P of F

Essential Knowledge (Learning Objectives) for the First 4 Lessons

OVERVIEW AND DEFINITIONS

What are the 4 forces acting on an A/C in flight?

More Weight, more Lift required

More L, more Drag
More D, more Thrust required

The Flight Path is the direction of CG movement.

A/C rotates about it’s CG.
Longitudinal axis from nose to tail; Lateral axis from Wing Tip to Wing Tip; Normal Axis up and down – all mutually
perpendicular to each other and passing through the CG
Pitching (nose up/down about Lateral Axis; Yawing (Left/Right) about Normal/Vertical Axis; Rolling (Left/right wings up/down
about Longitudinal axis. All axis pass through the CG

Meaning and units of: Force, Work, Power, Kinetic Energy, Static Pressure; Inertia (mass related); momentum (Velocity related)
Moment of a Force = Force * Distance from the moment arm (N*m)

Newton’s 3 Laws. 1st (Inertia); 2nd (Acceleration); 3rd (action/reaction)

Load Factor (LF) = Lift/Weight of A/C Symbol (n) or G loading

Wing Loading = Total Lift / Total Wing Area Lift produced by unit area of the wing

Mach number (M) =- TAS / LSS; LSS is local speed of sound. LSS is directly proportional to √ º A.
At SL the speed of sound is 340 m/s or 660 Kts .

Mcrit is the lowest mach. number when the airflow over any part of the A/C first reaches the LSS. (Sonic speed).

ATMOSPHERE

Air has mass; is highly compressible - but compressibility is negligible at speeds below 300 kts or 0.4 Mach

Air at high altitude is less dense (hence is more easily compressible) and the speed of sound also reduces that’s why 0.4 M limit
is mainly significant for high altitudes

Static pressure at SL = 1 BAR = 1000 millibar (mb) = 1000 hPa

1 Pascal = 1 N/M2 is a very small unit. Hence 100 hPa is used as = 1 mb

ISA – properties to be learnt.

Temperature, pressure, density of air all reduce with increase in altitude.

Static pressure is largely dependent on density of air. At 20000 ft the density of air is ½ of that at SL; at 40,000 ft ¼.
Thus flying at IAS of 100 kts at 20000 ft will give 140 kts TAS; and at 40000 ft 100 kts IAS will require 200 kts (double) TAS.

TAS = EAS/ √Relative density. (√ is square root).

Relative density = ∂ at altitude / density at SL.

TAS = EAS/√ RD

RD at 40,000 =1/4. √ ¼ = ½.
Hence at 40000 ft TAS = EAS/ ½ = 2* EAS.

Kinetic Energy = Dynamic Pressure = IAS = ½ ∂ V2 where V is TAS

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IAS is not really a speed.
It is actually only pressure calibrated as Indicated Speed (IAS).
The real speed is TAS the speed at which the A/C is flying through in STILL AIR. (No HW or TW due air mass movement taking
the A/C along at a speed different from TAS – the REAL speed).
It is like a boat being rowed on water without the assistance or opposition from water current flow.

From IAS we can calculate TAS (after correcting for actual density affected from ambient Temperature and Pressure at that
altitude). Then we find the HW or TW at the cruise level from Met Data and calculate the Ground Speed (GS) of aircraft. Then
we can calculate how much time will be required to fly from A to B.

CAS is IAS corrected for manufacturing errors; CAS is IAS corrected for pressure sensing errors Static vents or Pitot Pressure
sensing at pitot tube). EAS is CAS corrected for Compressibility when A/C flying at more than 300 kts TAS or 0.4 M.

IAS is used for low speeds – no compressibility. EAS is also almost same as IAS but after minor correction for compressibility.
At SL IAS = TAS. Below SL IAS > TAS. At other altitudes TAS > IAS.

Total pressure = Stagnation Pr. = Pressure felt on Pitot side of Pitot Tube = Dyn + Static Pr

Density of air is directly proportional to ambient Pressure; inversely proportional to ambient temp. and also reduces with
increase in humidity as water vapour is 5/8 the weight of dry air (That’s why clouds float in the atmosphere).

ASI is calibrated to SL density of 1.225 Kg/M3. Hence it will read correct TAS only when density at any altitude is same as SL
density of 1.225 kg/m3.

BASIC AERDYNAMIC THEORY

Mass flow of air over an aerofoil in any given time (to remain streamlined (like water through a pipe – what goes in per second
comes out on the other side in same quantity) is a function of mass of air and airspeed (TAS).
For Mass flow of air to remain constant its speed has to increase or decrease with A (area of cross-section). As area of X-section
decreases the speed of air has to increase and vice versa.

Theory of Continuity.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed

∂*A*V is constant. But ∂*A*V becomes (A*V) at low subsonic speeds as air density remains constant as there is no
compressibility.

For mass flow to remain constant if the area of cross-section reduces the speed of airflow has to increase.
(Like when you half close the outlet of the tap the water force increases to maintain the mass flow of water in the same time.

Bernoulli”s Theoram. In a steady flow of an Ideal fluid (no compressibility and no viscosity) the sum total of PRESSURE (Static)
and KINETIC Energy remains constant.

So when in a steam tube the area of cross-section of mass flow reduces the speed of airflow (Dyn. Pr. must increase and Static
Pr reduce by the same amount). So with a cambered aerofoil the area of X-section decreases above causing a decrease in static
pressure above thus generating an upward force called LIFT.
This is how to understand generation of Lift using an aerofoil with positive camber.

SUBSONIC AIRFLOW

Diagram on p 52 shows how Lift is being generated acceleration of airflow increasing KE and decreasing Static pressure on
upper surface.
How airflow speed decreases after the first 1/3 of aerofoil causing decrese in KE and increase in Static pressure back to free
stream static pressure due adverse pressure gradient caused by increase in X-section area.
Upwash just before LE stagnation point towards low pressure on upper surface.
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Higher than free stream static pressure – at LE due to stagnation point and then reducing as the X-section is reducing
towardsTE and Dyn Pr increases but Stagnation St Pr reduces back to free stream St. pr.
Lift due differential pr between bottom and upper surface.
Drag due to difference in higher Stagnation pr at LE and normal free stream static pr at the TE

TR and LIFT and DRAG (Fig 4.1)

Airfoil terminology as given in the book

Two dimensional airflow is on a side elevation X-sectional view of aerofoil (only upwash/downwash and forward and rearward
movement of airflow.

3 – dimensional flow includes changes in airflow pattern due to spanwise flow on the WING affected by pressure differential
from ROOT towards WING TIP on the bottom surface and from WING TIP towards ROOT on the upper surface which is the
cause of WING TIP VORTICES

L = Cl * ½ ∂V2 * S
D= Cd* ½ ∂V2 * S

Influence of Dynamic pressure while maintaining the same A o A . By increasing the IAS (dynamic pressure) the pressure
differential envelope over the aerofoil increases thereby increasing the Lift /Drag and vice-versa.

Influence of AoA maintaining same Dynamic Pressure (IAS).

With increase in A of A while maintaining the same IAS the pressure differential changes increasing the Lift and Drag.

A cambered aerofoil will produce Lift even at negative A o A. At -4 º (Zero Lift A o A) the pressure differential above and below
is same so it will produce ZERO LIFT. (But a symmetrical aerofoil – mean camber line coincident with the chord line) will
produce Zero Lift at ZERO degree A o A.)

As AoA increases the differential pressure will keep on increasing and the Centre of Pressure will keep moving forward on the
chord line towards the LE till it goes past the 16º when the negative pressure on upper surface will collapse completely and Lift
force will decrease sharply and a/c will enter a stall.

CP is most forward location just before the stall. It moves sharply back after the stall.

Aerodynamic Pitching Moment PM). T

he CG is usually ahead of CP (and also AC).
Hence Lift acting through the CP will always cause a nose down PM under the influence of Lift / Weight couple.
Nose down PM can be calculated as the product of the ever-changing magnitude of LIFT force and everchanging distance
between CP and CG.
Alternatively it can be assumed that changes in LIFT effectively take effect at a constant position of AC. Then CP is assumed to
be at AC. Since there is no change in distance between CP and AC the nose down PM about the AC will be constant (at normal
AoA 0 to 8º). The AC at subsonic speeds is at about 25 % of chord.

Aerodynamic centre (AC) is a useful reference point to determine the (PITCHING stability - longitudinal stability) of the A/C.

The CP and AC of a symmetrical aerofoil are at the same point. (Fig 4.11). Hence the PM of a symmetrical aerofoil is ZERO. But a
tailplane is still required to balance the Pitching Motion due to the Nose Down PM caused by CP (at AC) and CG.

Now you review, learn and make your own NOTES for fuller understanding.