWh
Condensers 224,256 kWh
Total 3,716,282 kWh
Annual Energy Cost

Energy Rate: $0.04 per kWh
Estimated Ballpark Cost: $148,651
You can use either an average rate inferred from

your energy bill (total $ / total kWh) or look up
your energy rate from your utility rate schedule.

Using an Energy Study as a Management Tool
Minimizing the life-cycle cost of refrigeration is one of the goals of best practices. We consider it a
best practice to conduct an energy study whenever there is major refrigeration-system renovation,
new construction, or there may be financial incentives to pursue a capital project. The energy study
should look at the full range of technology, component, and operational options to determine the
options with an attractive return on investment in terms of life-cycle cost.
In this Guide, we have listed many best practices for energy-efficient equipment, system design, and
controls. Some, but not all, of these upgrades will yield an adequate return on investment. A very
high level of efficiency is attainable and is very likely warranted under these conditions:
The refrigeration system operates continuously
Energy costs are high
Substantial incentives are available from your electric utility or other public source
Measures are included incrementally as part of new construction (as opposed to retrofits)
A lower level of efficiency is cost-effective when one or more of these conditions are not met. An
energy study addresses the specific case and helps define what is economically feasible.
An energy study defines the capital costs and energy cost savings associated with various upgrades
(in the case of new construction) or retrofits (for existing systems). It also summarizes any utility
incentives or tax benefits that may be available and provides the proper rigorous analysis and
documentation required to obtain them. If possible, the study should list or quantify non-energy
benefits or costs. Financial results are presented in terms of simple payback, return on investment,
or annual net cash flow, depending on the preferences of decision makers.
The energy study should be conducted by someone with knowledge and experience in refrigeration,
energy, and analysis. A lack of refrigeration knowledge will result in missed opportunities and poor
recommendations. A lack of energy experience will miss the big picture in terms of energy baseline,
utility rate schedules, and incentives. Limited analysis experience will result in dubious savings
estimates.
Some larger food-processing facilities have developed (or may want to develop) energy-study
expertise in-house. More commonly, energy studies are contracted out to energy-efficiency
specialists. Often, energy-efficiency programs of electric utilities will provide partial or full funding
for these studies. However, even if the customer pays for the study, this investment is small relative
to the capital cost of the equipment and the lifetime energy costs of the system. In other words, it is
a “best practice” to invest in high-quality decision-making information.
At a more detailed level, an energy study includes the following:
An engineering model of the energy use of the refrigeration system This model would represent
the loads, equipment, and control of the system. Such models can be constructed for both existing
systems and for proposed new construction.
A baseline model is constructed that represents either “as-is” conditions (for an existing system)
or a “baseline design” model (for new construction).
Modified versions of the model are created to represent alternate system configurations. The
difference in annual energy use between the baseline and alternate models represents potential
energy and cost savings.
These models can be quite complex, due to a combination of factors including seasonal
variations in weather and production, interactions between energy-using equipment, nonlinear
equipment part-load, and control subtleties. To be an accurate representation, a comprehensive
model should address both full-load and part-load equipment operation and the full range of

load levels and ambient conditions. It is a mistake to concentrate strictly on worst-case design
loads that occur for only a small fraction of the time.
For existing systems, we advocate monitoring the system for a representative period of time to
observe how the system actually operates. The monitored loads and equipment control are then
integrated with the refrigeration model. This monitoring typically includes compressor motor
current or true power, system pressures, equipment on/off status, and slide valve positions. As
an alternative to monitoring, many newer refrigeration computer-control systems record these
variables into a database that can be accessed and analyzed.
Estimates of the cost of efficiency upgrades These costs can be estimated based upon similar
projects, but a better approach is to obtain contractor costs based upon the specific case. It is an
excellent management practice to ask contractors for cost estimates for efficiency alternates as part
of the bidding process for new construction.
Design details The study should provide enough detail on specific design details, necessary set
points, and control algorithms to ensure that the energy-efficiency goals will be achieved.
Measurement and verification plans It is a good idea to describe how the system will be
commissioned and how savings will be verified at this early stage, particularly if incentives are at
stake.
Table 12: Example summary of savings and cost from an energy study
Savings and Cost Summary

Annual Energy Pre-
Include Installed
EEM Energy Cost incentive
Description in Cost
Number Savings Savings Payback
Package? ($)
(kWh/yr) ($) (years)
1 Engine room computer control, Yes 483,786 $26,608 $93,608 3.5
condenser fan VFDs, thermosiphon
oil cooling
2 Freezer evaporator zones computer Yes 295,204 $16,236 $37,882 2.3
control
3a Retrofit upgrades to compressor #3 No 290,744 $15,991 $90,090 5.6
(economizer, VFD, alternate VI)
3b New single-stage compressor No 293,499 $16,142 $180,391 11.2
(economizer, variable VI, premium
motor, VFD)
3c Compressor 3 upgrades and new Yes 452,261 $24,874 $224,259 9.0
single-stage compressor
Total for recommended package: 1,231,251 $67,719 $355,749 5.3
Cost of Energy: $0.05500 /kWh

Energy Accounting
Another step toward energy efficiency is to manage whole-plant energy costs using energy
accounting. Energy accounting is a system for recording, analyzing, and reporting energy
consumption and cost regularly. Just as financial accounting is used to effectively manage the costs
of a business, energy accounting can be used to manage energy systems.
Energy accounting provides feedback on how much energy your facility uses and can help you
communicate energy-use information that facility staff and management can use to control energy
costs. If submetering is available, it’s also possible to perform energy accounting by cost center or
sometimes by end-use. Energy accounting can help you with the following:
Record and assign energy consumption and related costs. Compare energy use and cost
among facilities and look at changes over time. With electrical submetering for your
refrigeration system or other major production centers, or real-time monitoring, you can gain
further insight into plant energy. One excellent idea is to track energy use normalized to some
particular index such as production, average ambient temperature, or other key variable, as
shown in Figure 75.
Troubleshoot energy-use problems and billing errors. By consistently tracking energy use,
you can identify problems in plant equipment or operation. A sudden unexplained increase in
consumption, for instance, means it’s time to investigate and identify the cause.
Provide a basis for prioritizing energy capital investments. Find out which facilities have the
highest energy costs, and consider giving additional attention to those plants’ systems.
Evaluate energy-efficiency success and promote the results. Clearly identify actual cost
savings and compare it to predicted cost savings. Without energy accounting, it’s very difficult
to answer this question accurately.
Create incentives for energy management. Energy accounting can help measure and establish
incentives for those staff who implement energy management. Providing incentives by sharing
energy cost savings with the maintenance department is an example of an incentive structure
that could not be done without energy accounting.
Increase budget accuracy. Energy accounting gives a historical look at costs to create realistic
budgets.
Electrical Energy vs Production Electrical Energy vs

Average Ambient Temperature
3,000,000
1.90
2,500,000
1.85
2,000,000
1.80
kWh
1,500,000
kWh
1.75
1,000,000 2000
1.70
2001
2002
500,000 1.65
2003
- 1.60
- 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Production (lb/month) Average Monthly Ambient Temperature (°F)
Figure 75: Examples of tracking energy use normalized to production (left) and temperature (right)
Energy accounting can help your facility staff understand how and where energy is used in your
plant, and can help motivate people to take actions that can significant reduce utility costs. To get
the most benefit from energy accounting, allocate sufficient staff resources to set up and maintain
the system, and to develop a system of communication with owners, managers, facilities staff, and
others whose decisions affect energy use.

Energy accounting can’t save energy on its own. But when used as a tool for energy management, it
can help you make changes in operation or equipment that will reduce energy costs. Energy
accounting will also contribute to accurate budgets and resource allocation. It can be used to
evaluate capital investments, and most importantly, verify the results of all energy-management
investments and programs.

Information Sources for Industrial Refrigeration
For more detailed engineering guidance on refrigeration system energy efficiency, consult any of
the following excellent resources. Sources will differ on what represents “best practice,” but all will
add to your understanding of industrial refrigeration systems.
We consider the best overall engineering manual for industrial refrigeration to be:
Industrial Refrigeration Handbook by Wilbert F. Stoecker (McGraw-Hill, 1998, ISBN 0-07-
061623-X).
The International Institute for Ammonia Refrigeration (IIAR) is a member association that
promotes the use of ammonia refrigeration. IIAR holds an annual conference and publishes
proceedings with valuable information related to system design, operation, and maintenance.
www.iiar.org
The Industrial Refrigeration Consortium (IRC) at the University of Wisconsin provides
engineering guidance on industrial refrigeration systems. The IRC is a collaborative effort
between the University of Wisconsin Madison and industry. Their goal is to improve the
safety, efficiency, and productivity of industrial refrigeration systems and technologies. Energy
efficiency is heavily emphasized in their newsletters and documents.
www.irc.wisc.edu
The Refrigeration Engineers and Technicians Association (RETA) is dedicated to the
professional development of industrial refrigeration operators and technicians. RETA
particularly emphasizes operation, maintenance, and safety issues.
www.reta.com
For more information on energy accounting, refer to:
ENERGY ACCOUNTING: A Key Tool in Managing Energy Costs, California Energy
Commission
www.energy.ca.gov/reports/efficiency_handbooks/400-00-001B.PDF
These two software tools can help you determine the economics of premium-efficiency vs. standard
motors. They also include other features, such as a database of plant motors, calculation of motor
operating costs, and tracking of motor maintenance.
MotorMaster+:
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices/software_tools.shtml
em2, electric motor management software
www.em2solutions.com

CHAPTER 7
Case Studies
This section contains short case studies that were selected to show how some of these Best Practices
have been implemented in the Pacific Northwest.
Henningsen Cold Storage
Oregon Freeze Dry
WestFarm Foods

Chapter 7: Case Studies
Chapter 7: Case Studies
BEST PRACTICES IN INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION CASE STUDY
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n Reduced energy cost
n Less wear of equipment
n Improved temperature control
Financial Overview
Incremental Installation Cost
$410,000
Oregon Business Energy Tax Credit
$143,500
Portland General Electric Incentive
~$70,000
The Project Energy Savings
58% of base energy use
The Henningsen family has been in the cold-storage business 1,140, 000 kWh/year
since 1923. When you have been in the business for more Energy Cost Savings
than eighty years, you take the long view, and one way to $51,000/year (1996 rates)
do that it is to look at life-cycle costs.
Resources
Headquartered in Hillsboro, Oregon, Henningsen Cold Project Owner
Storage Co. is a full-service, public, refrigerated warehousing
company that offers over 36 million cubic feet of frozen and
(503) 531-5400
refrigerated warehousing space and has locations in Idaho,
North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and www.henningsen.com
Washington. Energy Consultant
In 1996, Henningsen built a state-of-the-art cold-storage Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc.
warehouse in Gresham Oregon. After nearly a decade of (509) 529-8040
operation, it is still an outstanding example of Best Practices Marcus Wilcox, P.E.
in energy-efficient industrial refrigeration. marcus.wilcox@cascadeenergy.com
Business Energy Tax Credit
Oregon Department of Energy
1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon)
Energy Use Comparison (503) 378-4040
400,000
Baseline
www.energy.state.or.us
350,000
Improved Electric Utility
300,000
Portland General Electric
Energy Use (kWh)
250,000 (Incentives are now available through the

200,000 Energy Trust of Oregon)
150,000
1 (866) 368-7878 (inside Oregon)
(503) 493-8888
100,000
www.energytrust.org
50,000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
BEST PRACTICES IN INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION
The Gresham Warehouse Story

During the summer of 1995, planning was nearing
completion on the new Henningsen Cold Storage facility in
Gresham, Oregon. The 50,000-square-foot facility would
provide food-storage and blast-freezing services to their
customers. According to Paul Henningsen, great-grandson of
the company’s founder and director of corporate
development, the goal for the facility was to provide high-
quality services at a fraction of typical operating cost.
Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc. was brought in to
recommend cost-effective energy-efficiency measures.
Because this was a
new construction
project, a Energy Efficiency
“baseline” design
was developed that
included standard Energy-efficiency improvements include:
facility design, n 6 inches extruded polystyrene wall insulation
equipment, and n 6 inches extruded polystyrene floor insulation
controls. This was n 15 inches extruded polystyrene ceiling insulation
compared to a n Three fast-acting warehouse doors serving dock
system design that n 400W Bi-level HPS lighting fixtures
included state-of-the-art equipment and controls, along with n Oversized condenser at 85°F design
extra insulation and efficient lighting. The new facility n Axial condenser fans
opened in June of 1996 and was built with all recommended n VFD condenser and evaporator fan control
efficiency improvements. n Evaporators sized for 10°F temperature difference
After a rigorous commissioning and verification process, n Three diversely sized screw compressors
annual energy savings of 1,140,000 kWh, worth $51,000, n Thermosiphon compressor cooling
were documented—a 42% reduction compared to the n Premium-efficiency motors
baseline design. n Computer control system
n Automatic non-condensable gas purger
The incremental cost of the upgrades in design, equipment, n Coordinated VFD and slide-valve control on trim
and controls was $410,000. These additional costs were compressor
partially offset by efficiency incentives from the serving
utility, Portland General Electric and by state tax credits
offered by the Oregon Department of Energy. These
incentives brought the effective payback down to about four
Continued Success
years (at 1996 energy rates).
At the time, Paul Henningsen said “This project reduces our The energy-efficient system design proved its worth to the
power bill and improves our bottom line, and since we company’s bottom line, so when Henningsen more than
know more about what’s going on in our facility, we make doubled the size of the facility in 1998, efficient design,
better decisions. My advice is that since power rates never equipment, and controls were again specified. This brought
seem to get cheaper, installing efficient equipment will help an additional 660,000 kWh per year in energy savings and
you offset likely increases.” reduced operating
costs by $30,000
These words proved to be prophetic. The four-year payback annually.
may have been a bit of a stretch at the time, but the
Henningsen team’s foresight was rewarded when energy
rates surged upward in 2000.
BEST PRACTICES IN INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATIONCASE STUDY
Oregon Freeze Dry
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n Reduced energy use
n Less wear of equipment
n Minimal employee training
n Improved system control
Financial Overview
$241,777
$81,535
Pacific Power Incentive
The Project $115,042
Energy Savings
Oregon’s Willamette Valley with its mild climate, 40 inches 34% of base energy use
of annual rainfall and fertile soil is one of the largest food 1,939, 000 kWh/year
production centers in the nation. It was the perfect home in Energy Demand Savings
1963 for a small firm that processed dried fruit for breakfast 160 kW/month (results are highly variable)
cereals. Over the years, the firm developed military rations Energy Cost Savings
and private-label food brands. It also perfected the freeze-
$77,700/year
drying process that combines the freshness, color, and aroma
of frozen foods with the shelf stability and convenience of Resources
canned and dehydrated foods. Today, Oregon Freeze Dry, Project Owner
Inc. in Albany is the largest custom processor of freeze-dried
Oregon Freeze Dry, Inc.
products in the world and a technological leader in the
(541) 926-6001
freeze-drying process.
www.ofd.com
Oregon Freeze Dry has three manufacturing plants on its 35- Energy Consultant
acre site. Its manufacturing process is energy-intensive,
especially the two-stage ammonia-based industrial
Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc.
refrigeration system that serves 14 freeze-dry chambers and (503) 287-8488
several cold rooms. Rob Morton, P.E.
rob.morton@cascadeenergy.com
The company’s engineering staff initiated a study, with help
from Pacific Power and an energy-engineering firm. The Business Energy Tax Credit
study revealed several energy-saving opportunities that the Oregon Department of Energy
company implemented. 1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon)
(503) 378-4040
In March 2003, Oregon Freeze Dry completed installation
www.energy.state.or.us
of variable-frequency drives (VFDs) on each of four screw
compressors of its refrigeration system. These allow the Electric Utility
compressor motors to vary speed to match refrigeration Pacific Power (For Oregon customers, incentives are now
loads. The company also replaced an undersized 8-inch available through the Energy Trust of Oregon)
suction line with a 12-inch line. The energy savings of the Inside Oregon: 1 (866) 368-7878,
VFD and suction line were substantial—nearly 2 million www.energytrust.org
kilowatt-hours annually or 34% of the refrigeration system’s Outside Oregon: 1 (800) 222-4335
base energy use. In addition, the VFDs require minimal energy.expert@pacificorp.com
employee training and reduce motor and compressor wear.
Background
The engineering staff at Oregon Freeze Dry believes plant
energy use is their responsibility. In 2002, they decided to
look at the ammonia-based refrigeration system, one of their
most energy-intensive systems. They invited Al Leake of
Pacific Power to discuss energy-efficiency projects and
available incentives.
Pacific Power arranged for Cascade Energy Engineering to
perform an energy study to find specific ways to improve
the efficiency of the refrigeration system. Their report
suggested three efficiency measures: 1) installing variable- Features
frequency drives (VFDs) on four of the eight compressors;
2) adding a new suction line between two plants, and n ABB variable frequency drives were installed on four
3) expanding computer screw compressors (two high stage and two booster
controls to manage the compressors). The remaining four compressors are now
VFDs. used for base loading and back-up.
The existing compressors n A Techni-Systems computer-control system manages
inefficiently varied capacity which compressors run and at what speeds to meet the
with slide valves. The VFDs refrigeration load with maximum efficiency.
would instead allow the n A 12-inch-diameter suction line supplements the old 8-
compressor motors to vary inch line.
speed to match refrigeration
loads. The existing
undersized suction line
created a large pressure drop
Replication
which required a lower (and
less efficient) system suction n In industrial refrigeration systems, VFDs are often cost
pressure. effective for screw compressors, evaporator fans, and
condenser fans. Generally, VFDs are useful where
Oregon Freeze Dry
equipment operates for long hours in systems with
management reviewed the
variable loads or light loads.
report, found the financial
n If a compressor operates at or near full speed most of the
payback and incentives
time, adding an adjustable speed drive will not be cost
attractive, and approved the
effective.
installation.
n A VFD may not always be the best way to control
capacity. Sequencing of multiple compressors or the use
of a reciprocating
Benefits compressor for trim are
other possibilities.
n VFDs and control system efficiently vary the capacity of n The use of VFDs is only
the refrigeration system with speed control rather than one way to save energy
with the less efficient slide valves. in industrial refrigeration
n Energy savings of 1,939,000 kilowatt hours/year (34 systems. Other ways
percent of base energy use) with no reductions in include refrigeration
production. computer control,
n Energy cost savings of $77,700/year. thermosiphon oil
n Reduced wear on motors and compressors due to soft cooling, high-speed
starts and fewer operating hours. energy efficiency doors,
n The VFDs and control system require minimal and bi-level lighting.
employee training.
CASE STUDY
WestFarm Foods
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n Reduced energy cost
n Increased system capacity
n Improved control
n Improved trending and alarming
n Reduced evaporator fan noise
n Reduced condenser fan noise
Financial Overview
$310,000
The Project $108,000
Portland General Electric Incentive
$127,000
WestFarm Foods is one of the largest dairy manufacturers in
Energy Savings
the nation, with 1,200 employees at 11 processing plants in
Washington, Oregon, Idaho and California. In early 1996, 40% of base energy use
WestFarm Foods began planning for an expansion and 2,000,000 kWh/year
modernization of their Portland, Oregon creamery. Energy Cost Savings
WestFarm engineers were designing a new Extended Shelf
$75,000/year
Life (ESL) processing line and the associated cooler space. Resources
Increased loads from the ESL process and cooler would Project Owner
require adding a 350-hp compressor to supplement the
WestFarm Foods
existing 350-hp and 600-hp screw compressors. This in turn
(206) 281-3456
would require another condenser.
www.WestFarm.com
WestFarm and their Portland General Electric account
Energy Consultant
representative arranged for Cascade Energy Engineering to
perform a detailed energy study, starting with data logging Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc.
of the existing refrigeration system. The data collected (503) 287-8488
included suction pressure, condensing pressure, and Rob Morton, P.E.
compressor slide valve position. Hour meters recorded run rob.morton@cascadeenergy.com
time for the liquid solenoid valves and power measurements Business Energy Tax Credit
were made on the primary refrigeration compressor. Oregon Department of Energy
Data logging revealed three major issues with the existing 1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon)
systems. First, compressors operated unloaded much of the (503) 378-4040
time because they were sequenced manually, not by www.energy.state.or.us
computer control, to meet the wide range of plant loads. Electric Utility
Second, the high minimum condensing pressure of 140 psig,
which was required to ensure proper liquid ammonia flow
Portland General Electric (Incentives are now
throughout the sprawling plant, resulted in increased available through the Energy Trust of Oregon)
compressor power, particularly during the winter. Third, 1 (866) 368-7878 (inside Oregon)
the evaporator coil liquid solenoids in the milk cooler were (503) 493-8888
off much of the time, resulting in excessive fan power. www.energytrust.org
Efficiency Opportunities Efficiency Measures

A review of the baseline refrigeration bid specification Implemented energy-efficiency measures include:
revealed several opportunities to increase energy efficiency.
n Refrigeration computer control system
First, the baseline design condensing temperature of 90°F
n Screw compressor VFD control
would unnecessarily increase summer compressor energy
n Evaporator fan VFD
use. Second, the heat
control in ESL cooler
rejection rate of the baseline
n Evaporator fan VFD
condenser was a relatively
control in milk cooler
inefficient 225 MBH/hp.
n 90 psig condensing
Efficiencies of 300 MBH/hp
pressure
or higher are possible. Third,
n Oversized/efficient
the baseline design included
evaporative condenser
neither computer control
n Condenser fan VFD
nor variable-frequency drives
control
(VFDs).
Example Hourly Refrigeration Profile

Features Including Existing & New ESL Loads
800
A computer control system was installed to provide 700

New Loads
Existing
Regrigeration Load (TR)
improved compressor sequencing, tighter control of 600
condenser fan set points, and more importantly, a 500

“backbone” for VFD control.
400
A 350-hp VFD was installed on the new compressor, 300
working in conjunction with its slide valve to provide load

200
trim. The other compressors are now either off or at 100%
100
capacity.
-
VFDs were used on the evaporator fans in the milk cooler Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon
Day
and the new ESL cooler. The
computer reduces fan speed
whenever space temperature
is satisfied.
Results
A new high-pressure Implemented measures reduced annual energy consumption
ammonia receiver with a at the WestFarm facility by more than 2,000,000
booster pump was installed kWh—nearly 40% of the
to ensure adequate liquid total refrigeration energy
pressure to sensitive loads. use. Annual operating costs
This allowed the minimum were reduced by about
condensing pressure to be $75,000.
reduced from 140 psig to 90
psig. The entire package of
improvements cost $310,000.
A larger, more efficient Although this represented an
condenser was specified, and attractive 4.2-year payback,
all condenser fans were incentives from Portland
equipped with VFD control General Electric and a 35%
to manage condenser tax credit from the Oregon
capacity with speed rather Department of Energy
than cycling. reduced the final customer
payback to one year.
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide
December 2004
ISBN: 0-9721077-9-7

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Manufacturer Photographs and Graphics

ii Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide iii

iv Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide v

vi Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide vii

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 1

Focus on Industrial Refrigeration

Table 1: Qualifying attributes of industrial refrigeration systems

2 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Road Map to this Best Practices Guide

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 3

4 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Best Practices Overview

The Scope of Refrigeration Best Practices

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 5

Energy Efficiency—“The Big Picture”

6 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

How to Implement Best Practices

Efficient System Design and Equipment Selection

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 7

Benefits Beyond Energy

8 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Best Practice Energy Benefit Benefits Beyond Energy

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 9

Refrigeration System Basics

10 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Basic Refrigeration Cycle

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 11

12 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of each.

Courtesy of Frigid Coil (left) and Colmac (right)

Figure 5: Refrigerant-to-air coil (left) and evaporator tube bundle (right)

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 13

Courtesy of Advanced Freezer

Figure 6: Spiral freezer (left) and freeze tunnel (right)

Evaporator coils can have from one to eight

Air Transport and Control

14 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Centrifugal Fans Custom, fractional horsepower

Variable Speed Figure 9: Evaporator coil with

Refrigerant System Virtually all evaporators are

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 15

Defrosting Evaporator Coils

16 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Air Defrost Hot-gas and water defrost are

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 17

Rating Evaporator Coils

18 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide

Heat Exchange Methods

Types of Heat Exchangers

Refrigerant-to-Secondary Fluid Chillers

Types of Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide 19

Falling-Film Heat Exchangers