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P of F Notes For Students
P of F Notes For Students
P of F Notes For Students
Meaning and units of: Force, Work, Power, Kinetic Energy, Static Pressure; Inertia (mass related); momentum (Velocity related)
Moment of a Force = Force * Distance from the moment arm (N*m)
Mach number (M) =- TAS / LSS; LSS is local speed of sound. LSS is directly proportional to √ º A.
At SL the speed of sound is 340 m/s or 660 Kts .
Mcrit is the lowest mach. number when the airflow over any part of the A/C first reaches the LSS. (Sonic speed).
ATMOSPHERE
Air has mass; is highly compressible - but compressibility is negligible at speeds below 300 kts or 0.4 Mach
Air at high altitude is less dense (hence is more easily compressible) and the speed of sound also reduces that’s why 0.4 M limit
is mainly significant for high altitudes
Static pressure is largely dependent on density of air. At 20000 ft the density of air is ½ of that at SL; at 40,000 ft ¼.
Thus flying at IAS of 100 kts at 20000 ft will give 140 kts TAS; and at 40000 ft 100 kts IAS will require 200 kts (double) TAS.
TAS = EAS/√ RD
RD at 40,000 =1/4. √ ¼ = ½.
Hence at 40000 ft TAS = EAS/ ½ = 2* EAS.
From IAS we can calculate TAS (after correcting for actual density affected from ambient Temperature and Pressure at that
altitude). Then we find the HW or TW at the cruise level from Met Data and calculate the Ground Speed (GS) of aircraft. Then
we can calculate how much time will be required to fly from A to B.
CAS is IAS corrected for manufacturing errors; CAS is IAS corrected for pressure sensing errors Static vents or Pitot Pressure
sensing at pitot tube). EAS is CAS corrected for Compressibility when A/C flying at more than 300 kts TAS or 0.4 M.
IAS is used for low speeds – no compressibility. EAS is also almost same as IAS but after minor correction for compressibility.
At SL IAS = TAS. Below SL IAS > TAS. At other altitudes TAS > IAS.
Total pressure = Stagnation Pr. = Pressure felt on Pitot side of Pitot Tube = Dyn + Static Pr
Density of air is directly proportional to ambient Pressure; inversely proportional to ambient temp. and also reduces with
increase in humidity as water vapour is 5/8 the weight of dry air (That’s why clouds float in the atmosphere).
ASI is calibrated to SL density of 1.225 Kg/M3. Hence it will read correct TAS only when density at any altitude is same as SL
density of 1.225 kg/m3.
Mass flow of air over an aerofoil in any given time (to remain streamlined (like water through a pipe – what goes in per second
comes out on the other side in same quantity) is a function of mass of air and airspeed (TAS).
For Mass flow of air to remain constant its speed has to increase or decrease with A (area of cross-section). As area of X-section
decreases the speed of air has to increase and vice versa.
Theory of Continuity.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
∂*A*V is constant. But ∂*A*V becomes (A*V) at low subsonic speeds as air density remains constant as there is no
compressibility.
For mass flow to remain constant if the area of cross-section reduces the speed of airflow has to increase.
(Like when you half close the outlet of the tap the water force increases to maintain the mass flow of water in the same time.
Bernoulli”s Theoram. In a steady flow of an Ideal fluid (no compressibility and no viscosity) the sum total of PRESSURE (Static)
and KINETIC Energy remains constant.
So when in a steam tube the area of cross-section of mass flow reduces the speed of airflow (Dyn. Pr. must increase and Static
Pr reduce by the same amount). So with a cambered aerofoil the area of X-section decreases above causing a decrease in static
pressure above thus generating an upward force called LIFT.
This is how to understand generation of Lift using an aerofoil with positive camber.
SUBSONIC AIRFLOW
Diagram on p 52 shows how Lift is being generated acceleration of airflow increasing KE and decreasing Static pressure on
upper surface.
How airflow speed decreases after the first 1/3 of aerofoil causing decrese in KE and increase in Static pressure back to free
stream static pressure due adverse pressure gradient caused by increase in X-section area.
Upwash just before LE stagnation point towards low pressure on upper surface.
-3-
Higher than free stream static pressure – at LE due to stagnation point and then reducing as the X-section is reducing
towardsTE and Dyn Pr increases but Stagnation St Pr reduces back to free stream St. pr.
Lift due differential pr between bottom and upper surface.
Drag due to difference in higher Stagnation pr at LE and normal free stream static pr at the TE
Two dimensional airflow is on a side elevation X-sectional view of aerofoil (only upwash/downwash and forward and rearward
movement of airflow.
3 – dimensional flow includes changes in airflow pattern due to spanwise flow on the WING affected by pressure differential
from ROOT towards WING TIP on the bottom surface and from WING TIP towards ROOT on the upper surface which is the
cause of WING TIP VORTICES
L = Cl * ½ ∂V2 * S
D= Cd* ½ ∂V2 * S
Influence of Dynamic pressure while maintaining the same A o A . By increasing the IAS (dynamic pressure) the pressure
differential envelope over the aerofoil increases thereby increasing the Lift /Drag and vice-versa.
With increase in A of A while maintaining the same IAS the pressure differential changes increasing the Lift and Drag.
A cambered aerofoil will produce Lift even at negative A o A. At -4 º (Zero Lift A o A) the pressure differential above and below
is same so it will produce ZERO LIFT. (But a symmetrical aerofoil – mean camber line coincident with the chord line) will
produce Zero Lift at ZERO degree A o A.)
As AoA increases the differential pressure will keep on increasing and the Centre of Pressure will keep moving forward on the
chord line towards the LE till it goes past the 16º when the negative pressure on upper surface will collapse completely and Lift
force will decrease sharply and a/c will enter a stall.
CP is most forward location just before the stall. It moves sharply back after the stall.
Aerodynamic centre (AC) is a useful reference point to determine the (PITCHING stability - longitudinal stability) of the A/C.
The CP and AC of a symmetrical aerofoil are at the same point. (Fig 4.11). Hence the PM of a symmetrical aerofoil is ZERO. But a
tailplane is still required to balance the Pitching Motion due to the Nose Down PM caused by CP (at AC) and CG.
Now you review, learn and make your own NOTES for fuller understanding.