The Red Soils of China

The Red Soils of China
The Red Soils of China

Their Nature, Management and Utilization
Edited by
M.J. Wilson
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute,
Aberdeen, u.K.
Zhenli He
Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, People 's Republic oj China
and
Xiaoe Yang
Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, People's Republic oj China
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

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ISBN 978-90-481-6597-1 ISBN 978-1-4020-2138-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2138-1
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xi
COLOUR PLATE X111
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1

MJWilson, Zhenli He andXiaoe Yang
PART I. THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DISTRIBUTION

AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS IN CHINA: 5
SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW
M J Wilson, Zhenli He and Xiaoe Yang
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF THE

WORLD 7
V C Baligar, N K Fageria, H Eswaran, M J Wilson and
Zhenli He
DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS

IN CHINA 29
Zhenli He, Mingkui Zhang and M J Wilson
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN CHINA

IN RELATION TO THEIR DEVELOPMENT AND
CHARGE CHARACTERISTICS 35
Mingkui Zhang, M J Wilson and Zhenli He
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

RED SOILS FROM ZHEJIANG PROVINCE, SOUTHERN
CHINA 63
Mingkui Zhang, Zhenli He and M J Wilson
Vi
RARE EARTH ELEMENT CREE) GEOCHEMISTRY DURING

RED SOIL FORMATION IN SOUTHERN CHINA 89
Yuangen Yang, Conqiang Liu, Zhenli He and
Keneng Yuan
PART ll. CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION

ON THE RED SOILS OF CHINA:
SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW 101
Zhenli He, M J Wilson and Xiaoe Yang
CHEMICAL SOIL CONSTRAINTS TO CROP

PRODUCTION ON CillNESE RED SOILS 103
CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION

IN THE RED SOILS AREA OF SOUTHERN CHINA 111
David J Mitchell
SOIL WATER HOLDING AND SUPPLYING CAPACITIES

IN THE HILLY RED SOILS REGION SOUTHERN CHINA 129
Jun Lu, Zhizhen Huang and Yong Xi
EROSION RATES AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY ON A RED

SOIL EXPERIMENTAL SITE IN YUNNAN PROVINCE 137
E Milne, Wu Bozhi, M A Fullen, T J Hocking
and D J Mitchell
SOIL FERTILITY DEGRADATION IN ERODED

HILLY RED SOILS OF CHINA 151
Jun Lu, Yunlong Liu and Yongqiang Chen
PART Ill. MANAGEMENT, UTILIZATION AND

SUSTAINABILITY OF RED SOILS IN CHINA:
OVERVIEW AND SYNOPSIS 159
Zhenli He, M J Wilson and Xiaoe Yang
CHALLENGES IN THE MANAGEMENT AND

UTILIZATION OF RED SOILS 163
vii
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC ASPECTS OF CROP

PLANT ADAPTATION TO ELEMENTAL STRESSES IN
ACID SOILS 171
Xiaoe Yang, Weimu Wang, Zhenqian Ye, Zhenli He
and V C Baligar
RESPONSE OF UPLAND RICE GENOTYPES TO SOIL

ACIDITY 219
N K Fageria, EM Castro and V C Baligar
SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE AND

OPTIMAL IRRIGATION IN CROP FIELDS IN A HILLY
RED SOILS REGION OF SOUTHERN CHINA 239
Jun Lu, Zhizhen Huang and Yong Xu
ACID TOLERANCE OF SOME FORAGE GRASSES AND

EFFECTS OF PHOSPHATE, POTASSIUM AND
MAGNESIUM APPLICATION ON THEIR GROWTH 249
Xiangyun Chu, Zhenli He and Changyong Huang
EFFECT OF P FERTILIZER AND LIME APPLICATIONS

ON GROWTH OF ANNUAL RYEGRASS ON ACID
RED SOILS 255
Xiangyun Chu, Changyong Huang and Zhenli He
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE CROPPING

SYSTEMS ON RED SOILS IN THE HIGHLANDS OF
SOUTH CHINA 261
M A Fullen (on behalf of SHASEA)
EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON THE CHEMICAL AND

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS 275
Mingkui Zhang, Zhenli He and M J Wilson
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT ON

NITROGEN UTILIZATION AND TRANSFORMATION
IN RED SOILS USING 1~ TRACER TECHNIQUE 283
Qingfu Ye, Qinzheng Zhang and Zhenli He
viii
EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT ON

UPTAKE OF INORGANIC P BY RYEGRASS AND
TRANSFORMATION DYNAMICS OF PHOSPHORUS
FROM 32p LABELLED RYEGRASS IN RED SOIL 295
Qingfu Ye, Qinzheng Zhang and Zhenli He
EFFECTS OF pH ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -C,

AND -P IN RED SOILS 307
G C Chen and Zhenli He
EFFECT OF LAND USE ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -C,

-N AND -P IN RED SOILS 315
G C Chen and Zhenli He
DYNAMICS OF SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION PATTERN

IN RED SOILS: AN INDICATOR OF SOIL
QUALITY CHANGES 323
H Yao and Zhenli He
SOIL ACIDIFICATION UNDER TEA BUSHES AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON THE BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF A RED SOIL 331
Shen Yu, Zhenli He, Changyong Huang, Guochao Chen
and Bingliang Zhu
PART IV. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RED SOIL

UTILIZATION AND THE APPLICATION OF NEW
TECHNOLOGIES: SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW 347
A SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF KELANG VILLAGE

IN YUNNAN PROVINCE IN RELATION TO UPTAKE BY
FARMERS OF IMPROVED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
ON RED SOILS IN CHINA 349
Michael P Cuddy, Hongmei Liu and Scott Steele
ix
ESTABLISHMENT AND APPLICATION OF AN

INTEGRATED RED SOILS RESOURCE INFORMATION
SYSTEM (lSIRS) FOR HILLY UL TISOLS IN CHINA 369
Z Shi, R C Wang, Y M Hu and L A Yang
INTEGRATION OF A SOIL INFORMATION SYSTEM

AND OPTIMUM TREE CLUSTER FOR AGRICULTURAL
REGIONALIZATION 377
Z Shi, A A Mohamed and R C Wang
PART V. CONCLUSIONS 385

INDEX 391
PREFACE
The red soils of China are typical in their chemical, physical and mineralogical
characteristics of red soils in other tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world,
particularly in South America, Africa and south-east Asia. For the most part, these
soils are highly weathered and inherently infertile. They are acidic, nutrient-
deficient, poor in organic matter and have a low water-holding and supplying
capacity. They cannot sustain arable cropping systems without the most careful
management and are highly susceptible to soil erosion, particularly on sloping land.
It is the purpose of this book to present recent research showing how the problems
associated with using the red soils in China for sustainable agricultural production
can be overcome, using a variety of traditional and novel approaches. In principle,
these approaches should be useful in other tropical and sub-tropical countries faced
with the problem of making the best use of their fragile red soil resources. The term
"in principle" is used deliberately because, of course, the different red soil countries
invariably operate within dissimilar socio-economic frameworks. At the present
time, China may be considered to be in the process of an "industrial revolution",
rather like that that took place in Britain in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. This involves dramatic population migration from rural areas into urban
centres, as well as a changing national economy where the importance of industrial
production and trade takes an ever-higher degree of precedence over agricultural
output. In these circumstances, it is perhaps questionable whether the Chinese
farmer is in a suitable position to take advantage of the scientific and technical
advances in red soil utilization, without some form of state help. Certainly, this is
one of the significant conclusions of this book. However, this logic need not
necessarily apply to other tropical and sub-tropical countries where different socio-
economic factors apply and where agriculture has a higher priority in the national
economy. In any event, it is hoped that the range of options for the practical use of
red soils described in this book will help sensible and informed decisions to be made
whatever the socia-economic conditions that prevail.
Most of the work described here has been done under the auspices of the INCO-
DEV Programme of the EU and the editors and the contributors of the book are most
grateful for the fmancial support involved. The editors are also grateful to authors
outside the INCO-DEV Programme who have demonstrated their expertise of red
soil utilization in other tropical countries, particularly, Dr V C Baligar (USDA-ARS-
ACSL, Beltsville Aricultural Research Center, USA), Dr N K Fageria (EMBRAPAJ
Arroz e Feijao, Santo Antonio de Goias, Brazil) and Dr Hari Eswaran (USDA-
NRCS, Washington DC, USA).
Xl
xiii
I
I j IIIIIIJ
~
j
;IiJ
11 01 01 10
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
M J WILSO~l), ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)
(1) The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK

(2) Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
Approximately 22% of the World's population lives in China and is fed largely by
the efforts of indigenous agricultural production. However, these efforts are
concentrated on only 7% of the World's cultivable land and in China this land is
shrinking year-by-year due to soil erosion and urbanization. At the same time, the
Chinese population continues to increase, albeit at a slower rate, and it is evident
that if China is to maintain her relative self-sufficiency in food then the challenge
must be to increase food production from current soil resources. This can only be
done by increasing agricultural production from currently cultivable land and/or by
bringing more uncultivated land into production, at the same time taking measures
to stabilize population growth.
The red soils represent China's last available soil resource that could be brought into
agricultural production. These soils occur mainly in the southern part of the country
in sub-tropical and tropical areas and, by virtue of favourable climatic conditions,
offer great possibilities for agriculture. However, for the most part the soils are not
inherently fertile. They are highly leached and acidic, have a low organic matter
content, and are deficient in nutrients. In addition, they have a poor water-holding
capacity. Historically, many of these soils were left to natural woodland but in
recent times, attempts have been made, particularly in the context of the "Great Leap
Forward", to bring them into agricultural production. Most of these attempts were
conspicuously unsuccessful and it became clear that often the soils cannot sustain
arable agriculture under normal circumstances and that they are particularly prone to
erosion. Thus, "red soil deserts" were created in some areas, with all the additional
adverse consequences of increased sediment loadings in rivers draining from these
areas.
China's red soil problem has, of course, been vigorously researched in all its aspects
over the last few decades, led especially by the Institute for Soil Science, Academica
Sinica in Nanjing. In particular, the Institute has been successful in setting up a
number of Red Soil Experimental Stations in southern China, and has demonstrated
conclusively that most crops can be grown on these sites given sufficient inputs of
fertilizers, lime, water etc. The research described in this book attempts to build
upon this work but takes a somewhat broader view in that it considers red soils at a
variety of scales and contexts, including global, national, regional as well as specific
sites.
The research stems from two individual projects on red soils, both supported by the
European Union (EU) under the INCa DEV Programme. The first was
entitled "Characterization, Management and Utilization of Red Soil Soil Resources
1
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils o/China, 1-3.
© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2 M J WILSON, ZHENLI HE and XIAOE YANG
in Southern China" (EEC Contract Number, CIl *CT93-0009). This project ran from
May 1994 to April 1998 and, unusually for a project of this kind, involved only two
partners, namely the Macaulay Land use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK and
Zhejiang Agricultural University (now Zhejiang University), Hangzhou, China. The
major aims of this project were as follows.
(1) Characterization of the red soil resources of southern China, focusing on
Zhejiang province.
(2) Identification of the major soil constraints to the development of crop
production systems on red soils.
(3) Investigation of the evolution of soil fertility under different land use and
farming systems as shown by changes in physical, chemical and biological soil
properties.
(4) Development of approaches and techniques for the establishment of different
cropping systems on the red soils, such as pasture, pasture/citrus tree
intercropping and pasture-crop rotations.
(5) Development of a red soil resource information system to provide general
recommendations for the judicious use of these soils and to predict the impact
of different land uses on soil sustainability and the environment.
This project was outstandingly successful, certainly in terms of published output,
and in accumulating a large amount of scientific and technical information relevant
to the potential use of the red soils. Nevertheless, the conclusions that could be
drawn from this study were somewhat circumscribed, mainly due the lack of a
socio-economic involvement in the project as well as an experimental site where
technical data relating crop yields to modern agricultural practices had been
collected over a number of years.
Fortunately, such a project was initiated just as the first bilateral red soils project had
drawn to a close. This project, which ran from December 1998 to November 2002,
was also funded by the EU under the !NCO DEV Programme and was entitled
"Improving the Productivity and Sustainability of Crop Systems on Fragile Slopes in
the Highlands of South China and Thailand" (Contract Number
ERBICI8CT980326). The project was co-ordinated by the University of
Wolverhampton in the UK and involved as partners the National University of
Ireland at Galway, Gembloux Agricultural University, Belgium, Yunnan
Agricultural University, China. the Government of Kedu Township (where the
experimental site was located), Yunnan Province, China, Chiang Mai University,
Thailand, and fmally, one of the partners of the first project, the Macaulay Institute,
Aberdeen, UK. A major aim of this project was to evaluate the effects of novel
combinations of cropping and cultivation systems on the productivity of key
agricultural crops in a fragile highland red soil area in south China. At the same
time, the socio-economic effects of the recommended cropping strategies would be
evaluated, including their applicability, acceptance, benefits and development at the
individual farm level and their impact on the wider community.
Following the World Congress of Soil Science held in Bangkok, Thailand during
August, 2002, it was decided to hold two back-to-back Workshops to discuss the
conclusions and lessons learned from the above two projects. The Workshop on the
first EU project was held at Zhejiang University, Hangzhou from August 24 to
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 3
August 27, 2002. The second Workshop was held at Yunnan Agricultural
University, Kunming, from August 29 to September 1, 2002. Some participants
were able to attend both Workshops and so were able to bring together, co-ordinate
and assess the wider implications of the two projects.
This forms the background of the current book, which therefore ultimately addresses
the central question of increasing crop production from China's red soils in a
sustainable, environmentally friendly and socio-economically acceptable way,
bearing in mind China's growing population and shrinking soil resources. The book
is arranged into five parts, mainly dealing with particular aspects of red soils in
China that have scientifically researched in the two projects, ending with a section
that summarises the most important conclusions resulting from the study. It is hoped
that the book will provide useful information, not only to students and researchers
in soil science and agriculture interested in the utilization and management of
infertile tropical soils, but also to those who are charged with taking decisions and
making policy with regard as to how best to use this fragile resource.
Part I
THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DISTRIBUTION AND

CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS IN CIDNA:
SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW
M J WILSON!), ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)
(J)The Macaulay Institute for Land Use Research, Aberdeen, UK

(2)Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
Part I of this book primarily deals with the classification and distribution of red soils
in China, their nature in tenns of their mineralogical, chemical and physical
properties, and aspects concerning their conditions of fonnation. Red soils are first
discussed in a global context by Baligar et al, so that it is clear how Chinese red
soils relate to similar soils in other parts of the world, in countries in South America,
Africa and particularly in nearby countries of south-east Asia. For the most part
these soils, including those of China, are classified as Ultisols under the US system
of Soil Taxonomy, but sometimes they fall into other orders such as Alfisols and
Inceptisols. This variation is important because soils belonging to the last two orders
are not subject to the same range of constraints on crop production as are found in
the Ultisols. The latter are notably infertile, being acidic and highly nutrient-
deficient, but nevertheless Baligar et ai, show from their Brazilian experience that
good crop yields can be obtained from these soils by the judicious use of lime and
fertilizers, in addition to the use of appropriate cultivation practices, use of acid-
tolerant plant varieties and soil erosion control. The implication is that Chinese red
soils could be made to be similarly productive by using such measures.
The red soils in China are mostly confmed to the tropical and sub-tropical areas in
the south of the country as shown by He et al. They cover an area of 102 million ha.
and under the Chinese system of soil classification are divided principally into
latosols, lateritic red earths, red earths and yellow earths. The latter is viewed as a
"red soil" by virtue of its being genetically related to this category. He et al show
that latosols are broadly equivalent to Ultisols and Oxisols under US Soil
Taxonomy, lateritic red earths to Ultisols, red earths to Ultisols and Alfisols, and
yellow earths to Alfisols and Inceptisols. It is probable, however, that there is a great
deal more variation in Chinese red soils than is implied in this general statement.
Similarly, the clay mineralogy of Chinese red soils is often said to be dominated by
a simple mixture of kaolinite and iron and aluminium oxide/hydroxide minerals but
when the subject is examined in greater depth, as was done in the first paper of
Zhang et ai, it is found that there is significant variation. Thus, both kaolinite and
5
MJ. Wilson et a1. (eds.), The Red Soils ofChina. 5-6.
© 2004 K1uwer Academic Publishers.
6 M J WILSON, ZHENLI HE and XIAOE YANG
halloysite occur widely, as do 2:1 minerals such as illite and hydroxy AI-
interlayered vermiculite. Even smectite may occur in red soils occasionally. Zhang
et al found that the clay mineral composition of Chinese red soil varied
systematically with latitude, elevation, parent material and topographic position.
Goethite and hematite were the only crystalline iron oxide minerals detected in this
study, and both showed significant aluminium substitution in their structures.
Gibbsite was also found as a significant soil constituent, particularly in latosols and
yellow soils, suggesting formation by two entirely different pathways. Zhang et al
show that the red soils that they examined generally have a pH-dependent charge
and a high phosphate adsorption capacity, both characteristics being effectively
related to soil clay mineralogy.
In studying the typical chemical and physical characteristics of red soils, the second
paper of Zhang et af focused attention on the soils of Zhejiang Province which are
mainly Ultisols and Alfisols. These soils all had low cation exchange capacities,
high exchangeable acidity and low pH, with textures varying greatly from clayey to
sandy loam. Nutrient deficiencies of both major (particularly N and P) and minor
elements (particularly, B, Zn and Mo) were found to be common. The soils are often
low in organic matter, which was found to playa key role in the formation of large
water-stable aggregates. This implies that many red soils could be highly susceptible
to erosion and indeed this is often found to be the case.
It is generally accepted that the red soils in China are the product of intense
weathering under a warm, humid tropical/sub-tropical climate. Yang et al used the
distribution of rare earth elements (REEs) to study the weathering process in more
detail. They show that the distribution of REEs in the red soils is similar to that of
their parent materials, thus showing that intense weathering has not altogether
eliminated the influence of inheritance on soil chemistry. It was further shown that
there is a strong relationship between soluble REEs on the red soils and degree of
weathering and that therefore soluble REEs might be a useful index of weathering
intensity.
In conclusion, Part I of this book provides useful background information on
Chinese red soils within global, national and regional contexts, particularly with
regard to their distribution and classification, as well as their mineralogical,
chemical and physical properties. Although there is a good deal of uniformity in this
respect, there is also significant variation, a fact that must be borne in mind when
considering their utilization and management.
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF THE
WORLD
v C BALIGAR(I), N K FAGERIA(2), H ESWARAN3 ),

M J WILSON (4) AND ZHENLI HE (5)
USDA-ARS-ACSL, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville,

(J)
MD 20704, USA
(2) EMRAPAIArroz, e Feijao, Cx. P. 179, 75375-000 Santo Antonio de Goias,
Go. BRAZIL
(3)USDA-NRCS, PO Box 2089, Washington, DC 20013, USA
(4) Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK
(5)University of Florida, IRREC, Fort Pierce FL 34945, USA
ABSTRACT
Red soils are bighly leached soils of the humid tropics having a bigh content of sesquioxides. In the current
system of U. S. Soil Taxonomy, red soils are usually designated under the orders ofOxisols, Ultisols, and
occasionally Alfisols, Mollisols and even Inceptisols. Red soils are predominantly found in South America,
Central Africa, South and Southeast Asia, China, India, Japan and Austra1ia. In general, these soils have
good physical conditions for plant growth although they often have very low water-holding capacity. Low
natural fertility is the main limiting factor for good crop production on these soils and they are frequently
acidic and deficient in all essential nutrients, especially N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B, and Cu Adequate
applications oflime and fertilizers are important strategies for replenishing soil fertility and improving crop
yields on these soils. In addition, cultural practices such as appropriate crop rotation, improvement of
organic matter content, use of nutrient efficient or acid tolerant plant species or cultivars, and control of soil
erosion can optimize nutrient use efficiency and improve crop yields on these soils. In China, utilization of
red soils for crop production by farmers depends not only upon the employment of such practices but also
upon socio-economic factors and the availability of adequate incentives.
1. INTRODUCTION
A variety of soil classification systems have been developed to describe the suitability
of soils for specific types of land use and the natural ability of the soils to tolerate
factors leading to their degradation. These inherent soil characteristics vary within
and between continents, regions, and landscapes (Eswaran et aI., 1999; Wander et aI.,
2002). Inherent differences in soil properties arise from the influence of the
generally accepted factors of soil formation, namely climate, time, vegetation, parent
material and topography. Early scientific endeavours identified the importance of
7
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils of China, 7-27.
8 v C BALIGAR et al
categorizing soil type and soil variables or properties with regard to land use,
especially for agricultural purposes (Carter et aI., 1997). Red soils are recognized as
important in soil classification systems because of the vast areas occupied by these
soils in various parts of the world and because of the great possibilities that they offer
for agricultural production. Hence, it is important to provide a global overview of the
nature and properties of these soils and to consider the red soils of China in this
context.
Even in early classification systems, the red colours of some soils were used as a
defming characteristic to separate them from other soils. The terms laterites, latosols
or merely red soils are found in early literature. Modern soil classification systems use
morpho-genetic characteristics to differentiate soils, particularly at the higher
categorical levels. At lower levels, use-related properties are used. In Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey StafI,1999), red soils may be present in many soil Orders, such as
Alfisols, Oxisols, Ultisols and Inceptisols. However, only a very pronounced red
colour is used to defme some soils. Using Alfisols as an example, the great group of
Rhodoxeralfs or Rhodustults are distinguished by their intense red colours. These
soils have a Munsell colour of2.5 YR or redder, as well as meeting other requirements
Red soils are usually highly leached with a high clay content, and frequently occur in
deep profiles that are low in silica and high in sesquioxides. They are mostly found in
tropical and sub-tropical areas (Soil Science Society of America, 1996) and are the
third most important soils of the world covering 13 percent of the land area. In
general, red soils often have deep profiles with good physical properties for crop
production. However, their water holding capacity is often poor and as the soils
frequently occur in areas subject to droughts at certain times of the year, this can be a
serious limitation for crop production. Red soils are generally acidic in nature and
deficient in most essential nutrients. Hence, liming and use of adequate fertilization
are important management practices to improve or obtain good crop yields on these
soils. Sehgal (1998) states that the major constraints for crop production on these soils
are: poor water holding capacity, surface crusting, as well as chemical constraints
such as acidity, toxicity because of high levels of Al and Mn and nutrient deficiency
(P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn). Sehgal et. al (1998a and b) provide extensive coverage of various
aspects of the red and lateritic soils of the world, in particular their distribution,
properties and management for sustainable agriculture.
2. PREDOMINANT RED SOILS OF THE WORLD
As there is no database on red soils per se, the map in the coloured plate at the
beginning of the book shows the distribution of soil suborders with red soils. By
defmition, the Oxisols have a clay fraction dominated by low activity clay minerals
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF THE WORLD 9
and are highly weathered. Most Oxisols are red but there are Oxisols that are yellow
(Xanthic Hapludox) and some Aquoxs are even white or pale-coloured. The red
Alfisols are dominated by red Mediterranean soils (Rhodoxeralfs) but they may be red
under other moisture regimes if the parent rock has a high amount of sesquioxides and
the weathering intensity is advanced. The red Ultisols show similar relationships.
Table 1 shows the areas of the various sub-orders of Oxisols, Ultisols and Alfisols
that have red soil members. The extent of such soils on each of the major continents is
shown, as well as an estimate of their global occurrence. Approximately 80% of the
Oxisols, 60% of the Ultisols and 40% of the Alfisols may be considered to be red soils
for most purposes. The total area of such red soils amounts to about 13.24 million Sq.
Km, which is about 47% of the combined area of the Oxisols, Ultisols and Alfisols.
As shown on the map, most of these soils occur in the tropics.
Table 1. Areas (thousands knl) of red soil orders and sub-orders in the world
Order! Oxisols Ultisols Alfisols

Continent Ustox Perox Udox Total Udult Ustult Xerult Total Ustalf Xeralf Udalf Total
North 0.36 0.36 854.1 131.0 16.0 1001 349.6 176.0 813.8 1337
America
South 1339 1096 3402 5757 851.8 1091 0.02 1953 998.9 25.3 673.6 1698
America
Central 1.30 0.67 5.72 7.69 95.2 58.9 154.1 22.6 56.3 78.9
America
Europe 3.53 3.53 253.8 118.8 478.0 850.7
Aftica 1719 87.2 1757 3557 607.6 1649 0.93 2258 2471 80.1 167.3 2718
Asia 18.5 50.4 72.1 141 2981 825.6 2.67 3808 1084 209.4 304.6 1598
Australia! 39.2 1.12 20.0 60.4 84.7 101.3 - 186.0 501.7 270.5 225.1 997.3
Oceania
Ultisols (Acrisols) and Oxisols (Ferralsols) have common nutrient management

problems. In general, both these groups of soils have a low to very low water-holding
capacity and, due to the aggregation of the clay fraction, a rather high permeability. In
semi-arid environments, or in climates with a distinct dry season such as in
sub-tropical areas of China, these soils suffer from moisture stress. Kaolinite
dominates the clay fraction, sometimes with significant amounts of poorly ordered
material. A high sesquioxide content often means that Oxisols and Ultisols have a
high variable charge, with a zero point of net charge close to 6. At the pH of the soil,
the sub soils of some of these soils have a net positive charge, whereas the top soil,
10 v C BALIGAR et al
which contains some organic matter, has a negative charge. One of the critical
management factors in such soils is the maintenance of the organic matter content.
Erosion and loss of organic matter exposes the high ZPNC materials at the soil surface
and in such situations leaching of cations is rapid and is accompanied by a high
capacity for fixation of anions such as P. It may be noted, however, that the Alfisols,
even the red ones, have a mixed mineralogy and do not have all the yield-depressing
features of the red Ultisols and Oxisols. The same is true for the red soils that are
occasionally found in the Mollisol and Inceptisol Orders. However, in the three major
red soil orders, and specifically in the Ultisols and some of the Alfisols in humid
environments, the top soil is acid. In many of the soils, aluminium may account for
more than 60010 of the total acidity and this condition depresses growth in most plants.
Soil acidity is a major challenge to the management of these soils as root growth is
restricted. When the soil is subject to moisture stress under drought conditions, the
impact on crop growth becomes even more devastating.
For more details on red soils, readers are referred to excellent papers by Baligar and
Ahlrichs (1998), Dudal (1976), Eswaran et al. (1997), Sanchez (1976), Sanchez and
Isbell (1978), Sehgal et al. (1998a and b), Von Uexkull and Mutert (1995), and Van
Wambeke (1992) for more extensive coverage on this topic.
3. NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF

SELECTED REGIONS
3.1 Red Soils of Brazil and Argentina
Red soils in Brazil are found in the central part of Brazil, locally known as the
"Cerrado", which covers about 205 million ha (23%) of the land area of Brazil. Most
of the soils in this region are highly weathered Oxisols (46%), Ultisols (15%) and
Entisols (15%), with low natural soil fertility, high aluminum saturation and high
phosphorus fixation capacity. At present roughly 10 million ha ofrainfed crops are
grown with an average yield of 2 t ha- 1 and a total production of 20 million tons of
grains. The irrigated area is rather small, only 300,000 ha with an average yield of 3 t
ha'\ but still produces over 0.9 m tons of grain (Macedo, 1995), about 25% of the
soybean, rice, and com harvest and 14% of the bean harvest of Brazil. In addition,
coffee production in this region accounts for 20% of the national production.
Improved pasture covers 35 m ha of the red soil land area of Brazil and supports 53 m
head of cattle, producing 40% of Brazil's beef (1.7 m tons) and 12% of its milk
supplies (Macedo, 1995).
It is estimated that 50% of the Cerrado area is of potential use as arable land. The
climate also favours crop production with a mean annual rainfall of about 1500 mm
and a mean annual temperature of 22°C in the south of the region and 2~C in the
north (Goedert, 1989). Clearly, therefore, the Cerrado has a very high potential for
agricultural production if only the main yieldiimiting factors of low soil fertility and
high soil acidity could be overcome. Chemical properties are good indicators of the
fertility status and nutrient supplying power of a soil for crop production and Table 2
shows the average chemical properties of Oxisols. These soils tend to have a rather
low pH. with low levels of P, K, Ca, Mg and Zn and with a poor organic matter
content. Usually, they are too poorly base saturated to sustain annual crop production.
Fertilizer and liming recommendations are generally made on the basis of soil
chemical analyses, always bearing in mind that optimum soil test values for macro
and micro-nutrients vary from soil to soil, crop to crop, and extractant to extractant. In
the Cerrado soils of Brazil, limiting values for P should be >10 mg kg-I, for K >50 mg
kg-!, for Ca >2 cmolc kg-!, for Mg > 1 cmolc kg"!, and for S >12 mg kg-I. .
Table 2. Mean chemical properties ofsurface samples (O-20cm) of Oxisols from the
State ofMato Grosso, Brazil in the Cerrado region
Range H2O (%) mgdm- 3 Cmolckg-I mgdm-3

pH O.M P K Ca Mg AI Cu Zn Fe Mn
Minimwn 4.8 0.8 0.6 12 0.54 0.22 0.0 0.2 0.3 30 2
Maximum 6.3 3.1 14.8 73 3.42 2.42 0.4 1.0 8.7 131 13
Median 5.5 2.2 4.1 32 1.77 0.84 0.2 0.5 2.4 62 5
At such levels of nutrients satisfactory yields of most annual crops can be produced
(Fageria, 1992). Critical values for micronutrients on these soils so as to produce
satisfactory annual crops are: Fe 2.5-5 mg kg-I, Mn 4-8 mg kg-I, Zn 0.8-5 mg kg-I, B
0.4-3 mg kg-I, Cu 0.8-3 mg kg-! and Mo 0.2-0.5 mg kg-! (Fageria, 1992). With an
organic matter content of about 3-4%, base saturation between 50-60% and pH
between 5.5 - 6.5, it is possible to produce good yields of most annual crops on these
soils (Fageria et aI., 1997a).
The red soils of Argentina mostly fall into the Oxisol, Ultisol , AIfisol and Mollisol
orders. They occur in the north-east comer of the country bordering Brazil and
Paraguay and cover an area of 2.4 m ha (0.8 %) of the national land area (Scoopa and
Godagnone, 1998). As in Brazil, the soils classed in the Oxisol and Ultisol orders are
low in inherent fertility and contain high amounts of exchangeable AI. They also
contain elevated contents of Fe oxides and are highly P fixing in nature. Most of these
soils are situated on steep slopes and, as torrential rains are common, they often
require protection from water erosion by terracing and contour ploughing is advised.
Liming and P fertilization is needed to produce satisfactory yields of maize, banana
and tobacco. Table 3 shows that in tropical Latin America as a whole many of the
important chemical properties of Oxisols, Ultisols and Alfisols are similar to the
Oxisols of Brazil.
Table 3. Mean chemical properties ofsuiface samples (O-20cm) oftropical Latin
American red soils
Soil Order Clay pH O.C Ca Mg K CEC AI

(%) (%) (cmol.kg·') Sat
(%).
Oxisols 40 4.6 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.08 14.0 70
Ultisols 30 4.5 1.6 0.9 0.4 0.17 2.6 65
Alfisols 30 5.3 1.0 6.5 3.5 0.50 17.5 15
Source: Sanchez and Isbell, 1978
3.2 Red Soils ofKenya
Red soils along with lateritic soils occupy close to 14.4 m ha of land, constituting
about 25% of the area of Kenya (Kiome and Muchena, 1998). The red soils are
generally deep and well- drained. The red color is caused by a predominance of
hematite over goethite. The red soils are mostly classed as Nitosols, Luvisols and
Acrisols under the FAO scheme, selected soil properties being shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Selected properties ofsuiface samples (O-20cm) ofsome red soils in Kenya
(after Kiome and Muchena, 1998)
Horizon Organic C Clay pH CEC

(%) (%) (H20) (cmolckg -I)
A 1.7-4.5 42-72 14 - 39
B 62 - 80 5.3 - 6.2
The Nitosols are deep soils (> 150 cm) with good water holding capacity and drainage.
These soils have pH of4.5 to 6.5, with CEC of16to 39 cmolckg- I ,are very productive
soils and are used for growing coffee, tea and horticultural crops. To maintain
production on these soils, conservation practices and fertilization are necessary. The
Luvisols have a low 80M content in the surface horizon and a high clay content in the
subsurface horizon with high bulk density (1.4 to 1.6 g cm-3). These soils are high in K
and micronutrients, but are low in N. Application of fertilizers, manure, green manure
and protection from soil erosion are the major issues for maintaining the productivity
of these red soils. The Acrisols soils have a high CEC (20 cmolc kg-I) with base
saturation of-50%. Additions offertilizer, manure and lime are needed to maintain
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF WORLD 13
the productivity of these soils.
3.3 Red Soils ofIndia
The red soils in India occur mostly in southern and semi-arid regions and occupy an
area of61.5 million ha (Bhattacharyya, 1992). They fall mainly into the Alfisol order,
usually being classed as Rhodustalfs (Luvisols). Some of the properties of these soils
are shown in Table 5. It can be seen that the soils are low in organic matter and have a
low CEC. However, they are not as acid as many red soils and according to
Bhattacharyya (1992) the normal red loam soils have a pH around neutrality or else
slightly on the acid side. The red soils may become lateritic with depth. This means
that the sub-soil is highly enriched with Fe and/or AI and becomes hard enough to
make bricks upon exposure to alternate wetting and drying (Sehgal 1998). The parent
materials of these soils are usually granite, weathered gneiss or sandstone and their
clay fractions are predominantly kaolinitic (Sehgal et. aI, 1998c). These soils are
often subject to severe water erosion and nutrient losses due to excessive rainfall (600
to 4000 mm/year). Deficiencies ofN and P
Table 5. Selected properties of red soils ofIndia. (from Sehgal et ai, 1998c)
Horiz Color Texture pH O.C CEC

(hue) (USDA) (KC1) (H2O) (%) (Cmolckg"l)
Ap 2.7/ Sl, Is, ScI 5.3 5.5-6.6 0.21- 1.15 2.0 - 11.6
4.5YR
B,Bt 2.5/ ScI, Se-e, 6.0 5.2-7.3 0.12 - 0.62 3.4-15.4
5.0YR SiC, el
are widespread but K is only deficient in certain areas (Bhattacharyya, 1992). Major
constraints for crop production on these soils are: severe soil erosion (nutrient
leaching), low water holding capacity (leading to frequent drought conditions),
deficiency ofN, P and K, low availability ofP (high P fixation), coarse soil texture
and sometimes excess soil acidity (Sehgal et. aI, 1998c). These constraints are
identical to those found for the red soils of China. With proper management, the
Indian red soils can produce high yields of plantation crops (coffee, tea, cacao,
aracanut, oil palm, coconut); horticultural crops (mango, citrus, cashew, pine apple),
field crops (rice, legumes) and spices. Restoration of organic matter status and
alleviation of soil acidity, nutrient imbalances, moisture status and moisture stress are
the major challenges in bringing these soils under productive and sustainable farming
(Sehgal et. aI, 1998c).
3.4 Red Soils in south-east Asia
Bangladesh
Red soils occupy about 16% of the total land area of Bangladesh (Saheed, 1992), an
area of 1.9 m ha. They occur in a variety of topographic situations ranging from the
hilly outliers of the Assam Hills in the north and north eastem parts of the country (1.8
m ha) to river terraces on uplifted fault blocks in the central part of the country (1.2 m
ha). The red soils of the hills are highly acidic (pH 4.4 to 5.3), strongly leached, of
poor base status and may have an argillic horizon. Segregations of Fe and Mn in
plinthic formations may be present in some of the older soils. These red soils have
been placed into the Ultisol order and include Paleustults, Haplustults and
Plinthustults. Red soils on the terraces have developed on clay formations in a
landscape that has been tectonically uplifted, deeply dissected and consequently
well-drained In these circumstances strongly acidic (PH 4.6 to 5.4), kaolinitic, deep
red soils have formed They are mainly classed as Ultisols, but where the base status
of the argillic horizon is greater than 35% they have been placed in the Alfisol order.
The red soils of the hills are used mainly for tea, rubber and also for horticultural
purposes, whereas the terrace soils support a much wider variety of crops, including
rice, cowpea, mustard and groundnuts. These soils respond well to irrigation and
fertilization (Rahman, 1992).
Thailand
According to detailed soil maps, red soils in Thailand occupy an area of 5.12 m ha or
10% of the country, but this excludes the mountain areas where soil survey is
incomplete, comprising 15.71 m ha or a further 31.6% of the country's area
(Moncharoen, 1992). These mountain areas are for the most part dominated by red
soils. Most of the red soils have been classified in the Ultisol, Oxisol and Alfisol
orders. The Ultisols are of the most widespread occurrence, occupying an area of3.68
m ha, with Ustults, Umults and Humults being the most common soil types. The
properties of these soils are quite varied, reflecting differences in parent materials,
climate and positions in the landscape. Most are low in organic matter «1%), except
for the Humults, and tend to be acidic, ranging in pH (H20) from 4.1 to 5.5. Percent
base saturation tends to be less than 35% although higher values may be recorded at
the surface and at depth. The Thai Ultisols vary greatly in clay content (2.5 to 81%)
but the mineralogy appears to be largely kaolinitic. Oxisols are found only in areas
associated with basalt flows and are of restricted occurrence. The soils are thick and
clayey and belong to the Haplustox and Haplorthox great groups. They are acidic (PH
<5.5), poorly base saturated (<20%), poor in organic matter and largely kaolinitic.
The red soils classed as Alfisols in Thailand occur mainly in the north of the country
where the parent materials are limestones and other basic rocks. The influence of the
parent material means that the soils may be only slightly acidic or even alkaline in
reaction, with pH values ranging between 5.6 to 7.4.
(Moncharoen, 1992), and that they may be well or even fully base saturated. Clay
contents are usually very high with a kaolinite-dominated mineralogy. The potential
for agricultural usage of red soils in Thailand is highly variable and relates
particularly to differences in biophysical conditions. Lowland red soils with a high
clay content may be cropped with com, sorghum, cotton and beans. In areas of high
rainfall, rubber and fruit trees are the most extensive crops, while in the northern
mOWltain areas tea and coffee are grown. Constraints on crop production on the
Ultisols are similar to those summarised previously and include excess acidity with
attendant problems of aluminium toxicity, low content of available nutrients major
nutrients, poor water holding capacity related to a kaolinitic clay mineralogy, as well
as susceptibility to erosion. These constraints do not necessarily apply to the Alfisols.
Malaysia
Red soils are widespread in peninsular Malaysia. About 70% of the COWltry'S soils are
classed as Ultisols or Oxisols (Wahab and Zahari, 1992), although not all are
considered to be red earths or red soils. However, the red soils are always highly
acidic (PH 4.2 to 4.8), high in Al saturation (60 to 90%), and low in cation exchange
capacity « 5 meqll OOg). The soils are deficient in all the major nutrients and fix large
amoWlts ofP. Water availability is rather low, drainage can be excessive and moisture
stress can be a problem during dry seasons. Despite these constraints, the red soils are
considered as Class 1 or Class 2 soils as they can be successfully used to plant rubber,
oil palm cocoa and tropical fruit trees.
Indonesia
The red soils in Indonesia_have been divided into so-called red-yellow podzolic soils,
red-yellow Mediterranean soils and latosolllateritic soils (Sudjadi et aI, 1992).The
red- yellow podzolic soils are fOWld on a variety of acidic to intermediate parent
materials and occupy an area of 51 m ha, or about 30% of the Indonesian land
area. They are fOWld mainly on the islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Irian
Jaya. Typically, they are very acid with high levels of exchangeable AI, deficient in all
the major plant nutrients and low in organic matter. The soils are often used for
shifting cultivation or for semi-permanent subsistence agriculture, but large areas are
also used for ree crops (rubber, oil palm) and with good management food crops such
as rice and cassava can also be grown. In Soil Taxonomy the red-yellow podzolic soils
correspond to Ultisols, Oxisols and occasionally Inceptisols. The red-yellow
Mediterranean soils are fOWld mainly on limestones, calcareous sandstones and
volcanic material, particularly in the dry areas of the Indonesian archipelago, and
occupy a total area of 8.5 m ha. Because of their derivation from basic material, these
soils have pH values ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 and are often highly base saturated.
However, they are low in organic matter and because of their heavy texture may be
poorly drained. Nevertheless, they are inherently more fertile than the red-yellow
podzolic soils and are cultivated with a wider variety of crops, including maize,
cassava, peanuts and rice. They correspond to Alfisols in the US Soil Taxonomy.
Latosols and lateritic soils occupy 18 m ha in Indonesia. They are found mainly on
volcanic parent materials and are deeply weathered, strongly leached and highly
acidic (PH 4.5 to 5.5). They are low in organic matter and deficient in nutrients.
However, their physical properties may be good; they are easily worked because of
their friable consistency and they are more resistant to erosion because of their high
degree of aggregate stability. They are used for the cultivation of upland crops or
wetland rice and are classed as Oxisols or Inceptisols.
Vietnam
Weathering under humid tropical climatic conditions has resulted in the formation of
reddish infertile soils in Vietnam. These soils cover an area of21.6 mha, which is 2/3
of the country and are found from 20 m to 3400 m above MSL (Toan, 1998). The soils
have high levels of sesquioxides in various forms of Fe and Al and have lost most of
their bases and Si02 due to leaching. Precipitated Fe and Al compounds may form
into subsurface hard pans. The reddish yellow ferrallitic soils, which occupy nearly
half of the land area of Vietnam, have pH (KCI) values between 4.0 to 4.5, with high
Al saturation and low P, mostly associated with Al and Fe. Reddish and yellowish
soils in the northern mountainous areas have pH values in the range 4.1 to 4.8, CECs
00.8 to 18.2 cmolckg-l, available Cafrom 0.51 to 8.0 cmolc kg- l and available P from
o to 1.4 mg kg- l (Toan, 1998). Soil erosion, shifting cultivation, high P fixation and
poor nutrient status are the major constraints for crop production on these soils.
3.5 Red Soils of China
Red soils are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical China, occupying an area
of 0.45 million km2 (Zhao, 1996). These soils include latosols, lateritic red soils, red
earths, yellow soils, and red paddy soils derived from these zonal soils (Xiong and Lu,
1996). They are mostly equivalent to Oxisols, Ultisols and some of the Alfisols in the
soil taxonomy of USA. The distribution pattern ofland use in the red soil regions has
been calculated as follows: arable 13.6%, forestry 44%, grassland 3.7%, wasteland
24% and others 14.7%.
The red soil regions in China have favorable climatic and biological resources, with
an annual mean daily temperature of 17-20 °c and active cumulative temperature (>
10°C) of 5400 to 6000 degree-days, mean annual duration of sunshine of 1500-1900
hours and mean annual solar irradiation of 420-460 MJm-2• Annual rainfall ranges
from 1300 to 1700 mm with a distinct peak in spring (March - May) and early
summer (June-July) followed by a late summer and autumn drought. Owing to the
highly diversified physical conditions and abundant water, favourable temperature,
adequate land mass and biological resources, these regions contribute greatly to the
development of sustainable agriculture and to the economy of the country as a whole.
Thus, 42.7% of the grain and 75% of the total rice are produced in these regions of
China which supports 43% of the country's population, but accounts for only 27% of
the nation's total cultivated land area (He et aI., 2001).
The inherent fertility of Chinese red soils varies greatly, depending on parent
materials, climate, and land use (Xiong and Lu, 1996). Organic matter contents in the
red soils ranges from less than 10 g kg· l to higher than 100 g kg· l . Most red soils are
generally low in organic matter although some yellow earths (which are often
considered to be in the same category as red soils in China because they are thought to
be closely associated from a genetic point of view) might contain over 100 g kg- l
organic matter. The yellow earths, which are mainly under forest vegetation in the
mountainous regions of tropical and subtropical China, generally contain higher
organic matter than latosols and red earths. Deforestation or prolonged intensive
cultivation of upland crops has resulted in decreased content of organic matter,
whereas land use change from upland cropping to submerged paddy rice-growing
increased the organic matter in the soils. Application of farm manures also increases
the soil organic matter content, but growth of green manure might have a negative
effect (Xiong and Lu, 1996). Most red soils have low total N, due to their low organic
matter content. Nitrogen deficiency is very common in the red soil regions, especially
in the upland cropping systems. However, both total and available N in red soils tend
to increase in southeast China due to increased inputs of fertilizer N and the return of
straws to the soil. This trend is most obvious in the red soils under rice growth, and
results from organic matter accumulation in these soils. Most red soils have a low
content ofP, but a high adsorption capacity for P due to their high contents of Fe and
AI oxides and kaolinite. Approximately 60% of the agricultural red soils examined
were deficient in available P in the early 1980's. This situation was improved by
application of P fertilizers. However, 30 to 50% of these soils are still deficient in
available P (Olsen-P) and contain <5 mg P kg- l soil, which is the critical level.
Intensive weathering, leaching and soil erosion combine to ensure that the K content
in Chinese red soils is usually very low. More than 50% of the red soils examined had
available K (neutral ammonium acetate extractable) below the critical level of 50 mg
K kg-lsoil. K deficiency in red soils, especially red paddy soils, tends to increase with
time because of unbalanced fertilization (high N and low K).
It may be noted that not all red soils in China are as inherently infertile as those
described above. Thus, in Yunnan Province recent work by Yunnan Agricultural
University in conjunction with various EU partners on red soils either derived from or
strongly influenced by limestone, shows that these soils may be neutral or even
slightly alkaline in reaction and may be fully base saturated. Moreover, they may have
appreciable contents of weatherable minerals, including carbonates, and have a clay
fraction dominated by an illite/chlorite assemblage which is inherited from parent
rocks. The soils in question occur on steep eroding slopes in a relatively young
landscape, still subject to active tectonic movement, and are essentially colluvial in
nature. Despite their deep red colour, it is probable that these soils would be included
in the Alfisol or even the Inceptisol order.
4. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING CROP

PRODUCTION ON RED SOILS WITH EMPHASIS ON
BRAZILIAN SOILS
Infertile, nutrient-depleted red soils can be restored for crop production with
appropriate management practices such as liming, use of adequate levels of deficient
nutrients, control of soil erosion, increasing soil organic matter content, adoption of
appropriate crop rotation and use of nutrient-efficient species and/or cultivars. Baligar
and F ageria (1997), F ageria and Baligar (2001) and Fageria et. al (1990a) have written
extensively on the management strategies aimed at improving nutrient efficiency in
Oxisols and Ultisols.
4.1 Liming
Acidification represents a major degradation factor in the loss of soil quality and
affects extensive areas in the tropical and temperate zones. Acid soils occupy 3.95 b
ha (about 30%) of the world's ice-free land area (Von Uexkull and Mutert, 1995). In
tropical South America, 85% of the soils are acidic, and approximately 850 m ha of
under-utilized acid soils exist in this region. The poor productivity of crops grown on
acid soils is due to a combination of toxicity (AI, Mn, H) and deficiencies of some
major nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg ) and of some micronutrients ( particularly Zn, Cu,
B). Most Brazilian soils are acidic and suffer from the above deficiencies, with
aluminum toxicity being recognized as one of the most important chemical
constraints to crop production. Liming is the most common and the most effective
practice for reducing these soil acidity problems. Liming significantly increased grain
yields of annual crops grown on Oxisols (F ageria 2001) and led to a number of direct
and indirect effects. The direct effects include higher levels of pH, Ca, Mg and base
saturation (Table 6).
Liming also resulted in a number of changes that might be considered as indirect.
Thus, as soil pH increased P and Mo become more available, whereas the availability
of Mn, Cu, Fe and Zn decreased.
The quantity of lime added depends on type of soil, quality of liming material, crop
species, cultivar (within species), and economic considerations. In Brazil, liming
recommendations are based on the exchangeable AI, Ca, and Mg in the soil and lime
requirement (LR) is calculated using the following formula:
Table 6. Influence ofliming on soil pH, Ca, Mg and base saturation in the top 20 cm
of an Oxisol of central Brazil (Fageria, 1998).
Lime applied pH Ca Mg Base saturation

(t ha- I) (H2O) (CmoI., kg-I) (%)
0 5.5 1.5 0.9 36
4 6.1 3.6 1.2 64
8 6.5 3.6 1.3 66
12 6.7 4.3 1.3 68
16 6.8 4.4 1.3 68
20 7.0 4.9 1.4 75
The lime requirement computed from the exchangeable AI, Ca, and Mg content of the
soil is based on the assumption that Al toxicity and Ca and Mg deficiencies are the
most important growth-limiting factors in these acid soils. In some parts of Brazil,
base saturation is used as a parameter to calculate lime requirement using the
following formula:
LR (metric tons ha- t ) = [CEC (B2 - B t ) / (TRNP)] x DF
where
CEC is the total exchangeable cations (Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + It" + AL 3+) in cmolckg-t,
B2 is the optimum base saturation,
BI is the existing soil base saturation,
TRNP is the total relative neutralizing power of liming material and
DF is the soil depth factor (1.0 for 20 cm, 1.5 for 30 cm depth).
For Brazilian Oxisols, the optimum base saturation for most annual crops is
considered to be in the range of 50-60% (Raij and Quaggio, 1997).
4.2 Use of optimum rate ofessential nutrients
Nitrogen deficiency is a major limitation to plant growth in acid soils in both tropical
and temperate regions. In tropical America, N deficiency is a major soil constraint
over 93% of the region occupied by Oxisols and Ultisols (Sanchez and Salinas, 1981).
The main reason for the widespread N deficiency in these and other similar regions in
the tropics is a lower rate ofN application than that removed in harvested crops or lost
by other processes, combined with decreases in organic matter content with
successive cultivation. Table 7 shows the response of rice and common bean crops to
fertilization on Cerrado soils in Brazil. Phosphorus deficiency is a major
yield-limiting factor for crop production on these soils (Fageria and Baligar, 1997b,
Fageria and Baligar, 2001) because of their low native soil P content and their high P
fixation capacity. The P fixation capacity of an Oxisol from central Brazil was studied
over a period of 80 days by Fageria and Barbosa Filho (1987). It was concluded that
the fixed P (not recovered by Mehlich solution extraction) increased from 45 to 268
kg P ha· 1 when the P application rate was increased from 50 to 400 kg P ha· 1• This
means these types of soils require large amounts of fertilizer P for optimum crop
production. Annual crop responses to K fertilization are not as widespread and not as
significant as N and P in the Cerrdao and Varzea soils of Brazil. Potassium, however,
is absorbed in greater quantities by annual crops, especially by high yielding cultivars.
A single upland rice crop grown on an Oxisol of Cerrado soil produced 4795 kg ha· 1
of grains in about 130 days and took up 159 kg N ha-1, 13 kg P ha-1, and 189 kg K ha- 1
(Fageria, 1998). This implies that in situations where intensive agriculture is practiced,
failure to replace the K that is removed in the harvested crop can result in K deficiency
becoming a limitation to further crop production. Responses of upland and lowland
rice in Cerrado and Varzea soils in Brazil have been reported by Fageria et aI. (1989,
1990b). Three management practices can be used to improve K fertilizer use
efficiency by plants growing on these acid soils. First, K fertilizers should be applied
at an economically feasible rate, bearing in mind the need, in the long term, to replace
K lost through crop removal and leaching. Second, incorporation of crop residues in
the soil after harvest enables a substantial amount of the plant K to be recycled.
Approximately 85 to 92% of the total K content remains in the vegetative shoot of
cereals such as rice and com and 54 to 65% remains in the shoot of legumes such as
common bean and soybean (Fageria et aI., 1990a). Thirdly, the use of K-efficient
cultivars will increase K uptake efficiency. Deficiencies of Ca and Mg are also
important limitations to plant growth in Brazilian acid soils (Table 8). Thus, crops
removed from about 26 to 53 kg Ca ha- 1 and 12 to 26 kg Mg ha- 1, from a Brazilian
Oxisol depending on the yield and the particular crop. Crop requirements of Ca and
Mg in deficient soils can be fulfilled with the application of dolomitic lime. Data in
Table 8 show an increase in exchangeable Ca and Mg in a Brazilian Oxisol when
increasing rates of dolomitic lime were applied. Gypsum (CaS04.2H20) can also be
used to improve the available Ca content of acid soils. In Cerrado soils, gypsum is
recommended on the basis of clay content for annual crop production using the
formula (Sousa and Lobato, 1996):
Gypsum requirement (kg ha- 1) = 50 x clay content (%).
In addition to Ca, gypsum can supply S to growing plants and Ca can leach to subsoil
horizons where native Ca levels may be too low to support root growth. The ionic
Table 7. Response ojupland rice and common bean grown in rotation tojertilization
in Cerrado soil. ( Fageria and Souza, 1995)
Fertlity level Rice grain yield! Common bean grain yield!

(kgha- 1) (kg ha- 1)
Low 1684b 1230c

Medium 2117a 1818b
High 2104a 2162a
Medium + green manure 2403a 1537a
F - Test * **
IValues are averages of three crops grown in rice-bean rotation.
*, ** significant at the 5 and 1% probability levels, respectively. Within same column, means followed by
the same letter do not differ significantly at 5% probability levels by Tukey's test.
2Cerrado soil fertility levels for rice were low (no addition of fertilizers); medium (50 kg N ha- I, 26 kg
P 00- 1,33 kg K ha- I, 30 kg ha- I (fritted glass material as a source ofmicronutrients); high (all the nutrients
applied were double the medium level). Cajanus cajan L. was used as a green manure at the rate of25.6
t ha- I green matter. For common bean the fertility levels were low (without addition offertilizers); medium
(35 kg N ha- I, 44 kg P ha- I, 42 kg K 00- 1, 30 kg ha· 1 (fritted glass material as a source of micronutrients) and
high (all the nutrients applied were double the medium level).
strength of the soil solution is increased by gypsum, and this lowers the activity of
Al3+.
Furthennore, sulfate forms ion pairs such as AlSO/ which is less toxic to plants than
Al3+. In some Cerrado soils, crop responses to applied S have been reported when
sulfate-S is belowlO mg kg" 1 (Malavolta et ai., 1987). These authors have also
reported that crops are likely to benefit from the addition of S containing fertilizers at
the rates of 20 kg S ha- 1•
Brazilian soils are generally low in available Zn and deficiency of this nutrient has
been reported in upland as well as lowland rice, com and soybean (Fageria et aI.,
1997a). Most of the Brazilian soils are acidic and liming is an essential practice for
improving soil pH and decreasing the toxicity of elements such as Al and Mn. With
higher pH, micronutrient cations fonn insoluble hydroxides or oxides and, under
these circumstances, deficiency of micro-nutrients may be expected. A typical
example is Fe deficiency in Brazilian Oxisols in upland rice when soil pH is raised to
about 6 (F ageria, 1998). The best management strategy is to avoid over-liming the soil
so that pH is maintained in the range 5.5 to 5.8. Application of Zn at about 2 to 5 kg
ha- 1 through zinc sulphate can correct Zn deficiency in most annual crops. Foliar spray
of micro-nutrients is also effective.
4.3 Control of soil erosion
Water erosion is the main cause of top soil loss and decreased soil productivity of
arable
Table 8. Yield and nutrient accumulations by various crops grown infour year
rotation on an Oxisol in central Brazil. (Fageria, 1998)
Yield and Upland Rice Common bean Com Soybean
Nutrient Shoot Grain Shoot Grain Shoot Grain Shoot Grain
Yld kgha- I 6642 4794 1773 1674 13670 8148 2901 1323
Nkgha- 1 80 80 19 68 82 126 57 90
Pkgha- 1 4 9 1 5 5 17 8 9
Kkgha- 1 174 15 37 31 108 19 44 24

Cakg ha- 1 27 2 21 5 34 8 48 5
Mgkg ha- 1 19 5 8 4 18 8 16 3
Zngha- 1 159 136 45 73 183 196 75 87
Cugha- 1 35 51 12 21 60 8 95 31
Mngha-1 1308 395 91 17 366 81 269 27
Fegha- 1 523 148 398 129 974 163 1277 172
Bgha- 1 40 20 26 14 137 49 38 21
lands under Brazilian conditions. Top soil depth is a criterion that has been often used
to evaluate soil quality and productivity. Erosion of top soil usually reduces plant-
available water and nutrients. As topsoil depth decreases, so normally does soil
productivity. Soil erosion can be reduced to a tolerable level by adopting erosion
control structures and practices such as terraces, strip or contour cropping, and
conservation tillage. Table 9 shows soil arid nutrient losses by water erosion under
conventional and conservation tillage on an Oxisol from the state of Rio Grande do
SuI. Soil and nutrient losses were much lower under zero-tillage as compared to
conventional tillage system.
Table 9. Soil and nutrient losses by water erosion under different tillage systems in
wheat-soybean rotation on a Brazilian Oxisol (Kochhann, 1990)
Tillage System Soil loss Nutrient loss

(tha-1 yr_l) (kgha- 1)
Conventional (residue burned) 12.8 54.4

Conventional (residue incorporated) 4.0 18.2
Zero-tillage 1.1 4.5
4.4 Improving soil organic matter content
Soil organic matter is linked to desirable soil physical, chemical, and biological
properties and is closely associated with soil productivity. As a chemical reservoir,
there is universal acknowledgement that soil organic matter is the major indigenous
source of soil-available N, P, S and other essential nutrients. Some cultural practices
such as incorporation of crop residues, use of organic manures, use of proper crop
rotation and conservation tillage systems are important strategies for maintaining
adequate levels of soil organic matter.
4.5 Use of crop rotation
Crop rotation has many advantages such as improving organic matter content,
reducing incidence of insects, weeds and diseases, and reduced N fertilizer
requirements for optimal grain yield when compared to monoculture. For crops
following legumes, this reduction is often attributed to the additional N2 fixed by
legumes and that is released through decomposition of roots and residues.
Furthermore, rotated crop sequences may potentially provide available soil N through
increase in soil organic matter, soil microbial biomass, and mineralizable N. Selection
and applicability of cropping systems is guided by climatic and economic principles.
Specific crop rotation sequences are chosen for adaptability to the climate and soil of
the area, performance in relation to other crops in the cropping sequence, and
economic return. Choice of crop is greatly affected by the availability of water, which
is generally determined by local environmental conditions. In Brazilian Cerrado soils,
rice - common bean - corn - soybean is one of the appropriate crop rotations. Another
crop rotation may be soybean - com - rice - common bean. In these rotations, the first
crop is planted during the rainy season (October to March) and second crop is planted
during dry season with irrigation (May to September).
4.6 Exploring plant genetic variability
Use of nutrient-efficient or tolerant crop species and/or cultivars can be a

complementary solution for crop production on low fertility or acidic soils.
Differences in the crop cultivars' use of N, P, and K have been reported by Fageria et
al. (1988; 1990a; 1997a) and Fageria and Baligar (1997a) under Brazilian conditions.
Similarly, Fageria and Baligar (2001) reported differences in AI tolerance of different
crop species expressed on the basis of AI-saturation. Cassava, upland rice, cowpea
and peanut are most tolerant to AI-toxicity and cotton, common bean, and mungbean
are most sensitive.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Increasing crop yields is essential in order to keep pace with the food demands of an
increasing world population. This can be achieved by either further increasing
productivity on intensively cultivated land or by bringing new areas under cultivation.
Both approaches can be used in South America and Africa where red soils are
dominant and where food production needs to be dramatically increased. Most of the
red soils are deep and have good physical properties except for their low water
holding capacity. Climatic conditions in many red soils areas, especially in South
America, are favorable, although seasonal drought in China is a serious constraint to
the use of the red soils. Most red soils, although by no means all, are acidic and are
very low in nutrients, especially phosphorus. To obtain high/or stable yields on these
soils, the following management practices are suggested: (1) use of adequate rates of
lime and fertilizers; (2) maintaining a regular, adequate supply of organic matter, if
possible by use of organic manures on small holdings, or by use of green manure on
bigger holdings; (3) use of proper crop rotation, with greater emphasis on increasing
the area under pulses and forage legumes, so as to derive benefit from residual
nitrogen fixed by them; (4) adoption of improved cultural practices to improve
nutrient use efficiency; (5) use of efficient or tolerant cultivars in combination with
soil amendments; (6) use of some infertile acid red soils with sandy texture for
permanent pasture rather than crop production; (7) adoption of integrated nutrient
management systems so as to improve nutrient use efficiency by annual crops and (8)
adoption of soil conservation practices such as terracing, contour ploughing, use of
cover crops, minimum tillage practices and increasing crop residues. All these
measures are relevant to improving the productivity of the red soils of China but the
point needs to be emphasized that whether or not such measures are taken up in
practice depends as much, if not more, on socio-economic factors as on scientific and
technical solutions to the natural constraints on the use of the soils.
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DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED
SOILS IN CHINA
ZHENLI HE(1), MINGKUI ZHANG(1), and M J WILSON (2)
(J)College o/Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University,

Hangzhou, China
ABSTRACT
Red soils in China include latosols, lateritic red earths, red earths, and yellow earths and are mainly
equivalent to Oxisols, illtisols, and some Alfisols in the US Taxonomy. They cover an area of 102 million
ha and are mainly distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of China, including Hainan,
Guangdong, YUnnan, Taiwan, Fujian, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Hunan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Zhejiang, and Anhui.
Having been subjected to intensive weathering, these soils are usually dominated by variable charge
minerals such as kaolinite and Fe and Al oxides. Most red soils in China are acidic, nutrient-deficient and
low in organic matter and cation exchange capacity, partly because of soil erosion and intensive use.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term 'red soils' used in this article covers all the red soil sequences found in the
tropical and subtropical regions of China, including latosols, lateritic red earths, red
earths, yellow earths, and other soil groups of similar properties. They are equivalent
to Oxisols, Ultisols and some of the Alfisols in the Soil Taxonomy of the USA. As
the soils have been subjected to intensive weathering under tropical and subtropical
climatic conditions, the base elements (K, Na Ca, and Mg) have been mostly leached
out, as has part of the original Si content. On the other hand, there is a relative
accumulation of Al and Fe mostly in the form of oxides and hydroxides. The
dominant clay mineral in these soils is usually kaolinite, often accompanied by
hematite, goethite and sometimes gibbsite .. These minerals carry both negative and
positive charges, depending on pH. Thus, they are often called variable charge
minerals and the soils whose clay fractions are dominated by these minerals are
called variable charge soils (Sanchez, 1976). The variable charge soils differ from
permanent charge soils, which are dominated by 2:1 layer silicate minerals such as
montmorillonite. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is generally low in the red soils
and variable charge minerals and organic matter contribute 50 to 70 % of the total
CEC (Baligar and Ahlrichs 1998). Exchangeable Al3+ and W constitute a large
proportion of the total exchangeable cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ae+, W) in most
29
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils ojChina, 29-33.
© 2004 KJuwer Academic Publishers.
30 ZHENLI HE et al
of the red soils. Liming and application of organic matter are effective approaches
for increasing the CEC and base saturation of these soils (Von Uexkull and Mutert,
1995).
Red soils are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions and potentially
constitute one of the most important soil resources for food production in the world.
In China, the red soil regions cover an area of 2.6 million km2 in the tropical and
subtropical climatic zones embracing 15 provinces and autonomous regions and
accounting for over 20% of the country's total land area. The red soil regions have
favorable climatic and biological resources, including an annual mean daily
temperature of 17-26 °c and an active cumulative temperature (> 10 0c) of 5000 to
9000 degree-days, mean annual duration of sunshine 1500-2100 hours and mean
annual solar irradiation 4200-5800 MJm-2• Annual rainfall ranges from 1200 to 3000
rom with a distinct peak in spring (March - May) and early summer (June-July)
followed by a late summer drought. The highly diversified physical conditions,
abundant water, favorable temperature, adequate land and biological resources, have
enabled the red soil regions to contribute greatly to the development of sustainable
agriculture and to the economy of China. Thus, 42.7% of the grain and 75% of the
rice are produced in these regions of China, which supports 43% of the country's
population but accounts for only 27% of the nation's total cultivated land area.
The red soil regions are dominated by low mountains and hills, a landscape that with
an uneven distribution of rainfall makes the agroecosystem of these regions very
vulnerable to soil erosion. Moreover, these regions, being the most densely
populated, are under great pressure to increase the area of arable land so as to meet
the increasing demand for food and fibre. This demand is often achieved at the
expense of deforestation of red soils, so that control of soil erosion becomes a most
critical challenge in these regions of China. Soil erosion has resulted in a tremendous
loss of nutrients and decline of soil fertility over the past decades.
In recent years, with the rapid development of industry, some red soils have become
contaminated by heavy metals as a result of increased inputs from industrial sources.
In addition, surface water contamination with nitrogen and phosphorus, which are
exported from agricultural practices by means of soil erosion or leaching, has
become a public issue of increasing concern. These problems pose new challenges to
the utilization, management, and protection of red soil resources and to sustainable
agricultural production in the red soil regions.
2. DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS
Red soils occupy an area of 101.9 million ha in China and consist of four soil groups
in the Chinese Soil Classification: Latosols, Lateritic red earths, Red earths, and
Yellow earths (Table 1). These soils have a characteristic zonal distribution and
DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS IN CHINA 31
have a typical profile consisting of A-Bs (eluvial horizon)-Bv (plinthite or Fe and Mn

concretion/hardpan horizon)-C (parent material). Lateritic red earths and Yellow
earths have a much less developed Bv horizon due to their distribution in high
plateau or mountainous areas that have not been subjected to water submergence.
Some Latosols, Lateritic red earths, and Red earths lack a well-developed A horizon
because of soil erosion effects, whereas some Yellow earths may have an "AB"
transitional horizon due to long-term forestry (Table 2).
Table 1. Distribution and nutrient status of red soils in China
Latosols Lateritic Red Red Earths Yellow Earths

Earths
Sub-Groups Ortho Iatosols Ortho-lateritic Ortho-red earths Ortho-yellow earths
Yellowish red earths Yellowish red earths Grey yellow earths
latosols Yellowish Brownish red earths Bleached yellow
alteritic red Para-red earths earths
earths Para-yellow earths
Para-lateritic red
earths
Area (mill.ha.) 3.04 14.73 30.73 20.96
0.89 2.96 17.43 <0.01
0.09 2.76 0.10
5.98 2.18
% oftotal red 3.86 17.46 55.86 22.28
soil area
Distribution Hainan Fujian Jiangxi Mountainous areas of
Guangdong Guangdong HWlan south China including
Yunnan Guangxi Guangdong Sichuan and
Taiwan Yunnan Fujian Guizhou
Taiwan Giangxi
Y=
Guizhou
Sichuan
Zhejiang
Anhui
Parent Basalt Granite,basalt, Quaternary red clay, Granite and

Materials Sandstone Shale and red sandstone, sandstone
Marine deposits Quaternary red phyllite, granite and
clax B!!eiss
Clay Minerals Kaolinite, Kaolinite, Fe and Kaolinite, Fe and AI Kaolinite,
gibbsite, AI oxide oxides, AI vermiculite, gibbsite,
hematite minerals chloriteslvermiculite goethite, AI chlorite
AI chlorite illite
US Soil Udox, Udult, Udult, Ochrult, Udult, Udalf, Udalf, Umbrept,
Taxonomx Humult, Udox Ochr!:,Et Ochr!:,Et OchreEt, Udent
32 ZHENLI HE et al
The Latosols are mostly developed on the terraces of low hills in Hainan and the
Leizhou Penninsula of Guangdong as well as the southern part of Yunnan and
Taiwan, where high temperature and rainfall cause intensive weathering of minerals.
Primary and secondary 2: 1 clay minerals such as monmorillonite and illite were
completely decomposed and kaolinite and gibbsite become the dominant clay
minerals. The main iron oxide mineral is a highly crystallized form of hematite,
giving a red or dark red color to the soils, and accompanied by minor amounts of
goethite. Latosols account for approximately 4% of the total red soils of China. The
parent materials on which the Latosols are developed include basalt, sandstone, and
marine deposits. In some hilly or mountainous areas of higher humidity, the soils are
more yellowish due to an increased proportion of goethite. These soils are called
yellowish Latosols.
Table 2. Distribution and nutrient status of red soils in China
Soil Types/ Latosols Lateritic Red Yellow

ProEerties red earths earths Earths
Profile ABsBv C ABC ABsBv C A(AB) B C
Clay (%) 40-60 30-40 25-40 15-30
pH 4.6-5.4 5.0-5.5 4.2-5.9 4.5-5.5
SOM (g kg-I) 18-25 12-23 20-55 40-80
CEC (cmole kg-I) 2.8-12.6 5.4-11.7 5.3-8.9 10.0-20.0
Base Sat. (%) 15-20 20-30 15-25 15-60
Total N. (g kg"l) 0.5-1.2 0.8-1.5 1.4-2.0 1.8-3.3
Total P (g kg"l) 0.3-1.5 0.5-0.9 0.6-0.9 0.5-1.9
Total K (g kg-I) 0.5-6.4 15-25 15-20 11-26
Hydrol.N (mg kg-I) 25-170 NA 60-170 NA
Avail. P (mg kg-I) 2-10 2-9 2-4 NA
Avail. K (m~ k~-I) 31-65 50-130 37-120 NA
The lateritic red earths, accounting for about 17% of the total red soils, are
mainly distributed in areas bordering between the tropical and subtropical regions of
China including the west and southeast parts of Guangdong, southwest part of
Guangxi, south part of Fujian and Taiwan, and southeast part of Yunnan. They are the
transitional soil types between the Latosols and the Red earths that were subjected to
less intensive weathering under subtropical climate conditions. These soils are
derived mainly from granite, shale, basalt, and quaternary red clay. Mica and feldspar
tend to decrease and kaolinite and Fe and Al oxides are the dominant clay minerals
with minor amount of AI-chlorite (Table 1). This lateritic soil group has three sub-
groups: lateritic red earths, yellowish lateritic red earths, and para-lateritic red earths,
with slightly decreased weathering intensity.
DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS IN CHINA 33
The red earths, which account for approximately 56% of the total red soil area, are
the dominant highly weathered soil type in China. This soil group consists of four
subgroups including red earths, yellowish red earths, brownish red earths, and sub-
red earths. They are widely distributed in the hilly and mountainous regions to the
south of Yangtze river, including most parts of Jiangxi and Hunan, northern part of
Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Fujian, southern part of Quizhou, Sichuan,
Zhejiang, and Anhui. The major parent materials from which the red earths were
derived include Quaternary red clay, limestone, shale, tuff, phyllite, granite, and
gneiss. Kaolinite, Fe and Al oxides are often the dominant clay minerals in the red
earths, but occasionally, there are also small amounts of AI-chlorite, illite, and AI-
vermiculite.
The yellow earths are found in the mountainous regions of south China, distributed
mostly in tropical and subtropical mountain lands of Sichuan, Quizhou, and other
provinces, with high humidity and rainfall. These soils are mainly developed on
granite and sandstone and contain considerable amounts of vermiculite, AI- chlorite,
and illite, in addition to kaolinite and Fe and AI oxides. Goethite is the dominant Fe
oxide mineral and gibbsite the major AI oxide mineral (Table 1).
To facilitate understanding of the red soils, soil classification names under the US
Soil Taxonomy, which are equivalent to each sub-groups of the red soils, are also
provided in Table 1. There is an apparent difference in the use of standards for soil
classification between the US and Chinese systems so that the soil classification
equivalents may not be precise.
3. REFERENCES
Baligar, V. C andAhlichs, J. L. 1998. Nature and distribution of acid soils in the world.
In R E Schaffert (ed). Develop a Strategy for the Collaborative Research and Dissemination oftechnology
in Sustainable Crop production in Tropical Acid Savannas and Other problem Soils ofthe World. pp
1-11 Purdue University, W. Lafayette.
Sanchez, P. A. 1976. Properties and Management ofSoils in the Tropics. John Wtley and Sons, New
York.
Von Uexkull, HP. and E. Mutert. 1995. Global extent, development and economic impact of acid soils.
Plant Soil 171:1-15.
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN
CHINA IN RELATION TO THEIR DEVELOPMENT
AND CHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
MINGKUI ZHANG (1), M J WILSON (2) AND ZHENLI HE (1)
(1) Department of Resource Science, College ofResource and Environmental

Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, Zhejiang Province, China
ABSTRACT
The mineral composition of the different size fractions of red soils from southern China was
investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy analysis (IR), transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) and chemical methods. Surface charge and phosphate adsorption characteristics of the
soils were also determined. The results showed that kaolinite and/or halloysite are the most common clay
minerals in the soils. However, the ablDldance and mineral composition of the soils varied with latitude,
elevation, parent materials, and topographic position. Types of kaolin mineral in the soils changed with
soil types, the relative proportion of kaolinite increasing with weathering degree. Under C1DTent
subtropical climates, a transformation process of mica to vermiculite also occurs in these soils. Goethite
and hematite are the only two crystalline Fe oxides occurring in significant quantity in these soils. The
goethite/(goethite+hematite) ratios ranged from 0 to 1, being the highest in yellow soils, and the lowest in
soils derived from purple sandstone where only hematite was present. Substitution of AI in goethite
ranged from 6.6 to 29.9 mole % with a mean value of 16.7 mole %AI, while substitution of AI in hematite
ranged from 0 to 12.1 mole %. The values of AI substitution of hematite were closely related to the
corresponding values of the coexisting goethite. Phosphorus (P) adsorption of all the soils studied was
well described by the FrelUldlich and Langmuir equations. The maximum buffering capacity (MBC) ofP
ranged from 66.5 to 9880 mg kg'! in the increasing order of red-purple sandstone soil < purple sandstone
soil < red sandstone soil < red soil < lateritic red soil < yellow soil < latosol. The zero point of charge
(ZPC) values obtained by salt titration-potential titration varied from 3.03 to 5.49, the highest value being
fOlDld in the latosol derived from basalt and the lowest in purple sandstone soil. Correlation analysis
indicates that the main minerals responsible for phosphate adsorption in the soils were gibbsite,
amorphous iron oxides and kaolin, whereas the PZC was mainly controlled by kaolin, gibbsite and
oxides.
Key words: Mineralogy, iron oxide, phosphate adsorption, red soil, soil
development, surface charge.
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soils, occur extensively in tropical and subtropical China and cover an area of
2.2 million km2 (Group of Utilization, Improvement and Regionalization of Red
35
36 MINGKUI ZHANG et ai.
Soils and Yellow Soils, 1985). According to the FAO legend, the soils in this area
are mainly Cambisols, Nitosols, Acrisols and Ferralsols (FAOlUnesco, 1974). In this
paper, the soil types are designated according to the Chinese Soil Classification
System, and they are designated as red soil, yellow soil, lateritic red soil, latosol,
paddy soil and others (red sandstone soil and purple sandstone soil). The monsoon
climate in the tropical and subtropical China has a mean annual temperature of
17-25°C, and mean annual precipitation of 11 0o-2000mm, favouring the intensive
weathering of minerals. The soils were generally considered to develop toward
desilicification and kaolinization (Hseung and Li, 1990; Luo et aI., 1993; Yang and
Jiang, 1991; Zhang, 1963; Zhang, 1991). However, due to great variation in relief
and parent materials, as well as the variety of climate, the mineralogy of the red soils
is more complicated and varied than that of temperate soils. Under different
pedogenetic environmental conditions, the degree of weathering of the soil minerals
varies greatly, and consequently the composition of the clay minerals also varies. It
is generally thought that in the soils the clay minerals and iron oxides play an
important role in nutrient availability and soil structure formation. Therefore, the
types of clay minerals and iron oxides and their abundance and properties will
influence the management of these soils.
In addition, tropical and subtropical soils in China are known to be deficient in
many nutrients, but particularly in phosphate (Li, 1983). The availability of applied
P to plants is closely related to the phosphate adsorption capacity and surface charge
characteristics of the soils. The main components involved in phosphate adsorption
and surface charge are the types and amounts of clay minerals, Fe, Al oxides, and
organic matter (Barron et aI., 1988; Bigham et aI., 1978; Hue, 1991; Moshi et aI.,
1974; Sibanda et aI., 1986; Torrent et aI., 1990). Significant relationships have been
observed between P-adsorption capacity, surface charge and soil properties (Jones,
1981; Karim et aI., 1984). The relevant properties may include texture, color,
amounts of extractable Fe and Al and mineral composition. However, surface charge
characteristics, and phosphate adsorption and their relations with mineralogy in the
red soils are not fully understood, and further research was urgently required to
provide recommendations for the better exploitation and utilization of these soils.
With this aim in mind, representative soils of the different soil groups which
make up the red soils were collected, based on their mature development from
different parent materials, so as to study the composition and evolution of the clay
minerals, and their relation to phosphate adsorption and surface charge
characteristics of the soils.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Identification of minerals in clay, silt and sandfractions

MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN ClflNA 37
Forty-seven representative soil profiles comprising 114 soil samples were

collected from different locations in southern China. These soils covered the main
types of parent materials and soil types. After air drying and sieving to remove
gravels, the soils were dispersed in aqueous suspension at pH 8.2 using ultrasonic
vibration. Clay «0.002mm), silt (0.002-0.02mm), fine sand (0.02-D.25mm) and
coarse sand (0.25-2mm) were then separated by sedimentation and sieving. Clay
fractions were saturated with calcium and dried at 45°C prior to mineralogical
analysis.
Mineralogical analysis of the clay was performed using X-ray diffraction
(Siemens D 500). Oriented aggregates were prepared by drying clay suspensions on
a glass slide, followed by ethylene glycol and thermal (300°C) treatments. To
differentiate halloysite from kaolinite, some samples were also treated with
formamide (Churchman et aI., 1984). The XRD patterns of sand fractions were
obtained directly from powder samples, while selected clay samples were further
analyzed by infrared spectroscopy analysis (IR, Perkin-Elmer 580 B) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Wilson, 1994).
Relative intensities of X-ray diffraction peak areas for kaolin, illite, vermiculite,
smectite, chlorite and gibbsite in clay fractions were used for the semi-quantification
of the clay minerals from the X-ray diffractograrns. In the diffractograms, the
intensities of the kaolin (001), illite (001), vermiculite (001), chlorite (001), smectite
(001) and gibbsite (002) peak areas were measured, no weighing factors were used,
and sum of these minerals calculated to 100 %.
2.2 Identification of oxides
A total of 25 soil profiles (with 33 samples) were collected from Zhejiang,

Jiangxi, Fujian, Anhui, Hainan, Guangdong and Yunnan provinces of southern
China. After air-drying and sieving to remove gravels, the soils were dispersed at pH
8.2 by ultrasonic vibration. The clay fraction «2J.lm) of the soils was separated by
sedimentation and then treated with boiling 5 mole L- 1 NaOH to concentrate iron
oxides (Kampf and Schwertmann, 1982). X-ray powder diffraction was carried out
by a Siemens D500 instrument equipped with CoKa. radiation and a monochromator
in the diffracted beam using step-scanning of 0.02229 increments and a counting
time of 10 s per increment from 10 2 to 52 229 (40kV, 40mA). The samples were
mounted in perspex holders and gently pressed against frosted glass. The
goethite:(goethite+hematite) ratio was empirically calculated from the formula
(Torrent and Cabedo, 1986): R = 0.55+0.57 log Gt(111)/Hm(110), where Gt(I11)
and Hm(110) are the area of the goethite(111) and hematite(110) peaks,
respectively, in the XRD patterns. Absolute percentages of goethite and hematite in
the soils were then calculated by allocating the differences (crystalline iron oxides)
between Fed (dithionite soluble Fe) and Feo (oxalate extractable Fe) to these two
38 MINGKUI ZHANG et al.
minerals, because all the samples were free of other crystalline iron oxides. The
degree of isomorphous substitution of Al in the Fe oxides was calculated by the
following equations: Al substitution (mole%) = 1730 -572 Co, Co=[(lId(lll)i-
(1Id(1l0)ir l/2 for goethite (Schulze, 1984), and Al substitution (mole%) =3109 -
1234.2d(llO) for hematite (Schwertmann et al.,1979). The positions of all lines were
corrected using corundum as an internal standard.
2.3 Phosphate adsorption isotherms
Soil samples (2g) were weighed directly into acid washed 50 ml plastic
centrifuge tubes, appropriate quantities of 0.1 mole L- i KCI and 200 mg P L- i (as
KH2P04 ) in 0.1 mole L- i KCI were added to yield solutions that were
0,10,20,40,60,80,100,120,150 mg L- i in P. Two drops oftoluene were added to each
tube to inhibit microbial growth. The tubes were then capped and the suspension
was allowed to equilibrate for 4 days at 25°C. During the period of equilibration, the
samples were shaken twice daily, each lasting for 1 h. After 4 day's equilibrium, the
suspension was centrifuged, filtered and analyzed for P using an Inductively
Coupled Plasma (ICP). The adsorbed P was calculated by the difference between the
residual P in the equilibrium solution and the amount of P added after correction for
native-Po
2.4 Measurement of ZPC
The procedure developed by Sakurau et al. (1988) was followed:

1. Place 2 g of soil in each of nine to eleven 50 ml plastic tubes, in order to adjust
pH to span the expected pHo value. Add deionized water and then 0.1 mole L- i HCI
or NaOH to obtain a final solution volume of 20 ml (PH 2-9).
2. Allow the soil suspension to equilibrate for 3-4 days at 25°C, with the samples
being shaken twice daily for 30 min throughout this period and the equilibrium pH
(PHi) recorded.
3. Add 0.5 ml of 2mole L- i NaCI solution and shaking the suspension reciprocally
for 3 h record the pH (PH2).
4. For each tube, the value of ~pH (PH2 - pHi) was calculated, and the value of ~pH
was plotted against pHi to determine the point where ~pH = o. This point
corresponds to the ST-pHo (salt titration) - the pH value that is indifferent to the
titration with salt concentration.
5. Titration curves were constructed based on the titration with acid or base for water
and 0.0485mole L- i NaCI solution; these served as blanks.
6. It or Off adsorbed was calculated by subtracting the blank reading from the
amount of It or Off added for each respective pH.
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN CHINA 39
7. The amount of H + or OH· adsorbed was plotted against the pH for water and
0.0485 mole L· t NaCI solution. This intersection point corresponds to the STPT-
zpc.
2.5 Estimation ofsoil redness
Dry soil colors were determined in daylight with standard soil color charts.
Redness rating was estimated according to the following expression (Torrent et aI.,
1980): redness rating = Hx CN, where C and V are the numerical values of chroma
and value, respectively, of the Munsell notation. The numerical values ofH are 12.5
for Munsell hue of7.5R, 10 for lOR, 7.5 for 2.5 YR, 5 for 5YR, 2.5 for 7.5YR and 0
for 10YR.
2.6 Determination ofsoil physical and chemical properties
The soils were air-dried, sieved through a 2 rom sieve prior to analysis. Particle
size distribution was determined by the hydrometer method. Soil pH was measured
at a 1:2 soil to water ratio using a glass electrode pH meter (Institute of Soil Science,
Academia Sinica, 1978). Soil organic matter was determined by the wet combustion
method (Institute of Soil Science, Academia Sinica, 1978). Exchangeable bases were
extracted with 1 mole L- t ~OAc at pH 7.0 (Institute of Soil Science, Academia
Sinica, 1978) and potassium (K) and sodium (Na) in the extracts were measured
using flame photometry while magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) were determined
using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Exchangeable acidity was measured
by 1 mole L- t KCI extraction procedure. Amorphous Fe oxides were extracted by
ammonium oxalate (pH3.2) (Schwertmann, 1964), and free Fe oxides by sodium
dithionite citrate-bicarbonate solution (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). The total
chemical composition of the fme soil fractions was determined by X-ray
fluorescence analysis (XRF).
3. MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RED SOILS
3.1 Clay minerals of main soil groups
3.1.1 Red soils

Red soils are the most important soil type and were mainly distributed in the
central subtropical hilly region with alternating seasonal drying and wetting. Most of
the red soils had a typical mineral composition of kaolinite (halloysite) - vermiculite
- illite, accompanied by goethite and hematite. In addition, low amounts of smectite
(for soils derived from basalt) or chlorite (for soil derived from quartzose sandstone)
were often observed. The relative proportions of kaolinite (halloysite), vermiculite
40 MINGKUI ZHANG et al
and illite in the clay vary with parent materials. However, kaolinite (halloysite) is
generally the dominant clay mineral in these soils.
3.1.2 Yellow soils

These soils are mainly distributed in the mOlmtain regions with a higher
elevation and perudic moisture regime. The soils have a mineral composition of
kaolinite (halloysite) - chlorite - gibbsite or kaolinite (halloysite) - vermiculite -
gibbsite. These minerals co-exist in moderate proportions. XRD analysis shows that
goethite is the only iron oxide mineral detected in the yellow soils, which serves to
differentiate yellow soils from red soils.
3.1.3 Lateritic red soils

These soils are mainly distributed in the southern subtropical region of China.
The clay minerals of these soils form a relatively simple assemblage, dominated by
kaolinite. Vermiculite, illite and gibbsite are found in low amounts, and goethite and
hematite often co-exist in these soils.
3.1.4 Latosols
These soils are distributed in the tropics of China. The clay mineralogy of these
soils is dominated by kaolinite and gibbsite. In addition, some of the soils also have
a small amount of vermiculite. These soils often have substantial amounts of oxides,
including hematite, goethite, ilmenite, magnetite-maghemite and rutile (Zhang,
1999), with hematite being dominant over goethite.
3.1.5 Red sandstone soil, purple sandstone soil and red-purple sandstone soil
These three types of soils are weakly developed because they are strongly
eroded. Their properties and mineralogy are greatly affected by parent rocks, and
their colors are almost the same as the parent rocks. Red sandstone soils were
derived from red sandstone and have a mineral composition of illite - smectite -
halloysite or illite - halloysite - vermiculite, with illite as the predominant clay
mineral. Iron oxides in these soils are dominated by hematite and accompanied by a
small amount of goethite.
Purple sandstone soils have illite as the major clay mineral with some halloysite,
vermiculite or smectite as minor components. The iron oxide in the soils is
exclusively hematite. The amounts of illite in purple sandstone soils are usually
higher than in the red sandstone soils.
Red -purple sandstone soils developed on red purple sandstone are distributed
over a limited area in southern China. Although their colors are more like latosols,
these soils have a unique mineral composition, dominated by smectite and hematite,
with kaolinite (halloysite) being found in trace amounts. XRD analysis showed that
the hematite in the red-purple sandstone soils is well crystallized with a sharp peak
and narrow fiaif height width (about di~5 29), suggesting that the hematite was
relic from parent rock (Zhang et aI., 1999a).
3.1.6 Paddy soils developed from red soil and redeposited red soils
Clay minerals in these soils were inherited from red soils (parent soils),
dominated by kaolinite (halloysite), with a small amount of illite, as in red soils.
However, these paddy soils usually contain much more chlorite, and less
vermiculite. Goethite is the only iron oxide found in the paddy soils (Zhang, 1997a),
which differentiates them from red soils (Table I). It seems that, in the process of
the paddy soil formation, some transformations of vermiculite to chlorite and
hematite to goethite have occurred.
3.1.7 Mineralogy ofsome concretions from red soils

Based on color and compositions of iron oxides, the concretions from the red
soils could be divided into three groups, i.e. red, yellow, and dark brown
concretions. Red concretion contain high amounts of goethite and hematite with low
iron oxide activity (low ratio of amorphous Fe to free Fe). Yellow concretions
contained high amounts of goethite, and had low iron oxide activity and very low
content of Mn oxides. No hematite could be detected in the concretion. The dark
brown concretions contained high amount of goethite and Mn oxides and have a
high iron oxide activity.
3.1.8 Mineralogical characteristics of red and white patches from Zhejiang plinthic
red clay
The typical plinthite in Zhejiang red clay shows distinct red and white patches.
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) showed that Fe, Mn, and P were
significantly higher in the red than in the white patches, whereas other elements,
such as AI, Ca, Na, Mg, Si, and K, were higher in the white patches. This indicates
that the red patches are enriched by iron oxides. Similar TilZr ratios in both red and
white patches suggest that the parent materials of the two patches are the same
(Zhang et aI., 2000). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed a similar clay mineral
composition, consisting of mainly kaolinite and illite. Distinct diffraction peaks of
iron oxides, especially goethite and hematite, were detected in the red patches, but
no iron oxides were detected in the white patches.
42 MINGKUI ZHANG et aI.
Table 1. A comparison of clay minerals between red soil and paddy soils derived
Quaternary red clay in the Jin-Qu basin, Zhejiang province
Soil Parent Minerals

material Verm illite Chlor Kaolin Qtz Iron
oxides
Red soil Q2red clay + + ++++ + GtIHm
Paddy Q2 red clay tr ++ + ++++ + Gt
soil
Paddy Redeposited tr ++ + ++++ + Gt
soil Q2red clay
Verm: vermiculite; Chlor: chlorite; Qtz: quartz;. Gt: goethite; Hm: hematite.
+++++:>80%; ++++: 80-60"10; +1+: 60-30%; ++:30-15%; +:<15%; tr :trace.
3.2 Distribution patterns ofclay minerals and gibbsite fonnation
3.2.1 Changes of clay minerals in different climatic zones

Table 2 shows that, as result of the increased annual mean temperature and
precipitation from the subtropics to the tropics, the intensity of the allitic weathering
processes and leaching of bases from the soils also increases, resulting in clay
mineral changes. From the red soils of the central sUbtropics to the lateritic red soils
in the southern subtropics, kaolinite increases, whereas illite and vermiculite
gradually decrease. However, from lateritic red soils to latosols in the tropics,
kaolinite decreases and gibbsite increases. These changes are consistent with the
suggestion that illite, and vermiculite are converted into kaolinite and then gibbsite
as temperature and precipitation increase from the subtropics to the tropics.
Table 2. Clay minerals of the soils in different climatic zones (horizonal climo-
sequence)
Climatic Soil type Location Parent Minerals

zone material
Central Red soil Zhejiang Granite Kaol (++++), III (++),
subtropics Verm (+), GtIHm (+)
South Lateritic red Fujian Granite Kaol (+++++),Gibbs (tr),
subtropics soil Verm(tr), III (tr), GtIHm (+)
Tropics Latosol Guangdong Basalt Kaol (+++), Gibbs (++),
Verm (+), Hm (+), Ilm(+),
Rut (+), Mag-Maghem(+)
Kaol: kaolinite; ill: ,illite; Venn: vermiculite; Gt: goethite; Hm: hematite; Gibbs: gibbsite; TIm: ilmenite;
Rut: rutile; Mag: magnetite; Maghem: maghemite. + symbols as in Table 1.
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUfHERN CHINA 43
3.2.2 Changes ofclay minerals in verticai tlimatic belts

In the mountain areas of southern China, pedogenetic conditions vary with
elevation. Temperature decreases and precipitation increases with increasing
elevation. This pattern of change is different from the climatic change referred to
above, where temperature and precipitation change in same direction. The types of
soils and their clay minerals also change with elevation. At lower elevations, red
soils are developed, to be succeeded at higher elevations by yellow soils with a
yellow colored B horizon. The yellow-red soils, a subgroup of red soil, are a
transitional soil type between the red and the yellow soils.
The intensity of mineral weathering decreases with altitude, as shown by an
increasing feldspar content in sand fractions and a decreasing kaolinite (halloysite)
content of the soils (Table3). However, annual precipitation and soil moisture
increase at higher elevations and as a result, soil leaching increases. The amounts of
mica in the clay fractions decrease with elevation, while gibbsite and chlorite as well
as the relative proportions of halloysite in the kaolin group minerals increases. Types
of iron oxide minerals also change, from coexisting hematite and goethite in the red
soils to goethite alone in the yellow soils (Zhang, 1990; 1996). This mineralogical
sequence indicates that differences in vertical climatic conditions have a great
influence on soil clay mineralogy.
3.2.3 Variation of clay minerals in different topographic position

Topographic position affects allocation of water, translocation of materials, and
subsequently transformation of minerals (Table 4). In the midslope portion of a hill
with
Table 3. Minerals ofsand and clay fractions of the soils at different altitudinal zones
in the sub tropics
Elevation Soil Location Fractions Minerals

Low Red soil Zhejiang Sand Qtz (+++++), Kaol (tr)
«200m) Clay Kaol (++++), m (++),
Verm (+), GtIHm (+)
Moderate Yellow- Zhejiang Sand Qtz (+++), Feld (++),
(200-600m) red soil Kaol (tr), Chlor (tr)
Clay Kaol (+++),Chlor (++), III (+),
Gibbs (+),Verm (tr), Gt (+)
High Yellow Zhejiang Sand Feld (+++), Qtz (++),
(>600m) soil Kaol (tr), Gibbs (tr)
Clay Kaol (++), Chlor (++),
Gibbs (++),Ill (tr), Gt (+)
Abbreviations and + symbols as in Tables 1 and 2.

intensive weathering of minerals and the accumulation of kaolinite. Thus, the clay
mineralogy of soils located in the midslope portions of hills often consist mainly of
kaolinite with small amounts of montmorillonite and illite. At the summit of the hill,
improved drainage condition favour leaching of bases and weathering of minerals,
but active erosion may remove some secondary minerals (such as kaolinite) from the
soils. These soils are, therefore, often immature and contain more illite, and less
kaolinite than midslope soils. At the bottom of the hill (toeslope), poor drainage
hinders leaching of bases (K, Na, Ca, Mg) and hinders mineral weathering. Amounts
of kaolinite in the soils in this topographic position are lower than at the summits or
midslopes of the hills. Poorly drained conditions help form smectite and chlorite
(Hseung and Li, 1990), and greater amounts of both minerals are found in toeslope
soils (Table 4).
3.2.4 Effect ofparent materials on clay minerals

Table 5 shows that parent materials have a great effect on clay mineral
composition in the central subtropical soils. The clay minerals of soils derived from
mid-Quaternary
red clay have typical red soil characteristics. The soils derived from quartzose
sandstone often contain some chlorite in addition to kaolinite (halloysite),
vermiculite and illite,
while those red soils derived from limestone and gneiss exhibit much higher illite
contents than typical red soils. Red soils derived from basalt are often smectitic,
indicating base-rich parent materials. Clay minerals in soils derived from red
sandstones and purple sandstones are dominated by illite, with an absence of
kaolinite probably reflecting weak weathering and a young topography. Effects of
parent materials on clay
Table 4. Clay minerals of the soils derivedfrom basalt in different topographic

positions in Chengxian, Zhejiang province
Position Drainage Erosion Horizon Minerals
Smect mite Chlor Kaol
Summit A + ++ +++
Well Serious AB + ++ +++
BC + ++ +++
A + + ++++
Midslope Well Weak Bl + + ++++
B2 + + ++++
C + + ++++
A +++ ++ + +
Toeslope Poor Very BI ++ ++ + +
weak B2 +++ ++ tr +
BC ++ +++ +
Abbreviations and + symbols as in Tables 1 and 2
minerals are related to the chemical c6rnposition, weatherability, resistance to

erosion and surface exposure time of the parent materials.
Types of parent material also have an influence on the structural disorder of
kaolinite in the soils (Zhang, 1997b). A decreasing sequence of the disorder was
found for red soils derived from various parent materials as follows: shale,
metamorphic rock, basalt and tuff> mid-Quaternary red clay and late-Quaternary
red clay > limestone, granite and quartzose sandstone. Structural disorder of
kaolinite is generally greater in the surface soils than in the subsurface soils.
3.2.5 The two ways ofgibbsite formation in soils of southern China

Gibbsite is found in great amounts in both latosols and yellow soils. However,
gibbsite is absent or was detected in only small amounts in red soils and lateritic red
soils. The mechanism of gibbsite formation in yellow soils seems to be different
from that in the latosols. Gibbsite is generally considered as a product of kaolinite
decomposition under the intense weathering conditions characteristic of latosols
development. However, Macias (1981) showed that primary gibbsite could be
formed from plagioclases during the initial stages of weathering under strong
leaching. Therefore, gibbsite in the soils of southern China may be divided into
primary gibbsite and secondary gibbsite (Zhang et aI., 1998d). Gibbsite in latosols
formed by the decomposition of layer silicate minerals under strongly weathering
conditions is of the secondary type, while that in yellow soils formed by strong
leaching in the early stages of weathering is of the primary type. The gibbsite in the
yellow soils should not, therefore, be used as an indicator of intensive weathering
conditions.
Table 5. Effect ofparent material on clay minerals in red soils in Zhejiang Province
Parent material Location Minerals

Limestone Hangzhou Kaol (+t+), III (++), Verm (++), Qtz (+)
Qz red clay Hangzhou Kaol (++++), Verm (++), III (+), Qtz (+ )
Quartz sandstone Hangzhou Kaol (+t+), Verm (++), III (+), Chlor (+), Qtz (+)
Basalt Chengxian Kaol (++++), III (+), Smect (+)
Gneiss Quzhou Kaol (++++), III (++), Verm (+)
Red sandstone Quzhou III (+t+), Smect (++), Halloys (+), Qtz (+)
Purple sandstone Quzhou Mica (+++), Verm (+), Halloys (+), Qtz (+)
Halloys: halloysite. Other mineral abbreviations as in previous tables.
3.3 Identification of kaolin group minerals and plumbogummite group minerals in

red soils
3.3.1 Identification of kaolin-group in red soils

Kaolin-group minerals include kaolinite, halloysite, dickite and nacrite, but in
soils only kaolinite and halloysite are of common occurrence. Kaolinite can be
divided into well-crystallised kaolinite and disordered kaolinite. The types of kaolin
minerals in soils are related to pedogenetic environment. The 0.7 urn mineral in
twenty-two red soils from the southern China was comprehensively identified by
four methods (XRD, formamide treatment-XRD, IR and TEM). The results showed
that well crystallized kaolinite occurs in the lateritic red soils derived from granite,
disordered kaolinite occurs in the latosols derived from basalt, disordered kaolinite
with a low content ofhalloysite occurs in typical red soils, and halloysite with a low
content of disordered kaolinite occurs in yellow soil, red sandstone soil and yellow-
red soil developed from shale. Generally, kaolinite increases and halloysite
decreases with increasing degree of soil development (Zhang et aI.,1998c).
3.3.2 Identification ofpiumbogum mite group minerals in red soils

Plumbogummite group minerals of selected red soil samples were identified by
XRD after treating clay samples with HF so as to concentrate the non-silicate
minerals. Among 14 samples examined, twelve samples contained plumbogurnmite-
group minerals. The the degree of weathering and development of the abundance of
the plumbogummite-group minerals in the red soils did not seem to be related to
soils and it may be that they are inherited from the parent materials (Zhang et aI.,
1999b).
4. IRON OXIDES AND THEIR RELATION TO COLOURS IN

SOILS
Soil color varied greatly from yellow to red and purple. Most of the soils have an
acidic pH and a high content of clay, varying greatly from 10 to 725 g kg-I. The pH
values of the soils measured in water range from 4.5 to 6.6. Kaolin
(kaolinitelhalloysite) is the most abundant clay minerals in the clay fraction of most
soils, often with illite and vermiculite. Smectite was found only in three weakly
developed soils.
4.1 Goethite and hematite contents of the soils
Goethite (Gt) and hematite (Hm) were the dominant iron oxide minerals in most
red soils. Goethite/(goethite+hematite) in samples varied greatly from 0 to 1 with a
mean value of 0.65± 0.26(n=33). In the soils derived from purple sandstone and red-
purple sandstbne, only hematite was present, whereas in the yellow soils, yellow-red
soil derived from tuff and three saprolite samples, goethite was the only crystalline
iron oxide detected. Hematite contents are generally much higher in latosols than in
red soil, yellow-red soil and lateritic red soil. In some profiles, the content of Hm
increased and GtI(Gt+Hm) decreased from the saprolite to the B horizons, which
might indicate possible pedogenic transformation of goethite to hematite. Goethite
can be converted to hematite by goethite dissolution followed by ferrihydrite
formation and further dehydration (Schwertmann, 1985). In the subtropical and
tropical regions of China, goethite dissolution could occur under reducing condition
in saturated soil microsites during the rainy season followed by formation of
hematite (dehydration offerrihydrite) in the dry/high temperature season.
Important factors influencing the relative proportions of hematite and goethite
are soil temperature, soil moisture, soil pH, organic matter and the release rate of Fe
during weathering (Schwertmann, 1985). Differences in these factors may partly
explain the distribution of hematite and goethite in the soils of southern China.
Yellow soils and some yellow-red soils are mainly distributed in the areas of high
elevation with low temperature, high humidity and abundant vegetation (high
organic matter). These conditions effectively hinder hematite formation through the
dehydration offerrihydrite, and thus only goethite occurs in those soils. For red soils
and latosols in hilly regions, alternate drying and wetting conditions favour hematite
formation, so that hematite coexists with goethite. Furthermore, the content of
hematite increases from red soil to laterite as soil temperature increases (Zhang,
1990; Zhang et aI., 1998a). However, soils from purple sandstone and red-purple
sandstone are young and the hematite in these soils was derives completely as a
relict of the parent rocks
4.2 Aluminium substitution in goethite and hematite
AI substitution in goethite ranges from 6.6 to 29.9 mole % with a mean value of
16.7 mole % Al for all soils. This is consistent with the values found for subtropical
and tropical soils elsewhere (Anand and Gilkes, 1987; Fitzpatrick and Schwertmann,
1982; Schwertmann, 1985; Schwertmann and Kampf, 1985; Singh and Gilkes,
1992). The highest value was found in lateritic red soil derived from granite, while
the lowest value was found in yellow soil. Aluminium substitution in hematite
ranges from 0 to 12.1 mole % with a mean value of 4.7 mole % AI. Where both
goethite and hematite are present in a soil, the hematite often has a lower level of Al
substitution than goethite. This fmding has been verified by many researchers
(Anand and Gilkes, 1987; Schwertmann, 1985). The values of Al substitution in
hematite are closely related with the corresponding values of the co-existing goethite
(Fig. 1), with the linear regression: Y (AI mole in hematite) = -4.4 + 0.55 X (AI
mole % in goethite) (r = 0.73,p< 0.01, n= 26), indicating a pedogenetic association
of the two minerals.
4.3 Colours versus iron oxides
Soil colours vary greatly with the forms and concentrations of iron oxides. Soils
with only hematite as the major crystalline iron oxide mineral often exhibit purple
and red colours, while soils with only goethite appear yellow. Among the various
colours, hues between red and yellow were most widespread. A significant linear
relationship exists between redness rating (RR) calculated from the equation given
by Torrent et al.
-
0~ 12
CI)
14
Y =-4.4 + 0.55X
(r =0.73**, n =26)
...
"0 10
-...
...
E ...
CI)
8
:= 6
"'
E
CI) 4
.c ...
c 2
c( 0 ...
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
AI in goethite (mole %)
Figure 1. Relationship ofAl substitution between co-existing hematite and goethite
in the soils
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN ClllNA 49
(1980) and the hematite content of whole soils (Figure 2) with the regression: 3.28
+0.12 HmO/O (r = 0.81 **, n = 34). These results support the use of colour to predict
approximately the amounts of hematite in soils. However, a considerable scatter of
data in the regression curve suggests that other components have a certain influence
on redness rating. A significant relationship between the redness rating and
Gt/(Gt+Hm) may indicate that goethite decreases redness rating (Figure 2) which
could partly explain the scatter of data referred to above.
25
y= 3.28 + 0.12 X
20 (r= 0.81, n = 34)
II)
II)
15 •
CD
c 10 •
"tS
CD
It:
5
0
0 20 40 60 80100120140160
Hematite content in soil (g kg-i)
18
16 • 14.12-11.70 X
•• 1=
14 (r = 0.63, n = 34)
II)
12 • •
Ic 10 ••
"tS 8
CD
It: 6
4 • •
2 •
0
0 1
GtI(Gt + Hm)
Figure 2. Relationship between the redness and iron oxides of the soils. { Hm:
hematite; Gt: goethite.)
Table 6. Differentiation ofchemical properties in soil profiles
Prof! Location Soil Hor. Depth Clay ECEC pH B.Sat Fe

PM (em) (%) (cmole, kg'!) (%) (gkg'[)
1 Longyou, Red A 0-15 41.4 6.81 4.7 6.8 30.0
Met. Zhejiang Soil Bl 15-90 46.4 6.98 4.7 4.6 68.4
Rock B2 90-160 19.5 5.52 5.1 6.5 104.5
B3 160-250 12.2 3.10 5.1 11.3 25.3
C 250- 2.0 1.86 5.3 20.7 12.7
2 Quzhou, Red A 0-15 17.1 17.7 6.8 100.0 21.1
Gran Zhejiang soil Bl 15-60 34.0 4.79 5.3 15.0 31.4
-ite B2 60-150 21.6 3.38 5.4 41.1 23.5
C 150- 1.2 1.05 5.8 59.2 0.8
3 Longyou, Red A 0-11 25.5 9.73 4.7 18.7 22.7
Red Zhejiang Sst B1 11-30 35.9 12.81 4.6 2.8 28.5
Sst. soil B2 30-70 13.4 12.65 4.5 2.8 30.8
C 70- 8.3 7.57 4.9 23.6 19.7
4 Zhuji, Yell. A 0-12 31.3 4.77 5.1 45.7 22.7
Sh. Zhejiang red B1 12-75 34.3 4.90 5.2 8.6 29.1
soil B2 75-150 38.8 5.98 5.4 3.5 33.2
C 150- 2.5 2.18 6.3 63.3 8.5
Prof / PM: profile number/parent material; Met: metamoIpbic; Sst: sandstone; Sh: shale; Hor.: horizon;
ECEC: effective cation exchange capacity; B Sat: base satuaration. Fe: Free iron oxide
A: surface soil; B1, B2, and B3: subsurface soils; C: parent material.
5. SOIL DEVELOPMENT IN RELATION TO THE

EVOLUTION OF MINERALS IN RED SOILS
5.1 Changes ofchemical composition
In order to investigate the relationship between soil development and mineralogy

four red soil profiles were selected derived from different parent materials (Table 6).
In all soils, the amounts of clay, iron oxides and ECEC tended to increase compared
with the parent rock whilst pH and base saturation tended to decrease. This suggests
that these soils have undergone intensive weathering. The difference in clay and free
iron oxides between the soils and the various parent materials from which they are
derived is greatest for red soils derived from metamorphic and granitic rocks. This
suggests that they have been more thoroughly weathered. The eluviation coefficient
(j3 value), measured by the ratio ba [(Na20 + K20 + CaO + MgO)/Ah031 values of
the surface soil to the subsurface soil, increased in the order of profile 1 (0.27)<
profile 2 «).65)< profile 4 (0.76)< profiie 3 (0.88). Accordingly, the weathering

intensity of the soil profiles decreased in the order of red soil from metamorphic
rock > red soil from granite > yellowish red soil from shale > red sandstone soil
from red sandstone.
5.2 Changes ofclay minerals
The composition of the clay minerals varied among soils derived from different
parent materials (Table 7). For red soil from metamorphic rock, kaolinite is the
dominant mineral followed by vermiculite and illite. Kaolinite plus some illite and
vermiculite are also major clay minerals for red soils derived from granite, where
kaolinite is well crystallized with a sharp basal reflection in the XRD pattern.
Yellowish-red soil from shale contained smaller amounts of kaolinite and more illite
than the above two red soils whereas red sandstone soil had less kaolinite but more
illite and vermiculite. Generally, the amount of kaolinite in the soils is consistent
with the degree of soil weathering,Le. red soil > yellowish red soil > red sandstone
soil.
The clay mineralogy of the soil profiles varies considerably with depth (Table 7).
Vermiculite increases from the parent material to the surface soil, the highest
amounts for all four soils being found in the surface soil. Illite and quartz decrease
gradually from parent material to the soils. Kaolinite increases from parent material
to the soil, the highest amounts being found in the subsurface soil for red soil and
yellowish red soil from metamorphic rock and granite but at the surface in red
sandstone soils. The differences in amounts of kaolinite between subsurface and
surface soils are more obvious for the red soils than for the yellowish red soils.
5.3 Changes of mineral composition ofsilt si=efraction
The mineral composition of the silt fractions also varied among the soils. For red
soil from granite, kaolinite, quartz and mica are major minerals in the silt fraction
along with a small amount of feldspar. Kaolinite is higher in the subsurface soil than
in the surface soil and parent material, mica decreases from parent material to
surface soil, and quartz is higher in the soils than in parent material. For red soil
from metamorphic rock, the silt fraction mainly consists of kaolinite followed by
mica and quartz. Mica decreases from the bottom to the surface, kaolinite is at a
maximum in the subsurface soil, whereas quartz increases from the bottom to the
upper horizon. In addition, the silt fraction from the surface soil also contains a
small amount of vermiculite. For yellowish red soil, the silt fraction mainly consists
of quartz and mica with small amounts of kaolinite and feldspar. The quartz content
of the parent material is lower than that of the soil, but for mica the opposite is the
case. For the red sandstone soil, the silt fraction mainly consists of kaolinite, mica
and quartz with a small amount of feldspar. The quartz content again is higher in the
soil than in the parent material, mica is slightly lower and there is no significant
difference in kaolinite.
Table 7. Distribution ofclay minerals in the soil profiles
Profile 1 2 3 4
Soil Red soil Red soil Red sandstone Yellowish
Soil red soil
Parent Metamorphic Granite Red sandstone Shale
material rock
Major Kaol» Verm, Kaol > mite, Kaol, mite Kaol, mite,
minerals lllite Venn. Verm
Relative Kaol Bl, B2, B3 Bl,B2>A Bl,B2>A A> Bl,
abundance >A>C >C >C B2>C
among Verm A>Bl>B2 A>Bl>B2 A>Bl>B2 A> Bl>
soil >B3>C >C >C B2>C
horizons Illite A<Bl<B2 A<Bl<B2 A<Bl<B2<C A<Bl<
<B3<C <C B2<C
Qtz A<Bl A<Bl,B2 A<Bl,B2<C A<Bl,
<B2,B3<C <C B2<C
A: surface soil; Bl, B2, and B3: subsurface soils; C: parent material.
Kaol: kaolinite; Verm: vermiculite; Qtz: quartz.
5.4 Changes of mineral composition in sand size fraction
In the red soil derived from metamorphic rock, kaolinite or quartz are the major
minerals in the fme sand fraction and quartz or mica predominates in the coarse sand
fraction. Kaolinite and mica decrease, and quartz increases from the base of the
profile to the surface. For the red soil from granite, quartz is the major mineral in
both fme and coarse sand followed by small amounts of mica, kaolinite and feldspar.
Mica and feldspar are higher in the parent material than in the soil, whereas quartz is
lower. For the yellowish red soil derived from shale, the fme and coarse sand
fractions mainly consist of quartz, with small amounts of kaolinite, feldspar and
mica throughout the profile. For red sandstone soil, the fme and coarse sand
fractions consist mainly of quartz, mica, and kaolinite, with quartz increasing and
mica and kaolinite decreasing from the bottom to the surface. It is probable that the
small amounts of kaolinite found in the sand fractions in these red soil profiles
indicate that the soil dispersion process has not been completely successful.
5.5 Evolution of minerals in red soils during process ofsoil formation
With soil development, weatherable minerals in the sand and silt fractions are
gradually converted into clay. The mineral distribution in the various size fractions
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN ClllNA 53
for all soil profiles showed that with the change from parent materials to soil, there
is a decrease in mica and feldspar in all particle size fractions, and that kaolinite and
vermiculite increase in the clay fraction. These results suggest that there is a mineral
weathering sequence, namely, mica to illite to vermiculite, kaolinite. In the sand and
silt fractions, mica and feldspar gradually decrease with increasing weathering
whereas the more resistant quartz increases. Although kaolinite is considered as the
most typical clay mineral in the red soils in subtropical regions, vermiculite (in its
aluminous dioctahedral form) also exists almost universally in these soils. The
mineral-depth relationship of some soil profiles show that from the bottom to the top
of the profile, there is a gradual increase in vermiculite content accompanied by a
concomitant decrease in illite or mica. Some transitional horizons of the subsoil
often contain interstraified illite-vermiculite. This suggests that under current
subtropical climates, a transformation process of illite to vermiculite occurs through
an intermediate stage. It may be that the kaolinite in the soils is a relic of ancient
weathered products (Zhang et aI., 1997).
6. PHOSPHATE ADSORPTION AND SURFACE

CHARACTERISTICS IN RELATION TO MINERALOGY
Selected physical and chemical properties of the soils used for the study of
phosphorus adsorption and surface charge are shown in Tables 8 and 9.
Table 8. Soils usedfor phosphate adsorption and surface charge study

No. Soil Type Parent Material Location
1 Red soil (Hap1udult) Limestone Hangzhou

2 Red soil (Plinthudult) Q2 red clay Hangzhou
3 Red soil (Hap1udult) Shale Nanchang
4 Red soil (Hap1udult) Basalt Chengxian
5 Red soil (p1inthudult) Q2redc1.ay Longyou
6 Red soil (Hap1udult) Gneiss Longyou
7 Red soil (Hap1udult) Qtz sst. Quzhou
8 Red soil (Hap1udult) Shale Quzhou
9 Red soil (Hap1udult) Granite Quzhou
10 Yellow soil (Hap1udult) Granite Jiangshan
11 Lateritic soil (Kandiudox) Granite Zhangzhou
12 Latoso1 (Kandiudox) Basalt Yunnan
13 Paddy soil (Endoaqualf) Q2redclay. Lanxi
14 Red sandst soil Red Sst Longyou
(Udorthent)
15 Pmp1e sst soil(Udorthent) Pwple sst Longyou
16 Pwple sst soil (Udorthent) Pmp1e sst Longyou
17 Red-pmple sst (Udorthent) Red-purple sst Longyou
Sst: sandstone.
Clay contents range between 96 and 594 g kg-!, free Fe oxide (Fed) from 11.4 to
211.0 g kg-! and amorphous Fe oxides (Feo) from 0.08 to 3.30 g kg-I. The Feo values
are usually < 5 % of the corresponding Fed value. Most Fed could be attributed to
crystalline Fe oxides. Soil organic matter content ranges from 3.7 to 51.5 g kg-I.
Soil pH values are always acidic, ranging from 4.4 to 6.6, with the lowest values
being found in the lateritic red soil and the highest in the red-purple sandstone soil.
Cation exchange capacity ranges from 2.23 to 20.3 cmolc kg-! and in most soils
exchangeable acidity is high, reflecting their acidic pH. XRD data show that
kaolinite alone or kaolinite with mica make up most of the clay fractions for all the
red soils except for the red-purple sandstone soil (No. 17), and a red soil (No.4),
where smectite is the dominant clay mineral. Gibbsite is present in significant
quantity in the latosol (No.12) and in the yellow soil (No.lO). As expected from the
red to yellow soil colours, the crystalline Fe oxide species changed from hematite
(red-purple sandstone soil) to goethite (yellow soil). The relative content of each
mineral differs greatly from soil to soil.
6.1 Phosphate adsorption
Phosphate adsorption in all soils is well described by the Freundlich and

Langmuir equations (Table 10). The adsorption maximum (Xm), the bonding energy
related constant K as well as their products (maximum buffering capacity, MBC)
obtained from the simple Langmuir equation are often used as indices for
characterizing potential phosphate sorptivity of different soils. These parameters
vary widely between the different soils, reflecting great differences in potential
phosphate sorptivity. The Xm values range from 500 to 2103 mg kg-! and increase in
the order of purple sandstone soil < red purple sandstone soil < red sandstone soil <
red soil < lateritic red soil < latosol < yellow soil. The constant K values vary from
0.086 to 5.92, the highest value being found in the latosol, and the lowest value in
the red purple sandstone soil. These results suggest that phosphate adsorption
capacity increases in the order of red-purple sandstone soil < red sandstone soil <
purple sandstone soil red soil < lateritic red soil < yellow soil < latosol. The
maximum buffering capacity (MBC) varies between 66.5 to 9880 and increases in
the order of red-purple sandstone soil < purple sandstone soil < red sandstone soil <
red soil < lateritic red soil < yellow soil < latosol. The highest value is 149 times that
of the lowest value, indicating the great differences existing in phosphate adsorption
and buffering capacity among the various red soils.
6.2 Charge characteristics
The pH at which a change in salt concentration does not produce a pH shift is

assumed to be the zero point of charge (PHo) where the surface variable charge is
zero. The pRo values obtained by salt titration-potential titration vary from 3.03 to
5.49 (Table 11). The highest value IS found in the latosol derived from basalt
whereas the lowest value is found in the purple sandstone soil (No.16). The plIo
value decreases in the order of latosol (5.49) > yellow soil (4.25) > lateritic red soil
(4.21) > red soil (3.60-4.04), paddy soil (3.91) > red sandstone soil (3.51), red
sandstone soil (3.50» acid purple sandstone soil (3.37) > purple sandstone soil
(3.05). The plIo is significantly correlated with the phosphate adsorption maximum
(Xm) and the MBC with correlation coefficients 0.68* and 0.91 ** respectively (n =
10). A high correlation was also found between plIo and the constant K (r = 0.94**,
n = 10), indicating that plIo has a great influence on the affmity of the soil particle
surface for phosphate.
Table 9. General iriformation on the above soils
Soil SOM Fed Feo PH ECEC Base Exch. Clay Color

No. (gkg-l) (gkg- l) (gkg-l) [emole Sat. Acidity (gkg-l)
(+)kg-lj (%) cmole(H')
kg-l
1 51.5 39.7 1.03 4.5 9.32 13.6 8.05 392 7.5YR514

2 12.7 49.1 0.78 5.0 9.52 12.5 8.33 454 5YR6/8
3 41.0 72.8 0.76 4.8 7.06 20.4 5.62 340 5YR617
4 27.7 67.1 0.83 5.0 12.12 8.4 11.10 498 5YR516
5 6.2 32.7 1.37 5.5 6.60 29.8 4.63 393 5YR6/8
6 30.7 30.0 0.41 4.7 6.81 6.7 6.35 414 7.5YR6/6
7 25.3 18.9 1.00 5.4 2.23 83.4 0.37 207 5YR6/4
8 7.5 52.6 1.68 4.8 11.24 4.0 10.79 443 10YR7/6
9 5.6 31.4 1.75 5.3 4.79 15.0 4.07 340 2.5YR615
10 23.6 16.6 3.30 5.0 4.24 25.0 3.18 143 10YR7/3
11 3.7 31.4 0.77 4.4 6.58 13.2 5.71 490 7.5YR6/6
12 9.9 211.0 3.14 4.6 5.18 15.8 4.36 594 10R4/6
13 20.1 37.5 3.13 5.0 6.08 45.8 3.29 392 10YR8/4
14 14.3 12.1 0.40 5.5 9.04 8.7 8.25 96 2.5YR6/6
15 18.3 19.6 0.38 5.0 8.57 84.9 1.29 192 5YR6/3
16 15.9 11.4 0.08 6.3 9.44 99.0 0.09 77 2.5YR5/3
17 5.3 143.6 0.70 6.6 20.30 100 0 203 7.5R3/4
In addition, the permanent charge (PC) of soil referred to as the charge at pH = plIo
(STPT-ZPC), greatly varies from 0.10 to 17.90 cmolc kg -1 with high values only
appearing in the three soils derived from purple sandstone, namely re-purple
sandstone soil, purple sandstone soil and acid purple sandstone soil. For other soils
the permanent charge is lower than 2.6 cmolc kg -1 and the lowest is the latosol.
(0.lOcmolckg- 1). The log transfonned PC value is significantly correlated with plIo
(r = -0.88**, n = 17). Buffering capacity (BC) of acidity, calculated from the
titration curve (in water) during the STPT method, expressed as the difference
between the adsorption amount at pH 4 and pH 5 ranges from 0.75 to 5.25 cmolckg-
1 and shows a marked positive relation to PC (r = 0.87**, n = 17).
56 MINGKUI ZHANG et a1.
Table 10. Phosphate adsorption parameters ofthe soils

Soil Langmuir equation t FreWldlieh equation ;
No.
Xm K BMC R Ko n R
2 1361 0.629 857 0.99 446.5 0.415 0.99
3 1252 0.708 886 0.99 463.6 0.352 0.95
4 1428 0.949 1355 0.99 561.0 0.407 0.98
6 1309 0.408 534 0.99 364.8 0.415 0.99
10 2103 3.104 6528 0.99 2258.8 0.712 0.98
11 1472 0.830 1222 0.99 534.0 0.459 0.98
12 1670 5.916 9880 1.00 1826.2 0.561 0.96
14 940 0.156 147 0.98 233.8 0.311 0.99
15 500 0.180 90.2 0.99 147.1 0.282 0.99
17 774 0.086 66.5 1.00 128.2 0.408 0.99
t: Langmuir equation: CIX = 11K Xm + CIXm, where X = amolDlt of P sorbed per unit weight of soil
(mg/kg), C = P concentration in the equilibrium solution, Xm is maximum amolDlt of P sorbed. K =
affinity constant.
=: Fre\Dldlich equation: X = Ko en, where Ko and n are constants, R = correlation coefficient.
Table 11. Surface charge characteristics ofthe soils
Soil No. STPT-PZcf ST-pzd PC' BC~

(P~) (p~) [emole(+)/kg] [cmole(Jr)/kg]
1 3.6 3.55 2.00 1.35
2 3.80 3.75 2.50 1.95
3 3.86 3.83 2.60 1.70
4 3.83 3.80 2.55 1.80
5 3.90 3.89 1.75 1.90
6 3.90 3.90 1.00 0.90
7 3.63 3.61 1.90 1.40
8 3.79 3.80 1.10 0.75
9 4.04 4.00 0.95 1.50
10 4.25 4.30 0.95 2.00
11 4.21 4.24 0.50 1.20
12 5.49 5.43 0.10 2.75
13 3.91 3.86 2.45 2.05
14 3.50 3.54 1.80 0.80
15 3.37 3.40 8.15 2.55
16 3.05 3.00 13.50 3.50
17 3.51 3.54 17.90 5.25
t Zero point of charge (ZPC) by salt titration-potential titration.=ZPC by salt titration."Permanent charge,
charge at pH = STPT-ZPC. 'Buffering capacity calculated from titration curve of STPT method.
6.3 Correlation analysis
Table 12. Correlation analysis between parameters ofsurface charge. phosphate

adsorption and soil components or properties.
Parameters STPT- PC Xm K MBC

ZPC
(PRo)
Total element
Content
Si02 -0.70** -0.12 -0.30 -0.74* -0.70*
Ah0 3 0.85** -0.28 0.63* 0.81** 0.79**
Fe203 0.65** 0.11 0.11 0.63 0.56
MnO 0.55* 0.26 -0.03 0.64* 0.58
TiO 0.64* 0.16 0.06 0.65* 0.58
MgO -0.41 0.89** -0.61 -0.35 -0.34
CaO -0.37 0.95** -0.54 -0.30 -0.29
Na20 -0.22 0.55* 0.31 0.14 0.24
K 20 -0.49 0.43 -0.01 -0.17 -0.06
Soil properties
Clay 0.65** -0.53* 0.38 0.17 0.32
Organic matter -0.19 -0.17 0.14 -0.13 0.51
Fed 0.64** -0.35 0.08 0.61 0.55
Feo 0.73** -0.41 0.76* 0.91** 0.96**
PH -0.52* 0.81** -0.49 -0.36 -0.33
ECEC -0.39 0.71** -0.57 -0.48 -0.52
Base saturation -0.49 0.82** -0.64* -0.26 -0.24
Exch.acidity 0.14 -0.57* 0.28 -0.11 -0.14
Clay minerals
Smectite -0.18 0.73** -0.37 -0.24 -0.24
1.4nm minerals -0.25 -0.30 -0.37 -0.37 -0.41
lllite -0.59* 0.33 -0.64* -0.34 -0.29
Kaolin 0.61** -0.74** 0.51 0.32 0.27
Gibbsite 0.64** -0.23 0.71* (O.72*)t (O.72*)t
0.83* 0.89**
*: p<O.05;** P<O.Ol.
t: For gibbsite-free soils.
The correlation coefficients between phosphate adsorption, surface charge

characteristics and soil properties including the amounts of various mineral
constituents present are shown in Table 12. The properties which show significant
positive correlations with Xm are total Ah03 in soil (r = 0.63*, n = 10), Feo (r =
0.76*, n = 10) and gibbsite (r = 0.71*, n = 10). For gibbsite-free soils, a significant
correlation exists between Xm and kaolin content (r = 0.80*). The constant K and
the maximum buffering capacity MBC were also significantly positively correlated
with total Ah03 content, Feo, gibbsite and kaolinite, respectively. Aluminium is the
main component in kaolin and gibbsite, and total soil aluminium increases with
increasing contents of kaolinite and gibbsite. It is, therefore, concluded that the main
components responsible for phosphate adsorption in the red soils are gibbsite, Feo
and kaolin. Free Fe oxides (including goethite and hematite) do not correlate with
phosphate adsorption capacity in this study. However, this does not necessarily
imply that Fed does not contribute significantly to the phosphate adsorption
capacity, because in these soils the relative proportion of goethite and hematite in
the multi-component free Fe oxides varies greatly, as shown by the changing soil
colours.
The surface charge of the soil system can vary both in magnitude and sign with
changes in pH, ionic strength and soil composition. Statistical analysis showed that
plio correlates reasonably well with many soil properties. Positive correlations were
found between plio and total Ah03, Fe203, MnO, Ti02 in the soils, as well as their
contents of clay, free Fe oxides (Fed), amorphous Fe (Feo), kaolin and gibbsite.
Negative correlations were found between plio and total Si02, pH in H20, base
saturation (B.S.) and mica. From these results, it is inferred that pRo values of these
soils are mainly controlled by kaolin, gibbsite and oxides. PC is greatly affected by
total base content (MgO, CaO and Na20), clay, pH in H20, ECEC, BS,
exchangeable acidity, smectite and kaolin.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Kaolinite or halloysite are the most common clay minerals in the red soils of
southern China. From the red soils in the central subtropics, to the lateritic red soils
in the southern subtropics and then to the latosols in the tropics, kaolinite initially
increases
and then decreases. Gibbsite always increases. The highest amounts of kaolinite are
found in the lateritic red soils. Studies of the clay mineralogy of soils sampled from
different altitudes showed that in comparing the red soils at lower elevation with the
yellow soils at higher altitude, there is a significant decrease in kaolinite (halloysite)
and mica, whereas gibbsite and chlorite increase. These changes are attributed to
climatic differences, notably decreasing temperature and increasing precipitation.
The gibbsite formed in these soils could be divided into two types, i.e., primary
gibbsite in the yellow soils and secondary gibbsite in the latosols. Both parent
material and topographic position strongly influence the soil clay minerals. The
types of kaolin group minerals in the red soils changed with soil type, the relative
proportion of kaolinite increasing with weathering degree. In the present subtropical
climates, a trimsformation process of tnica to dioctahedral vermiculite occurs, while

kaolinite may also be possibly a relic of weathered products from a
paleoenvironment.
Goethite and hematite are the only two crystalline Fe oxides occurring in
significant quantity in the red soils. The goethite/(goethite+hematite) ratios ranges
from 0 to 1, being the highest in yellow soil, and the lowest in soils derived from
purple sandstone where only hematite is present. AI substitution in goethite ranges
from 6.6 to 29.9 mole % with a mean value of 16.7 mole %AI, while substitution of
AI in hematite ranges from 0 to 12.1 mole % .The values of Al substitution of
hematite in coexistence with goethite are closely related to the corresponding values
of goethite.
Phosphorus (P) adsorption in the red soils is well described by both the
Freundlich and Langmuir equations. The maximum buffering capacity (MBC) of P
ranges from 66.5 to 9880mg kg-!, and increases in the order of red-purple sandstone
soil < purple sandstone soil < red sandstone soil < red soil < lateritic red soil <
yellow soil < latosol. The highest value is 148. 6 times that of the lowest value,
indicating great differences in the capacity to adsorb phosphate in these soils. The
zero point of charge (PlIo) values obtained by salt titration-potential titration varies
from 3.03 to 5.49, the highest values being found in the latosol derived from basalt
and the lowest values in the purple sandstone soil. Correlation analysis shows that
the main minerals responsible for phosphate adsorption in the soils are gibbsite,
amorphous iron oxides and kaolin, and that the plIo is mainly influenced by kaolin,
gibbsite and oxides.
8. REFERENCES
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38:607-622.
Barron,V., M Herruzo, and 1. Torrent. 1988. Phosphate adsorption by aluminous hematities of different
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Bigham, J.M, D.C. Golden, S.w. Boul, S.B. Weed, and L.H Bowen. 1978. Iron oxide mineralogy of
well drained Utisols and Oxisols:II.Influence on color, surface area and phosphate retention. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 42:825-830.
Chinese Soil Taxonomy Research Group, Institute of Soil Science, Academia Sinica.1995. Chinese Soil
Taxonomy (Revised proposal) (in Chinese). Chinese Agri. Sci. Tech.Press, Beijing.pp.58-60.
Churchman, G.J., J.S. Whitton, and G.G.C. Claridge. 1984. Intercalation methods using formamide for
differentiating halloysite from kaolinite. Clays and Clay Minerals. 32(4):241-248
FAOIUNESCO. 1974. Soil Map of the World i :5000000.vol.1,Legend. UNESCO,Paris.
Fitzpatrick,R W. and U. Schwertmann. 1982. AI-substituted goethite-an indicator of pedogenic and
other weathering environments in southern Africa. Geoderma. 27:335-347
Group of Utilization, Improvement and Regionation of Red Soils and Yellow Soils. 1985. Utili=ation,
improvement and Regioni=ation of Red Soil and Yellow Soil Region. Beijing: Chinese Agricultural
Press.
Hseung,Y. and Q.K. Li. 1990. Soils ofChina, second edition, Beijing: Science Press.
Hue, N.V. 1991. Effects of organic acids/anions on P SOIption and phytoavailability in soils with different
mineralogies. Soil Sci. 152:463-471.
Institute of Soil Science, Academia Sinica. 1978. Methods of Soil Physical and Chemical Analysis (in
Chinese). Shanghai Sci. Tech. Pub. Shanghai. pp.132-517.
Jones, RC. 1981. X-ray diffraction line profile analysis vs. phosphorus sOIption by 11 Puerto Rican soils.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45:818-825.
Kampf,N.and U. Schwertmann. 1982. The 5 M NaOH concentration treatment for iron oxides in soils.
Clays & Clay Minerals.30: 401-408.
Karim,MI. and W.A. Adams. 1984. Relationships between sesquioxides, kaolinite and phosphate
soIption in a catena of Oxisols in Malawi. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48:406-409.
Li, Q.K (ed.). 1983.Red Earths a/China (in Chinese). Sci. Press, Beijing. pp.74-127.
Luo, J.x., D.Y. Yang, and MY. Jiang. 1993. Mineralogical characteristics of yellow-red soils derived
from granite, Pedosphere. 3(3):247-252
Macias Vasques. F. 1981. Formation of gibbsite in soils and sapro1ites of temperate humid zones. Clay
Minerals. 16:43-52
Mehra, O.P. and ML. Jackson. 1960. Iron oxide removal from soils and clay by a dithionite-citrate
system buffered with sodium bicarbonate. In: Clays and Clay Minerals. Proc.7th Nat!. Congr.
Pergamon, London.
Moshi,A.O.,A. Wild, and D.J. Greenland. 1974. Effect of organic matter on the charge and phosphate
adSOIption characteristics of Kikuyu red clay from Kenya. Geoderma. 11:275-285.
Sakurau, K, Y. Ohdate, and K Kyuma. 1988. Comparison of salt titration and potentiometric titration
methods for the determination of zero point of charge. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 34: 171-182.
Schwertmann, U. 1964. The differentiation of iron oxide in soils by a photochemical extraction with acid
ammonium oxalate. Z. Pflan::enernaehr. Dueng. Bodenkund. 105:194-201.
Schwertmann, U. 1979. The influence of aluminum on iron oxides. II.Preparation and properties of Al-
substituted hematite. Clays & Clay Minerals.27: 105-112.
Schwertmann, U. 1985. The effect of pedogenic environments on iron oxide minerals. Advances in Soil
Science. 1:171-200.
Schwertmann, U. and N. Kampf. 1985. Properties of goethite and hematite in kaolinitic soils of southem
and central Brazil. Soil Science. 139:344-350.
Schwertmann, u., R W. Fitzpartrick, RM Taylor, and D.G. Lewis. 1979. Influence of aluminium on iron
oxides. II. Preparation and properties of Al-substituted hematites. Clays &Clay Minerals. 27: 105-112.
Schulze, D.G. 1984. The influence of aluminium on iron oxides. VIII .Unit cell dimensions of Al-
substituted goethites and estimation of Al from them. Clays & Clay Minerals.32:36-44.
Sibanda, liM.and S.D. Young. 1986. Competitive adsoIption of humic acids and phosphate on goethite,
gibbsite and two tropical soils. J. Soil Sci. 37: 197-204.
Singh,B . and RI. Gilkes. 1992. Properties and distribution of iron oxides and their association with
minor elements in the soils of southern-western Australia Journal a/SOil Science.43:77-98.
Torrent, I., U. Schwertmann, and D.G. Schulze. 1980. Iron oxide mineralogy of some soils of two river
terrace sequences in Spain. Geoderma. 23:191-208.
Torrent, J.and G. Cabedo. 1986. Sources of iron oxides in reddish brown soil profiles from calcarenites in
southern Spain. Geoderma.37:57-66.
Torrent, I., V. Barron, and U. Schwertmann. 1990. Phosphate adsoIption and deSOIption by goethite
differing in crystal mOIphology. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54:1007-1012.
Wilson, MJ.1994. Clay Mineralogy: Spectroscopic and Chemical Determinative Methods. Chapman &
Hall, London.
Yang, D.Y. and MY. liang. 1991. Clay mineral composition and evolution of red earths and yellow
earths derived from granite in eastern China. Acta Pedologica Sinica. 28:276-283
Zhang, MK 1990. Significance of soil iron forms on classification of red earth and yellow earth in
Zhejiang province (in Chinese). Acta Agriculturae Universities Zhejiangensis. 16(1): 42-56.
MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN CIllNA 61
Zhang, MK 1991. Properties and classification of soils derived from middle-late Quaternary sediments
in the mid-lower reaches of the Yangtze river (in Chinese), Ph.D. theSiS, Zhejiang Agricultural
University.
Zhang, MK. 1996. Composition and pedogenetic significance of iron oxides of soils derived from
metamorphic rock in southern Zhejiang province(in Chinese). Bulletin of Science and Technology. 12
(1):54-58.
Zhang, MK. 1997a. Occurrence and origin of crystalline iron oxides in paddy soils derived from red
earth, Journal ofZhejiang Agricultural University. 23(5):589-594.
Zhang, MK. 1997b. Study on structural disorder of kaolinite in red soils (in Chinese). Bulletin of Science
and Technology. 14(1): 17-21.
Zhang, MK. 1999. Identification oftitanium oxides in soils (in Chinese). Soils. 31(1): 46-49.
Zhang, MK., M.l Wilson, and Z.L. He. 1998a. Iron oxides and their relations to colors in some soils of
southern China. Pedosphere. 8: 53-58.
Zhang, M K., M.l Wilson, Z.L. He, L. Clark, and D.M.L.Duthie. 1998b. Phosphate adsorption and
surface charge characteristics and their relations to mineralogy of some soils from southern China.
Pedosphere. 8: 297-305.
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110.
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11:56-69.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF RED SOILS FROM ZHEJIANG PROVINCE,
SOUTHERN CHINA
MINGKUI ZHANG (1), ZHENLI HE (1) AND M J WILSON (2)
(1) Department of Resource Science, College of Resource and Environmental

Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, Zhejiang Province, China
ABSTRACT
Red soils, consisting of IDtisols and partly of Alfisols under the Soil Taxonomy system of the USA,
are important land resources in China. A good understanding of the physical and chemical properties of
these soils is essential for their improved management and utilization. In this study, typical profile
samples of red soils were collected from Zhejiang Province, and their physical and chemical properties,
nutrient concentrations and water-stable aggregate distributions were studied. The red soils had low cation
exchange capacity, high exchangeable acidity, and low pH The textures of the red soils vary greatly,
from clayey to sandy loam, and are mainly influenced by parent material. Amounts of organic matter,
total nitrogen (N), total phosphorus (P) and total potassium (K) varied with parent materials, elevations
and land use patterns. About 60% of the red soils had total N < 1.5 g kg-I,and Olsen-P < 5 g kg-I, and 32%
of the soils were deficient in available K « 80 g kg-I). Deficiencies of available B, Mo and Zn were
common, whereas available Fe, Mn and Cu were abundant in the red soils. Organic matter plays a key
role in the formation of water-stable soil aggregates. The larger the soil aggregate size, the greater the
impact of organic matter on the water stability of the aggregates. Small water-stable aggregates (0.50-0.25
mm) in the red soils were chiefly cemented by Fe and AI oxides. Land use patterns and parent materials
had a significant influence on the formation and water-stability of aggregates in the red soils.
Key words: Red soil, nutrient; aggregate water stability, land use, soil type
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soils, which are equivalent to Ultisols and some Alfisols under the USDA
Soil Taxonomy, occupy approximately 22% of the total national land area. They are
vital natural resources in the tropical and subtropical regions of China. The red soil
regions, because of their warm climate, abundant rainfall and rapid biological
cycling, have a high productive potential for food and fibre. However, these
relatively old soils have long been subjected to weathering and leaching. Total and
available nutrients in these soils are very limited. In addition, most of the red soils
are subject to soil erosion, caused mainly by intensive cultivation. As a consequence,
organic matter content has declined substantially, the quantity and availability of the
63
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils ofChina, 63-87.
major plant nutrients have decreased and soil acidity and aluminum toxicity have
increased. Low nutrient availability and high soil acidity have become the crucial
factors limiting crop growth in the red soils. Currently, under traditional cultivation
practices, nutrients in the surface layer of the red soils are generally low. It has been
recognized that the use and improvement of red soils needs to take soil properties
into consideration. A good understanding of physical and chemical properties of the
soils is essential for the better exploitation and utilization of these soils. This study,
taking Zhejiang Province as an example, aims to characterize the basic properties,
nutrient content and water-stable aggregate distribution of the red soils and to
investigate variations brought about by different land use and vegetation coverage.
2. METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS
Soil pH was measured in a 1:1 soil/water ratio using a pH meter. Soil particle
distribution was estimated by the hydrometer method after the soil samples were
pre-treated with H 20 2 and dispersed overnight in Na-hexametaphosphate reagent
(Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1978). Total P was
determined using the molybdate blue method after digestion in a mixture of nitric
acid and perchloric acid (Agricultural Chemistry Committee of China, 1983). Total
organic C and N contents were determined by a wet combustion and a micro-
Kjeldahl procedure, respectively (Agricultural Chemistry Committee of China,
1983). Available P (Olsen-P) was extracted by shaking 2.5-g of air-dried soil for 30-
min with 50 mL of 0.5 mol L· l NaHC03 (PH 8.5). An aliquot of the extract was
analyzed for P with the molybdate blue method (Agricultural Chemistry Committee
of China, 1983). Exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na were extracted with I mol L- l
~OAc (PH 7.0) and determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).
Exchangeable Al and H were extracted with 1 mol L- l KCI, and the effective cation
exchange capacity (ECEC was determined by the sum of all the measured
exchangeable cations (Sumner and Miller, 1996). Base saturation was calculated as a
percentage of the sum of total base cations (K, Na, Ca, Mg) in the ECEC. Available
K was extracted by 1 mol L- l ~OAc and determined using the AAS. Total K were
determined, after fusion and dissolution of the soil samples with NaOH, using the
AAS (Agricultural Chemistry Committee of China, 1983). Available B was
extracted by hot water and measured by the carmine method (Agricultural Chemistry
Committee of China, 1983). Available Mo was extracted by ammonium oxalate and
Mo concentration in the extract was determined using the AAS. Available Cu, Zn,
Fe, and Mn were determined by extracting the soil with
diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) and analyzing the extract using the
AAS.
Soil aggregates were divided into the following six size classes: > 5mm, 2-5 mm,
1-2 mm, 0.5-1.0 mm, 0.25-0.50 mm and < 0.25 mm by both dry sieving and wet
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RED SOILS 65
sieving procedure (Institute of Soil Science, Academia Sinica, 1978). Water

stability was expressed as percentage of water-stable aggregates of a size class to
the total aggregates in the same size of the obtained aggregates.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Types and Distribution of Red Soils
Zhejiang Province is located in southeast of China and faces the Pacific on the
east. It belongs to the subtropical humid climatic zone with an annual precipitation
of 1100-1900 mm and an average temperature of 15.5-18.1 ·C (Yu, 1994). It is
characterized by a warm climate, abundant rainfall and plenty of biological
resources, and is a production base for lumber, subtropical fruits, food and fibre for
China. Red soils are important soil resources and occupied about 70% of total land
in the province. According to the Chinese Soil Classification System, the red soils in
the province can be classified into six soil groups, i.e.red soil, yellow soil, purple
soil, limestone soil, skeletal soil and basic rock soil. They are variously classed as
Ultisols, Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols and Mollisols in the USA Soil Taxonomy,
and as Acrisols, Ferralsols, Nitosols, and Cambisols in the FAO legend
(FAOlUnesco, 1974). Estimated proportions of the different types of soils making
up the total are presented in Table 1. Red soils in the province are mainly distributed
in hilly regions below 500 m elevation, but mainly on steep slopes (>25°) (Fig. 1).
Table 1. Types and distribution of red soils in Zhejiang Province
Soil orders in Percentage of Soil groups in Percentage of

USA Soil Total area of Chinese Soil total area of
Taxonomy red soils (%) Classification System red soils (%)
Ultisols 58.2 Red soil 57.13
Alfisols 10.8 Yellow soil 15.14
Inceptisols 5.8 Purple soil 5.17
Entisols 25.1 Skeletal soil 19.97
Mollisols 0.1 Limestone soil 2.34
Basic rock soil 0.28
3.2 Basic Properties of Red Soils
3.2.1 Effective Cation Exchangeable Capacity and Acidity

Effective cation exchangeable capacity (ECEC) is an important parameter
reflecting soil capacity for retaining and supplying cation nutrients. The ECEC of
4Or-------------------------------~
-
30
-
'#.
CI
f
20
c:s:
10
10-250 250-500 500-800 >800
Elevation (m)
70
60
-
50
~
~40
CI
f 30
c:s:
20
10
o I I I I
<6 6-15 15-25 >25
Slope
FigureJ. Distribution of red soils asfunctions ofelevation and slope in Zhejiang

Province
red soils in Zhejiang Province varied from 3.83 to 42.27 cmole kg"1 with an mean of
about 8 cmolc kg· l . About 70% of the red soils have low to medium ECEC values «
10 cmole kg·\ indicating that the red soils have a low capacity to retain cations.
Exchangeable acidity in the red soils ranged from 0 to 7.56 cmolc kg"1 with a mean
of 5.10 cmole kg-I. Exchangeable Al 3+ is the main component of the acidity and
accounted for, on average, 92% of exchangeable acidity, whereas exchangeable II'
accounted for the remaining 8 %. Base saturation (BS%) and pH of the soils varied
from 3 to 100% and 4.6 to 7.6, respectively. However, 93 % of the red soils were
strongly acid to acid with pH ranging from 4.6 to 6.5. About 70% of the red soils
had < 50% base saturation. There was a significant correlation between pH and base
saturation (PH = 4.8 + 0.011 BS %, r = 0.73**).
3.2.2 Texture
Texture varied greatly among the red soils, and was mainly determined by types
of parent materials but also slightly affected by land use. Clay contents of the soils
ranged from 122 to 589 g kg-I. Typically, red soils from Quaternary red clay and
metamorphic rock had loamy clay or loam textures. Red soils from basalt had clayey
texture, from granite a loamy clay texture, from quartzose sandstone a clayey loam
to loamy clay texture, from shale a clayey loam to silty clay texture, from limestone
a loamy clay texture, and from purple and red sandstone a sandy loam texture.
3.2.3 Organic Matter

Organic matter content of the red soils varied from 8.9 to 107.3 g kg- I with a
mean of 30 g kg-I. About one third of the red soils had < 20 g kg- I of organic matter
content, 25% of the soils had organic matter ranging from 20 to 30 g kg-I, and
42% of the soils had organic matter higher than 30 g kg- I (Fig.2 and Table 2).
Table 2. Amounts and storage of organic matter in the 0-15 cm suiface soil for
different groups of red soils
Soil Group Amount of organic matter Storage of organic matter

(g kg-I) (Mg ha-I )
Red soil 25.6 38.9
Mountain yellow soil 58.3 86.6
Purple soil 17.8 28.7
Limestone soil 31.6 60.3
Skeletal soil 34.4 41.2
Basic rock soil 16.2 20.9
30
~
25
-
~
~ 20
-
-.
CD
a
ca
c 15 ~
CD
C,)
CD
Q..
10 ~
I1n
5
0
<6 6-10 10-2020-3030-4040-50 >50
Organic matter (g kg-1 )

35
30
-
~
25
~
-
CD
aca 20
c ~
15
CD
~
CD
-
~
-
Q.. 10
r-:--
5
0 n
.(.'lilro.6~5-"·~ .o-".~ .5-~·l.o-~·5 .,.~.5
Total N (g kg-1)
Figure 2. Frequency distribution of organic matter and total N i n red soils

The contents of organic matter in the red soils were related to topographical
factors, moisture regime, vegetation and cultivation. Generally, soil organic matter
increased with increasing elevation (Fig. 3). Total organic matter and humic acid, and
fulvic acid contents in the organic matter were the highest in the red soils located
at about 1200 m above the sea (Fig A). However, HIF (ratio of humic acid to
fulvic acid) increased linearly with increasing the elevation (Fig. 4). Organic
matter content and storage in the surface soil (0-15 cm depth) also varied among
different soil groups (Table 2) and decreased in the order of yellow soil> limestone
soil, skeletal soil> red soil> purple soil, basic rock soil.
3.2.4 Nutrients ofRed Soils
Nitrogen Total nitrogen (N) in the red soils ranged from 0.46 to 3.86 g kg· 1 with a
mean of 1.70 g kg· l . About 60% of the red soils had low total N « 1.5 g kg-I) (Fig.2).
Like organic matter, total N varied with topographical factors, moisture regime,
vegetation, cultivation and soil types. Total N increased with increasing elevation
(Fig. 3). Mean total N of different soil groups decreased in the sequence of yellow
soil (2.47 g kg-I) > limestone soil (1.80 g kg-I) > skeletal soil (1.63 g kg-I) > red soil
(1.27 g kg-I) > basic rock soil (1.03 g kg-\ purple soil (0.98 g kg-I). There was a
significant correlation between organic matter and total N in the soils (r = 0.95**).
Phosphorus Total P in the red soils ranged from 0.07 to 1.04 g kg-I with a mean of
0.37 g kg-I. Mean total P in the different soil groups followed the order: basic rock
soil (1.04 g kg"l) > limestone soil (0.60 g kg"l) > yellow soil (0.50 g kg-I) > red soil
(0.36 g kg-I) > skel soil (0.31 g kg"l) > purple soil (0.29 g kg-I). Soil total P content
was mainly related to types of their parent materials. Mean total P contents of soils
derived from different materials were limestone (0.64 g kg-I), basalt (0.63 g kg-I) >
metamorphic rock (0.40 g kg"l) > tuff (0.34 g kg-I) > Q2 red clay (0.33 g kg-I) >
granite (0.27 g kg"l) > purple sandstone (0.16 g kg-I). Available P (Olsen-P) varied
from 2 to 63 mg kg-I. About 60% of the red soils had very low Olsen-P « 5 g kg-I,
critical value of plant-available P) (Fig. 5), indicating that more than half of the red
soils were deficient in available P. Available P was not related to parent materials
but was affected by land use. Available P concentration in the soils tended to reach
the highest level after frequent application of phosphorus fertilizer over a long time.
Potassium Total potassium (K) in the red soils varied from 7.8 to 25.9 g kg-I, and
was related to types of parent materials. Mean total K contents of the soils derived
from different parent materials changed in the order of granite (23.2 g kg-I) > tuff (17
g kg-I) > metamorphic rock (15.9 g kg"l) > limestone (13.1 g kg-I) > basalt (8.5 g kg-
I). Available K <NH40Ac-extractable) varied from 27 to 238 mg kg-I. About 25% of
the red soils had abundant available K (>150 g kg-I), 43% of the red soils had
..._
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70
60 ~
.:.:
.
S50
!40
E30
~
u
·c 20 r---
r---
"~ 10
o
o
<100 1Q0.300 3QO.7OO >700
Elevation (m)
3~------------------------------~
-- I
~2
-
Z
C)
~ 1
~
<100 1OQ.3OO 3QO.7OO >700

Elevation (m)
Figure 3. Effects of elevation on accumulation of organic matter and total N in

red soils
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 71
100~-----------------------------,
- Organice
80 ··0" HA
--.. - FA
60
40
20
-..-
._--_ /----
.' -0 "
.0. .
' 0 . . . '0' "
~
o 0"'<>" ' 0 •.. 0 '
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Elevation (m)
0.9
0.8 Y • -0.12 + 0.0006 X

(I = 0.69) •
0.7
~
0.6
~
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Elevation (m)
Figure 4. Effects ofelevation on accumulation of organic C, humic acid (HA), fulvic

acid (FA), and HIF in red soils (Fian Mu mountain)
medium available K 80-150 g kg-I), whereas 32% of the red soil was deficient in
available K « 80 g kg-I). The deficiency of available K was especially significant in
upland and tea garden soils.
Micro-elements
Total boron (B) in the soils ranged from 41.4 to 82.3 mg kg-I, with a mean of 55.9
mg kg-I. Available B (boiling water extractable) varied from 0.08 to 0.79 mg kg-I
with a mean of 0.17 mg kg-I. Almost 99% of the red soils had available B < 0.50 mg
kg-I, that is below the critical value of plant-available B (Yu, 1994) (Fig.6). Among
them, 66% of the red soils had available B < 0.20 mg kiI, indicating that deficiency
of available B in the red soils was very serious.
Total molybdenum (Mo) in the red soils ranged from 0.70 to 8.9 mg kg-I with a
mean of 2.2 mg kg-\ Available Mo (ammonium oxalate-extractable) varied from 0
to 0.77 mg kg-I, with a mean of 0.16 mg kil. Most (61%) of the red soils had
available Mo lower than 0.15 mg kg-I, the critical value of plant-available Mo (Yu,
1994) (Fig.6), suggesting that the deficiency of available Mo in the red soils was
also common.
Total copper (Cu) in the red soils ranged from 6.8 to 36.3 mg kg-I, with a mean
of 26.0 mg kg-I. Available Cu (DTPA-extractable) varied 0.06 to 3.81 mg kg-I with a
mean of 0.72 mg kil. Most of the red soils had available Cu greater than 0.20 mg
kg-I, the critical value of plant-available Cu (Yu, 1994). Only about 10% of the red
soils had available Cu of less than 0.20 mg kg-I (Fig. 6), suggesting that deficiency
of available Cu occurs only in limited areas of the red soil region.
Total zinc (Zn) in the red soils ranged from 22.8 to 119.8 mg kg-I, with a mean of
77 mg kg-I. Available Zn (DTPA-extractable) varied from 0.12 to 9.63 with a mean
of 1.17 mg kg-I. About 31 % of the red soils had available Zn lower than 0.50 mg
kg-I, the critical value of plant-available Zn (Yu, 1994). Just over 31% of the soils
had available Zn ranging from 0.51 to 1.00 mg kg-I and 38% of the soils had
available Zn greater than 1.00 mg kg-I (Fig. 6). This indicates that about 62% of the
red soils are deficient or have potential deficiency problems with available Zn.
Total iron (Fe) in the red soils ranged from 11.7 to 148.0 g kg-I, with a mean of
44 g kg-I. Available Fe (DTPA-extractable) varied from 1 to 133 mg kg-I with a
mean of 33 mg kg-I. Most of the red soils (93%) had available Fe greater than 4.5
mg kg-I, the critical value of plant-available Fe (Yu, 1994) (Fig. 6). This suggests
that the red soils had sufficient Fe for plant growth.
Total manganese (Mn) in the red soils ranged from 176 to 963 mg ki l with a
mean of 443 mg kg'l, Available Mn (DTPA-extractable) varied from 9 to 67 mg kg'
I, Most of the red soils (87%) had available Mn greater than 5.0 mg ki\ the critical
value of plant-available Mn (Yu, 1994) (Fig. 6), suggesting that the available Mn
supply was sufficient,
35
30
--
~
0 25
=
e
J!
c
20
e 15
u
e
~
0- 10
5
0
<3 4-5 5·10 10·1515-20 >20
Available P (mg kg-1)
30
-
25
~ 20 -
e
=
J! 15 r--
c r--
e r--
u
e 10
~
0- :---
5
11
0
.(.'30'3o-soso·aRo.-\~8o--\ ~Ro·2.00 ?2.00
Available K (mg kg-1 )
Figure 5. Frequency distributions of available P and K in red soils

70 r--
50 _r__------------.
60
40
50
40 ~ ical value 30 Critical value
30 20
20
10
10
o O.L.....~_'_""'"_..L...JI_,_L...L...,....L-L.,....L..--J
~o·?i'.o·~'·"·~o"·1.·OO,,1.'OO ~0.",.o.,,~.1.'.o.30,.0.30
0·... 0·" ". 0." 0." o.OJ
Available B (mg kg- 1) Available Mo (mg kg-1)
~
80 35
30 .-- -
~ 60 25 CrltlCal~alue
CD
= 40
.!! 20 r--
..
c
CD
u
20
15
10 -
n
CD
Q. 5
O.L.---.-........................L....Ioo.................-I---I o
~0."'.0.1.,.".~.".&0,.,,.&0 3 00,.3.00
0." o.OJ ".0 .Lo.
0.'1'.oJ".".0'.3.
0.5 ".0
Available Cu (mg kg- 1) Available Zn (mg kg-1)
60
50
- 50 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
40
40
30
30 Critical valUE- Critical value
20
20
'f
10
o r1 n 1.0 .0
10
O.L-....L..,_,_"","_..L...JI-,-L...L...,....L-L.,....L..--I
~1..S ~.5
1..
,,0.0 ~o.o ~".o ".5.0 ,,5.0 3 0.0 30.0
A.fIy ,,0,'" ,. ". 5."',,5.'" ,.
Available Fe (mg kg- 1) Available Mn (mg kg-1)
Figure 6. Frequency distributions of available B, Mo, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn in red
soils
3.3 Water-Stable Aggregates ofRed Soils
3.3.1 Effects of Organic Matter and Iron Oxides on Formation of Water-Stable

Aggregates
Inorganic and organic colloids in the red soils The red soils contained relatively
high contents of kaolinite and Fe and Al oxides and usually rather low amounts of
organic matter. All these inorganic and organic colloids contribute to the formation
of aggregates. The contents of clay, organic matter and free iron oxides in the bulk
soils were 195 to 542 g kg"l, 2.4 to 62.8 g kg"I, and 24.7 to 97.5 g kg"I, respectively
(Table 3). The contents of organic matter and free iron oxide within soil aggregates
were positively related to those in the bulk soils but differed between different size
class aggregates in the same soil (Table 4). The coefficients of variation for free
iron oxide varied from
Table 3. Inorganic and organic colloids in the selected red soils
Soil Sampling Parent Land use pH Clay OMt Free Fe

No. location materials (H2O) oxides t
{g kg"I}
Al Hangzhou Redc1ay Forestland 5.3 346 39.1 39.7
A2 Hangzhou Redc1ay Forestland 5.0 454 13.6 42.4
A3 Changxing Redc1ay Wasteland 5.6 322 2.4 48.9
A4 Chengxian Basalt Wasteland 5.6 395 62.8 77.2
A5 Chengxian Basalt Wasteland 5.7 475 23.4 82.2
A6 Chengxian Basalt Upland 5.0 498 32.8 66.1
A7 Chengxian Basalt Upland 5.2 542 3.6 65.6
A8 Longyou Gneiss Forestland 4.7 414 28.4 54.8
A9 Longyou Gneiss Forestland 4.7 464 7.0 78.4
AI0 Longyou Gneiss Forestland 5.1 195 2.7 96.3
All Longyou Gneiss Bamboo 4.9 238 31.7 24.7
A12 Longyou Gneiss Bamboo 5.1 361 6.6 52.9
A13 Quzhou Gneiss Upland 4.9 230 28.1 54.2
A14 Quzhou Gneiss Upland 5.1 411 3.1 60.8
A15 Quzhou Gneiss Forestland 5.3 340 7.0 33.2
A16 Zhuji Shale Forestland 5.2 343 4.0 33.5
A17 Zhuji Metamorph. Tea-garden 5.7 423 4.8 97.5
Rock
A18 Zhuji Metamorph. Upland 5.2 376 7.3 61.3
Rock
tContents of organic matter and free iron oxides are the means of five aggregate size classes.
6.1% to 12.5%, whereas that of organic matter varied from 3.1% to 33.6% among
aggregates of different size classes. Increasing soil organic matter content not only
increased the organic matter content in each size class of soil aggregates but also
resulted in a more even distribution of organic matter among these size classes.
Water stability of aggregates in various size classes The water stability of the soil
aggregates varied with size classes and soil types (Table 5). The larger the aggregate
size, the greater was the difference in water stability between the different soil types.
For the same soil, the water stability of the aggregates greatly differed with size
classes and was affected by soil organic matter content. The variation of water
stability with various aggregate size classes was smaller for the soils with higher
organic matter content, but greater for those with lower organic matter content. As a
fimction of size classes, the water stability of aggregates varied from soil to soil. The
water stability of aggregates from the soils rich in organic matter was generally
higher. However, there was no close relationship between the stability indexes and
the aggregate sizes for all the soils. On the other hand, the water stability of macro-
aggregates (especially > 2 mm) from the low organic matter soils was generally
lower than that from the high organic matter soils. In addition, the water stability of
aggregates from the low organic matter soils, in general, increased with decreasing
sizes (Table 5). These results indicated that free oxides of iron and aluminium were
the major cementing substances for aggregation in the low organic matter soils,
playing an important role in the formation and water stability of the micro-
aggregates «1 mm). However, the macro-aggregates (>1-2 mm) which require
organic matter as cementing substances were much less water stable than the small
aggregates in the low organic matter soils. Statistical analysis showed that organic
matter was strongly correlated with the stability of aggregates in all size classes,
with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.53 to 0.93, and increasing with
aggregate size (Table 6). These results suggest that the water-stability of the macro-
aggregates was mainly controlled by organic matter, whereas all the cementing
substances, namely organic matter, Fe and AI oxides and clay, contributed to the
formation and water-stability of micro-aggregates. Table 6 shows that there is no
significant correlation between the stability of aggregates and the content of free
iron oxides or clay, probably because of the dominant role of organic matter.
Effect of removing organic matter and iron oxides on the water stability of
aggregates After removal of organic matter, the total amount of> 0.25 mm water-
stable aggregates decreased considerably, especially the larger (> 0.5 mm) size
classes (Table 7). The larger the aggregate size, the higher was the percentage of
water-stable aggregates destroyed as a consequence of organic matter removal. On
the other hand, the amount of 0.25-0.50 mm water-stable aggregates increased with
the disintegration of larger size aggregates for most of the tested soils (Table 7).
Removal of free iron oxides considerably decreased the amount of > 2.5 mrn
water - stable aggregates. It mainly
Table 4. Content of organic matter (OM) andfree Fe oxides (Fe) in soil aggregates of
different size classes separated by dry sieving procedure
No. >5mm 2-5mm 1-2mm 0.5-1 mm 0.25-0.5 mm CV
OM Fer OM Fer OM Fer OM Fer OM Fer OM Fer
....................................... (gk 1) •••••••••••••••.••••••••••••.•..••.•••..•••••••••.• . ..... (%) .....
Al 35.6 38.7 41.4 42.1 39.4 38.0 38.4 44.1 40.6 35.7 5.8 8.4
A2 12.3 35.7 11.8 46.1 14.8 44.8 13.7 47.1 15.4 38.2 11.4 12.0
A3 2.3 55.1 2.4 55.1 2.7 46.3 2.0 47.0 2.6 40.9 11.4 12.5
A4 59.0 84.3 66.0 76.3 64.6 72.8 61.3 78.3 63.2 74.2 4.4 5.8
A5 24.6 88.4 26.0 81.1 25.2 85.4 27.2 81.6 13.9 74.3 23.0 6.4
A6 32.7 69.8 32.1 66.7 32.0 69.8 34.5 65.3 32.9 59.1 3.1 6.6
A7 3.5 60.2 2.6 72.7 3.8 70.6 3.9 65.8 4.1 58.9 16.5 9.3
A8 29.0 56.8 25.8 60.4 28.0 57.1 29.0 54.9 30.2 44.8 5.8 10.8
A9 6.5 66.5 6.5 74.1 7.9 86.8 6.9 80.4 7.1 84.4 8.3 10.5
A10 1.2 103 3.4 97.9 2.0 75.0 2.8 102 4.0 104 31.4 12.5
All 31.0 24.8 36.2 26.1 31.1 26.2 30.0 24.2 30.0 22.5 8.2 6.1
A12 6.0 52.1 6.4 52.9 6.1 49.5 6.9 49.7 7.8 52.0 11.1 10.6
A13 19.9 58.7 25.0 59.8 33.1 56.2 31.2 51.4 31.2 44.8 19.6 11.4
A14 2.2 59.7 4.0 64.8 2.8 57.8 3.3 59.6 3.4 62.3 21.6 4.5
A15 6.9 33.9 6.0 37.3 7.3 31.9 6.6 31.2 8.1 31.5 11.3 7.7
A16 3.9 35.8 2.7 37.8 4.3 33.9 3.9 32.0 5.3 28.0 23.2 11.2
A17 2.6 85.2 5.6 101 4.1 95.0 4.8 99.5 6.9 107 33.6 8.3
A18 7.4 55.9 6.0 65.5 7.3 64.0 7.0 61.9 8.8 59.4 13.8 6.2
Table 5. Water stability coefficients ofaggregates for size classes obtained by dry-sieving
Soil No. Size of dry soil aggregates ~mm~ C.V
>5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 Mean ~%~
Al 86.5 40.3 47.9 60.5 64.2 59.9 29.5
A2 27.9 8.9 25.0 19.1 48.3 25.8 56.1
A3 5.2 10.4 5.5 66.5 19.9 21.5 120.4
A4 88.4 62.5 69.9 77.0 38.3 67.2 27.9
A5 26.0 52.6 62.7 8.0 39.1 37.7 37.3
A6 73.1 55.8 67.2 80.4 44.4 64.2 14.3
A7 0.5 9.1 13.1 45.7 31.7 20.0 91.6
A8 37.0 38.9 45.3 57.3 60.3 47.8 22.2
A9 0 0 12.9 12.3 33.9 11.8 117.2
A10 0 0 14.6 32.0 31.2 15.6 101.6
All 45.8 51.9 68.1 85.3 69.2 64.1 24.4
A12 0.2 0 11.8 35.9 45.0 18.6 111.8
A13 52.6 39.1 4.5 56.2 62.1 52.9 16.0
A14 0 0 0 17.7 40.0 11.5 152.9
A15 11.7 26.6 24.9 27.0 32.9 24.6 31.8
A16 7.6 9.3 3.1 20.2 26.6 13.4 72.7
A17 3.9 8.5 0 26.5 44.1 16.6 111.0
A18 0 0 16.8 17.4 52.7 17.4 123.8
Mean 25.9 23.0 30.2 41.4 43.5 32.8
C.V(%) 120.2 98.8 84.8 60.9 31.8
78 MINGKUI ZHANG et aI.
destroyed the aggregates in the smaller size ranges compared with the effect of
removing organic matter. The content of organic matter in water-stable aggregates
generally increased with increasing size classes (Table 8), suggesting that organic
matter plays the most important role in the formation and water stability of the large
aggregates in the red soils (Zhang et aI., 1996).
Table 6. Correlation coefficients (r) between the water stability of aggregates

in various size classes and their contents of organic matter, free iron and clay fraction
(n = 18)
Fraction Size of aggregates (mm)

>5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
Organic matter 0.93** 0.88** 0.89** 0.63** 0.53*
Free Fe oxides -0.07 -0.17 -0.07 -0.27 -0.30
Clay -0.04 0.00 -0.37 -0.24 -0.22
*, **: Significant at p < 0.05, and < 0.01, respectively.
3.4 Effects of Parent Materials on Fonnation of Water-Stable Aggregates
3.4.1 Effect ofParent Materials on Clay and Iron Oxides

The amounts of clay and free iron oxides in the red soils varied with their parent
materials (Table 9). Subsurface soils with the highest clay and iron oxide contents
were about 2.8 and 6.4 times greater respectively than those soils with the lowest
contents. Clay content of the soils varied among different parent materials in the
order of basalt > Quaternary red clay, limestone > granite, quartzose sandstone >
shale> purple sandstone, red sandstone. There was a significant correlation between
iron oxide and clay contents (r = 0.91 **).
3.4.2 Effect of Parent Materials on Amounts and Water-Stability of Aggregates in

Subsuiface Soils
The amounts of > 0.25 rom dry aggregates in the subsurface soils varied from
65.88-99.42% (Table 10). All red soils, except for the soils derived from red
sandstone and purple sandstone, had more than 90% of >0.25 rom dry aggregate,
mainly in> 5rom size fraction. But, the distribution of dry aggregates in the different
size fractions varied with the parent materials of the soils. The amounts of> 5 mm
dry aggregates were more than 90% for the soils derived from Quaternary red clay
and limestone, 70-80% for soils derived from shale, and 50-70% for soils derived
from basalt, quartzose sandstone, and granite The amounts of > 0.25 rom water-
stable aggregates in the red soils, ranged from 1.59 to 86.49%. The difference in >
0.25 rom water-stable aggregates among the soils was as high as nearly 50 times.
The amounts of >0.25rom water - stable aggregates in subsurface soils decreased in
the order of basalt> limestone > Quaternary red clay > granite, quartzose sandstone
> shale> purple sandstone> red sandstone (Table 10). The amount of> 0.25 mm
water-stable aggregates generally increased with increasing dry aggregates.
However, there was a significant difference in aggregate size fractions between
water-stable and dry aggregates. The stability coefficient of aggregates, defmed as
the ratio of> 0.25 mm water-stable aggregates to > 0.25 mm dry aggregates in soil,
varied from 2.41 to 88.67 %, with the highest values for red soils derived from
basalt and the lowest for soils developed on red sandstone. This indicates that
soils derived
Table 7. Effects of organic matter and iron oxide removal on the water stability of
different sized aggregates (mm) in the red soils
Soil Treat- Amount of water-stable aggregates (%)

No. mentt _ ..........._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...........:--..,......"._-:--=-::-_
>5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 >0.25
Al A 86.54 0 2.57 2.60 0.82 92.53
B o 0 0.60 1. 72 1.99 4.31
C 1.44 1.82 1.68 2.72 2.43 10.09
A2 A 27.89 15.68 10.64 22.06 9.32 85.59
B o 0 1.61 8.84 11.14 21.59
C o 1.35 1.00 1.22 1.53 5.10
A3 A 5.17 16.49 8.95 25.20 11.81 67.62
B 2.71 5.28 3.03 12.25 5.87 29.14
C 0.63 0.66 0.39 1.11 1.40 4.19
A4 A 88.37 4.40 2.49 2.74 1.28 99.28
B 1.18 0.88 1.02 2.32 1.70 7.10
C 24.40 9.35 2.84 4.15 1.56 42.30
A5 A 26.04 37.87 11.15 14.69 3.00 92.75
B 3.02: 0.41 0.89 2.07 1.16 7.55
C 1.41: 0.90 4.06 4.66 2.27 13.30
A6 A 73.12 12.14 3.28 5.38 2.29 96.21
B o 2.34 2.52 9.83 7.34 22.03
C 7.67 4.37 2.64 7.09 3.83 25.60
A8 A 6.97 18.96 6.99 12.29 7.50 82.71
B o 0 0.90 4.63 9.20 14.73
C 13.88 0.57 2.06 6.25 0 22.76
A12 A 0.21 6.17 6.22 21.22 14.37 48.19
B o 0 2.36 8.20 7.04 17.60
C o 0 0 0 0 0
tA: control, B: removal of organic matter by soaking soil in 10% H 20 2 solution for 24 hours with stirring,
C: removal of free iron oxides by soaking soil in cold DCB solution for 24 hours without stirring.
80 MINGKUI ZHANG at al.
from the basalt have more stable aggregates than soils derived from red sandstone.
The stability coefficient of aggregates was significantly correlated with the amoWlt
of> 0.25 mm water-stable aggregate (r = 0.99**).
3.4.3. Effect of Parent Materials on Amounts and Water-Stability of Aggregates in

Suiface Soils
The distributions of different size class aggregates in surface soils derived from
various parent materials are presented in Table 11. The amoWlts of water-stable
aggregates in the surface soil were higher than those in the corresponding subsurface
soils, especially for > 5 mm water-stable aggregates. This may be attributed to the
higher organic matter contents of the surface soils. Higher amoWlt of water-stable
aggregates in the surface soil suggests that inorganic colloid alone are not enough
for maintaining high water-stability of aggregates, and that organic matter has a
great potential to improve the quantities and quality of aggregates. The differences
in > 0.25 mm water-stable aggregates between surface and subsurface soils were the
greatest for soils derived from the red sandstone and purple sandstone, and the
smallest for the soil derived from basalt. Statistical analysis showed that the
differences in > 0.25 mm water-stable aggregates between surface soil and
subsurface soil were negatively correlated with amoWlts of water-stable aggregates
in subsurface soil (r = -0.83**), suggesting that the contribution of organic matter to
the formation and water-stability of aggregates was relatively low for soils that had
higher contents of inorganic colloids. However, organic matter in soil containing
high inorganic colloids may improve the quality of the aggregates and increase the
amoWlts of large aggregates. Based on the differences in water-stable aggregate size
distribution, between surface soil (containing higher organic matter) and
Table 8. Content of organic matter in various sizes of water-stable aggregates
Soil No. Water-stable aggregates {mm}
>5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
(g kg"l)
Al 26.1 22.8 23.5 22.3 21.3
A2 15.1 12.9 12.0 11.2 10.3
A3 2.7 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.0
A4 72.4 56.6 51.5 49.0 46.7
A5 24.4 22.3 26.5 20.2 20.1
A6 32.8 26.3 19.6 19.7 19.0
A7 8.9 5.5 3.6 2.8 2.4
A15 7.0 6.0 4.8 3.5 4.0
A16 4.4 4.0 3.7 3.6 3.1
Table 9. Effects ofparent materials on concentrations of inorganic and organic

colloids in the red soils
Soil Horizon Parent Clay Free Fe OM pH Exch. Base

material Oxides Ca Sat.
----------(g kg·'l---------- ~ cmol, kg· l ) (%)
Bl Surface Q2 red clay 402 41.9 42.2 5.2 2.08 64.6
B2 Subsurface Q2 red clay 454 49.1 12.7 5.0 0.79 12.5
B3 Surface Limestone 392 39.7 51.5 4.5 0.76 13.6
B4 Subsurface Limestone 452 43.6 6.8 5.7 2.17 48.7
B5 Surface Granite 371 31.1 62.0 6.8 16.96 100
B6 Subsurface Granite 340 31.4 5.6 5.3 0.59 15.0
B7 Surface Qtz. Sandst 287 28.2 48.6 5.0 2.43 46.8
B8 Subsurface Qtz Sandst 327 27.6 3.3 4.9 0.11 5.9
B9 Surface Basalt 495 81.4 59.3 5.6 3.66 86.1
BI0 Subsurface Basalt 475 76.4 11.3 5.7 3.32 89.4
Bll Surface Shale 213 22.7 24.4 5.1 1.33 45.7
B12 Subsurface Shale 218 12.3 5.5 5.3 0.16 6.4
B13 Surface Red sandst. 196 12.1 14.3 5.5 0.27 8.7
B14 Subsurface Red sandst. 172 12.2 8.0 4.8 o.ot 9.1
B15 Surface Purple sndst 192 19.6 18.3 5.0 6.35 85.0
B16 Subsurface Purple sndst 185 11.9 8.7 5.6 5.99 97.4
Table 10. Size class distribution ofdifferent sized aggregates (mm) in the subsurface
soils
Soil Parent Methodt Size classes of agB!egates ~% 1 WSC

material >5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25 >0.25 (%)
-0.5
B2 Q2 red 0 92.7 3.6 0.8 1.4 0.5 99.1 69.3

clay W 0.0 10.4 10.6 29.8 18.0 68.7
B4 Limest. 0 91.0 4.9 1.2 1.6 0.6 99.4 74.0
W 0.0 19.8 12.7 27.1 14.0 73.5
B6 Granite 0 61.1 16.9 5.8 8.9 3.3 96.0 55.3
W 11.0 8.6 6.6 16.6 10.3 53.1
B8 Qtz 0 64.9 10.1 4.5 10.1 4.8 94.4 54.0
Sst. W 15.5 8.9 6.9 12.3 7.4 50.9
BI0 Basalt 0 55.6 23.3 6.8 9.2 2.6 97.5 88.7
W 9.1 35.4 15.6 20.5 5.9 86.5
B12 Shale 0 77.2 15.0 2.5 2.5 1.0 98.2 35.4
W 7.2 0.0 7.5 14.7 5.4 34.8
B14 Red 0 45.5 9.4 2.5 4.8 3.7 65.9 2.4
Sst W 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.6
B16 Purple 0 31.9 24.2 9.4 14.9 5.6 85.9 31.7
Sst W 14.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 4.1 27.2
to: measured by dry sieving, W: measured by wet sieving.
WSC: Water stability coefficient of aggregates.
subsurface soil (containing lower organic matter) (Table 10 and Table 11), it may be
concluded that the inorganic colloids contributed mainly to the formation of the
smaller aggregate size fractions, whereas organic matter was responsible for
formation of larger aggregate size fractions (> 5 mm). These results indicate that
organic matter enhances the stability of aggregates in the surface soils. However, the
effect of parent materials on formation of aggregates in the surface soil was still
significant. Relative values of the stability coefficient of aggregates in surface soils
derived from different parent materials were similar to those in the subsurface soils.
There was a significant correlation between the stability coefficients of aggregates in
surface soils and those in the subsurface soil (r = 0.96**). Parent materials affect the
formation of aggregates in two ways (Zhang and He, 1997). Firstly, parent materials
provide inorganic colloids that facilitate the formation of aggregates. Secondly,
parent materials affect the accumulation of organic matter which changes the
stability of the aggregates. A high inorganic colloid content could improve
accumulation of organic matter. There was a significant and positive correlation
between organic matter and clay in the surface soils (r = 0.87*).
Table 11. Size class distribution ofdifferent sized aggregates (mm) ofthe surface
soils
Soil Parent MethodT Size classes of aggregates {%~ WSC

material >5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 >0.25 (%)
B1 Q2 red 0 80.0 11.2 3.0 3.2 0.7 96.1 87.4

Clay W 48.5 14.9 6.3 9.4 4.7 83.9
B3 Limest. 0 93.7 3.5 0.5 1.0 0.4 99.1 95.2
W 77.3 8.7 2.8 3.9 1.6 94.3
B5 Granite 0 40.2 16.0 7.2 14.4 7.3 84.9 80.4
W 23.3 12.0 6.9 18.4 7.9 68.5
B7 Qtz 0 29.4 21.2 9.7 20.2 8.2 88.7 88.2
Sst. W 17.6 18.8 10.0 25.4 6.5 78.3
B9 Basalt 0 70.0 16.5 5.9 4.5 1.9 98.8 94.2
W 46.2 20.7 9.0 12.6 4.5 93.0
B11 Shale 0 77.2 14.1 3.8 3.5 0.5 99.1 52.2
W 9.9 7.8 6.2 16.6 11.3 51.7
B13 Red 0 11.6 20.6 8.3 13.7 7.9 62.1 50.4
Sst. W 9.0 5.1 1.9 10.5 4.8 31.3
B15 Purple 0 53.8 19.3 5.4 7.6 3.1 89.2 70.9
Sst. W 31.5 13.0 5.3 8.6 4.8 63.3
TO: measured by dry sieving, W: measured by wet sieving.

WSC: Water stability coefficients of aggregates.
Table 12. Correlation coefficients (r) between the amounts ofdifferent sized
aggregates (mm) and soil properties
Horizon Soil properties >5 >5 >0.25 >0.25 WSC

DA WSA DA WSA
Sub Clay 0.63* -0.24 0.69* 0.75* 0.95**
Surface Iron oxides 0.35 -0.16 0.53* 0.90** 0.89**
Soil Organic matter 0.05 -0.45 0.Q1 0.31 0.31
pH -0.03 0.14 0.46 0.51 0.52
Exchangeable Ca -0.48 0.32 0.04 0.08 0.17
Surface Clay 0.48 0.67* 0.51* 0.83** 0.83**
Soil Iron oxides 0.48 0.55* 0.57* 0.76* 0.70*
Organic matter 0.28 0.48 0.46 0.79* 0.83**
pH -0.42 -0.38 -0.33 -0.20 -0.09
Exchangeable Ca -0.21 -0.15 -0.06 0.04 0.13

DA: Dry aggregates; WSA: Water stable aggregates; WSC: Water stability coefficient of aggregates.
3.5 Amounts and Water-Stability ofAggregates in Relation to Soil Properties
For subsurface soils where organic matter was low, amounts and stability of soil
aggregates were mainly correlated with inorganic colloids (especially iron oxides),
but were not significantly correlated with organic matter and other soil properties
(Table 12). However, for surface soils where organic matter was high, amounts of
dry aggregates were mainly correlated with inorganic colloids, whereas amounts of
water-stable aggregates and the stability of aggregates were significantly correlated
with both inorganic colloid and organic matter.
After removal of iron oxides by soaking soil samples in dithionite-citrate-
bicarbonate solution (DCB), the amounts of water-stable aggregates decreased
sharply (Table 13), suggesting that iron oxides play an important role in the
formation of water-stable aggregates. In addition, correlation analysis between
stability coefficients of aggregates and iron oxide content of various size dry
aggregates (> 5mm, 5-2 mm, and 2-1 mm) showed that significant correlation
coefficients for the 2-5 mm and 2-1 mm dry aggregates (r = 0.64* and 0.75*,
respectively). For the > 5 mm dry aggregates the correlation was not significant (r =
0.14). These results confirmed that the water stability of> 5 mm aggregates was
mainly related to organic matter, and that iron oxides largely contributed to the
formation of water stable aggregates in the 1-5mm size range.
84 MlNGKUI ZHANG et al.
Table 13. Decrease in different sized water-stable aggregates (mm) after free iron
oxide removal in subsurface soils
Soil Parent Treatment Water-stable a&g!esates {%l

material >5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 >0.25
B2 Q2 red W 0.00 10.36 10.55 29.77 17.99 68.67

Clay DCB-W 0.00 1.35 1.00 1.22 1.53 5.10
B8 Quartz. W 15.48 8.94 6.86 12.33 7.34 50.95
Sandst. DeB-W 0.22 0.06 0.16 0.44 0.46 1.34
BI0 Basalt W 9.09 34.41 15.60 20.53 5.86 86.49
DeB-W 1.41 0.90 4.06 4.66 2.27 13.30
W: measured by wet sieving; DCB-W: measured by wet sieving after removal free iron oxides with DCB
solution.
3.6 Structure ofRed Friable Soils
Red friable soil is a red soil derived from metamorphic rocks, with a red color,
loose to friable consistence, and a deep soil profile. This type of soil is suitable for
production of bamboo, tea, and fruit trees. However, cultivation of this soil often
results in severe soil erosion because of low structural stability.
3.6.1 Characterization ofAggregate Distribution in the Red Friable Soil

Under field moisture conditions, this red soil is characterized by a granular or
granular-massive and friable, porous structure. Some of the structure is not stable
and disintegrates even after slight touching with the fingers (Zhang et aI., .1997b).
The red friable soil is similar to the red soil derived from Quaternary red clay with
respect to clay and iron oxide contents (Table 14). When organic matter contents are
similar, these two soils have comparable amounts of dry aggregate, but very
different amounts of water-stable aggregates. For soils with low organic matter
contents, the amounts of water-stable aggregates in the red friable soil were
significantly lower (28-69%) than in the Quaternary red clay soil (Table 14). For the
red friable soil, the percentage of aggregates destroyed in water was twice as high
as that for the Quaternary red clay, even though the soils have a similar colloid
content. The stability of the aggregates in the red friable soil was improved by
increases in organic matter. However, the difference in water-stable aggregates
between the red friable soil and the Quaternary red clay was still large (Table 14).
Water-stability of all size aggregates from the red friable soil was lower than that of
the Quaternary red clay, with a greater difference in the larger sizes and smaller
difference in 1.0-0.25 mm fraction (Table 15). A high proportion of the larger size
aggregates (> 1.0 mm) in the red friable soil resulted in lower water stability of
aggregates for the whole soil.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF RED SOILS 85
Table 14. Mean size class distribution of aggregates and cementing substances of
redfriable soils and Quaternary red clay
Soil Type Red Friable Soil Quaternary Red Clay

SOM Status LowSOM HighSOM Low SOM High SOM
Method Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet
>5mm 65.09 1.48 54.63 19.64 86.09 0.0 94.21 53.66
2-5mm 16,06 3.27 19.29 8.31 7.79 12,42 3.74 14.97
1-2mm 5.23 4.07 7.02 7.85 1.69 11.36 0.47 8.58
0.5-1mm 7.84 14.31 11.19 16.24 2.33 28.11 0.58 11.26
0.25-0.5mm 2.93 6.39 3.76 7.21 0.85 16.08 0.21 3.22
<0.25mm 97.15 29.52 95.50 59.25 98.74 59.25 99.21 91.65
% Aggregate 69.61 38,22 31.17 7.62
Destroyed
Clay (g kg"l) 423 359 448 346
Free Fe oxides 66.3 59.9 58.5 40.8
(g kg"l)
Organic Matter 4.1 25.8 8.7 28.8
(%)
pH 5.1 5.0 5.0 5.3
Percentage of aggregate destruction (%) - (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates - > 0.25 mm water-stable
aggregates) xIOO%! (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates).
Table 15. Water-stability coefficients of size class aggregates from the red soils
Soil Soil No. Water-stability coefficients of aggregates (%)

>5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
mm mm mm mm mm
Red friable Cl 25.93 14.92 26.38 18.04 33.88
Soil C2 48.19 34.37 31.59 48.26 44.97
C3 28.70 27.35 14.60 24.25 39.95
C5 39.16 39.07 31.46 34.44 44.14
Mean 35.50 28.93 26.01 31.25 40.74
Quaternary CIO 85.59 58.66 69.35 38.68 48.28
Red clay
3.6.2 Cause ofLow Water Stability ofAggregates in the Red Friable Soil
Based on field observations and laboratory analysis, it is believed that there are
two factors affecting the water stability of aggregates in the red friable soil. Firstly,
red friable soils have a much higher percentage of coarse sand, which limits the
formation of water stable aggregates (Table 16). Secondly, the soils are derived from
metamorphic rock such as gneiss which contain an abundance of plate-like minerals
(mica). The mica is incorporated into the soil structure, forming aggregates which
readily disintegrate in water and rendering the soil particularly susceptible to
erosion.
Table 16. Comparison o/particle size between the redfriable soil and the
Quaternary red clay
Soil Soil No. Particle composition (g kg· i )

2-0.25 2-0.02 0.02-0.002 <0.002
mm mm mm mm
Red friable Cl 68 235 301 464
Soil C2 236 416 223 361
C3 215 328 261 411
C4 204 343 258 399
C5 145 297 280 423
Mean 174 324 265 412
Quaternary CI0 36 157 389 454
Red clay Cll 58 287 271 442
Mean 47 222 330 448
5. CONCLUSIONS
Red soils in China are characterized by low cation exchange capacity, high
exchangeable acidity, and low pH. The texture of the soils varies from clayey to
sandy loam and is mainly influenced by the type of parent material from which the
soils are derived. Contents of organic matter are related to topographical factors,
moisture regime, vegetation and cultivation. Generally, soil organic matter increases
with increasing elevation. The amounts of total N, P and K in the red soils vary with
parent materials, elevation, and land use patterns. About 60% of the red soils have a
total N less than 1.5 g kg· 1 and very low Olsen-P « 5 g kg· I), and 32% of are
deficient in available K « 80 g kg-I). Deficiencies of available B, Mo and Zn are
common, whereas available Fe, Mn and eu is abundant. About 66% of the red soils
have available B lower than 0.20 mg kg-t, 61% have available Mo lower than 0.15
mg kg-I and are therefore potentially deficient in these elements. More than 60% of
the red soils aare potentially deficient in available Zn.
The water stability of soil aggregates decreased with increasing size, especially for
these low organic matter soils. Organic matter plays a key role in the formation of
water-stable soil aggregates. The larger the soil aggregates size, the greater the
impact of organic matter on the water stability of soil aggregates. Removal of
organic matter markedly disintegrated the large water-stable aggregates (>2.0 mm)
and increased the small ones «0.25-0.5 mm) to some extent, whereas removal of
free iron (alwninium) oxides considerably destroyed aggregates of all sizes,
especially for the < 0.25-0.5 mm classes. The contents of organic matter in water-
stable aggregates increased with aggregate sizes. It is concluded that small size
water-stable aggregates «0.5 mm) are chiefly cemented by Fe and AI oxides, whilst
the large ones (>2.0 mm) are mainly bound by organic matter. Different parent
materials have various amounts of inorganic colloids that greatly affect the amount
and water-stability of the soil aggregates. The aggregate composition of the soils
deriving from eight different parent materials decreased in the order : basalt >
limestone and Quaternary red clay > granite and quartzose sandstone > shale >
purple sandstone> red sandstone.
6. REFERENCES
Agricultural Chemistry Committee of China. 1983. Conventional Methods of Soil and Agricultural
Chemistry Analysis (in Chinese). Science Press. Beijing, China.
FAOIUNESCO. 1974. Soil map of the world 1:5000000.vol.l,Legend Unesco,Paris.
Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences. 1978. Soil PhYSical and Chemical AnalysiS.
Shanghai Scientific and Technical Press (in Chinese).
Sumner, ME. and W.P. Miller. 1996. Cation exchange capacity and exchange coeffients. p 1201-1230. In
Sparks, D.L.(ed.) 1996. Methods of Soil AnalYSis, Part 3: Chemical Methods. Published by Soil
Science Society of American, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Yu, z. Y.(ed) 1994. Zhejiang Soils, Zhejiang Scientific and Technical Press (in Chinese), Hangzhou.
Zhang, MK, Z. L. He. 1997. Effect of parent materials on formation of soil aggregates (in Chinese).
Tropical and Subtropical Soil Science. 6: 198-202.
Zhang, M.K., Z.L. He, Y.K. Wang. 1997b. Preliminary study on structure of red friable soil (in Chinese).
Chinese Journal ofSoil Science. 28: 4-6.
RARE EARTH ELEMENT (REE) GEOCHEMISTRY
DURING RED SOIL FORMATION IN SOUTHERN
CHINA
YUANGEN YANG (1), CONGQIANG LID (1), ZHENLI HE (2) and

KENENG YUAN (2)
(/)Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China

(2) College ofNatural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou 310029, China
ABSTRACT
The distribution ofrare earth elements (REEs) in red soil profJIes in southern China was studied in detail.
Much higher total REE contents were observed in red soils than in the bedrocks. The highest total REE
contents were found in gneiss-, limestone- and granite- derived red soils and the lowest in quartzitic
sediments. There were no significant differences in total REE contents between the red soil horizons
although soluble REEs accumulated in the lower horizons of the profJIes. Amounts varied greatly with
parent materials. There was a significant exponential relationship between the total REEs and soluble
REEs in red soils. Soluble REEs were also positively correlated to a chemical index of alteration (CIA)
values and clay contents, but were negatively correlated with organic matter, pH values and Al,OJiFe,OJ
mole ratios. These results imply that soluble REE contents could be a useful indicator of red soil
development. Total REE contents were negatively correlated with SiO,IAl,OJ, Al,OJiFe,OJ mole ratios,
but were positively correlated with the R,OJ/SiO, mole ratio, reflecting the fact that REEs are mainly
inherited from parent rocks. It was concluded that soluble REEs tended to be leached out from the red
soils at an early stage of soil development and that residual forms became enriched at a later stage. The
main form of REEs in red soils is as a residual phase associated with primary minerals inherited from the
parent rocks, while the non-residual forms are closely related to the laterization process.
Key words: red soil; weathering; REE geochemistry
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soils in all their various forms, including the most intensively weathered and
well-developed lateritic stage, have developed extensively under the warm, humid,
tropical and sub-tropical climates of southern China. (Huang, 1996). These soils are
found throughout this region and provide ideal field outcrops for studying their
development and the geochemical mechanisms of their formation, including that of
the process of laterization. Because of their special geochemical properties, REEs
89
MJ Wilson et al. (eds.). The Red Soils ofChina, 89-100.
90 YUANGEN YANG et al
can be used as tracers for identifying such processes and mechanisms (Tu, 1984).
These elements become slightly differentiated under different surficial weathering
conditions (Wang and Yu, 1989) and can, in turn, be used to trace the course of the
weathering processes. Thus, study of REE distribution and of the chemical
behaviour of these elements in red soils can lead to a better understanding involved
in the formation of these soils.
2. METHODOLOGY
The soils studied were collected from natural weathering profiles mainly from
Zhejiang Province but some also from Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Hainan and
Guizhou Provinces in southem China. The soils were air dried, and ground to pass
through a I-mm stainless sieve after removal of all visible hetero-materials such as
rootlets and organic residues. Determination of pH, organic matter, cation exchange
capacity (CEC), and clay minerals were made on the sieved soils by routine soil
physical and chemical methods (ISS CAS, 1983). Sub-samples were then ground to
pass a 200-mesh sieve for determination of REEs as well as the major silicate
elements by ICP-AES (Yuan, 1983). The sequential extraction technique, proposed
by Tessier et al (1979), was employed to study the different forms of REEs in the
red soils, concentrations in the extracts being measured by ICP-MS (Ma et aI.,
1999).

3.1 REE distribution in red soils
Mean values for total and soluble REE contents of A, B and C horizons of red soils
from southern China and for some parent rocks from which the red soils are derived
are shown in Table!. It is evident that the C horizon samples of the red soil profiles
have the highest content REEs, although with a high standard deviation.
All horizons of the weathering profiles yielded higher REE values than their parent
materials. The t test showed that there was no significant difference in the REE
content between the A, B, and C horizon samples, whereas there was a significant
difference (p<0.05) in total REE content of these horizons and the parent rocks. The
mean total REE content of the 152 red soil samples collected from southern China
was 178.69 mg kg-I, ranging from 44.82 mg kg-! to 736.21 mg kg-I. There was a
high standard deviation and coefficient of variance for these samples, being 80.47
and 45.03 respectively. As shown in Table 1, there is little difference in soluble REE
content in the samples collected from the various horizons of the red soils, although
values tend to decline towards the surface.
RARE EARTH ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF RED SOILS 91
Table 1. Rare earth elements (REE) distribution in red soil profiles (mg kg-I)
TotalREE Soluble REE
Horizons Sample Mean SD Sample Mean SD

number Values number Values
A 52 175.66 63.90 61 17.80 8.60
B 62 172.33 51.24 64 21.76 8.42
C 40 185.72 115.39 40 22.63 7.12
Bedrock 14 160.82 40.25
Mean values for total REE contents in the red soil profiles (combining all horizons)
developed on different bedrocks are shown in table 2. It is clear that red soils
developed on metamorphic rock, limestone, and granite contain relatively high
concentrations of REEs, usually over 200 mg kg"I, but with high CVs, followed by
red soils derived from sedimentary rocks such as red sandstone, sandy shale, and
purple sandstone with mean total values of 180-200 mg kg-! REEs and lower CVs.
The mean concentrations of REEs in red soils developed on basalt and Quaternary
clay ranged from 140 to 160mg kg-I, with the lowest values being observed in soils
developed on quartzitic sediments. This suggests that quartz acts as a REE diluting
agent leading to low REE values in the weathering crust (Wang and Yu, 1989).
3.2 Soluble REE in red soils
For the 165 red soil samples analysed from southern China, the mean soluble REE
concentration was 20.50 mg kg-I, ranging from 0.26 mg kg -1 to 31.27 mg kg-I, with
a standard deviation of 8.24 and a CV of 40.20. As shown in table 1, highest values
for soluble REEs were observed in the deepest horizons of weathering profiles and
lowest values in the A horizon samples. No significant difference in soluble REE
concentrations between horizon B and C was revealed by the t tests, but there was a
significant difference when B/C horizon and A horizon samples were compared.
Table 3 shows that there are notable differences in the soluble REE content of red
soils developed on different bedrocks. Red soils derived from gneiss, basalt,
limestone, and Quaternary red clay have the highest concentrations of soluble REEs,
with an average value> 20 mg kg"!, while granite and some sandstone-derived red
soils show the lowest values.
92 YUANGEN YANG et al.
Table 2. REE contents ofred soils on different bedrocks (mg kg-I)

Bedrock types Sample Mean Min. Max. Median
number values values values Values
Shallow ocean sediment 2 76.8 71.4 82.2 76.8
Quartz sandstone 12 138.3 78.8 202.5 145.3
Mud shale 13 142.4 44.8 218.3 156.9
Quaternary red clay 47 146.0 90.5 253.2 134.5
Basalt 17 162.5 94.6 290.5 171.0
Red sandstone 17 180.6 121.2 297.1 159.4
Sandy shale 7 198.9 182.8 216.3 196.9
Purple sandstone 7 205.1 98.8 280.6 191.7
Granite 6 215.5 185.9 296.1 202.5
Limestone 12 228.6 146.9 386.7 227.0
Gneiss 14 287.3 82.2 736.2 243.2
Table 3. Soluble REE concentrations ofred soils on different bedrocks (mg kg-I)
Bedrock types Sample No Mean Min values Max values Medvalues

Sandy shale 7 6.74 2.34 11.52 7.01
Quartz sandstone 12 8.40 0.26 24.54 3.22
Shallow ocean sediment 3 12.08 4.84 22.54 8.85
Granite 6 12.38 0.84 23.87 11.10
Purple sandstone 6 14.01 9.18 26.71 11.98
Limestone 12 19.23 9.93 26.88 19.87
Mud shale 13 22.80 11.60 29.38 22.54
Red sandstone 18 23.38 6.94 31.72 26.67
Quaternary red clay 54 23.59 10.35 29.63 24.87
Basalt 17 23.76 15.02 29.97 25.63
Gneiss 17 24.40 12.52 28.55 25.46
Comparison of mean soluble REEs with the total REEs in all the red soils developed
on different bedrocks revealed an exponential relationship (Figure 1), suggesting
control by different factors during weathering process.
50% N=154
UJ
~ 40%
Q)
]5
:;J
"0 30%
III
'0
20%
Q)
OJ y = 24.463x-1.0709
~Q) 10%
u
III
Q. 0%
0 200 400 600 800
REE conta1ts ( mg·Kg·l )
Figure 1. Relation of soluble REE with total REE in red soils
When mean total REE values of the red soils and various soil properties were
statistically analysed, it was found that there was a significant positive correlation
with soil pH, but only a weak relationship with organic matter, clay or CEC. This
suggests that REEs have a higher mobility under acidic conditions. However,
different correlations were found with soluble REEs in red soils. Thus, there were
significant negative relationships with organic matter and soil pH and a positive
relationship with clay content, suggesting that REE have a high solubility under
acidic condition and that complexation with organic matter leads to decreased
solubility of REEs. In fact, the organic matter associated REEs is difficult to extract,
so that the REEs in red soils with a high organic matter content may be less liable to
be leached as a result of surficial weathering. REEs are usually electrostatically
adsorbed on clay minerals and easily extracted by electrolytes. Therefore, a high
clay content in red soils could lead to relatively high soluble REE contents in
profiles during weathering processes. This may explain why there are so many ionic
adsorption type REE ore deposits in strongly weathered areas in southern China
Soluble REE concentrations normally reflect the plant availability of REEs in
weathering profiles (Ma Yinjun et aI, 1999) and can serve as an indicator of REE
94 YUANGEN YANG et al.
leachability Wlder surficial conditions. As shown from the correlation coefficients in

Table 4, there is a positive relationship between soluble REEs and the CIA,
suggesting that soluble REEs are positively related to intensity of weathering.
Therefore, the soluble REE content may relate to the laterization process
(McLennan, 1993). The negative relationship between soluble REEs and the
Ah03iFe203 ratio in red soils can be attributed to the strong binding capacity of
ferric sesquioxides for REEs. Unlike soluble REEs, total REEs in red soils had no
relation with the CIA but was negatively correlated with the Si02/Ah03 and
Ah03iFe203 ratios and positively correlated with the R 20 3/Si0 2 ratio. This suggests
that accumulation of REEs during the laterization process is not directly controlled
by weathering, but indirectly through their asociation with sesquioxides that
accumulate during weathering processes. It is concluded that total REEs in red soils
are mainly related to their abWldance in the parent rocks, whereas soluble REEs are
related directly or indirectly, to weathering processes.
Table 4. Correlation coefficient (r) of rare earth elements (REE)

contents to red soil properties
Soil properties REE contents SolubleREE

Organic matter -0.083(127) -0.343(139)**
pH(~O) 0.307(103)** -0.318(114)**
CEC 0.111(119) 0.170(122)
Clay content -0.107(109) 0.288( 112)**
CIA 0.058(32) 0.566(32)**
Si02/Ah0 3 -0.434(32)** 0.140(32)
Ah0 3iFe20 3 -0.445(32)** -0.589(32)**
R2OiSi02 0.645(32)** 0.062(32)
Note: CIA (chemical index of alteration) was calculated as the formula:
CIA=[Ah03/Ah03+CaOx +Na20+K20]/lOO after Nesbitt and Young (1982)
Where CaOx was calculated by the method of S.MMcLennan (1993). All the oxides were calculated as
mole concentration. SiOJAh03, AhO,IFe203 and R20 3/Si0 2 are all mole ratios. ** means 99"10
confidence level by t tests. In parenthesis are sample numbers.
3.3 REE distribution in red soil profiles
The distribution of individual REEs in 40 red soil profiles is listed in Table 5.

Concentrations are elevated to varying degrees in different weathering horizons
compared with parent materials. The highest values were observed in the C horizon
showing movement of REEs down the profiles. The REE content of the A horizon
was often higher than that of the B horizon possibly because of the higher organic
matter content near the soil surface and to the fact that organic matter retains REEs
as shown above. Low (LaIYb) n, (GdIYb) n ratios and a high (La/Sm) n ratio in the
red soil profiles compared with that of the bedrocks on which the soils are
developed indicate that light REE differentiation has occurred during weathering.
No obvious differentiation of heavy REEs or between light REEs and heavy REEs
was observed. A negative anomaly for Eu and a positive anomaly for Ce were
observed. The latter is usually induced by precipitation of Ce3+ and oxidation to
Ce4+ (Wang and Yu, 1989) under surficial conditions, while the low (GdIYb)n ratio
and Eu anomalies may be related to organic matter reduction under hypergene
conditions (Toulkeridis and Podwojewski, 1998).
3.4 REE behaviour during the iaterization process
REE distribution patterns can be useful for a better understanding of the behaviour
of these elements during the laterization process. To eliminate bedrock effects and
volume loss that may cause inert component enrichment during weathering, a
standard transition based on Ti as the inert component was carried out before the
REE distribution data were plotted. The mean values of the REEs for red soils
developed on different parent rocks were plotted in Figure 2 after this standard
transition. The distribution patterns were very similar with right inclined and light
REE enrichment features. Depletion of Eu was a common characteristic. All these
features are related to the laterization process that induced accumulation of clay
minerals with strong binding ability, precipitation of AI-Fe-Mn oxides and an
increase in organic matters under hypergene circumstances (Tu, 1984). Higher
LREEIHREE ratios reflect humid and hot climatic conditions during the weathering
(Xing and Dudas, 1993). The difference in some parameters may reflect variation in
the degree of laterization, for weathering intensity influences differentiation among
the REE. For example, the (LaIYb) n ratios of sandstone- and limestone-derived red
soils are 10.39 and 12.92, respectively, which are much higher than those of granite-
and gneiss-derived red soils (7.65 and 8.17, respectively). These results indicate that
there is greater differentiation between LREE and HREE between these two groups
of red soils. The (La/Sm) n and (GdIYb~ ratios of gneiss-derived red soil is 2.61
2.26 respectively which in the fIrst case is much smaller, and in the second case
much higher than that of other bedrock-derived red soils. Thus, there is a weaker
differentiation between LREEs and a stronger differentiation between HREEs in
gneiss-derived red soils compared with red soils developed on other parent
materials.
Table 5. Rare earth elements (REE) distribution in red soil profiles
Horizon A HorizonB HorizonC Bedrocks
REE Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
mgkg·'
La 43.19 12.79 42.24 13.09 51.76 16.46 28.76 12.95
Ce 92.44 21.03 95.12 26.89 107.01 22.67 59.68 28.77
Pr 8.33 2.87 8.17 3.01 10.26 3.18 5.85 2.42
Nd 28.01 10.22 26.75 10.84 34.16 11.03 18.56 8.34
Sm 7.13 3.11 7.00 3.31 9.03 3.70 4.92 2.55
Eu 1.38 0.85 1.36 0.89 1.85 1.06 0.98 0.70
Gd 6.32 3.02 6.23 3.18 8.17 3.97 4.60 3.08
Th 1.19 0.48 1.18 0.50 1.48 0.63 0.91 0.53
Dy 5.41 2.19 5.27 2.21 6.58 2.93 3.91 2.63

Ho 1.21 0.42 1.17 0.43 1.43 0.59 0.87 0.55
Er 3.58 1.17 3.47 1.12 4.20 1.63 2.55 1.54

Tm 0.61 0.17 0.59 0.17 0.70 0.23 0.44 0.24
Yb 3.07 0.83 2.98 0.82 3.47 1.12 2.11 1.26
Lu 0.50 0.17 0.51 0.13 0.59 0.18 0.37 0.22
Y 34.44 13.31 33.51 12.49 42.30 21.03 24.78 16.42
(La/Sm). 4.03 0.32 3.97 0.65 3.91 0.72 3.56 0.99
(Gd/Yb). 1.57 0.31 1.49 0.29 1.64 0.43 2.28 0.48
(LaIYb). 9.56 2.14 8.64 1.28 8.87 1.63 12.97 6.13

8eu -0.40 0.04 -0.40 0.04 -0.19 0.44 -0.34 0.10
8ce 0.22 0.14 0.26 0.10 0.26 0.56 0.00 0.28
3.5 Chemicalforms ofREE in red soils
Sequential extraction of REEs from the different horizons of the red soils
indicates different chemical forms (Table 6). Residual forms are mainly associated
with accessory minerals of REEs or isomorphic/solid solution substitution in
minerals of the parent rocks. The organic matter bound REEs are related to chelation
or complexation of organic matter. The REEs bound to Fe and and Mn oxides are
surface co-ordinated with these oxides in the form of ferric sesquioxide and
1000
100
(J)
.-
....
"C
c:
0
..c:
u 10
(j)
~
C\l
If)
La Ce Pr f\tt Pm 8m Eu G:l Tb Di I-b Er Tm Yb Lu
Figure 2. REE Distribution patterns in red soils derivedfrom different bedrocks

1 gneiss 2 sandstone 3 limestone 4 granite
manganese concretions. The carbonate bound rare earth element fraction is related
to surface precipitation and/or adsorption on carbonate; while exchangeable REEs
are electrostatically adsorbed onto clay minerals.
Table 6 shows that the REE contents in the residual fraction are much higher than
those in other fractions. It is reasonable to conclude that the REEs in red soils are
mainly inherited from parent materials or bedrocks as suggested previously (Yang
and Liu, 1998). The Fe and Mn oxide bound REE fraction is the next most abundant
fraction, followed by organic matter, exchangeable, and carbonate bound fractions
respectively. All of these REE fractions were enriched down the red soil profiles. It
is remarkable that the REE distribution patterns of exchangeable, carbonate, Fe and
Mn oxide and organic matter bound fractions are obviously different from those of
residual fraction and their bedrocks. Depletion or enrichment of rare earth elements
has normally been observed in the REE distribution curves as a general depletion in
Yb or enrichment in Tm. In the red soils, however, Tb is depleted in the organically
bound fraction but enriched in the Fe and Mn oxide bound fraction. On the other
hand, Pr is enriched in the organically bound fraction. Basalt- and gneiss- based red
soils show a marked positive Ce anomaly, while other bedrock-derived red soils
show a negative Ce anomaly. This can, perhaps, be attributed to an accumulation of
higher valence Fe and Mn oxides under stronger laterization. Except when
organically bound, Eu is notably depleted in all fractions. Possibly reduction induced
by organic matter caused leaching and thus the loss of Eu from other fractions
\0
00
Table 6. Rare earth elements (REE) fractions in different horizons of red soils (mg kg'})
(Note: Ex refers to exchangeable. Car to carbonate bound. Re to Fe and Mn oxide bound. Org to organic matter
bound. and Res to residual fraction of REE.)
Horizon La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Y
Ex. A 1.11 2.28 0.59 0.73 0.08 0.04 0.12 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.80
B 1.26 2.95 0.43 0.70 0.Q7 0.03 0.11 0.00 0.Q7 0.01 0.02 0.Q7 0.03 0.04 0.44
C 2.10 4.41 0.84 2.22 0.42 0.12 0.48 0.06 0.36 0.07 0.19 0.10 0.13 0.05 2.68
Car. A 0.66 1.54 0.62 1.81 0.19 0.05 0.21 0.Q2 0.11 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.Ql 0.70
B 0.68 1.26 0.40 0.85 0.15 0.04 0.16 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.Q1 0.54
C 1.51 1.51 0.62 1.60 0.37 0.09 0.38 0.05 0.22 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.05 0.02 1.46
Re. A 2.79 11.29 1.95 3.56 1.23 0.24 1.28 0.40 0.79 0.22 0.50 0.19 0.29 0.10 4.60
B 2.40 12.90 2.37 3.31 1.18 0.23 1.24 0.41 0.77 0.22 0.53 0.19 0.31 0.11 4.43
C 4.68 14.10 2.29 4.56 1.58 0.30 1.62 0.46 1.05 0.27 0.66 0.22 0.41 0.13 6.49
Org. A 1.79 2.26 0.35 1.52 0.26 0.08 0.31 0.Q2 0.30 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.12 0.05 1.94
B 1.73 2.59 0.41 1.42 0.26 0.08 0.30 0.02 0.28 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.12 0.05 1.83
C 1.35 1.36 0.34 1.31 0.21 0.Q7 0.25 0.00 0.27 0.04 0.12 0.08 0.11 0.04 1.43
Res. A 38.41 81.13 5.73 23.39 6.69 1.40 6.07 1.02 5.32 1.14 3.53 0.32 3.05 0.38 33.17 ;
B 38.49 82.50 5.98 23.63 6.59 1.37 5.75 0.96 4.96 1.06 3.24 0.31 2.91 0.36 31.61
~
C 43.91 88.13 6.46 25.14 6.89 1.43 6.09 1.02 5.18 1.12 3.47 0.31 3.01 0.41 33.85
a
~
e:..
(Toulkeridis and Podwojewski, 1998). However, there appears to be no special

impact of organic complexation on the selective differentiation of REEs.
Correlation coefficients of soluble REEs to the REEs in each of the five fractions
are 0.5814* for the exchangeable, 0.6395" for the carbonate bound, 0.4717 for the
Fe and Mn oxide bound, 0.0707 for the organic bound, and 0.1128 for the residuals,
respectively (* means 95% confidence level and ** for 99% confidence level).
Evidently, soluble REEs in red soils consist mainly of REE fractions held by
electrostatic adsorption, precipitated at the surface and, to lesser extent, coordinated
on the surfaces of Fe and Mn oxides. There is little or no contribution from REEs
that are organically complexed or bound in residual mineral phases. These results
imply that the behaviour of the REEs during laterization is controlled mainly by the
weathering process and is influenced by bedrocks to a lesser extent.
4. CONCLUSIONS
REE concentrations in the red soils of southern China are greatly variable, with a
mean value of 178.69 mg kg- l and a high coefficient of variance of 45.03. Usually,
there are higher REE concentrations in the red soils than in the rocks from which
they are derived. However, the REE distribution patterns in red soils are very similar
to those of their parent materials, which implies that the influence of inheritance is
strong. Soluble REEs in red soils are normally high, with a mean value of 20.50 mg
kg"l. There is no linear relation between red soil total REEs and soluble REEs but
there is an exponential relationship. Again, there is no relationship between soil
soluble REEs and REEs in bedrocks, but a strong relationship between soil soluble
REEs and weathering processes can be deduced. Soluble REE in red soils could be a
useful indicator of weathering intensity. During red soil development, REEs were
leached to varying degrees, and a certain differentiation between the light REE had
occurred. Sequential analysis shows that REEs are held mainly in the residual
fraction in red soils, showing the influence of inheritance, whilst other fractions are
mainly related to the laterization process.
5. REFERENCES
Huang Z. G 1996 (ed). Red Weathering Crust in Southern China. Ocean Publishing House, Beijing:
ppl-56.
ISS, CAS. 1983. Soil Physics and Chemical Analyses: Shanghai Science and Technology Press,
Shanghai. pp 142-191.
Ma Y., C. Q. Liu, Q. Liang, R. G Huang, and J. H. Pengo 1999. Detennination ofrare earth elements in
rock samples by ICP-MS using microwave digestion, Rock and Mineral Analysis, 18(3): 175-179.
McLennan S M 1993. Weathering and global denudation. Journalo/Geology, 101:295-3035.

Nesbitt H w., and G MYOImg. 1982. Early Proterozoic climates and plate motion inferred from major
element chemistry oflutites. Nature,299:715-717.
Tang N. and J. S. Li. 1993. Total REB and individual REB distribution in red soils and latosol, Fujiang
province, China, Chinese Journal o/Soil Science, 24(5): 207-210.
Tessier A., P. G Campbell, and M. Bisson. 1979. Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of
particulate trace elements. Analytical ChemiStry, 51(7):844-851.
Toulkeridis T., and P.Podwojewski. 1998. Tracing the source of gypsum in New Caledonian soils by REB
contents and S-Sr isotope compositions. Chemical Geology, 145(1-2): 61-71.
Tu G C. 1984. Geochemistry, Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing House, Shanghai: 243-267.
Wang Z. G and X. Y. Yu (eds). 1989. Rare Earth Element Geochemistry. Science Press, Beijing: 321-
330.
Xing B and M J.Dudas. 1993. Trace and rare earth element content of white clay soils of the 3 river plain,
Heilongjiang Province, PRC. Geoderma, 58(3-4):181-199.
Yang Y. and C Q. Liu. 1998. Distribution of REB chemical forms and their patterns in red soils. Acta
Minerologica Sinica. 18(4): 417-424.
Yuan X.H 1983. ICP-AES analyses for rare earth elements on ppb level. Rock and Mineral Analysis,
1983,1: 71.
Partll
CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION ON THE

RED SOILS OF CHINA: SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW
ZHENLI HE(I) M J WILSON(2) AND XIAOE YANG(I)
(J)Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China

(2)The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK
In China, most red soils are distributed in hilly regions and low mountains. The soils
are highly weathered, inherently infertile and generally very vulnerable to soil
erosion if their vegetation coverage is removed or damaged. During the 1950-60s,
the red soil region of China was subjected to large-scale deforestation. It was thought
that this wooded land could be cleared and cultivated in order to meet the increasing
demand for food and energy of the rapidly expanding population. In the event,
however, it was found that most of the red soils, that had originally sustained a forest
vegetation and had high organic matter, quickly became severely eroded and greatly
degraded. Some red soils on the hills or mountains even lost the whole of their top
soil surface and then became bare land. It became evident that the red soils could not
sustain crop production using conventional arable systems.
There are several fundamental constraints on crop production from Chinese red soils
in many areas, all of which interact to a high degree. These relate largely to the
nature of the soils themselves, particularly with regard to nutrient deficiencies,
element toxicities, some undesirable physical properties and susceptibility to erosion,
as well as to the prevalent climatic regime which brings about a severe drought
period following the monsoonal rains. In addition to this, socio-economic factors
may also be considered as a constraint to the use of these soils for crop production,
but these are discussed in Part IV of this book.
He et al show that most of the red soils in China are quite acidic, ranging in pH
from 4 to 6, that they contain low organic matter « 20 g kg'!) and have low nutrient
availability. Specifically, deficiencies of major nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca and Mg,
are very common in these soils and deficiencies of micronutrients, especially B and
Mo are also widespread. In addition, soil acidity frequently leads to toxicity
problems involving AI, Mn, and Fe. The intense weathering involved in the
formation of the red soils leads to other undesirable characteristics. The soils
generally have a thick subsurface layer (argillic or oxic horizon) so that rooting depth
is often a limiting factor for crop production. Drought conditions or aluminum
toxicity in the subsoils are often more common barriers to root development than
shallow rocks or hardpan.
101
MJ. Wi/son et aT. (eds.), The Red Soils ojChina, 101-102
© 2004 KillWer Academic Publishers.
102 ZHENLI HE and M J WILSON
Mitchell shows how uneven distribution of rainfall is one of the major

constraints to crop production in the red soil region of China. The annual
precipitation in south and southeast China ranges from 1300 to 1700 mm, but most
occurs in the spring and summer. A drought develops during July and August, and
evaporation may exceed precipitation until October or in some areas even until
December. This so called "fall-drought", often poses a severe threat to crop
production in the red soil regions and irrigation and water management is critical if
this constraint is to be overcome.
Characteristically, many red soils are found to consist of stable sand-size
granules called "pseudosand", which are in effect micro-aggregates cemented by Fe
and Al oxides and organic matter. These micro-aggregates playa significant role in
determining the water-retention and supplying properties of the red soils. Thus, in the
red soils these properties are intermediate between sandy soils and soils dominated
by 2: 1 clay minerals. At high moisture content, when large pores between macro-
aggregates are filled with water, water movement in these soils is as fast as in a
sandy soil. At low moisture content, water is tightly held within small pores between
micro-aggregates as in soils dominated by layer-silicate clays. As a result, these soils
generally have less water available to plants at moisture tension levels which would
be adequate for plant growth in other soils, thus exacerbating the effects of the "fall-
drought. Lu et a1 show how these undesirable soil properties can be mitigated to
some extent by judicious land use.
Severe soil erosion is also associated with the unusual water retention properties of
the highly weathered red soils. Thus, the water stability of the micro-aggregates is
related to the content of clay, Fe, Al oxides, and organic matter. Clay and Fe, AI
oxides play important roles in the formation of the smaller micro-aggregates,
whereas organic matter, particularly microorganisms and humus, contribute more to
macro-aggregate structures. Cultivation practices which lead to declining organic
matter contents of the soils, therefore, ultimately lead to structural degradation and
increased susceptibility to erosion. Milne et a1 show how the use of simple
cultivation techniques plus the use of straw mulch can significantly reduce soil loss
from some experimental red soil plots and Lu et al demonstrate how runoff and soil
loss from red soils are determined by vegetation coverage and plant characteristics.
CHEMICAL SOIL CONSTRAINTS TO CROP
PRODUCTION ON CHINESE RED SOILS
ZRENLI RE(l) , MINGKUI ZHANG(l) AND M J WILSO~2)
(l)Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China

ABSTRACT
The most widespread chemical constraints on crop production from Chinese red soils include soil acidity,
toxicity of AI, Mn and Fe, and deficiencies of the major nutrients N, P and K, as well as some minor
nutrients such as B , Mo and Zn. Other nutrients which can be deficient include Mg, S and Si. Particular
attention was paid to the N and P incorporated into the microbial biomass. The results indicate that this is
an important pool of available N and P in the red soils and may have use as a biological index of nutrient
availability.
Keywords: Soil acidity, soil organic matter, available nutrients, red soils.
1. INTRODUCTION
Chinese red soils are often inherently infertile by reason of widespread acidity with
concomitant nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. This paper aims to give a brief
overview of the extent of these problems in the red soils and especially the variation
found in the different red soil types. For N and P in particular the major plant -
available pools are likely to be associated with organic matter. Evidence is presented
to show that this is indeed the case and also that the N and P contained within the
microbial biomass is particularly significant. Thus, dry matter yield of ryegrass and
N uptake are highly correlated with microbial C and N and microbial biomass P
correlates well with P extracted by the Bray technique.
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The pH values of most red soils lie in the range of 4 to 6, and exchangeable Al ions,
which usually account for more than 70% of total exchangeable acidity, are the
dominant source of acidity for soils with pH < 5. Toxicity of AI, Mn, and Fe and
acidity stress frequently pose some of the most important soil constraints for crop
production in the red soil regions (Tables 1).
103
MJ Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils of China, 103-110.
© 2004 Klmver Academic Publishers.
104 ZHENLI HE et al.
Table 1. Major soil constraints to crop growth on red soils in China
Soils Standards Latosois Lateritic Red Yellow Red

Red earths earths Paddy
Earths Soils
AI,Fe,Mn +++6 +++ +++ +++ +++
toxicity8
Subsoil +++ +++ +++ +++ +
acidity
N" +++ +++ +++ +++ +
pd 5mg/kg ++ ++ ++ +++ +
(OlsenP)
K 5Omg/kg +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
NH,Ac
atpH7
Mg 4Omg/kg + ++ ++ + +
(Exch.)
S + + + + +
Sit 105 mg/kg + + + + ++
B 0.25mg/kg +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Zn 0.5mg/kg + + +++ +++ ++
Mo 0.15 mst.kz. +++ +++ + +++ +++
a. Fe and Mn toxicity for rice plants, and AI toxicity for upland crops; b. +++, > 50% chance; ++ >30"10
chance; +, >10"10 chance; c. Red soils IUlder long-term rice cropping have fewer problems with nitrogen
deficiency; d Phosphorus deficiency occurs more to upland crops than rice crops; e. Silicon deficiency is
mainly related to rice crops, and other cereal crops; f. Molybdenum deficiency severely limits growth of
leguminous crops.
Clay contents range from 15% to 60%, depending on parent materials and soil
development. Red soils derived from sandstone may have a clay content < 15%,
whilst those developed on basalt can contain as high as 75% clay (Agriculture
Ministry, 1990). Given the same parent materials, clay content increases among the
red soils in the order :
Yellow earths < Red earths < Lateritic red earths < Latosois.
Organic matter contents vary greatly among the red soils, ranging from <10 g kg-! to
>80 g kg-I. The lowest organic matter concentrations were found in red soils
SUbjected to severe erosion, whereas the highest was in some Yellow earths under
natural forest coverage. However, for most agricultural red soils, organic matter is
between 15 to 30 g kg-I.
CHEMICAL SOIL CONSTRAINTS TO CROPS ON RED SOILS 105
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of red soils is generally lower as compared to other
soils, as the dominant clay in red soils is kaolinite that carries only a small amount of
pH dependent charge. Among the red soils, yellow earths and lateritic red earths have
relatively greater CEC than latosols and red earths. Aluminum and It account for
most of the exchangeable cations in the red soils and as a result, base saturation in
these soils is mostly 15 - 30%, occasionally up to 60% due to liming or inheritance
from base-rich parent materials.
Total N concentration in red soils ranges from 0.5 to 2.0 g kg"t, occasionally> 3.0 g
kg· l , and tends to decrease with increasing weathering intensity, from yellow earths
to latosols. This trend also agrees with a change of climatic conditions, from the
subtropical to the tropical (higher temperature but lower humidity), which is more
favorable to organic matter decompositon. Except for paddy soils, most red soils
have a low N supplying ability and application of N fertilizers is still an important
practice to sustain crop production on these soils.
The P content of red soils tends to be low and they have a strong phosphate fixing
ability. In the early eighties, 60% of the cultivated soils in south China were strongly
deficient in available P (CAAS, 1986). After over a decade of application of
fertilizers in this area, except for eroded hill soils and barren soils where available P
is certainly deficient, other soils with long cultivation histories have considerably
improved their P status. Total P in red soils varied from 0.3 to 1.9 g kg"1 (Table 2)
and was generally higher in the latosols and yellow earths than in lateritic red earths
and red earths. In a latosol region such as Guangdong, heavy P fertilization has
resulted in the accumulation of P in the soil (Xiong and Lu, 1996). The higher total P
in some surface layers of yellow earths is due to high organic matter. In general, P
deficiency in the red soil region is common. Available P (Olsen P) in red soils ranges
from 2 to 10 mg kg· 1 and according to data from the last soil survey the mean
available P in red earths was only 3.3 mg kg· l , far below the critical level (Olsen-P,
5.0 mg kg· I). Among the subgroups of red earths, available P decreased in the order
of sub-red earth > ortho-red earths> yellowish red earths> brownish red earths. For
latosols and lateritic red earths, 20-40% of the soils had available P below the critical
level.
Total K is very low in red soils, especially in latosols . This can be attributed to low
soil K from intensive weathering of K-bearing minerals and low K fertilizer input, as
China has limited K sources. Total K in red soils ranged from 0.5 to 25 g kg-I, with
only 0.5 to 6.4 g kg-I in latosols. Available K measured by 1 mol L- I neutral
ammonium acetate in red soils was 30 - 130 mg kg-I. In the early eighties, more than
50% of total cultivated soils in the red soil region of China had available K below
the critical level (50 mg kg-l) (Xiong and Lu., 1996). Available K in red soils
increased overall in the last decade due to increased fertilizer K inputs (Agriculture
Ministry, 1998), but K deficiency is still very common in the red soil regions due to
a greater increase in N and P applications.
Deficiency of Mg is also very common for these soils (Table 1). Strong weathering
and leaching results in a low level of Mg in red soils with the average content of Mg
in soils of south China being 3.3 g kg- l (Xie and Lu, 1986). Magnesium deficiency
occurs in >30% of the lateritic red earths and red earths and > 10% of the latosols
and yellow earths. Soils developed on granite, gneiss, and marine deposits in western
Guangdong contained the lowest Mg, less than 1 g kg- l, with mean exchangeable Mg
below 40 mgkg-l. These soils are most probably deficient in Mg. Magnesium
deficiency has been reported on rubber, fibre, and fruit crops.
Sulfur deficiency is mainly found in sandy soils with long periods of submergence.
Crops responding to S fertilizers are rice, winter wheat, oilseed rape, peanut, sesame,
milk vetch etc. (Lu et aI., 1986). Approximately 20% of the soils in south China are
deficient in S.
Deficiency of Si has been reported in paddy rice grown in the red soil region for
many years. This element is beneficial for rice growth and its effect is more obvious
with excessive N fertilization and under adverse soil and environmental conditions.
Paddy soils deficient in available Si are estimated to occur over about 5% of south
China and an average yield increase of 10% can be obtained by using Si fertilizers on
deficient soils (Xiong and Lu, 1996).
Boron deficiency in red soils is very common. Latosols and lateritic red earths have
the lowest total B content. Almost all the red earths and paddy-growing soils have
low available B, <0.25 mg kg- l hot water soluble B (Liu, 1993). For example, in
Jiangxi province, >90% of the soils surveyed contained available B less than 0.25 mg
kg-lsoil. Boron deficiency is often associated with red earths derived from granite,
gneiss, sandstone, and limestone. Significant yield increases can be achieved with B
application for oilseed rape and cotton on B-deficient soils.
Molybdenum deficiency occurs in some red earths in south China. Application of Mo

fertilizers on these soils has proved beneficial for soybean, peanut, milk vetch
cauliflower, etc (Liu, 1993).
Zinc deficiency occurs in red earths derived from limestone and sandstone, with total
Zn < 0.5 mg kg- l soil. It is estimated that 10% of the paddy soils, 20% of upland
soils, and 50% uncultivated hill soils are deficient in available Zn, these soils
being mainly red earths with a sandy texture and sUbjected to water submergence
(Wie et aI., 1986).
3. BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
There is a great variation in community diversity of organisms in red soils. The

favorable temperature and rainfall in the tropical and subtropical regions of China
enhances growth of micro- and macro-organisms and accelerates turnover and
cycling of organic C and nutrients, N, P, and S. A reduced supply of organic C and
nutrients caused by deforestation, soil erosion, and intensive cultivation, as well as
by soil stress conditions such as soil acidity, aluminum toxicity, and heavy metal
contamination, reduces biodiversity in the soils (Coleman et aI., 1993; Brown et aI.,
1994). Soil acidification, in general, reduces the number and activities of
microorganisms and macro-fauna, especially bacteria. Fewer earthworms were found
in soils under very acidic conditions (pH <4.0) (Ohno, 2001). Fungi become
dominant in microbial communities in most acidic soils, and acid-sensitive bacteria
give way to acid- or aluminum tolerant bacterial species (Kanazawa and Kunito,
1996; Yu et aI., 2001). These acid- or aluminum tolerant bacteria exhibited longer
dormant periods (Yao, 2000; Yu et aI., 2003). A sufficient supply of organic C
maintained high total microbial biomass in tea-growing acidic soils (pH<4.5), but the
culturable microorganisms present in these soils were much lower than in neutral
soils with comparable soil properties and environmental conditions (Yu et aI., 2003).
The roles of micro- and macro-organisms in soil productivity, especially
transformation and availability of nutrient remain to be fully understood.
Microbial biomass C in red soils ranged from 20.2 to 425.8 mg ki!, accounting for,
on average, 1.9% of total organic C (Corg) (Table 2). Soil No.8 contained 20 times
more Crnie than soil No.1, which contained much less organic matter and nutrients
due to severe erosion. Microbial biomass N (Nrnie) varied from 4.0 to 52.6 mg kg-!,
accounting for, on average, 2.9% of total N (NT) or 28.8% of available N (NA) in the
soils (Table 3). The Nrnie of soil No.8 was 11 times more than that of soil No 1. The
average e/N ratio of microbial biomass (7.2) was about 3.7 units lower than that of
soil (10.9), indicating that microbial biomass N was potentially available to plants.
Microbial biomass P ranging from 2.1 to 43 mg kg-! (Table 2), was comparable to
Bray 1 extractable P in the red soils (Chen et aI., 2000) and significantly correlated
with total P (Table 3). The significant relationship between Prnie and extractable P
suggests that Prnie has a great potential in predicting P-supplying ability in red soils.
Statistical analysis showed that Crnie was highly correlated with Corg, NT, and NA,
whereas the Nrnie was highly correlated with Corg, Crnie , NT, and NA (Table 3). These
108 ZHENLI HE et al
results showed that Cmie and Nmie were closely related to soil fertility in the
weathered soils as were the results from greenhouse pot experiments.
Table 2. Microbial biomass-C (Cmid, -N (Nmid, and -P (Pmid in red soils

with variable fertility levels and cropping systems. a
Soil Cwe %of Nmic %of Micr Pmic: % Mic

No (mgkg'l) total (mgkg'l) total N d (mgkg'l) of CfP
org. C' CIN total Ratio
p
Ratio
20.2 ±2" 1.2 4.0± 1.90 5.1 2.1 ± 0.2 0.7 9.6
0.3
2 152.2 ± 10 3.2 23.7 ± 1.5 5.51 6.4 6.8 ± 0.7 2.2 22.4
3 129.9± 8 2.6 19.0 ± 1.2 3.96 6.8 20.2 ± 1.4 8.4 6.4
4 235.3 ± 15 1.6 31.9 ± 2.5 1.84 7.4 31.5 ± 2.9 3.7 7.5
5 264.6±20 1.6 35.2 ± 2.5 1.93 7.5 42.3 ± 3.7 2.4 6.3
6 361.9±22 1.9 45.2 ± 3.0 2.95 8.0 30.8±2.8 4.1 11.8
7 400.2±30 1.5 47.9 ± 3.2 2.35 8.4 24.6 ± 2.1 4.5 16.3
8 425.8± 35 1.5 52.6 ± 4.1 2.69 8.1 15.3 ± 1.1 3.5 27.8
• Modified from He et aI. (1997) and Chen et aI. (2000)." Mean ± SE. from three replications.
e Percentage of Cwe in total organic Cd percentage ofNwe in total N or available N.
Dry matter yield of ryegrass (DMY) and N uptake of the plants were highly
correlated with Cmie, and N mie (He et aI., 1997). Soil organic matter and total N
content are generally considered the most important soil fertility properties related to
crop yields (Olson, 1986). The study by He et aI. (1997) demonstrated that the
correlation between ryegrass DMY and C mie was better than that between the DMY
and COl!!' and the correlation between N uptake and N mie was better than that between
N uptake and NT. There were close relationships between ryegrass dry matter yield,
plant P uptake or tissue P concentration and Pmie in the red soils. These results indicate
that microbial biomass is an important pool of available N and P in red soils and Nmie
and Pmie are potential biological indexes ofN and P availability in these soils.
Table 3. Correlation coefficients (r) between microbial biomass C, N, or P and soil

fertility indices. a
b
Co,!! ernie NT NA Nmic PT Pmic
COtg
Cmic 0.971 **'
NT 0.936* 0.903*
NA 0.996** 0.974** 0.930*
N mic 0.954** 0.996** 0.898* 0.963**
PT 0.264 0.568 0.404 0.247 0.289
Pmio 0.416 0.778* 0.549 0.471 0.514 0.836**
Pe"" 0.268 0.670* 0.407 0.296 0.344 0.867** 0.944**
a Modified from He et al. (1997b) and Chen et al. (2000).
bCo,g-total organic C, C.,,;,-microbial biomass C, NT-total N, NA-available N, N.,,;,-microbial biomass N,

Prtotal P, P .,,;,-microbial biomass P, and p.xtr -Extractable P by Bray-l reagent* and ** indicate 5% and
1% significant levels, respectively.
4. REFERENCES
Brown, S., Anderson, J. M., Woomer, P. L., Swift, M. J., and Barrios, E. 1994. Soil biological processes in
tropical ecosystems. In The Biological Management of Tropical Soil Fertility. P.L. Woomer and M. J.
Swift, eds) 15-46, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK
CAAS (Soil and Fertilizer Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences) 1986. Fertilizer
Planning of China. China Agric. Sci. Press, Beijing.
Chen, G, He Z. L., and Huang, Y 2000. Microbial biomass phospholllS and its significance in predicting P
availability in red soils. Commun. Soil Sci. PI. Analysis. 31: 655-657.
Chen, G 2000. Microbial biomass C and P, their turnover rates in red soils with relation to soil fertility
sustainability.. PhD Thesis. College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou.
Coleman, D, c., Hendrix, P. F.,Beare, M. H, Cheng, W x., and Crossley Jnr D. A. 1993.Microbial and
faunal interactions as they affect soil organic matter dynamics in subtropical agroecosystems. In Soil
Biota, Nutrient Cycling and Farming Systems. (M. C. Paoletti, W Foissner and D. C Coleman. Eds),
ppI4-21. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida
He, Z. L., Yao, H, Chen, G, Zhu, J, and Huang, C. Y 1997. Relation of crop yield to microbial biomass
in highly weathered soils of China. 745-746. In T. Ando et ai, (eds.). Plant Nutritionfor Sustainable
Food Production and Environment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Tokyo.
Kanazawa, S and Kunito, T. 1996. Preparation of pH 3 agar plate, enumeration of acid-tolerant and AJ-
resistant micro-organisms in acid soils. Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 42, 165-173
Lillo Z. 1993. Content and distribution of microorganisms in Chinese soils. pp, 213-222 In Proceedings of
the International Symposium in the Role ofSulfur, Magnesium and Micronutrients in Balanced Plant
Nutrition. Chengdu Science and Technology University Press, Chengdu, China.
Lllo J., Liu, G Q., and He Z. L. 1986. Stability of the structure of red earths and and its significance in soil
classification. Acta Pedologica Sinica. 23 (3). 212-219 (In Chinese with English Abstract).
Luo, J., Jiang, M., Yang, D., Bao, M., and Chen, J. 1995. Study on degradation of soil fertility through soil
erosion. pp 345-352. In Q. Zhao (ed). MIlterial Cycling in Pedosphere in Relation to Agriculture
and Environment. Jiangsu Sci. Tech. Press. China.
Ohno, M 2001. Sensitivity ofa Japanese earthworm (Allolobophorajaponica) to soil acidity. Water, Air
and Soil Pollution. 130: 1019-1024.
Olson, S. R 1986. The role of organic matter and ammonium in producinghigh com yields. In. The Role
of Organic MIltter in Modern Agriculture. (Y Chen and Y Avnimelech, eds). pp. 29-70. Martinus
NijhoffPub!., Dordrecht.
Wie, X.W, Wen Y F., Won, S. L., and Wu, R L. 1986. Contents of micronutrients in soils of Jiangxi
Province. pp. 45-420. In: Research and Application ofMicronutrient fertili=ers (Agricultural Bureau
ofthe Ministry ofAgriculture). Hubei Sci Techno!. Press, Wuhan, China
Xie, J. C. and Lu, R K. 1986. Nutrient status and fertilization of upland soils in tropical and subtropical
China. In: Proceedings of International Coriference on Management and Fertili=ation of Upland
Soils in the Tropics and Subtropics., September 7-11. Nanjing, China.
Xiong, L. M., and Lu, R K. 1996. Nutrient stress in red soils of China. pp 339-351. In: Red and Lateritic
Soils. Vol.2. Red and Lateritic Soils of the World. (J. Sehgal, WE. Blum and K. S. Gajbhiye. Eds).
A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Yao, H Y 2000. Microbiological characterization of red soilswith varying fertility and quality status. Ph.D
Thesis. College of Resource and Environmental Sciences. Zhejiang University, Hangzhou.
Yu, S., He, Z. L., Chen, G C., and Huang, C. Y 2003. Soil chemical characteristics and their impacts on
the soil microbial community in the root layer of tea plants in red soil. Acta Pedologica Sinica. 40:
433-439.
CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS TO CROP
PRODUCTION IN THE RED SOILS AREA OF
SOUTHERN CHINA
DAVID J MITCHELL
School ofApplied Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, WVI 1SB, UK
ABSTRACT
A review of the climate of southern China combined with data from an experimental site in Yunnan
Province reveals a number of climatic constraints to crop production in the area dominated by red soils. In
addition to the well-known effects of late summer drought and high summer evaporation, other factors
include variability of the onset date of the summer monsoon as well as the intensity and damaging effects
of the monsoon. Other climatic constraints identified are the occurrence of cold conditions and frost
during the winter monsoon and local microclimatic variability due to topographic factors.
Keywords: Red soils, climate, forage crops, maize, monitoring stations.
1. INTRODUCTION
The role of climate in agriculture has been recognised in China throughout its long
history. In central China the 'Agricultural Calendar' has served Chinese farmers for
more than two thousand years and is still in general use today (Watts, 1969). The
calendar divided the Chinese year into 24 fortnightly periods, which linked
distinctive climatic periods with crop phenology, but due to the variability of
climates in China, the calendar is limited to use in Shensi and Honan Provinces
(Chang 1934).
Crop production in the red soils region is controlled by climatic constraints,

especially in the unirrigated agricultural land. In order to place the red soils region
into context, the climate of southern China, south of the Yangtze valley, has been
reviewed, identifYing particular features, which limit successful crop production.
Many of these constraints vary seasonally and locally at a much smaller scale.
Therefore, in order to identifY localised variability, a case study (Mitchell et ai.,
2002) of the Wang Jia catchment in Yunnan has been presented.
The mountainous topography of China has a significant effect on the climate.

Although these physiographic controls are often localised, the west-east Chinling
and Nanling Hills have an important control over climate both in winter and
111
© 2004 KIUlver Academic Publishers.
112 DJMITCHELL
summer. In the south, the Nanling Hills form wave disturbances on a quasi-
stationary front and block cold northerly winds in winter (Yao 1946). This range
forms a natural boundary between subtropical and tropical zones in south China
(Chu and Yuan 1963). Further north (outside the red soil region) the Chinling Hills
delimit the boundary between temperate and 'subtropical' zones (Chu and Yuan
1963). Bamboo, tea and mandarin oranges only thrive south of the hills.
2. CLIMATE OF SOUTHERN CHINA
2.1 Circulation patterns
Circulation patterns over southeast Asia have been well documented (Tao, 1948;
Thompson 1951). The marked seasonal pressure system over southern China has an
important influence over the climate, especially precipitation. The climate of south
China is part of the monsoon system of East Asia, which has been shown to be
separate from the monsoon of the Indian subcontinent (Tao 1984). Alternating wind
direction between winter and summer can be regarded as the basic defmition of the
term 'monsoon'. Using this criterion Zhang and Lin (1985) devised a monsoon
index, which numerates the strength of the alternating wind direction. They found
the highest indices occurred in South China, south of the Yangtze River, particularly
in Sichuan and Yurman Provinces. Furthermore they found that the monsoon effect
is strongest between 500 and 1000 metres.
Between October and March the winter monsoon, with cold, dry northern air, occurs
over China. Depending on pressure anomalies in central Asia, the circulation is
either 'active' or 'weak'. Active winter monsoon results in cold conditions
extending south of the Yangtze valley. Ensuing cold spells can result in a sudden fall
in temperature (>100 C) with conditions strongly influenced by local topography.
Jiang (1984) has studied the agroclimatological effects of low temperatures and frost
damage of tropical and sub-tropical crops in South China. He identified frost
damage on subtropical citrus (in particular Citrus unshiv) and tropical rubber trees
over 30 years (1950-1979).
In spring the intense continental anticyclone weakens, especially in April. The onset
of the summer monsoon starts in the south during May, marked by an abundant
increase in rainfall. Normally, during the end of May, the monsoon front stagnates
in south China, then moves rapidly northwards in June. The monsoon reaches the
middle and lower Yangtse valley (the limit of the red soils) in mid June when it
stagnates again associated with the 'mei-yu' front. Depending on the intensity of the
central Asian low pressure and the periods of stagnation of the front, the arrival of
the summer monsoon can vary up to 4 weeks, which can have a significant effect on
unirrigated crops. Compared with the Indian sub-continent, the Chinese summer
monsoon starts earlier, developing over two months, and lasts longer, influencing
the southern most areas for five months (Tu and Hwang, 1945).
CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION 113
Air masses have two sources in sumi11d·; the most dominant from the northwest
Pacific, affecting the southeast and the other from cross-equatorial airflow,
influencing the southwest, especially Yunnan Province. The south-easterly is more
dominant because the air mass arrives at sea level, while the south-westerly
monsoon crosses China at 600 m (Thompson, 1951). For eastern China, Guo (1983)
examined the relationship between the summer monsoon intensity (SMI) and rainfall
in July. Except for the southeast coast, most of the red soils region has a negative
correlation between SM! and July rainfall. The advancing front of the equatorial air
masses results in most of the monsoonal precipitation in southern China and,
therefore, an intense summer monsoon causes the front to move northwards more
rapidly and hence gives less rainfall.
In early June, the advancing front causes significant rainfall, known as the 'mei-yu '
or 'plum' rains, in the middle and lower Yangtze valley (Tao 1986). May and early
June rains, developing on the quasi-stationary front, are caused by the interaction
between the summer monsoon and the westerly mid latitude airflow. Most of the
rain occurs south of the front in the form of persistent thunderstorms, which are
enhanced by convergences due to the southwest monsoon. Along the front, eastward
moving vortices develop, resulting in intense rainfall (Tao 1980), leading to severe
floods in the Yangtze valley. The percentage departure of rainfall in June and July
from the mean correlates directly with the mei-yu period. Devastating floods
occurred in the Yangtze in 1954 when the mei-yu period lasted 63 days. But if the
summer monsoon is intense, the rain belt moves quickly northwards, resulting in an
'empty mei-yu' and severe drought in the Yangtze valley.
Heavy rainfall is also associated with southwest cyclonic vortices, which move
eastwards between April and September. South and southeast coasts are effected by
typhoons between May and September. Fifty percent of the annual rainfall in the
coastal areas of Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong Provinces are from typhoons, but
their influence does not extend more than 200 km inland.
2.2 Precipitation
The predominant feature of precipitation in China is its irregularity (Watts 1969). In

southern China, precipitation varies due to the seasonal effects of alternating air
masses and the orographic effects due to landforms. The mean annual rainfall of the
red soil area is greater than 1000 mm, rising to 2000 mm on exposed slopes subject
to orographic lifting. The 1100 mm isohyet mainly lies east-west along the Yangtze
valley except through the Red Basin were rainfall exceeds 1250 mm (Watts, 1969).
During the winter monsoon, generally dry conditions occur over southern China
with contrasts between the southwest and the southeast. During January, northern
areas of Yunnan Province have less than 5 mm while further east at Wuji Shan
orographic rains in January exceed 70 mm. In April, most of the red soils area
receives more than 50 mm of rain. The contrast between the southwest and the
southeast still persists with large areas having less than 25 mm precipitation, while
114 DJMITCHELL
Wuyi Shan has more than 250 mm. By July, when the full summer monsoon effects
are well established, rainfall is distributed more evenly with the whole area
receiving 150-200 mm. Using cluster analysis for selected stations Domros and Peng
(1988) identified two precipitation types in South China:
1. Strong mid-summer precipitation type
Maximum precipitation in July and August
Substantial precipitation in May, June and September
High summer peak and dry winter.
Areas of Yunnan Guizhou and Guangxi Provinces.
2. Strong early-summer precipitation type

Maximum precipitation occurs in May and June largely
associated with the mei-yu depressions.
Prolonged wet season from March to September
Double peaked distribution with a secondary peak in August
Dry winter conditions are relatively short.
Remainder of the red soils region.
The variation of wet and dry months in China is an important climatic characteristic.
Using monthly percentage of precipitation against annual total for selected stations
in the red soils region (Table 1), the two rainfall types are easily distinguished
according to the number of wet and dry months.
Table 1. Monthly percentages o/precipitation against the annual total, together with
the number o/wet and dry months at selected stations (from Domriis and Peng,
1988)
Dry Stn Months

Mon J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
7 1 4.6 6.0 8.3 9.3 12 13.7 9.4 9.7 13.1 4.8 4.4 3.5
6 2 2.8 4.8 8.3 12 13 17.3 14.2 10.6 6.4 4.2 4.5 2.7
5 3 3.7 6.1 11 14 17 13.0 8.7 7.5 4.9 6.0 5.0 3.4
5 4 3.1 3.2 4.9 6.6 14 18.8 14.0 15.9 8.9 5.2 3.4 1.9
5 5 1.0 1.0 1.4 2.0 8 18.3 21.8 17.7 12.4 9.6 3.4 1.6
6 6 2.3 3.7 5.4 9.4 16 17.8 13.0 13.4 12.1 3.0 2.5 1.2
I.Hangzhou, 2. Wuhan, 3. Changsha, 4. Nanning, %. Hunming, 6. Guangzhou
These monthly variations have an impact on the relative precipitation surpluses and
deficits, which vary annually. The annual coefficient of variation (the quotient of
mean standard deviation and mean precipitation total expressed as a percentage) for
selected station is 18-23% (Table 2). As in most cases, the percentage variability
decreases with increased total rainfall. As normally found in monsoonal climates,
these results show that over an extended period the monthly rainfall variation is
much greater than the annual variation. The percentage variation of winter months
is much greater than summer months because of the uncertainty of winter rainfall
compared with summer rainfall. For the selected stations the lowest percentage
Table 2. Annual and monthly coefficients ojprecipitation variation (%) at selected

stations (from Domros and Peng, 1988)
Stn J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Yr
1 72 62 49 30 50 45 64 53 56 76 68 69 21
2 68 57 49 48 40 60 70 67 103 66 71 69 23
3 55 61 60 54 39 54 50 61 59 45 48 58 22
4 89 67 46 50 39 51 66 50 76 84 91 78 21
5 107 74 72 61 52 47 55 41 59 86 111 120 18
1. Hangzhou, 2. JJngling, 3. Neijiang, 4. Ganzhou, 5. Bose
variation occurs in May (39-52%) during the advance of the SUlnmer monsoon.
Within each year, the onset dates of summer rainfall and the intensity of the sUlUtner
monsoon can vary considerably. The variability of rainfall can severely effect the
early cultivation of crops if irrigation is unavailable.
The relatively high variability is also associated with the nature of sUlUtner rainfall,
which is influenced by local atmospheric instability. Over most of the red soil region
the maximum frequency of rain storms are in the afternoon, although some
variations occur with locality and season (Watts 1962). In sUlUtner, intense rainfall is
often associated with thunderstorms developed along convergence lines, especially
in Yunnan, fronts and cyclonic vortices generated along boundary between the
westerly airflow and the advancing sUlUtner monsoon, particularly in the Yangtze
valley and typhoons along the south and south east coasts. Between mid-February
and end of September, 50 thunderstorm-days are recorded on average south of the
Yangtze (Watts, 1969). The frequency and severity of rainstorms in China is the
most hazardous feature of the climate. Besides serious damage due to flooding, soil
erosion on cultivated steep slopes during the cropping season results in loss of
productive topsoil and reduction in soil fertility. The frequency of heavy rainstorm
(>50 mm day) increase towards the south and southeast coasts as shown by Zhang
and Lin (1985) (Table 3).
Table 3. Mean monthly number oj rainstonns (>50 mm) jor stations in the red soils
area (from Zhang and Lin, 1985)
Sin J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Yr
1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.1 4.7
2 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 4.0
3 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.2 1.6 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.1 0.2 6.7
4 0.1 0.1 0.3 1.5 1.4 2.6 1.4 2.0 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 11
5 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 1.9
1. Wuhan, 2. Changsha, 3, Guangzhou, $. Yangjiang, 5. Kunming
As China is very mountainous, aspect and altitude influence precipitation.

Ascending air on windward slopes result in increased rainfall and a rain shadow and
fOhn effect on the leeward slopes. Because of advectional processes precipitation
116 DJMITCHELL
amounts and number of rainy days increase with altitude, with greater gradients in
summer than winter.
2.3 Ter.njOerafure
In the subtropical and tropical red soils region temperatures are not as critical as
precipitation for crop production. Within the region, the mean annual temperature is
greater than 16°C with reductions mainly due to altitude (lapse rates of 0.2-0.4° C
per 100 m). Using cluster analysis on temperature data for 279 stations in China,
Domros and Peng (1988) identified four types of temperature regimes. The red soils
are found in two of the types:
Type 1 Tropical south China coastal zone
Mild winters (14°C) and hot summers (28°C)
Annual range 14°C
Type2 Remainder of Southern China ('sub-tropical'/warm humid
temperate)
Mild winters (>4°C) and hot summers (26°C)
Annual range 22°C.
The northern limits and higher areas of the warm humid temperate area are
vulnerable to frosts. With the mean dates of the last frost on 20 March and the first
frost on 20 November these areas have 250 frost-free days, rising to more than 350
days along the south coast (Zhang and Lin,1985). Annual accumulated temperatures
above 10° C amount to more than 5000 day degrees for most of the red soils region,
rising to 8000 day degrees along the south coast (Zhang and Lin, 1985).
2.4 Hur.nidity and EvajOoration
In summer the humidity is high over most of southern and eastern China,
particularly in enclosed valleys such as the middle Yangtze. During the sununer,
dew-point is around 25°C and relative humidity is greater than 80% south of the
Yangtze. These conditions remain until the start of the reestablishment of the winter
monsoon in October or November (Watts, 1969).
Chang (1955) computed annual potential evapotransipration (PET) from
climatological stations in China. The isopleths of evapotransipration resemble the
mean annual isotherms, with a maximum on the south coast, decreasing northwards.
PET is greater than 855 mm in most of the red soil area except for mountainous
areas where reductions occurs due to altitude. The relationship between precipitation
and evapotransipration are extremely important with respect to soil moisture (Le.
effective precipitation) and hence crop production without irrigation. Using
Thornthwaite (1948) moisture index (MI=(100s-60d)/n where s is the water surplus
in the rainy season, d is the water deficiency in the dry season and n is the water
needs), Chang (1955) mapped the moisture index regions of China. Most of the red
soils region of southern China lies within the humid categories (MI 20-100 mm)
with only the Nanling Hills in the perhumid zone (MI > 100 mm).
3. AGROCLIMATIC STUDIES OF FORAGE CROPS ON RED

SOILS
Using climatic stations, Leng et al. (1991) assessed the agroclimatic resources for
forage adaptability in the red soils region of south central China. They based the
climate potential productivity (CPP) of forage crops on photosynthetic potential
production (calculated from solar radiation), photosynthetic-temperature potential
productivity (PTPP) (calculated from accumulated temperatures) and a precipitation
factor. For both autumn and spring sown forage crops they found the CPP yields
were less than the PTPP yields due to limiting effect of soil moisture caused by
variability of rainfall.
Also for the assessment of red soils region for forage production, Home (1991)
derived a simple model. In order to evaluate a growth index (GI), he used three
indices: (i) soil moisture index, indicating the relative availability of soil water for
plant growth in the whole profile; (ii) temperature index, using optimum
temperatures for germination and early growth; and (iii) light index, using the
response of photosynthesis to irradiance. The model applied to two provinces
(Hunan and Fujian) allowed the assessment of the probabilities of climatic
conditions for the growth of forage crops. He concluded that the varieties of crops
must be tolerant of early moisture stress and late summer drought, temperature and
soil moisture condition must coincide to establish autumn sown crops and tropical
forages will need to have a degree of frost tolerance.
3.1 Climatic controls on maize crops in the Wang Jia Catchment, Yunnan
As a part of a European Union funded project on Sustainable Highland Agriculture

in South-East Asia (SHASEA) from 1998 to 2002, Mitchell et aI., (2002) analysed
the influence climatic controls on the red soils and crop productivity of the Wang Jia
Catchment. The research was designed to investigate the inter-relationships between
meteorological parameters, soil moisture and maize yield.
Wang Jia catchment covers 57.2 hectares near Kedu, in Xundian County, north-east
Yunnan (25°28' N, 102°53' E), 60 km north-east of Kunming. The Catchment is an
incised valley at an altitude of 1860-2473 m. Catchment soils are strongly
influenced by lithology with distinct bands of shale, sandstone and limestone. The
most extensive soil is a red soil, which is mainly associated with the dolomitic
limestone. Except for the steepest gullies, the red soils are intensively cultivated
with maize, tobacco, soya bean and vegetables. Detailed plot studies, growing
maize, using different conservation treatments, were investigated in 1998 and 1999
(Huang 2001). Although various mulches were used, field measurements were
confmed to traditional planting methods both along and perpendicular to the slope.
The area belongs to a typical monsoon climate with average annual rainfall of 1042
mm (Kedu Weather Station, 10 km north of the catchment). Winters are dry due to
118 DJMITCHELL
the continental monsoon but in summer convergence zones from the south result in
intense storm events. Consequently 85% of the annual rainfall occurs between June
and September. In the red soils, moisture is controlled by these monsoonal
variations, namely the seasonal effects, delay in the onset of the rains and rainfall
variability. Topoclimatological factors, such as anabatic valley winds and aspect,
also influence soil moisture and temperatures within the catchment.
3.2 Catchment and laboratory monitoring
3.2.1 Meteorological Measurements

In order to extend the meteorological data of the Catchment, a manual climatic
station (recorded at 0930 daily) was established in Kelang Village in 1997 and a
Delta T Automatic Weather Station was established in the main crop area in 1999.
Sensors are automatically scanned every 5 minutes and the mean data downloaded
every 30 minutes on a data logger.
3.2.2 Potential Evapotranspiration

The measurement of evapotranspiration from a crop is very complex, depending on
the crop development and the local meteorological conditions. Potential
evapotranspiration for the maize crop has been estimated using the Blaney-Criddle
formula developed and successfully applied by American irrigation engineers
(Blaney and Criddle 1950). The following formula is based on mean air temperature,
monthly fraction of daylight hours and an empirical crop factor, which varies with
the crop type and growth:
Monthly PE (mm) = 10(0. 142T + 1.095)(T+ 17.8) k d

T = mean air temperature T > 3°C
k = crop factor for maize
d = monthly fraction of annual hours of day light for 25 ON.
3.2.3 Soil Moisture Measurements

Soil moisture was measured gravimetrically in samples 0-5 cm taken every two
weeks after sowing (Huang 2001). The gravimetric water content was determined
after drying at 105°C for 48 hours and re-weighing the sample (Avery and Bascomb,
1974). Percentage soil moisture was calculated as follows:
Soil Moisture (% by weight) = Fresh weight (gl - Dry weight (gl x 100
Fresh weight (g)
3.2.4 Crop growth measurements

Green Leaf Area Index (GLAI) is the top surface area of the leaves per unit ground
area. The Index is a fundamental property of the crop canopy in its interaction with
radiation and gas exchange. GLAI of the maize was measured by calculating the
area of each leaf of eight selected plants within each plot. The product of leaf length
and leaf width was corrected by a previously calculated factor of 0.75. GLAI was
calculated every two weeks using the following equation (Huang 2001):
L [Leaf length (cm) x Leaf width (cm) x 0.75]

GLAI
Projected ground area (cm2)
3.2.5 Soil drying experiment
A soil sample, O-tO cm, was dried at 105°C and 972 g was saturated with 267.7 g of
water and placed in a plastic container with a surface area of 178.25 cm2. The
amount of water was equivalent to 15 mm over the surface area of the plastic
container. The plastic container was placed on a balance in a Plant Growth Cabinet
(Fison Model 600G3\THTL) for 600 hours and the loss of weight periodically
recorded. Constant environmental conditions, which are the mean of the summer
conditions, were maintained at the experiment (air temperature 20°C and 80%
relative humidity).
3.3 Catchment inter-relationships
Assuming that there is sufficient input of nutrients, productivity of maize cultivated

on the red soils of the Wang Jia catchment is controlled by sensitive
interrelationships between meteorological conditions and soil parameters. These
interrelationships respond at different scales; annual, seasonal and storm event
variability. The monthly meteorological measurements for Kelang Meteorological
Station for 1998, 1999 and 2000 have been given in Table 4 and comparisons made
with 20 year means for Kedu, to km north of the station.
Annual rainfall in 1998 and 1999 were close to the average while March-November
2000 was 77% of the 20-year mean. Annual rainfall variability is typical in monsoon
conditions. Rainstorms can be particularly localised and are dependent on the
location of the convergence zones and the intensity of the monsoonal effect. Mean
monthly air temperature varies far less, with a very similar pattern occurring in each
of the three years. Using the Blaney-Criddle formula, mean monthly temperatures
have been used to calculate potential evapotranspiration for a maize crop at 25°N,
therefore monthly PE values for the three years are similar.
In order to evaluate the relative seasonal changes in soil moisture availability for the
three years, monthly rainfall and PE have been plotted and moisture regimes
subdivided according to classes proposed by Thornthwaite (1948). The relative
positive and negative relationships between rainfall and PE can result in the partition
of the soil moisture conditions. Soil moisture storage varies in response to soil
texture, structure, drainage and organic content. Extraction of this moisture depends
on meteorological conditions and crop/vegetation use. If a deficit has occurred and
rainfall exceeds PE, initially water will provide soil moisture recharge, depending on
soil characteristics. If rainfall continues to exceed PE then a water surplus will arise,
which, theoretically, provide surface detention followed by runoff. If PE, exceeds
rainfall following a period of water surplus, soil moisture held in the soil will be
120 DJMITCHELL
Table 4. Comparison o/meteorological data/or Kelang Weather Station with Kedu

Weather Station
Year Parameter Jan Feb Mar Apr May Joo Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall (mm) 12.4 6.5 43.1 59.5 65.6 209.4 371 188.8 47.5 7.6 10.9 9.5
1998 No Storms 0 0 0 0 1 3 7 2 0 0 0 0
>15mmJ3Omin
Mean monthly 8.8 10.7 14.6 16.8 20.6 21.3 21.1 20.6 18.9 16.5 13 9.1
TempoC
P.E.(mm) 20.4 23.6 39.2 48.7 68.2 99 156 155.1 118.6 82.9 29.6 21
Rainfall (mm) 74.7 0 5.7 5 115.5 81.1 293.8245.8 141 20.4 32.9 9.5
1999 No Storms 1 0 0 0 1 0 4 2 1 0 0 0
>15mmJ3Omin
Mean monthly 7.5 11.9 14.9 18.8 18 22.2 21.5 20.6 19.4 17.9 11.8 8.5
TempoC
P.E.(mm) 15.9 31.8 53.1 79.5 80.5 111.1 108.3 97.2 80.5 68.4 32.3 19.1
Rainfall (mm) 25.5 0.7 94.3 153.3 130 207.2 77.2 79.3 10.4
2000 Mean monthly 12.6 16.6 19.1 20.1 21.1 21.1 19.2 17.8 11
TempoC
P.E.(mm) 33.5 48.1 61.8 92 155.5 159.8 120.5 90.7 24.9
Kedu Rainfall (mm) 15.5 11.8 12.5 26.1 95.3 211.7 187 204.3 135.2 88.8 42.3 11.6
20 Mean monthly 7.7 9.8 13.9 17.2 19.5 20.1 20.8 20.2 18.5 15.5 11.4 8.6
year TempoC
mean
utilised by crops until a water deficit is reached. As a water deficit increases, the
crops fmd it increasingly difficult to extract water from the soil, resulting in stomatal
closure and decreased transpiration.
The water balance diagrams for Wang Jia Catchment reflect the typical
monsoonal conditions of the area, with winter soil water utilisation and water deficit
and summer soil water recharge and water surplus. With respect to the cultivation of
maize on the red soils of the Catchment, the most critical time occurs in the spring
planting period, usually in mid-May. In 1998, rainfall exceeded PE during May and
early June, therefore, although soil water recharge occurred, conditions were
favourable for germination and early growth (Figure 1). In 1999, although rainfall
exceeded PE in May, it was preceded by a large deficit, consequently a surplus was
not reached until July (Figure 3). In 2000 differences between rainfall and PE were
least, therefore soil moisture recharge and soil moisture utilisation were more
prominent than water surplus (Figure 5). In all three years PE exceeded rainfall in
September, when soil moisture utilisation occurs, passing into a winter deficit.
Water balance results have been compared with field measurements of
percentage soil moisture and GLAI for maize crop in 1998 and 1999. In 1998,
percentage soil moisture was 15.5-16.7% during the growing season, declining to
13.4% in September when soil moisture utilisation occurred (Figure 2). GLAI data
for 1998 showed that, under these moisture conditions, ideal crop development
occurred, reaching a maximum GLAI of 2.88 in early September. Dry conditions in
September, combined with the progressive senility of the crop showed, as
CD
- Rlirfal
311)
:III
ZD
~:;r:o
IS)
-
Figure 1. Water balance diagram for 1998.
18 3.5
16
3
,.
501_ 12
2.5
10
1.5
- - Soil Moistu'e
GlAI Q5
O +---~---~--~---~--~--~---4 0
o ~ ~ m w ~
0.,. tom ... ' ''''''
Figure 2. Soil moisture and Green Leaf Area Index for field plots of mabe (1998)
122 DJMITCHELL
-- - Fe
-
Figure 3. Water balance diagram for 1999
25 3.5
....... Scil MlI ......
-+-QAJ
3
20
2.5
15
SoI_ 2
Q,tj
1.5
10
5
0.5
0 0
28 61 17
o.ro-,.....
90 112 119
Figure 4. Soil moisture and Green LeafArea Index for field plots of maize 1999
expected, a decline in GLAI. Although percentage soil moisture in 1999 were higher
than 1998, distribution patterns were more variable with decreased in July and
August (Figure 4). In June 1999 it was necessary to irrigate the field plots of maize
but the application rates were not recorded. Although corrective attempts using
irrigation were made, early soil moisture deficits were reflected in the GLAI growth
development curve, with slow development of the crop in June and July, which
resulted in a maximum GLAI of only 1.99 on 16 August. Difference between the
two cropping seasons were mainly attributed to the June rainfall (1998: 209.4 mm 3
storms> 15 mmJ30 min, 1999: 81.1 mm no storms> 15 mmJ30min) (Table 4).
Results from monthly data explain the broad factors operating on the red
soils and maize crop of Wang Jia catchment, but control of moisture is much more
subtle, therefore conditions should be considered on a rainfall event scale. In typical
monsoonal conditions, summer rainfall occurs in the form of short intense
rainstorms. In order to evaluate the meteorological responses in the catchment,
measurements from the automatic weather station for a sample storm, occurring on 6
August 2000, were taken. On 6 August, 56.8 mm of intense rainfall occurred in 10
min. (A correction factor was applied to the data reported in Mitchell et aI, 2000)
Subsequent to the storm, meteorological data were analysed over two days (6-8
August). In this period, a further four low intensity rainfall events occurred,
contributes 23.2 mm of rainfall. The variability of these parameters on a micro-scale
affects soil moisture, temperatures and crop growth. Solar radiation reflects the
diurnal passage of the sun, but reduced radiation resulted from periodic cloud cover
and rainstorms. As expected, air temperature responded to solar radiation with a
maximum day temperature of 24.68°C and minimum night temperature of 16.79°C,
giving a diurnal range of7.49°C. Soil temperature at 10 cm reached a maximum of
24.72°C. With greater ameliorating effects, the diurnal range was 4.98°C. Heat in
the soil accumulated during the day with the maximum soil temperature occurring at
sunset. The pattern of percentage relative humidity over the two-day period was a
mirror image of air temperature, with a maximum near 100% at night, decreasing to
near 60% during the day. Condensation of moisture occurred by night, while the
humidity was removed by evaporation during the day, aided by increased wind
speed. During the late afternoon and early evening anabatic (up valley) winds
occurred. On 6 and 7 August, the highest wind speeds occurred at 1845 and 1915
hours, respectively. For the same period PE has been estimated using 30 min air
temperatures, but other factors, such as drying anabatic winds, solar radiation,
increasing daylight soil and air temperatures and decreasing relative humidity will
increase evapotransipration for the red soils and the maize crop.
The above meteorological factors are conducive to rapid drying of the soils
of the Wang Jia catchment, but once the crops have been established, soil moisture
problems become less acute. Field results indicate that the red soils retain soil
moisture under these conditions, but the application water conservation measures,
using polythene mulch, improved productivity dramatically (Huang 2001). Although
intense storms occur with long drying intervals, moisture is held within the soils.
Red soils of Wang Jia catchment, cultivated using traditional methods, have
relatively low organic content (1999 mean SOM 0.94%; Huang, 2001), therefore
soil organic matter is not aiding water retention. Soil moisture retention capacity of
124 DJMITCHELL
CD.-------------------------------------------------,
Figure 5. Water balance diagram for March to November 2000
...
/
(
f
/
teO)
eo
••
/ . , ... ... .,.
Figure 6. Soil drying curve for red soils (air temp. 20'C and 80% relative humidity)
the soil is mainly due to soil texture. Red soil samples from traditionally cultivated
plots were found to have a high percentage content of clay and silt (mean clay
21.93%, silt 53.15% sand 24.92%; Huang, 2001). Results of a preliminary soil
drying experiment on a reconstituted sample (Figure 6) showed that the red soil
retain soil moisture. The experiment in a controlled plant growth cabinet showed
that 50% of the moisture, from an equivalent of 15 mm rainfall, was retained after
2.l3 days and 25% after 4 days.
Field plot experiments in Wang Jia Catchment have shown that red soils are suitable
for maize cultivation (Huang, 2001). Crop productivity depends on critical soil
moisture availability during germination and early crop growth. In order to provide
sufficient soil moisture an irrigation system has been developed as a part of the
SHASEA project (SHASEA 2001). Although it has been shown that the moisture
holding properties of the red soils are suitable for traditional maize production,
experiments using polythene mulch have created a large increase in maize
productivity in the Catchment (Huang, 2001).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The above review of the climate of southern China and localised studies clearly
identify the climatic constraints on crop production in the red soils region. Although
there are a wide range of climates within the region, in summary, the main controls
are as follows:
1. Local rnicroclimatic control and modification by topography.
2. The variability in the onset date of the summer monsoon.
3. The intensity of the summer monsoon influencing the speed of movement
northwards.
4. The damaging effects of intense rainstorms.
5. Annual and monthly rainfall variability.
6. Occurrence of cold conditions and frost during the winter monsoon
7. High summer evaporation.
8. Late summer droughts.
Home (1991), Leng et al. (1991) and Mitchell et al. (2002) have elucidated the
effects of these constraints on field/crop scale. Farmers and agricultural advisors
need to consider the following ways of ameliorating these constraints:
A Construction of irrigation systems to compensate for failure of spring rainfall
and late summer droughts.
B Develop new varieties of frost and drought resistant crops.
C Conserve soil moisture using crop residues, mulches and polythene
D Undertake topoclimatological surveys to obtain maximum benefits from the
topography.
E Derive and use climate-crop response modules to assess the suitability of crops
and varieties.
126 DJMITCHELL
F. Evaluate soil water storage and make necessary adjustments to cultivation

practice.
These constraints and ameliorating measures are based on existing climate patterns
but with the potential for climatic change some important predictions have been
made (Barry and Cai, 1996; Thomas, 2000; Tao et aI., 2003). Using water balance
calculations for Chinese croplands Tao et aI. (2003) assessed the impact of climate
change on the agricultural water cycle for agricultural production in 2020s. Mapping
key moisture and yield parameters on a 0.5 0 latitude/longitude scale, they projected
that in south China agricultural water demand to decrease and cropland soil moisture
deficit would also decrease. This should benefit agriculture in the red soils region.
Surface runoff from highland croplands particularly in the southwest and along the
south coast would increase which inevitably lead to greater soil erosion and
flooding, especially in Yunnan.
Further work is needed to investigate the water balance on a rainfall-event scale

during the summer growing season. Comparisons between continuous soil moisture
measures and daily estimation of PE would reveal useful data. Also further soil
drying experiments are needed to measure the water holding properties of the red
soils.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Wang Jia project was initially funded by The British Council and The Yunnan
Provincial Science and Technology Commission. Later, Wang Jia Catchment was
selected as the prime study area for an European Union project on Sustainable
Highland Agriculture in South-East Asia (SHASEA) (Contract Number ERBIC18
CT98 0326). The University of Wolverhampton, UK, has provided additional
funding and support.
6. REFERENCES
Avery, B.W. and Bascomb, C.L. 1974. Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Technical Monograph No 6 Soil
Survey of England and Wales, Harpenden.
Barry,S and Cai, Y. 1996. Climate change and agriculture in China Global Environ. Change 6(3),205-
214.
Blaney, H F. and Criddle, W. D. 1950. Determining water requirements in irrigated areas from
climatological and irrigation data USDA Soil Conservation Service Tech. Paper No. 96,48pp.
Chang, J. 1955. Climate of China according to the new Thornthwaite classification Ann. Assoc. Am.
Geographers 45:393-403.
Chang, P. 1934. On the duration of the four seasons in China. Collected Sci .Papers (meteorology) Acad.
Sinica, 1954: 273-323.
Chu, C. and Yuan, MH 1963 Phenology General Science Publications Beijing 107 pp.
Domros, M. and Peng, G. 1988. The Climate o/China. Springer-Verlag pp 357 London
Guo, Q. 1983. The summer monsoon intensity index in East Asia and its variation Acta Geogr. Sinica
38:207-217 (in Chinese)
Home, P .. M 1991. A simple agro-climatic model for forage production on the red soils of south central
China. In Home, P.M, MacLeod, D.A. and Scott, J.M. (eds.) Forages on Red Soils in China.
Proceedings of a Workshop, Lengshuitan, Huaan Province PRe. 22-25 April 1991 ACIAR
proceedings No 38 p 22-28.
Huang Bizhi, 2001. Effects of cultivation techniques on mai=e productivity and soil properties on
hillslopes in Yunnan Province, China. Unpublished Thesis, University ofWolverhampton.
Jiang, A. 1984. Climate and agricultural land use in China. In Yoshino, MM (ed.) Climate and
agricultural land use in monsoon Asia. Univ. of Tokyo Press pp. 297-316.
Leng, S., Lu, X., Li,Y. and Yin, Y.1991. Agroclimatic resources and forage adaptability in the red soils
region of south central China in Home, P.M, MacLeod, D.A. and Scott, J.M (eds.) Forages on Red
Soils in China. Proceedings of a Workshop, Lengshuitan, Huaan Province PRe. 22-25 April 1991
ACIAR proceedings No 38 p 15-21.
Mitchell, D.J., Huang, B., Hocking, T. J.. Luckhurst, D.; Milne, E.,Wu B., Liu L., Li,Y M, Chen, J.,
Wang, S H Climatic controls on Red Soils of the Wang Jia Catchment, Ywman, South China.
Proceedings of the 11h World Congress ofSoil Science. Bangkok.
SHASEA, 2001. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Soil Conservation in the Highlands of South China and
Thailand in K.He1ming (Ed.) Multidisciplinary Approaches to Soil Conservation Strategies
Proceedings International Symposium ESSC, DBG, ZALF, Muncheberg, Germany p139-145.
Tao, F. Yokozawa, M., Hayashi Y. and Lin E. 2003. Future climate change, the agricultural water cycle
and agricultural production in ChinaAgriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 95:203-215.
Tao, S. 1948. The mean surface air circulation over China. Collected Sci. Papers (Meteorology) Acad.
Sinica, Beijing 1954:575-583.
Tao, S. 1980. Severe rainstorms in China. Beijing Science Press pp. 225 (in Chinese).
Tao, S. 1984. The climate of China In PhYSical Geography of China. Beijing Science Press pp.161 (in
Chinese).
Tao, S. 1986. The summer monsoon in eastern Asia. Unpublished paper presented at the German-
Chinese Workshop on The climate ofChina. Institute of Geogr. Mainz University, FRG.
Thomas, A. 2000. Climatic changes in yield index and soil water deficit trends in China. Agric. For.
Meteorol. 102,71-81.
Thornthwaite, C. W. 1948. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geograph. Rev.
38:54-94.
Thompson, B.W. 1951. An essay on the general air circulation of the atmosphere over southeast Asia and
west Pacific Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 77:569-579.
Tu, C. and Hwang, S. 1945. The advance and retreat of the summer monsoon in China. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 26:9-22.
Watts, I.E.M. 1962. The diurnal variation of frequency of precipitation over southeast Asia. Reg. Con[.
Southeast Asian Geographers, Kuala Lumpur 1962.
Watts,I.E.M. 1969. Climates of China and Korea. In Arakawa H (ed.) Climates ofNorth em and Eastern
Asia. World Survey ofClimatology (Landsberg, H.E., ed.) Vol. 8 Elsevier Publ. Co. London. ppl-74.
Yao, C. 1946. The stationary cold fronts of central China and the wave disturbances developed over the
Lake Basin. Nat!. Res. Inst., Nanking Meteorol. Mem., 20 pp.
Zhang, J. and Lin, Z. 1985. Climate of China. Shanghai, Science and Technology Press of Shanghai, pp.
603 (in Chinese).
SOIL WATER HOLDING AND SUPPLYING
CAPACITIES IN THE IDLLY RED SOIL REGION OF
SOUTHERN CIDNA
JUN LU, ZHIZHEN HUANG AND YONG XU

College of Environment and Natural Resources Science, Zhejiang University,
ABSTRACT
The effects of different parent materials and land use on water holding and supplying capacities of
some typical red soils were evaluated . Results show that (1) parent material and land use had
considerable effect on maximum available water content in the red soils. The difference between
different soil types is greater than that among land utilizations for the same soil; (2) land use changed
distribution ratios of soil pore size and volume. (3) After red soils were transformed into irrigated paddy
fields, soil water holding and supplying characteristics were greatly changed, with improved effective
soil water retention and supply abilities.
Keywords: Land use, parent material, red soil, soil water holding and supplying
capacities, water characteristic curves.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water holding and supplying capacities are important soil physical properties,
and also the basis of water-saving techniques in agriculture. The hilly red soil
region of Zhejiang Province, located at 118°15'~120 0 47'E, 28 0 15'~29 041 'N,
usually suffers from severe drought during the summer and autumn due to extreme
tempo-spatial asymmetric rainfall and poor water regulation, despite having a mean
annual precipitation of over 150Omm. Drought damage takes place every three
years with a frequency of 24% so that seasonal drought must be regarded as one of
the main problems for agricultural production in the region. In recent decades,
many attempts have been made to control and prevent such seasonal drought
damage, but fundamental studies on hydraulic characteristics of red soil are lacking
(Lu and Hu, 1991). Water holding and supplying capacities primarily depend on
soil texture and structure status, and these are deeply influenced by parent materials
and land use. In addition, , the location of the red soil on the slope, soil erosion,
and illuviation regime, all affect the soil's basic properties. This study aimed to
analyze the soil water holding and supplying capacities of the red soils, and to
discuss the effects of soil parent materials, land use, and the location on the slope
on soil water characteristics.
129
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.). The Red Soils ojChina, 129-136.
© 2004 KhMer Academic Publishers.
130 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Soil types, basic properties and parent materials
All the soil samples were collected from the hilly red soil regions of Zhejang
Province, including upland soils i.e. Bole soil, Quaternary red clay and red
sandstone soil, and paddy soils transformed from these soils.
Bole soil samples were collected from a mesa in Xinsheng Basin, Sheng county,
Zhejiang Province at less than 200m above sea level. These soils are derived from
Pliocene basalts erupted at different periods; the basalts are rich in iron and
magnesium, and the soils have a minimal quartz and gravel content. Due to
intensive weathering, the soils are deep, homogeneous, and heavy in
texture .. Quaternary red clay samples were collected from Jinqu Basin (located at
Jinhua and Quzhou City, Zhejiang Province) at an altitude of 75m above sea level.
They are developed on the Quaternary red clay (Q2), an ancient alluvial deposit.
These soils are characterized by high iron-aluminum ratios, low silicon contents,
heavy texture and acidity. The area is described as a ''red desert" because it suffers
from serious erosion.Red sandstone soils were derived from the Cretaceous residual
and slope deposits of red sandstone rock. Influenced by periods of recent uplift,
many outcrops of basement rocks occur in this hilly region. In other places,
because of the much slower rate of uplift, these soils are covered or intersected by
soils on the Quaternary red clay. They are subject to serious erosion and are
generally weakly developed.
2.1.1 Paddy soils
Two representative paddy soils, originating from Quaternary red clay, were selected,
one from an old paddy field and the other from a new paddy field. As a result of
leveling, submerged rice planting, seasonal irrigation, drainage, fertilization and
crop rotation, both soils differed significantly from their corresponding upland
soils. As they were not subjected to the influence of ground water in the hilly red
soil region, the differentiation of the soil profile is not distinct (A-Ap-C). The
cultivated horizon is slightly acidic or neutral due to rapid accumulation of soil
organic matter under rice-planting, but the lower subsoil is strongly acidic and has
a heavy soil texture as it is affected by the Quaternary red clay. Annual grain
production amounts to 12t/hm2 with green manure-rice-rice and wheat-rice-rice
crop rotations. The main difference between these two paddy soils lies in the time
since rice-planting commenced, the old paddy field being more than 20 year old
and the new one between 10-20years. Some relevant agrochemical properties are
shown in Table 1.
2.2 Land Use Modes
There are four main land use modes in the hilly red soil region of China: cropland,
orchards, tea garden, and forest.
WATER HOLDING AND SUPPLYING CAPACITY OF RED SOILS 131
2.2.1 Cropland
This includes uplands on slopes and level terraces and usually supports more than
one crop per annum. Where a water source and irrigation are available, most of the
arable land has been turned into paddy field. For paddy field where there is no
water source, crop rotations are green manure-rice-rice and wheat (or oil seedrape)-
rice-rice or wheat (oil seedrape )-rice-com (bean). Under rain fed conditions,
Table 1. some basic properties o/soil samples
Soil Bulk Texture I >0.25mm Organic CEC PH

samples density matter
(g cm·3) clay/ Name Structure (%) (g kg· l ) (Cmo!. Kg· l ) (H2O)
sand
(1-1) 1.01 3.95 Silty clay 52.9 0.593 7.61 5.6
(1-2) 1.16 3.32 Clay 77.6 0.277 12.12 5.0
(1-32 1.18 5.47 Sil~ cla~ 41.6 0.218 10.27 5.1
(II-I) 1.35 2.66 Silty clay loam 29.5 0.015 8.38 4.5
(11-2) 1.28 1.73 Clay loam 32.4 0.119 5.72 5.0
(11-3) 1.29 2.79 Sil~ cla~ loam 37.0 0.118 10.16 4.2
(II-PI) 1.37 1.01 Clay loam 57.3 0.292 11.70 6.1
(II-P2} 1.29 1.17 Cla~ loam 63.2 0.391 14.81 5.73
(ill-I) 1.34 0.16 Sandy loam 31.2 0.143 9.04 5.5
(lII-2) 1.46 0.27 Sandy loam 39.9 0.092 7.29 5.1
(ill-3} 1.33 0.22 Sand~loam 17.28 0.167 12.12 5.0
1 American soil classification system (USDA), the diameters of sand, silt, and clay are 2-0.05, 0.05-
0.002 and <0.002 mm, respectively.
In Table 1:(1-1) Uncropped soil on Bole soil, (1-2) Orchard on Bole soil, (1-3) Tea garden on Bole soil;
(II-I) Uncropped soil on Quaternary red clay, (11-2) Orchard on Quaternary red clay, (11-3) Tea garden
on Quaternary red clay; (III-I) Uncropped soil on Red sandstone soil, (III-2) Orchard on Red sandstone
soil, (III-3) Tea garden on Red sandstone soil.
crop-rotations may include vegetables, bean, com, or peanut. However, both upland
and paddy field are subjected to seasonal drought.
2.2.2 Orchard
Due to the subtropical climate, fruit trees are widespread in the hilly red soil region.
They include citrus and other fruits such as peach, pear, lychee red bayberry, etc.
Only a small number of orchards have high production and good quality fruit
because of favorable irrigation conditions; most are subject to seasonal drought
and have with poor production.
2.2.3 Tea garden

Tea bushes can protect the soil from erosion due to their thick canopy density and
root system. However, due to poor management and a lack of irrigation facilities,
most tea garden soils are compacted and acidified.
132 JUN LV et al.
2.2.4 Forest
Highly productive, good quality forests in hilly red soil areas of China are rare.
Most of the forests are secondary native trees, grown for soil and water
conservation. In recent years, because of increasing population density, forests and
meadows have been destroyed because of the scarcity of fuel and cropping land
and consequently soils have been seriously eroded. Such un-cropped soil was also
adopted as a check on the research samples in this study.
2.3 Methods ofanalyzing soil water holding and supplying characteristics
A characteristic water curve of undisturbed soil was measured using the soil
moisture membrane method. Th~ water release curve relates the average soil
water suction of all subsections (I::::.S; ) and..specific water volume (C); the specific
=
water volume C !1B / I::::.S . To obtain I::::.S; , water suction S is first divided into
subsections I::::.S; and the average value of the upper and lower limit of every
subsection I::::.S; is then calculated. In this study, suction S is separated into the
following six sections: 0:50.50-100,100-200,200-400,400-800 and 800-1500kPa,
and the corresponding M; values are 25, 75, ISO, 300, 600 and 1150kPa,
respectively, where every relevant C value can be calculated. Finally, the C values,
coupled with I::::.S; values, can be used to establish the soil water release curve.
3.1 Water retention characteristics of upland red soils
Soil moisture is hold in soil pores by the soil matric suction and capillary attraction,
which are directly determined by soil texture and other basic properties. It is
generally believed that the content of soil water held at low suction «IOOkPa) is
chiefly affected by soil aggregate structure and is more influenced by soil texture at
high suction. Soil water holding characteristics can be depicted by a soil water
characteristic curve as follows.
Figure I shows the soil water characteristic curves of three red soils--Bole soil,
Quaternary red clay, and Red sandstone soil, under three types of land use modes-
un-cropped field, orchard, and tea garden. In general, the differences in water
characteristic between the three different land use modes are minimal. The
uncultivated Bole soil (I-I) had a higher water holding capacity than the other two
soils because of the particularly high organic matter content (Fig.IA). The range of
saturated water contents is very obvious. Naturally, if 25kPa soil suction is
considered as field capacity, soil water would be moved rapidly by gravity when
the soil suction is below 25kPa. As a result, the soil pores which exist from the
states of saturated water to field capacity (i.e. soil suction in 0-25kPa) are usually
called aeration pores. As Fig.1 illustrates, the differences in water characteristic
curves among the three soils under three land uses mainly focuses on soil aeration
regime, but alteration in water holding ability under high suction is minimal.
However, there were significant differences in water characteristic curves of the

soils developed from different parent materials, with the same land use (Fig. 2). In
each land use mode, the water holding capacity of the red sandy soil, developed
from the red sandstone, was the smallest (III-I, III-2, III-3 in Fig.2). Evidently, it is
related to its small specific surface, as shown by the low clay-sand ratio, as well as
the lack of macro pores due to poor aggregate structure. In the uncultivated soil
(Fig.2A), however, the water retention ability of the Quaternary red clay was lower
than that of Bole soil. The Quaternary red clay has a higher clay-sand ratio and a
grain-shaped structure. This is mainly the result of cementation by Fe, Al oxides
and as a result its water retention characteristic curve is similar to that of sandy
soils with a lack of inner pores (i.e. "Pseudosand" structure). After reclamation by
increased inputs of organic matter, the soil water holding characteristics of the Bole
soil and the Quaternary red clay were comparable (Fig.2B, 2C).
-.. 0.7
00 0.7 0.7
...... -¢-ll-1
--.c...
00 4>-1·1 -¢-rn·1
0.6 0.6 -o-ll·2 0.6
~1·2 ~m·2
0.5 -6-1·3 0.5 --6-ll-3 0.5
....c
IJ
0.4
-6-rn·3
0
0.4 0.4
v 0.3
0.3 0.3 c
....~ 0.2 0.2
'"..
0.2
0.1 0.1 0.1
...
.....
0
0 0 0
!II
0 500 urn 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Soil water suction ( kPa )
Figure 1. Comparison ofsoil water characteristic curves of Bole soil (Fig. A), Quaternary
red clay (Fig. B) and Red sandstone soil (Fig. C) under different forms of utilization
(1 uncropped land, 2 orchard, 3 tea garden)
~ 0.7 0.7 0.7

"io;
'-"
0.6 -4- 1-1
0.6 ~I-2 0.6 ~I-3
C 0.5 0.5
-ll-2
0.5
-II-3
II)
--6-ill-2 --6-ill-3
§ 0.4 0.4 0.4
C
v OJ 0.3 0.3
....~ 0.2 0.2 0.2
: 0.1 0.1 0.1
o o '----'-_...J.-~ o '----"---'-- ....
o SOO 1000 1500 o 500 1000 1500 o 500 1000 1500
Soil water suction ( kPa )
Figure 2. Comparison of soil water characteristic curves of Bole soil (I) , Quaternary red
clay (II) and Red sandy soil (III) under the same form of land use (Fig. A uncropped
land, Fig. Borchard , Fig. C tea garden)
134 JUN LV et al.
From Fig.l and Fig.2, it could be concluded that the water retention
characteristics of red soils are mainly determined by soil parent materials, but land
use and management have greater effects on soil aeration.
3.2 Water release characteristics o/upland red soil
Apparently, plant available water in red soils is affected by soil structure, bulk
density, and texture. If 25 kPa is the soil moisture of field capacity, 25-1500 kPa
can be thought of as the effective water content for plants. Comparison of soil
effective water contents among the three soils under different land use shows that
soil effective water content is different for the three soils, and the differences in
effective water between soil types is greater than between the land uses of the same
soil. This implies that effective water content is affected more by parent materials
than by land use.
=
Soil specific water volume (Le. C tlB / !lS ) reflects soil water release
ability after different soil suction periods. The soil water release curve can be
established with specific water volume C and corresponding water suction S. As
shown in Fig.3, the soil water-release curves (S-C relation curve) among Bole soil
(A), Quaternary red clay (B), and Red sandstone soil (C) under different land uses
(1 uncultivated soil, 2 orchard, and 3 tea garden) correspond to certain C values, S
being the mean value of the !lS . By comparing the C values in different
!lS sections, we found that the soil water supplying ability in the lower soil suction
section was in the order of orchard>tea garden>uncultivated soils. This ability to
hold and supply water is important for the red soils to retain rainfall water and
prevent soil erosion, but the difference is not significant at higher soil suction.
'ii' QIJE
~
.>a -0-1·1 -A-1I·1
......
-0-1·2 -0-11·2
S ....-1·3 ~1I ·3
t>
L\
QOOIZ
!!
......
0
> A
...t 00021
'"•
..........
<..>
<..>
L\
l:I. 0
'" 10 100 1000 10 100 1000 10 100 1(00
!lS I ( kPa)
Figure 3. Comparison ofsoil water release curves of Bole soil (Fig. A), Quaternary red clay
(Fig. B), and Red sandy soil (Fig. C) under different land uses (I uncropped land, 2
orchard , 3 tea garden)
Generally, the differences of water-release curves were closely related to the
distribution ratio of the size and amount of the soil pores. The effects of land use on
water-release curves are shown in Fig.4. It seems that the water-release curves
come close to one another under the same land use conditions, which may be
related to similar soil management under the same land use.
0.006
~I·I --0- 1-2
-0-1·3
-0-11-1 -0- B-2
--l>-ID·I __ DI·2 -0-11·3
0.004 --tr-IIJ.3
B C
0.002
10 100 1000 10 100 1000 10 100 1000
!lS j ( kPa )
Figure 4. Comparison of soil water releasing curves of Bole soil (I), Quaternary red clay (II)
and Red sandy soil (III) under the same land use (Fig. A uncropped land , Fig. Borchard,
Fig. C tea garden)
3.3 Effects ofpaddy field conditions on water holding and supplying characteristics
After the upland red soil was transformed into rice field, through a series of paddy
rice planting practices, the most remarkable changes of soil properties occurred.
These include: (1) increased pH value resulting from soil re-basification, (2)
increased soil organic matter content due to submergence, (3) great changes in soil
structure due to input of more organic matter that serves as a cementing agent for
soil structure formation. These variations were well reflected in the soil water
characteristic curves. Soil moisture capacity of the upland red soil at low suction
sharply decreased with rising suction, and was stable when the suction was beyond
certain levels. On the other hand, the soil moisture capacity of paddy field soil at
low suction was quite flat (Fig.5).
-i::
I
0.6
-O-II-l
-
........ 0.5
-+-II-Pl
<: 0.4 _ _ 11-1'2
iv 0.3
~
~
. 0.2
0.1
~
C'> 0
0 200 400 600 1000 1200 1400
S o il suc~ion (kP,,)
Figure 5. Comparison of soil water characteristic curves between red soil upland and paddy
136 JUNLU etal.
Fig.6 shows water-release curves of upland red soil and the corresponding paddy
soil. In the suction range of 0-65kPa, the upland red soil supplied more water than
the paddy soil, and then the water supplying ability of the former quickly declined.
Especially, when the suction was higher than 65kPa, its water supplying ability
became lower than the latter, and rapidly decreased to 10.2, so that crops on upland
red soil would readily suffer from drought. The new paddy soil on Quaternary red
clay had a greater soil water supplying capacity, which could be maintained at a
much higher suction section. This was due to its high organic matter content.
() 0.8
§ 0.1
....0 ~ 716-1
> 0.6 -t-72 (15) -1

0.5 --111-1
...~
.'" M
0
...t
0.3
'H
...t 0.2
0
&I
Q, 0.1
II)
0
a 100 200 300 4.00 600 600 100 800
soil suction (kPa)
Figure 6. Water-release curves of upland red soil and the corresponding paddy soil
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was in part supported by a grant from the European Union (Contract #
CI* CT93-0009), and a grant from The National High Technology Research and
Development Program of China (863 Program, Project No. 2001AA245021). We
also thank the Shilifen Agricultural Research Institute for its help in the field
observations.
5. REFERENCES
Lu J.,Hu JX,1991. Evolution on soil structure character in the process of hilly red soil curing. Soil
Journal, 22(7): 42-44.
Lu JW, Yang PL, Huang YF, 1994. Estimating irrigation requirement with soil hydraulic character. Soil
water and nutrient effective utilization, Li YZ (Chief Editor), Beijing Agricultural University
Publisher, pp.I-7
Lu JG, et al., 1979. Stability of red soil structure and its significance on soil classification. Soil Journal,
23 (3): 212-218.
Lu 1., M.1.Wilson and 1. Yu, 1997. Effects of trench planting and Soil chiseling on soil properties and
citrus production in hilly u1tisols of China. Soil & Tillage Res. 43 (1997): 309-318.
Lu 1. and J. Yu, 1992. Studies on soil limitations and it's amelioration in a citrus orchard of red earth on
rolling hills . Modem Forest Management and Forest Soil Potential. International Academic
Publishers, Beijing, pp.24-29
EROSION RATES AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY ON
A RED SOIL EXPERIMENTAL SITE IN YUNNAN
PROVINCE
E MILNE(1), WU Bozm(2), M A FULLEN(3), T J HOCKING(3) AND

D J MITCHELL (3)
(J) Department of Soil Science, The University of Reading, UK

(2) Faculty ofAgriculture, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
(3) School of Applied Sciences, University ofWolverhampton,UK
ABSTRACT
China experiences severe soil erosion problems, as a result of population pressure and a lack of land
suitable for cultivation. In the south-west province of Yunnan, heavy monsoonal rains, combined with the
fact that 95% of the province is mountainous, create erosion problems. This is exacerbated by the
common practice of cultivating steep slopes due to lack of flat land. The best way to minimise soil
erosion in these circumstances is to devise cultivation practices that conserve soil loss without reducing
crop productivity. Work was carried out to consider the effectiveness of contour cultivation (CC) and
contour cultivation plus straw mulch (CC+SM), in relation to their effects on soil erosion and maize
productivity. Results were compared to the traditional practice of downslope cultivation (D) on 3 slope
classes 3, 10 and 27°. In a wet year CC significantly reduced soil loss on the 3° and toO slopes and adding
straw mulch gave no extra protection. On the 27° slope, CC was not effective, but CC+SM reduced soil
loss by almost 100%. In 1999, a drier year, no significant treatment effects were found on the 3° slope,
but CC significantly reduced soil loss on the 10 and 27° slopes. The addition of straw mulch gave no
extra reduction on either of the steeper slope in 1999. There was a tendency for yields to be higher under
CC+SM and in 1999 this difference was significant on the 10° slope.
1. INTRODUCTION
With a population of over 1.2 billion, China has less area per person than any other
country on earth. It is therefore no surprise that the country experiences severe soil
erosion, a result of population pressure combined with a lack of land suitable for
cultivation. Ten years ago, it was estimated that total soil loss in China accounted
for 20% of the World total (Wen, 1993). This figure has undoubtedly increased in
the last decade. The country has a long history of soil erosion, with some of the best
and worst examples of erosion control in the world (Robinson, 1981). Twenty years
ago, the Chinese Government organised a national programme to tackle the problem
of soil erosion, prompted by siltation problems in irrigation systems. The
programme included efforts to reverse the trend of deforestation, take slopes out
137
138 MILNE etal.
of cultivation, increase terracing and build silt dams (Rozelle et al., 1997). In 1985,
465,000 km2 (35%) of the total eroded land area was in erosion control projects and
this amount increased by approximately 4% per annum during the 1980s and 90s
(Rozelle et al., 1997). Despite this, the amount of land subject to severe erosion in
China increased dramatically during the 1980s and 90s and continues to rise today.
To date, the Loess Plateau in north China has received the greatest attention in terms
of soil erosion research (Xu et al., 1994, Hui Shi and Mingan Shao, 2000). In
contrast, south China has attracted relatively little research work, despite the fact
that estimates have been made of 2,500 million tonnes per year of soil loss coming
from this area (almost half the national total) (Wen, 1993). The region is also
responsible for one fifth of the country's cereal grain production, making it of great
economic importance.
One province in South-West China which experiences severe soil erosion problems
is Yunnan. Yunnan is one of China's poorest provinces (Chen and Zang, 2000). It
borders Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar and is situated partially on the Yunnan-
Guizhou Plateau (Yunnan Tourist Board, 1999) (Figure 1). The climate in Yunnan
ranges from temperate to tropical due to its elevation. Much of Yunnan is subject to
highly erosive monsoonal rains, which, combined with the fact that 95% of the
province is mountainous, leads to high levels of seasonal soil erosion. The situation
is exacerbated by anthropogenic factors. Increasing population pressure demands
that current levels of crop production in the Province be maintained and ideally
increased. With a lack of suitable flat land, farmers are forced to cultivate
increasingly steep slopes and it is not unusual to see slopes of 35° or more being
cropped. Government policy prohibits the cultivation of slopes > 25° (Shaoxiang,
1993). However, the policy is almost impossible to enforce and would probably lead
to food shortages if it were to be enforced. Faced with a situation where sloping land
is unlikely to be taken out of production, the best way to minimise soil erosion is to
devise cultivation practices that conserve soil loss without reducing crop
productivity. Work was carried out in 1998 and 1999 at Yunnan Agricultural
University to consider the effectiveness of two soil conservation measures, contour
cultivation and contour cultivation plus straw mulch, in relation to their effects on
soil erosion and maize productivity (Milne 2001). The conservation measures were
chosen from a previous study, which suggested their potential effectiveness in
reducing soil loss (Barton 2000).
The experimental site was located at Yunnan Agricultural University Farm, 12 km

north ofKunming (Lat N 25° 04', Long E 102° 45'). Soils in this area are, using the
Chinese classification, Red Earths (Zhao, 1986). Red Earths generally have a fme
texture, are highly weathered, are nutrient deficient and can be classified as Ultisols.
However, the Red Earth at YAU experimental farm is closer to an Alfisols, being
EROSION RATES AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY ON RED SOILS 139
Figure1. Location of Yunnan Province in P.R. China, showing the location of

Kunming, the Provincial capital (Produced by M Hallet, University of
Wolverhampton)
heavily influenced by its Limestone parent material. This gives the soil a higher pH
(between 6-7) and makes it more fertile than Red Earths derived from granite or
basalt. The clay mineralogy is dominated by kaolin minerals (Wilson 2003). Soil
organic matter content is low « 3%) and particle size distribution is - 10% sand,
50% silt and 40% clay (heavy silty clay loam) (Barton 2000).
In a previous study, in 1993, 30 runoff plots, were constructed on three slopes

(Slope I: 3°, Slope II: 10° and Slope III: 27°), with 10 plots located on each slope.
These same plots were used in this study, during 1998 and 1999. Plots were 24 m2
on Slopes I and II and 7.2 m2 on Slope III. The smaller size of plots on Slope III was
due to a lack of available land at the time of construction. Each plot had a concrete
collector (lm x 1m x 1m) at the end to collect runoff and soil loss. Due to the
different plot sizes and different environmental factors (Slope III had been cleared
from forest land in 1993, whereas Slope I had been in continuous cultivation for 10
years), each slope was treated as a separate experiment and no statistical comparison
was made between them.
Maize was cultivated on the plots over two cropping seasons, running from May to
October, 1998 and 1999 (21105/98-07/1 0/98 and 22/05/99-02/10/99 respectively).
The cropping season in Yunnan coincides with the rainy season and - 80% of
140 MILNE et al.
annual rainfall occurs during this period. Maize (Zea Mays) was chosen for the
study, as it is the major subsistence crop grown on sloping land in Yunnan Province
(Thomas, 1992).
Three treatments were considered:
D - Traditional downslope cultivation (the control)

CC - Contour cultivation
CC+SM - Contour cultivation plus straw mulch
Three replicates of each treatment were used on each slope arranged in a randornised
design, with the remaining plot left bare (Figure 2).
--
111 1 --
= ec- -ce -cc_
SM
Cropping Practice
-- - - O. Downslope Cultivation
ce. Contour Cuhivatlon (CC)
CC .. SM . Contour Cultivation with
Straw Mulch
B . Bare
1-30 Plot Number
1111 --
=
-
ec .
-- - -- -
-- -
ce ce_
SN
JOdegree~
15
Contour· Cultivation
Runoff and Sediment Collector

I'lot number
~ Down"op. CuI","o.
Z 7 degrees
Figure 2. Experimental design of the runoff plots at Yunnan Agricultural University

Fertiliser and pesticide applications were made according to local agronomic

practices for all treatments, apart from the bare plot, which was treated twice during
the season with broad spectrum herbicide to ensure it remained bare. Measurements
of runoff and soil loss were made after every storm from all plots. Runoff was
measured by manually emptying the collectors with a vessel of known volume. Soil
loss was calculated by re-suspending sediment in the runoff collector, then taking 5
50ml samples at different depths and determining sediment load in the total 250ml
sample. Total suspended sediment was then determined by multiplying sediment
load in the sample by the total runoff volume (Mutchler, 1963).
During the growing seasons, rainfall was measured with an automatic rain gauge
backed up by a manual rain gauge. This allowed the determination of the amount,
duration and intensity of all rainfall events. Green leaf area, stem girth and plant
height were measured every two weeks, on sample plants on each plot. Soil
temperature and moisture measurements were made on Slope II only, on the CC and
CC+SM plots during both years. Soil temperature was measured using Whatman
soil thermometers (Whatman International Ltd, Maidstone, Kent, UK) and soil
moisture using an ML2 Theta Probe (Delta-T, Cambridge, UK).
Soil nutrient status was measured at the beginning and end of each cropping season.
Yield and yield components were measured on sample plants at the end of each
cropping season.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Precipitation
Rainfall measurements for the 1998 and 1999 cropping seasons revealed the
contrasting rainfall amounts and patterns experienced in the two years. In 1998, the
growing season was one of the wettest on record causing some of the worst flooding
in south-west China for 40 years. It therefore presented a worst case scenario, in
terms of soil erosion in this area. Seasonal rainfall in 1998 (21105/98-7/10/98)
totalled 1024 mm, 28% greater than the 798 mm 30-year seasonal mean given by
Yunnan Province Meteorological Bureau Information Office. The distribution of
rainfall in 1998 exacerbated the situation in terms of soil loss. Several major rainfall
events occurred in the early part of the growing season, before canopy cover had
established and did not subside until 14 weeks after sowing.
There was also a particularly intense storm with a maximum 30 minute intensity >
70 mm kl on the 03/07/98. In 1999, rainfall was more typical, with total seasonal
rainfall (807 mm) just 1% higher than the 30-year mean. Moderate rainfall occurred
during the first 3 weeks of the season followed by a 3 week drought and the majority
of rainfall occurred in the mid to late part of the growing season.
142 MILNE etal.
3.2 Runoff and Soil Loss
In 1998, seasonal runoff totals from the bare plots were 3420, 3092 and 2246 m 3 ha·
I and soil loss values 21.18, 79.11 and 43.4 t ha- I for Slopes I, II and III,
respectively. The bare plots gave an indication of the erosive potential of rainfall in
this area of Yunnan. Runoff and soil loss did not increase with increasing slope
angle, which was probably to differences in plot size and different environmental
conditions in the three experiments.
For the cultivated plots, in 1998, CC+SM produced the least amount of runoff on all
three slopes, although the difference was not significant on Slope I. CC and CC+SM
both significantly reduced total seasonal soil loss on Slopes I and II compared with
downslope cultivation (D) and there was no significant difference between the two
treatments, whereas only CC+SM significantly reduced soil loss on Slope III (Table
1). It therefore appeared that in a year with greater than average rainfall, contour
cultivation could significantly reduce soil loss on the two shallower slopes, but not
on the steeper slope. On Slope III, CC+SM was highly effective at reducing soil loss
with a reduction of almost 100% compared with the other treatments.
Table 1. Mean seasonal soil loss under the different treatments in 1998
Slope Treatment Seasonal soil loss (t ha- I) SE n

3
I D 3.07 a 0.98
CC 0.57b 0.19
CC+SM 0.21 b 0.12
3
II D 19.11 a 3.30
CC 8.01 b 3.16
CC+SM 3.51b 2.74
3
III D 6.92 a 0.81
CC 6.29 a 2.11
CC+SM 0.04 b 0.05
SloEe F E LSD
I 7.14 <0.05 2.01
II 6.8 <0.05 10.65
III 8.45 <0.05 4.52
In 1999 a problem was encountered with the collectors on Slope II, which meant
runoff values could not be used, but soil loss values could. In 1999, the bare plot on
Slope I produced 1514.6 m3 ha- I of runoff and the bare plot on Slope III 1758 m3 ha-
l, approximately half the amount of runoff produced from the same plots in 1998.
Soil loss from the bare plots in 1999 was 21.18, 79.11 and 43.4 t ha-I on Slopes I, II
and III, respectively. Of the cultivated plots on Slope I, D produced more runoff
than the other two treatments, but not significantly so. On Slope III, as in 1998,
CC+SM reduced runoff by almost 100%. In 1999, significant treatment differences
were found between all treatments on Slope III (Table 2.). CC and CC+SM both
significantly reduced soil loss on Slopes II and III, but not on Slope I (Table 2). In
the drier 1999 season straw mulch did not significantly decrease erosion rates
compared with contour cultivation alone.
3.3 Soil Temperature and Moisture
In the wet conditions of 1998, CC+SM had little impact on soil moisture. However
in the drier conditions of 1999, CC+SM significantly increased soil moisture
compared with CC
Table 2. Mean seasonal soil loss under the different treatments in 1999
Slope Treatment Seasonal soil loss (t ha- 1) SE n

3
I D 0.64 a 0.23
CC 0.14 a 0.01
CC+SM 0.12 a 0.01
3
II D 11.52 a 1.98
CC 1.64 b 0.55
CC+SM 0.30 b 0.02
3
III D 8.62 a 3.26
CC 0.23 b 0.15
CC+SM 0.01 b 0.01
Slope F X2 p LSD
I 4.76 NS
II 26.59 <0.001 4.11
III 7.26 <0.05 6.52
throughout the growing season and especially during a drought period at the
beginning of the season. Soil surface temperature was significantly lower under
CC+SM than CC on half of the measurement occasions in 1998 and all but one of in
1999. Soil temperature at a 5cm depth was significantly lower under CC+SM on one
occasion at the beginning of 1998 and on 8 out of the 11 occasions in 1999.
3.4 Soil and Plant Nutrient Status
Only two of the soil nutrient parameters measured were significantly affected by the
treatments. These were available N and K. For soil - available N, there were
144 MILNE et al.
significant differences between all treatments on Slopes I and II at the end of the
1998 season with available N decreasing in the order CC+SM > CC > D. On Slope
III at the end of the 1998 season, CC+SM had significantly higher available N than
D or CC. In 1999 soil available K was significantly higher under CC+SM than the
other two treatments. During the 1999 season, D and CC both experienced a
decrease in available K, whereas CC+SM experienced an increase. Leaves of maize
plants taken from CC+SM on Slope II had significantly higher K contents than those
taken from plants on other plots.
3.5 Plant Growth Parameters
Plant growth parameters were not significantly affected by the soil conservation
treatments in 1998. In 1999, plant height was significantly lower for the control
treatment (D) than either CC or CC+SM on two measurement occasions. In 1999,
GLAI was generally higher for CC+SM than the other two treatments on all slopes,
especially towards the end of the season. However, a repeated measures ANOVA
found no significant treatment differences.
3.6 Yield
In 1998, no significant treatment effects were found on grain yield. However, there
was a tendency for CC+SM to produce the highest grain yield on all three Slopes. In
1999, the CC+SM treatment also gave a higher grain yield than the other two
treatments on all three slopes. On Slope I, the difference was small and a one way
ANOVA found no significant treatment differences. On Slope II, however,
differences were greater with CC+SM, producing a higher grain yield than the other
two treatments and a significant treatment effect was found (F = 6.18, P < 0.05). A
subsequent LSD test found that CC+SM was significantly different from both D and
CC (Table 3.). On Slope III, the down slope treatment showed substantial variation,
which resulted in no significant treatment differences.
Table 3. Mean grain yield on Slope II corrected to 15% moisture content
Treatment Mean Grain Yield LSD

(15% moisture content)
tha· 1
D 3.99a 1.46
CC 4.45a
CC+SM 5.99b
NB Different letters reading down the column represent a significant difference at P<0.05
4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Soil Erosion
The aim of this study was to determine if contour cultivation and contour cultivation
plus straw mulch could significantly reduce soil erosion whilst enhancing crop
productivity and to determine the mechanisms by which this was achieved. In terms
of soil conservation, the results show that treatment effectiveness varied depending
on the slope angle and seasonal rainfall. In 1998, significant treatment effects on soil
loss were found on Slope I, despite no significant effects on runoff. It was therefore
hypothesized that, contour cultivation was reducing soil loss by either reducing soil
detachment, without reducing runoff amount or by sediment being deposited behind
the contour rows. Emama Ligdi and Morgan (1995), when studying the effects of
simulated contour grass strips on runoff and erosion, noted ponding and deposition
of sediment behind the strips. In 1998, the same ponding effect was noted on the CC
and CC+SM plots, behind the rows of maize in which deposition of sediment may
have been occurring. However, limited ponding also occurred with treatment D on
this slope. In 1999, an average amount of rainfall occurred. On Slope I, in these
conditions, the two conservation measures investigated did not significantly reduce
erosion compared with the traditional planting method unlike in 1998.
Treatment effects on soil loss on Slope II were consistent in both years, with D
having the greatest soil loss, followed by CC and then CC+SM. In 1998, on Slope II,
rills formed between the rows on the D plots, which led to significantly more runoff
and soil loss occurring from D. In 1999, actual runoff measurements could not be
used on Slope II, however, rilling was again noted on treatment D, suggesting the
same mechanisms operated. Woo et al. (1997) demonstrated that soil detachment in
rill floors, which were already saturated, was much greater than from interill areas,
due to decreasing soil shear strength. It can, therefore, be hypothesised that on Slope
II, D produced more soil loss than the other two treatments, due to increased
detachment and transport.
In 1999 there was a difference between CC and CC+SM but not a significant one. It
was expected that CC+SM would reduce soil loss to a greater extent than CC alone,
as CC has generally been shown to be ineffective on slopes >4.5° (Morgan, 1995).
In 1998, there was a significant difference in runoff amount produced by CC and
CC+SM, but not in soil loss, possibly due to the beneficial effect of straw mulch
diminishing as the canopy developed. Straw mulch prevents raindrops from
impacting the soil surface and, thereby, detaching soil (Mannering and Meyer,
1963). It, appears that on Slope II, straw mulch decreased runoff by intercepting
rainfall, causing increased infiltration, yet, when runoff did occur, the gross amount
of sediment detached was similar to that detached by the larger amount of runoff
from the contour cultivated plots.
146 MILNE et al.
On Slope III, in 1998, runoff and soil loss results were consistent with each other.
CC+SM significantly reduced both runoff and soil loss compared with D, whereas
CC had no effect. Soil loss reduction was almost entirely caused by decreased
runoff. The failure of CC to prevent soil loss on this slope was possibly due to the
restricted plot width. The effectiveness of straw mulch in reducing soil loss on this
slope was marked, with a 99.4% reduction. Lal (1976) reported a 99.3% and Khera
(1995) a 92% reduction in soil loss due to straw mulch; however, these studies were
on shallower slopes. Barton (2000) reported reductions of 90.4 and 100% with straw
mulch in 1995 and 1996, respectively, on the same plots. The fact that straw mulch
was able to reduce soil loss on Slope III in 1998, a year which had 148 and 404 rom
greater seasonal rainfall than 1995 and 1996, respectively, shows the suitability of
this conservation measure for steep fragile slopes in Yunnan, especially in extreme
weather conditions.
4.2 Maize Productivity
The growth and yield responses, noted in this experiment, were accompanied by
different erosion rates and changes in soil physical and chemical properties, brought
about by the soil conservation measures. Simple linear regressions between grain
yield and soil loss showed no significant relationship on any of the slopes in 1998 or
1999. Several studies have shown the relationship between erosion and productivity
to be very difficult to defme (Pimental et al., 1976; Pierce et al., 1983; Larson 1985)
even when decades of data are available. That is not to say that the erosion rates
found are not of major concern in terms of depleting the productive potential of the
soils of the area. For just one storm in 1998, Plot 19, a downslope plot, lost 10400
kg ha- 1 of soil which, (according sediment analysis) contained 31, 17, 22 and 14 kg
ha- 1 ofCa, K, Mg and P respectively.
In a short-term study such as this, yield increases were more likely to be due to the
seasonal effects of the two conservation measures on soil physical and chemical
properties, than the long term effects of erosion. In 1998, there were no significant
treatment effects on plant growth parameters or grain yield. However, on all slopes
CC+SM produced a higher grain yield than the other treatments. In 1998, limited
soil moisture was not an issue. Advantageous soil moisture conditions were found
under straw mulch on two occasions only, once at the beginning of the season and
once at the end. It therefore appears, that in the very wet conditions experienced in
this year, moisture conservation, one of the main benefits offered by mulching (Lal,
1998), did not occur to a sufficient extent to benefit growth and yield. In the same
year, Huang (2001) found that under slightly different rainfall patterns, straw mulch
significantly increased soil moisture at 5-10 cm depth and increased yield.
In other tropical countries, yield increases have occurred with mulching when
significant moisture effects have not (Sandhu et al., 1986). The general trend for
higher yields under mulched plots in 1998, could have been a result of the higher
available N associated with mUlching. The fact that this lead to a trend only and not
to significant yield and growth differences could have been due to the time at which
availability increased. Maize responds to inputs of N at all stages of its lifecyc1e

(Cobley, 1976), but is particularly responsive to inputs of N just before flowering
(CTA, 1987). Soil sampling would need to be carried out at regular intervals
throughout the growing season, in order to determine the stage at which N was being
released from mulch. Kitou and Yoshida (1994) made such measurements when
investigating mulching effects on soybean growth and found increased soil available
N 10 weeks after sowing, however the dynamics of N within the soil are very
complex and will vary with temperature and moisture regimes.
Unlike 1998, significant treatment effects on crop growth were found in 1999. On
Slope II, straw mulch significantly increased plant height. Green Leaf Area Index
was higher under CC+SM on all three slopes, but significant treatment effects were
only found twice on Slope II, and once on Slope III. Likewise Green Leaf Area
Duration was higher under CC+SM on all three slopes, but no significant treatment
effect was found. A higher sampling rate may have revealed significant differences.
As in 1998, CC+SM produced the highest yield on all slopes, significantly so on
Slope II compared with both of the other treatments. Percentage increases on this
slope were considerable, being 50 and 35% compared with D and CC respectively.
Table 4. shows that this is a fairly strong response, compared with yield increases
reported in other studies.
Table 4. Studies showing percentage yield increases following suiface mulching
Author and year % yield increase

Lal (1976) 47 (1 st crop)
50 (2nd crop)
Maurya and Lal (1980) 164 (1 st crop)
10 (2nd crop)
Mbagwu (1991) 80
Aina (1981) 62
Huang (2001) 16
Barton (2000) 17
Bansal (1971) 35%
In 1999, straw mulch played a much more important role in conserving soil moisture
than in 1998 and this was the most likely cause of the significant yield increase.
Straw mulch significantly increased soil moisture and soil water availability,
especially during a drought at the beginning of the season. Other researchers have
also attributed yield increases caused by mulching to soil moisture effects (Moody,
et aI., 1963; Bansal et al., 1971; Aina, 1981; Lal, 1998,). In 1999, day-time soil
temperature was significantly lower under straw mulch on nearly all measurement
occasions. However, any detrimental effects this may have had on crop growth and
yield were outweighed by the positive effects mulching had on soil moisture. No
measurements of soil temperature were made at night during this study. Mulching
had both positive and negative effects on soil temperature in regards to the optimum
148 MILNE et al.
temperature range required for crop growth. It could have been the case that
mulched plots maintained soil temperatures within the optimum range during the
night, whereas unmulched plots did not. Measurements of soil temperature made by
Huang (2001) at 1830 hrs in Yunnan, indicated that mulched soils lost temperature
less rapidly than unmulched soils.
On Slope III, the noted increase in soil available K did not significantly increase
crop yield. No measurements of K in maize leaves could be taken on Slope III as
there were too few plants to be able to withstand sampling. On Slope II, soil
available K was not significantly higher with mulching at the end of the experiment
at 0-15 cm depth. However, maize plants on the mulched plots had taken up
significantly greater amounts of K than plants from unmulched plots, an effect
which was also noted in a study in Malaysia, in which Capsicums were grown in
mulched and non-mulched plots (Vos and Sumarni, 1997). Therefore, at some point
in the season, available K under mulching, either in the soil solution or in the soil
itself, was enhanced by the decomposing mulch and was then taken up by the crop.
When soil samples were taken at the end of the season, the extra available K had
either moved down the soil profile below 15 em, or had only ever been present in
soil solution and was, therefore, not detected in soil analysis or had been released
and used uplleached earlier on in the season.
In summary, yield increases were due mainly to increased soil moisture caused by
mulching. This effect was particularly marked in 1999 when a drought period
occurred. Mulching also increased K uptake by maize plants, which probably
contributed to the yield but needs further investigation.
5. CONCLUSIONS
• The traditional method of maize cultivation in Yunnan Province is to plant up

and down the slope, which can lead to high erosion rates.
• On a 30 slope, cultivating on the contour and cultivating on the contour using

straw as a surface mulch does not significantly reduce runoff amount. Both methods
can, however, reduce soil loss to a similar degree in a year with greater than average
rainfall, but not in a year with average rainfall.
• On a 100 slope, in greater than average rainfall conditions, contour

cultivation can significantly reduce runoff and the addition of straw mulch can offer
a further significant reduction. In years of average and greater than average rainfall,
contour cultivation and contour cultivation plus straw mulch both reduce soil loss to
a similar extent, compared with downslope cultivation. However, there is a trend for
contour cultivation plus straw mulch to reduce soil loss more effectively than
contour cultivation alone on this slope, despite the lack of significant differences. A
greater level of replication would be needed to confirm this.
• On a 27° slope in a year with greater than average rainfall, contour cultivation
alone did not prevent runoff or soil loss. In the same conditions, contour cultivation
plus straw mulch reduced runoff and soil loss by almost 100%. In average rainfall
conditions, contour cultivation and contour cultivation plus straw mulch both
reduced runoff and soil loss to the same extent.
• Straw mulch can have positive effects on maize growth and yield, especially in
conditions of limited water. During such times, it can significantly increase soil
moisture compared to non-mulched treatments.
• This study was too short to demonstrate many of the changes in soil nutrient
status associated with using straw as a surface mulch. However, mulching was
shown to have beneficial effects on soil available N and K. The positive effect on
soil available K is particularly important, as soils on all slopes had low inherent soil
K, which may have restricted maize growth. In the wheat/maize rotation, commonly
used in this area of Yunnan, using the wheat straw as a surface mulch may provide a
means of recycling K removed from the soil by the wheat crop. This study suggests
that additional K supplied by the straw mulch is then taken up by the following
maize crop.
• A full cost benefit analysis of using contour cultivation and contour cultivation
plus straw mulch now needs to be done, taking into account the economic value of
soil conservation. This has been partly covered by the economic work package of
the SHASEA project (Cuddy et aI2003).
6. REFERENCES
Aina, P.O. (1981). Effects of time and duration of mulching on maize (Zea mays L.) in western Nigeria.
Field Crops Research, 4: 25-32.
Bansal, S.P., Gajri, P.R and Prihar, S.S. (1971). Effect of mulches on water conservation, soil
temperature and growth of maize (Zea mays L.) and pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. F.)
Stapf and C.B. Hubb.}. Indian Journal ofAgricultural Sciences, 41 (5): 467-473.
Barton, A.P. (2000). Soil erosion and conservation on arable sub-tropical Ultisols in Yunnan Province,
China. Ph.D., Thesis University ofWolvemampton, 297 pp.
Chen Ming and Zang Taopeng (2000). The analysing change trend of soil and water erosion in Yunnan
Province. China Soil Science, 7: 36-42 (in Chinese, with English Abstract).
Cobley, L.S. (1976) An introduction to the botany of tropical crops. Longman Group Limited, London,
u.K., pp. 33-43.
C.T.A. (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation) (1987). Mai=e Ed: G. Rouanet,
Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London u.K.
Cuddy M (2003) 'Evaluation of the Socio-Economic Effects of Cropping Systems' In: Final Project
report ofEU INCODEV project 'Improving the productivity and
sustainability of crop systems on fragile slopes in the highlands of south China and Thailand' Project no.
ERBIC18CT980326
Emama Ligdi, E. and Morgan, RP.C. (1995). Contour grass strips; a laboratory simulation oftheir role in
soil erosion control. Soil Technology, 8: 109-117.
Huang, Bi .Zhi. (2001). Effects of cultivation techniques on maize productivity and soil properties on
hillslopes in Yunnan Province, China. Ph.D. Thesis, University ofWolverhampton, 248 pp.
Hui Shi and Mingan Shao (2000). Soil and water loss from the Loess Plateau in China. Journal of Arid
Environments 45: 9-20.
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Khera, KI. (1995). Effect of paddy straw mulch and rainfall intensity on nmoff and soil loss Wlder
simulated rainfall. Indian Journal ofSoil Conservation, 23 (1): 20-23.
Kitou, M and Yoshida, S. (1994). Mulching effect of plant residues on soybean growth and soil
chemical-properties. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 40 (2): 211-220.
Lal, R (1976). Soil erosion on Alfisols in Western Nigeria, I: Effects of slope, crop rotation and residue
management. Geoderma, 16: 363-375.
Lal, R (1998). Mulching effects on nmoff, soil erosion and crop response on Alfisols in Western Nigeria.
Journal ofSustainable Agriculture, 11 (2/3): 135-154.
Larson, W.E. (1985). Impacts of erosion and conservation measures on the productive potential of soils.
In: I. Pia Sentis (Ed.) Soil Conservation and Productivity. Proceedings of the IV International
Conference on Soil Conservation. Maracay-Venezuela, November 3-9,1985, pp. 385-398.
Mannering, J.V. and Meyer, L.D. (1963). The effects of various rates of surface mulch on infiltration and
erosion. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Proceedings, 27: 84-86.
Milne E., (2001). Soil conservation in relation to maize productivity on sub-tropical red soils in YWlnaIl
Province, China. Ph.D., Thesis University ofWolverluunpton, 297 pp.
Moody IE., Jones IN. and Lillard J.R (1963). Influence of straw mulch on soil moisture, soil
temperature and growth of maize. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Proceedings, 27: 700-703.
Morgan, RP.C. (1995). Soil Erosion and Conservation. Longman, Harlow, Essex, U.K
Mbagwu, J.S.C. (1991). Mulching an Ultisol in Southern Nigeria: effects on physical properties and
maize and cowpea yields. Journal ofthe Science, ofFood and Agriculture 57: 517-526.
Murwira, RK and Kirchmann, R (1993). Nitrogen dynamics and maize growth in a Zimbabwean sandy
soil Wlder manure fertilization Communications in Soil Science and Plant AnalYSiS, 24 (17-18):
2343-2359.
Mutchler, C.K (1963). Runoff plot design and installation for soil erosion studies. United States
Department of Agriculture -ARS-41/79. Washington D.C.
Pierce F.J., Larson, W.E., Dowdy, RR and Graham, WAP. (1983). Productivity of soils: Assessing
long term changes due to erosion. Journal ofSoil and Water Conservation, 38: 39-44.
Pimentel, D., TerhWle, E.C., Dyson-Hudson R, Rochereau, R, Samis R, Smith, D., Denman, D.,
Reitschneider, D. and Shepard, M. (1976). Land degradation: effects on food and energy resources.
Science, 194: 149-155.
Robinson, AR (1981). Erosion and sediment control in China's Yellow River basin. Journal ofSoil and
Water Conservation, 45(1): 121-125.
Rozelle, S., Huang, IK and Zhang, L.X (1997). Poverty, population and environmental degradation in
China. Food Policy, 22 (3): 229-251.
Sandhu, B.S., Singh, B., Singh, B. and Khera, KL. (1986). Maize response to intermittent submergence,
straw mulching and supplemental N-fertilisation in subtropical region. Plant and Soil, 96: 45-56.
Shaoxiang, N., (1993). Erosion in tropical Southern China: Problems and COWlter measures In: Impruving
Degraded Lands; Promising Experiences from South China, Lui HongshWl and Lu Xuedu (Eds.),
Bishop Museum, Honolulu, U.SA
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a Geographical Information System. Agricultural Water Management, 21: 249-263.
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and Conservation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 63-85.
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the highlands of south China and Thailand' Project no. ERBIC 18CT980326
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erosion. Catena, 29: 145-159.
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SOIL FERTILITY DEGRADATION IN ERODED
HILLY RED SOILS OF CHINA
JUN LU, YUNLONG LIU AND YONGQIANG CHEN
College ofResources and Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Huajiachi

Campus, Hangzhou 310029, Zhejiang Province, P.R. of China
ABSTRACT
Seven field locations were selected in a hilly region of red soils to monitor surface nmoff and soil
erosion. These locations correspond to typical land use patterns in this region: mixed forest, broad-leaf
forest, grass land, citrus orchard, tea bush, sparse coniferous forest, and bare soil. From in situ
observations, the effect of different land use patterns on soil erosion and related soil properties was
evaluated Eroded soil amounted to greater than 5,000 ton km·2 yr'! from bare land. Under stable
cultivation conditions soil erosion significantly decreased, and the amount of erosion could be controlled
to under 300 ton km·2 yr'!. The differences in nmoff and eroded soil under different land use patterns were
mainly determined by vegetation coverage and plant characteristics. Soil fertility degradation became
more and more severe with increasing erosion in the following order of land use patterns: sparse
coniferous forest < tea bush<citrus orchard< grass land< deciduous forest< mixed forest. Soil structure
destruction, soil organic matter and nutrient losses, and soil microbial deterioration occurred even in the
soils with slight erosion. Soil fertility degradation under different land use patterns follows the same
sequence in other hilly red soil regions of China.
Keywords: soil erosion, soil fertility, land use, organic matter, microbial biomass,
enzyme activity, red soils
1. INTRODUCTION
The classification of degree of erosion is generally based on erosion intensity (ton

km-2 yr- 1), with reference to other factors such as slope, plant coverage, erosion type,
and exposure of rock. An erosion intensity amounting to less than that of soil loss
tolerance (500 ton km-2 yr- 1) is regarded as without apparent erosion. Such a system
of classification has played a vital role in ranking areas in terms of degree of soil
erosion and in formulating erosion-control measures in the red soil region of China.
151
152 JUNLU etal.
Soil loss tolerance varies with different ecosystem conditions and has been
established on the basis of the objectives of the erosion classification. Shui et al.
(2000) reported that according to an analysis of the balance of soil nutrients, the
allowed quantity of soil erosion was 300 ton km·2 yr·! for red soil developed on
Quaternary red clay. In fact, effects of soil erosion on soil fertility are not limited to
a nutrient balance. All of the soil physical, chemical, and biological properties are
changed by soil erosion. To maintain soil fertility, both soil erosion control and
improvement of soil fertility should be considered so as to minimize the negative
impact . Based on in situ observations, this paper evaluates the effects of different
land use patterns on soil erosion, and analyzes the relationship between changes in
soil properties and soil erosion.
2.1 Field Site Description
The study was conducted in the Lanxi-Shanghua Red Soil Experiment Station
(30°19' Nand 119°24' W, 70 m above sea level with 5% to 25% slope) in Zhejiang
Province of China. The predominant soils are red soils developed on Quaternary
red clay, which are equivalent to Ultisols under the US Soil Taxonomy. The soil
texture is clay loam and soil pH varies between 4.5 to 5.5. The average annual
precipitation is 1676.7 mm, about 40% occurring between April to June. The water
evaporation is 838.6 mm, about 45% occurring in July to September. The mean
annual temperature is 17. rc, with the lowest <--6 °c in February and the highest
>39°C in August. In natural ecosystems with secondary forest, dry conditions and
high temperatures during summer and autumn and heavy rains during spring often
contribute to poor plant cover and serious soil erosion in this region.
2.2 RunoffPlot Design and Layout
Seven runoff plots were laid out for runoff and soil erosion observations on hilly
red soil (13% slope) under different land use pattem treatments: mixed forest (MF),
broad-leaf forest (BF, Cinnamomum camphora), grass land (GL, ephemeretum),
citrus orchard (CO), tea bush(TB), sparse coniferous forest (CF, Pinus massoniana),
and bare soil (BS). Each plot, 5 m wide by 10 m long along the slope, was
surrounded by a cement wall with 0.2 m depth under the soil surface and 0.15 m
higher above it. A settling tank was made below each plot for the collection of runoff
and eroded soil. Sparse coniferous forest is the typical secondary vegetation in the
red soil region. The mixed forest and broad-leaf forest were planted in 1985, and the
other vegetation was planted after the plots had been constructed, i.e. in 1993.
SOIL FERTILITY DEGRADATION IN HILLY RED SOILS IN CHINA 153
Extensive cultivation was perfonned in all plots with no fertilizer application to

avoid the effects of management differences on soil properties. All the work of plot
establishment, including site selection, surrounding-wall construction, soil
ploughing and preparation, and tree planting or crop cultivation, was completed
before November 1993, and runoff and eroded soil were monitored from 1996 to
1998.
2.3 Soil Sampling and Analysis
Soil samples were taken from 0 to 20-cm depth in all runoff plots in June 1999. One
of the samples was collected for biological analysis and was placed in a cooler with
ice packs before being transported to the lab. Other soil samples included fives cores
of undisturbed soil for the analaysis of various physical propertie and two composite
samples for determination of chemical properties and texture analysis.
Soil core samples were analyzed for bulk density and porosity (steel circle method),
water-stable aggregate content (wet sieving method), micro-aggregate content
(pipette method), and water characteristic curve (pressure film plate method). The
composite soil samples were dried in air, sieved through a 1 mm screen and
analyzed for sand, silt and clay content (pipette method), pH (1:1 soiUwater),
organic matter content, total N, available N, P, and K, and cation-exchange capacity
at pH 7, all using conventional methods (Committee of Agrochemistry, Soil Sci.
Soc. of China, 1983). The fresh soil samples were analyzed for microbial biomass C
(MBC, chlorofonn fumigation method), total numbers of microorganisms and the
numbers of bacteria, fungi, and Actinomycetaceae. The biochemical properties
analyzed included soil respiration intensity and soil enzymatic activities.
3.1 Runoff and Soil Erosion
Amounts of both surface runoff and eroded soil were very high and quite variable at
the beginning of the plot construction for all plots. Therefore, the measured runoff
and eroded soil in all seven plots were recorded after 1995, the average values in
1996, 1997 and 1998 being compared in Figure 1. As all other conditions were kept
the same, the differences in runoff and eroded soil between the plots were mainly
determined by vegetation coverage and plant characteristics. The deciduous broad-
leaf forest (BF), its mixture with bush (MF), and grass land (GL) showed high
adaptability to the red soils and were effective in reducing surface runoff and soil
erosionin the red soil region. Because of extensive cultivation, growth of citrus trees
(CO) and tea trees (TT) was relatively limited, as was their function in water and
soil conservation. The typical secondary vegetation in the region, sparse coniferous
154 JUNLU etal.
forest (CF), was mostly more than ten years old, but its heavily stunted growth and
very low coverage resulted in high runoff and soil erosion, although this was much
less than in BS, due to the well-developed root system of Pinus massoniana.
5466.7
350
o CteEficiEnt of lll"lJff
300
....
'm JJ
• soD. eJ:I:Sim rn:dlle ~
~.
'I'
250
)
i
.515 200
]
~
150 rt
10
"a
~
100 ~ tv
5 $lJ,
....
50
0 0
M" <L CD 'lB CF :as
Iarrl use prt:ter:n
Figure 1. Coefficient ofrunoff and soil erosion modulus under different land use
patterns in hilly red soil
3.2 Soil Physical Properties
Generally, soil erosion results in an increase in the soil sand and gravel
contents. This tendency may not occur where the erosion modulus is less than 300
ton km-2 yr-! (Table. 1). Gravel (>2 mm) content increased obviously (data not
shown) only in the bare soil plot. These results imply that the processes which
increase soil sand and gravel contents are not the main mechanisms inducing
physical degradation of red soils under slight soil erosion conditions (intensity less
than 300 ton km·2 yr 1). However, water-stable aggregate content, bulk density, and
porosity were significantly different between the plots (Table. 1). Soil particle density
tended to increase with increasing erosion, but this was significant only between the
BF and BS plots. Almost all soil physical properties were determined by soil particle
characteristics and by soil structure. It seems that slight soil erosion (modulus <300
ton km· 1 yr· l ) is not enough to influence soil particle characteristics, and that damage
to soil structure is the main cause of changes in soil physical properties.
Table 1. Soil physical properties under different land use patterns in a hilly red soil
region
Land Particle Bulk Water-

use density density stable Sand Silt Clay
Poro
pattern (glcm3 ) (glcm3 ) aggregate (0/0) (0/0) (0/0)
sity
(see (0/0)
(%)
text)
MF 2.65 l.l 17.46 44.86 34.83 20.31 60
BF 2.64 0.92 17.19 28.27 35.28 36.45 69
GL 2.7 l.l1 9.98 20.47 27.55 31.8 63
CO 2.7 l.l8 6.433 34.84 31.44 33.72 58
CF 2.71 1.37 5.93 38.61 26.81 34.58 66
BS 2.72 1.37 5.8 20.47 31.44 38.82 54
3.2 Soil Chemical Properties
Soil organic matter contents in the different runoff plots were significantly different,
following the order BF, MF >GL >TO, CF >BS (Table. 2). As is well known, soil
organic matter and soil nutrients are lost with eroded soil. Especially, losses of
available nutrients were quite remarkable even if there was only slight soil erosion
(modulus <300 ton km· 1 yr- I ). There were no significant differences between the
total N, P and K contents of the soils in any of the plots, except for the BS plot.
Besides total nutrients, cation exchange capacities (CEC) and pH values did not
differ significantly under slight soil erosion conditions (modulus <300 ton km· 1 yr·
I).
3.3 Soil Biological and Biochemical Properties
Recently, the concept has been widely accepted that soil biological and biochemical
properties could serve as early and sensitive indicators of agro-ecOosystem stress or
changes in soil productivity (Kennedy and Papendick, 1995 ). Under slight
erosion conditions, the total soil microbial biomass, soil basal respiration, and
156 JUNLU eta!.
Table 2. Soil chemical properties under different land use patterns in a hilly red soil
region
Land OM pH Total Available Available Exch. CEC

use (%) (H2 O N N P K cmol
Pattern ) (%) mglkg% mglkg mglkg /kg
MF 2.35 4.86 0.17 106.4 0.271 2.86 1.24
BF 2.25 4.89 0.27 108.5 0.238 2.29 0.97

GL 0.56 4.73 0.13 63.3 0.202 1.52 1.11
CO 0.52 4.75 0.14 61.2 0.179 1.52 1.08
CF 1.19 4.77 0.15 80 0.23 2.2 1.19

BS 0.207 4.65 O.oI 65.7 0.148 1.33 0.78
multiple soil enzymatic activities in different plots were all changed significantly
(Table 3).The microflora in the soils also changed (Fig. 2): the percentage of
bacteria were 80%, 80%, 88%, 62%, 60%, and 25% for the treatments of BF, MF,
GL, CO, CF and BS, respectively, while the percentage of Actinomycetaceae were
20%, 16%, 7%, 17%,22%, and 73%, respectively.
Table 3. Soil Biological and biochemical properties under different land use in a
hilly red soil region
Land Micro Activity of Activity of Activity Activity

Use biomassC polyphenol hydrogen of of
Pattern (mglkg) oxidase peroxidase sucrase cellutase
(mg/g) (mil g) (ml/g) (mg/g)
MF 25.4 38.42 11.5 4.11 0.043
BF 30.3 36.59 14.4 6.45 0.064
GL 12.2 52.13 5.72 2.42 0.01
CO 6.4 44.55 5.26 2.84 0.01
CF 24.9 26.22 8.57 4.00 0.03
BS 5.4 22.56 2.31 1.56 0.003
200
175 ~Bacteria
150 • Fungi
IIDActinornycetaceae
co 125
b 100
75
50
25
0
BF MF GL co CF BS
Land use pattern
Figure 2. Differences in soil micro flora under different land use in hilly red soils.
4. CONCLUSIONS
There is a very severe soil erosion problem in the hilly red soil regions of China.
The erosion intensity is greater than 5,000 ton km- 2 yr- 1 for the bare soil. Under
stable cultivation conditions, soil erosion decreased significantly, and erosion
intensity becomes controllable at under 300 ton km- 2 yr- 1• The differences in runoff
and eroded soil under different land use patterns were mainly affected by vegetation
coverage and plant characteristics. Although slight soil erosion might not result in
increases in soil sand and gravel contents, soil fertility degradation was more
significant with increasing erosion intensity for different land use patterns in the
order of sparse coniferous forest> tea bush> citrus grove> grass land> broad-leaf
forest> mixed forest. Soil structure damage, soil organic matter and nutrient losses,
and soil microbial deterioration under slight soil erosion conditions are
responsible soil fertility degradation under different land use patterns in the hilly red
soil regions of China
5. REFERENCES
Committee of Agrochemistry, Soil Sci. Soc. of China. 1983. Routine Analytic Methods of Soil and
Agrochemistry. Sciences Press, Beijing.
Gong Zitong and Shi Xuezheng, 1992.Rational soil utilization and soil degradation control in tropical
China. In: Gong Zitong (Editor), Proceedings ofInternational Symposium on Management and
158 JUNLU etal.
Development ofRed Soils in Asia and Pacific Region. Science Press, Beijing, New York. 8-12.
Jun Lu and Hu Jinxuan, 1991. Evolution of soil structure in the process of mellowing of red soil on low
rolling hills. Chinese J. of Soil Science. Vol. 22(7):45-48.
Jun Lu and YU Jinyan, 1992. Studies on soi11imitations and its amelioration in a citrus orchard of red
earth on rolling hills. In: Lin Boqun (Editor), Modern Forest Management and Forest Soil Potential.
International Academic Publishers, Beijing. 24-29.
Jianguo Shui, Cai xizhou, and Zhang Ruliang, 2000. Study on the law opf water and soil loss and its
regulation technology on sloping land of red soil. Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis.
Vo1.12(Suppl.):45-49.
Kennedy, A.C., and RI. Papendick, 1995. Microbial characteristics of soil quality. J. of Soil and water
Conservation. Vol. 50:243-248.
Xu Xiuyun, and Yao Xianliang, 1992. Studies on physical properties of red soil in hilly region of central
Jiangxi. In: Gong Zitong (Editor), Proceedings of International Symposium on Management and
Zhao Qiguo, 1992. Ecological environment and integrated exploitation of the red soil hilly region of
China. In: Gong Zitong (Editor), Proceedings of International Symposium on Management and
Part III
MANAGEMENT, UTILIZATION AND

SUSTAINABILITY OF RED SOILS IN CHINA:
OVERVIEW AND SYNOPSIS
ZHENLI HE(l>, M J WILSO~2) AND XIAOE Y ANG(I)
(l)Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China

Bearing in mind the constraints to crop production outlined in Part II, it is evident
that the red soils of China demand careful management if they are to be successfully
utilized for agriculture in a sustainable way. Various approaches have been
developed to enhance their productive potential and to restore their fertility
following their degradation. Traditional approaches include reclamation of the
surface and subsurface soils by inputs of lime, organic manures and chemical
fertilizers, either alone or as mixtures. Novel or modified cultivation techniques
include trench-planting and soil chiselling so as to improve the rooting depth of
deeply rooted crops, for example citrus. Selection and improvement of plant
genotypes that are adapted to the special red soil environment is another promising
approach and lately the emphasis has been upon the integrated utilization of red soils
within a topographic context, as well as diversification of crops so as to increase
economic returns. All these efforts have proved to be effective to some degree but
further progress still needs to be made.
This is emphasized in the opening paper provided by Zhenli He et al which looks at
how the red soils have been used in a historical context. Before the 1950s the red
soils were often left to natural vegetation, presumably because farmers had leamed
from experience of the difficulties involved in farming these soils. Immediately
following this period, however, attempts were made to grow food crops on the red
soils using standard soil amendment techniques such as liming and fertilization.
These attempts proved to be unsustainable in the long-term leading to degradation
and erosion of the soils. This situation was partly alleviated by converting some
upland crop areas to rice paddies, but it was only with the development of an
integrated approach, whereby land use was matched to the position of the red soils
within the landscape as a whole, that the objective of sustainability became
realizable.
Nevertheless, the challenge is still to be able to maximise production from the red
soils in a sustainable way and the following papers discuss techniques that have
recently been developed to this end. The tolerance of plant genotypes to the stresses
linked to soil acidity and nutrient deficiency is obviously of crucial importance in
159
© 2004 Klmver Academic Publishers.
this respect and Xiaoe Yang et al. review the physiological and genetic basis of this
tolerance. It is clear from this review that considerable progress has been made in
explaining the general nature of the mechanisms involved in the tolerance of crops
to such adverse conditions, as well as of the efficiency of use of the major nutrients
and of certain trace elements. There is still, however, much to be done if a detailed
understanding of the molecular and genetic bases of plant tolerance mechanisms is
to be achieved and successful research in this direction holds the promise of being
able to develop optimal nutrient and environmental management practices.
Certainly, the work of Fageria et al. in evaluating the response of upland rice
genotypes to soil acidity in highly weathered Brazilian Oxisols vividly illustrates the
possibility of realizing this promise. Their key fmding was that the majority of these
genotypes produced higher grain yields at high acidity than they did at low acidity,
thus demonstrating a genotype x acidity interaction. Moreover, they found a similar
interaction for almost all major nutrient use efficiencies for grain production,
confIrming that these genotypes are truly tolerant of soil acidity.
Water defIciency is evidently a crucial constraint to crop production in the red soils
area and Jun Lu et al. discuss the use of simulation research in developing an
optimum irrigation regime to overcome this constraint. Using water balance and
crop growth models, they show that the water requirements for early and late rice
can be considerably decreased through intermittent irrigation. Using the same
approach to water management, maximum yields can be achieved for com and
soybean.
In the quest for producing sustainable crops on the red soils, the establishment of
permanent pasture to form a continuous vegetation cover is an obvious means of
reducing soil erosion. Successful growth maintenance of a sward requires research
into the acid tolerance of various forage species, in addition to an understanding of
the effects of lime and fertilizers on the yields of these species. Both these aspects
are investigated in two papers by Xiangyun Chu et al. They demonstrate that P
defIciency is the most important constraint to obtaining satisfactory yields on the red
soils, a result similar to that often found for acid soils of temperate climates.
The use of novel and modifIed cropping practices, compared to the use of traditional
methods, on red soils in Yunnan Province, is shown by Fullen et al to lead to yield
increases of arable crops (especially maize) of over 40%. SpecifIcally, the
INCOPLAST technique was evaluated for its effect upon crop productivity and soil
properties through fIeld experiments extending over a period of three years. The
technique involves contour cultivation, straw and plastic mulch, and irrigation
during the establishment and early growth phase of the crop. It should be noted,
however, that the red soils studied in these experiments are not typical of the acidic
red soils described above. The Yunnan soils often have rather high pH values (6-7)
and may be almost fully base-saturated. They are strongly influenced by carbonate
parent material and in all probability would be classifIed as AlfIsols, or even
Inceptisols, under the US system of Soil Taxonomy. Nevertheless, they are included
in the red soil group of the Chinese soil classifIcation, emphasizing the variable
nature of this group and the importance of assessing the influence of the geological
parent material on soil properties. It may be added that limestone-derived red soils
are widely distributed over Yunnan Province and other areas in south-east Asia, so
MANAGEMENT, UTILIZATION AND SUSTAINABILITY 161
that the results obtained by Fullen et al should, in principle, be applicable in these

areas too.
Although it is clear from previous work and from the papers outlined previously that
various management techniques have been developed that may potentially lead to
the better utilization of red soils in China, it is evidently vital that the soils should
be able to sustain these techniques over the long term. Evaluation of sustainability
requires the assessment and monitoring of change of relevant soil properties under
different systems of land use over time. Several papers in Part III illustrate this
dynamic approach. The distinct effect of land use on both the physical and chemical
properties of the red soils in Zhejiang Province is shown by Mingkui Zhang et al.
Where the red soils are used for growing upland crops, tea bushes and citrus fruit, it
was found that available nutrients, including some micro-elements, were higher than
where the soils were forested. However, the organic matter content of the cropped
soils, as well as the content of water-stable aggregates, were distinctly lower than in
the forested soils. This suggests that the cropped soils would be more susceptible to
erosion and underlines the importance of maintaining soil organic matter over the
long term.
The effects of adding organic matter to red soils for the utilization of N and the
uptake of inorganic P by ryegrass grown on red soil is discussed in two papers by
QingfU Ye et al. The use of tracer techniques shows that when organic matter and
urea were applied in a combined form, there was an increased uptake of N from the
organic matter compared with applications of organic matter and urea alone. On the
other hand, application of organic matter significantly stimulated the uptake of
inorganic P from fertilizer by ryegrass seedlings. Release of P from the organic
matter was closely related to its utilization and release from the soil microbial
biomass. The latter thus plays a key role in the transformation dynamics of major
nutrients added to red soil in the form of organic matter and/or inorganic fertilizer.
The significance of the soil microbial biomass in red soils is further explored in two
papers by Chen and He. In the first, it is found that the effect of soil pH on microbial
biomass -C and -P follows a normal distribution pattern, with the original soil pH at
its centre. Moreover, soil micro-organisms growing in soils in the pH range 5.5-7.5
may have greater tolerance to pH changes than those growing at higher or lower pH
values. In the second paper the effect of land use on microbial biomass in eleven red
soils is assessed and found to be closely related to the input and accumulation of
organic matter. In this case, the highest values for microbial-N and -P were found
for soils used as paddy or for growing vegetables and the lowest for eroded fallow
land. Yao and He go on to examine the structure of microbial communities in some
red soils of varying fertility status and under different land use. They conclude that,
while land use history and plant cover type do impact upon microbial community
structure, there is no evidence of any systematic change in this structure with
increasing soil fertility. Finally, Shen Yu et al studied the effect of acidification of
red soils under a chronosequence of tea bushes on microbial population and
distribution and on enzyme activities. A systematic variation of bio-characteristics
was found. Numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes in soils with 40 year and 90 year
old tea bushes were only half those in soils with 10 year old tea bushes. It was
thought that this may be due to the inhibitory effect on bacteria of anti-microbial
substances fonned in the leaf litter. Changes in enzyme activity were also observed
with urease and invertase activity decreasing with increasing tea bush age, while the
activity of acid-phosphomonoesterase increased.
In conclusion, the current situation seems to be that a variety of potentially useful
new management techniques and strategies have been identified for overcoming the
constraints to crop production on red soils identified previously. Furthennore,
various approaches for assessing the long term sustainability of these techniques
have been developed, although these require refmement and further experimental
work. In this respect it may noted that while the red soils of China are generally of
an inherently infertile nature, they nevertheless represent fruitful ground for soil and
plant scientists interested in researching their potential for greater agricultural
productivity .
CHALLENGES IN THE MANAGEMENT AND
UTILIZATION OF RED SOILS
ZHENLI HE(l), MINGKUI ZHANG(l) AND M J WILSON(2)
(l)College ofNatural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University,

Hangzhou, China
(:l)The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, AB15 8QJ UK
ABSTRACT
Utilization of red soils in China can be divided into four periods: (1) Minimal use in agriculture before the
1950s; (2) Development of upland red soils for crop production; (3) Conversion of upland red soils to
paddy cultivation; and (4) Integrated use and comprehensive exploitation of red soils. Intensive use of red
soils for upland crops caused severe soil degradation through erosion and nutrient loss. Conversion from
upland crops to rice paddy soils improves soil fertility by reducing soil erosion, especially through the
increasing inputs of organic matter. An integrated system of land use on red soils enables their
comprehensive exploitation and is the most promising approach for improving their resilience and
increasing the economic value of the land. Future studies need to address soil and water issues in the red
soil region.
Keywords: red soils, management, land use, reclamation, organic matter
1. INTRODUCTION
The distribution pattern of land use in the red soil regions includes arable 13.6%,
forestry 44%, grassland 3.7%, wasteland 24% and others 14.7% (Table 1). Soil
erosion has resulted in a tremendous loss of nutrients and decline of soil fertility in
the past decades. The eroded land area (0.62 million km2 ) accounts for nearly a
quarter of the total area of the red soil regions. Of the 1.06 million km2 of hilly and
mountainous area, 0.48million km2 area has been severely eroded, as a result of
excessive deforestation and inappropriate land utilization. In Zhejiang Province
alone, about 30% of the total area has been subjected to severe soil erosion (Yu et
aI., 1998).Soil erosion in this region leads to yearly loss of about 25 billion tons of
soil to the Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers (Zhang and Zhao, 1994) and with these fme
soil particles, large amounts of organic matter and nutrients are also lost (Luo et ai,
1995). The annual loss of N, P and K in southern China due to soil erosion
amounted to 3.1 million tons, about twice the amount of fertilizers applied yearly in
these regions. More than 1.2 million tons of N, P, and K were lost from Jiangxi
and Hunan Provinces (Table 2). The loss of surface soil and nutrients not only
163
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils of China. 163-170.
substantially decreased nutrient status and utilization efficiency, but had a degrading
impact on the environment. Lakes, rivers, and reservoirs were silted up, their storage
capacity greatly reduced and the waters became eutrophied; in addition, natural
catastrophes such as flooding, and drought have become more frequent and intensive
(Gong and Shi, 1992; Sun, 1995; Zhang and Zhao, 1994).
Table 1. Land use distribution of red soils in South China. (Gong and Shi, 1992)
Type of land use Sub-type of land use % of the total

Arable land Paddy field 8.5
Upland 5.1
Forestry Forests 26.9
Shrubs 8.2
Sparse forests 4.0
Others 5.0
All others Grassland 3.7
Barren land 23.5
Coastal land 0.3
Water body 4.0
Others 10.8
Total 100
Table 2. Nutrient loss as result ofsoil erosion in red soil regions
Regions Amounts of Nutrients lost (million tons year-I)

N P K Total
Southern China 1.12 0.93 1.05 3.10
Jiangxi Province 0.27 0.23 0.26 0.76
Hunan Province 0.16 0.12 0.15 0.43
Source:He, et aI., 2001.
Soil degradation is one of the most severe consequences of soil erosion,

considerably increasing the bulk density of the soil and decreasing soil porosity and
amounts of plant-available N, P, K (Table 3). Slight, medium and severe soil
degradation classes accounted for 25.9, 40.8 and 33.3%, respectively, of the total soils
in the hilly red soil regions, and the lateritic red soils were usually among the most
degraded (Zhang and Zhao, 1994). Nutrient depletion and fertility decline posed a
great constraint to sustained agricultural production in these regions.
CHALLENGES IN MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF RED SOILS 165
Table 3. Impact of soil erosion on soil properties. (He et al 2001)
Parent Soils Bulk Poro Hydolys. Bray 1-P 1 mol Lot

materials density sity N. (mg kgol) NH4AcExtr
(gcmol) (%) (mgkgol) K
{mg kgol}
Granite Original 1.38 48.3 120 5.4 201
Eroded 1.55 42.8 28 1.0 39
Quaternary Original 1.34 49.2 88 4.0 79
red earths Eroded 1.53 42.3 36 2.0 28
Sandstone Original 1.44 44.7 48 trace 46
Eroded 1.62 40.2 27 trace 5.0
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RED SOIL

UTILIZATION
The utilization of red soils has gone through four stages:
1. Early Stage: Before 1950's, most red soils were under natural vegetation
coverage and pine was one of the most common trees in the red soil regions. Use
of red soils for agriculture was not a common practice at this stage.
2. Development of Upland Areas for Crop Production
During the 1950's - 1960's, under pressure of food production to meet the
increasing demand of expanded population, low hills and gentle slope areas of
red soils were developed for growing upland crops such as sweet potato, oilseed
rape, peanuts, etc. Limestone was used to overcome soil acidity, and P fertilizer
was applied to increase crop yield. Moderate crop yields were sustained with
proper soil amendment and fertilization. A number of farms including those
owned by government agencies were established in the red soil regions.
3. Conversion of upland crop areas to paddy field
It was found soon that upland cultivation of red soils caused soil erosion and
fertility degradation. Seasonal drought posed a critical constraint for crop
production in the red soil region. Therefore, construction of small- scale
reservoirs in the red soil regions, with conversion of upland crop areas to paddy
fields, rotating rice with green manure crops, became important practices for
red soil utilization during the 1970's. With this approach, soil erosion was
reduced, soil fertility was improved, and rice production was increased.
4. Integrated Use and Comprehensive Exploitation of Red Soils
After the 1980's, food shortage was no longer the most critical problem. Income,
investment, output, and environmental concern began to shape the utilization of red
soils. Cash crops such as bamboo, asparagus, fruit trees, including citrus, and
valuable forest were developed in the red soil regions. Attention was also paid to the
impacts of red soil use on the environment. General guidelines for utilization of
different groups of red soils are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Current utilization guideline of red soils
Soil Groups Cash Crops, Fruit, and Food Crops Forage crops
Special Forest Trees
Latosols Rubber, sisal hemp, Rice and tropical
coffee, pineapple, Crops
cocoa, etc
Lateritic red Logan, liche, citrus, Rice and tropical
earths tea, pineapple Crops
Red earths Tea, citrus, oil-tea Com, sweet potato, Ryegrass, carrot,
camellia, tung oil Peanut, beans, green bean, pea,
tree, sugarcane, wheat, oilseed rape, etc
and Chinese tallow rice
tree, etc
Tea, tobacco, oil-tea Com, wheat, beans Grasses for
Yellow earths camellia, raising
tung oil tree, poultry
medical herbs
3. RECLAMATION OF RED SOILS
Eroded red soils are characterised by low pH, low organic matter, nutrient deficiency,
and a low water holding capacity with less water available for plants. The utilization
efficiency of applied fertilizers is very low in these soils «10% for P and <30% for
Nand K) (Lin, 1995). Low nutrient levels, acidity and aluminum toxicity, chemical
fixation of P, and poor soil structure are the major factors responsible for this and for
the low crop productivity of the soils. Reclamation procedures are critical for
restoring their fertility and for increasing their nutrient utilization efficiency.
3.1 Liming
Application ofliming materials such as Ca(OHh and limestone was one of the most
effective measures in increasing nutrient utilization and crop yields on the eroded
acidic red soils (Zhang et al. 1991). Overliming was found to decrease crop
yields, as it caused deficiencies of some micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu .
Maximum yields of most crops (rice, wheat, soybean, com, and oil rapeseed, etc.)
were obtained with soil pH around 6.0-6.5.
Soil pH increase by surface application of lime is often limited to 20 cm depth
from the surface (Wang, and Kong, 1992). Soil acidity and Al toxicity in the subsoil
are two of the most important constraints for the growth of crops with a deep rooting
system such as cotton and citrus. Application of gypsum to subsoil was shown to
promote root growth by alleviating Al toxicity (Clark et aI, 1993) and recent research
by Shui and Chen (1995) indicated that application of limestone, organic manure,
and chemical fertilizers to an acidic subsoil significantly enhanced root growth of
cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L) . Water use from subsurface layers (30-50 cm depth)
by the cotton plants was increased by 2-4 times by applying N P K fertilizers,
organic manure or limestone to the subsoil, as compared with the control. Organic
manure was the most effective amendment in enhancing root growth and water use.
This is crucial for crop production in the red soil region where drought during the
late summer and autunm season is very often the limiting factor for sustained crop
production.
3.2 Trench-planting and Soil Chiseling
Soil acidity, soil compactness, low fertility, and seasonal drought largely limits
production of citrus food bamboo, and trees in the hilly red soil region. Growing
citrus or trees on eroded red soils by means of surface application of soil
amendments (0-20 cm) has not been successful. Reclamation of the entire surface
and subsoil is too costly for the farmers. Therefore, special techniques termed
'trench-planting' and 'soil chiseling' were developed to grow citrus on the eroded red
soils, and to increase utilization efficiency of nutrients and water by the plant (Chai
and Luo, 1995). Trench-planting is aimed at improving the entire rooting depth of
citrus plants. A trench of 100 cm in width and 100 cm in depth is made and filled
with a mixture of organic manures, chemical fertilizers, limestone and surface soil
before a row of citrus seedlings are transplanted along the reclaimed soil. Several
years later, in order to provide more rooting space for the mature citrus trees, another
soil chiseling trench (80 cm in width and 80 em in depth) is made beside the planting
trench and filled with the same soil amendments as previously applied. This
increases soil nutrients and water supply to the entire rooting depth and further
improves soil structure and other soil physical conditions ( Lu et aI., 1997). With the
adaptation of these techniques, over 100,000 hectares of eroded red soils have been
planted to citrus, where crop growth was considered to be impossible by traditional
agricultural practices. Trench planting and soil chiseling advanced fruit-bearing of
citrus by at least one year and increased fruit yield by more than three times, as
compared with conventional practices of red soil reclamation (Lu et aI., 1997).
3.3 Increased Input a/Organic Matter
Application of organic manures is essential for improvement of soil fertility and crop
production on an eroded red soil (Luo and Lu, 1995). The data in Table 5 show the
effect of long-term cropping on soil fertility restoration. These data indicate that soil
reclamation through an increased input of organic matter under different crops
168 ZHENLI HE et ai.
results in significant improvement of soil fertility. The eroded non-arable soil in

Table 5, with very low organic matter and nutrient content, could serve as a starting
point for the other red soils. After restoration of crop production through soil
reclamation, input of organic matter was significantly increased by applying manures
and fallen litter and leaves from the standing crops, returned straw and residual roots
after the plants were harvested. For instance, after 38 years under forest, soil organic
matter increased by 20-fold, total N by 15-fold, and total P and extractable P by 6-
and over IOO-fold, respectively. Microbial biomass C, N, and P, which are closely
related to organic matter supply and soil quality, were significantly increased with
increasing years of soil reclamation and crop restoration. Crop productivity of the red
soils is thus significantly increased by reclamation and growing crops or planting
trees (Chen et al., 1999; He et aI., 1997).
3.4 Integrated Agriculture
As indicated above, the red soil regions in southern China have, on one hand, highly
diversified and abundant biophysical resources with enormous biomass production
potential, and on the other hand, confronted simultaneously by various soil and
environment constraints for acieving desired agricultural production. Therefore, it is
of vital importance to develop integrated agricultural production systems which can
maximize the utilization of natural resources and added fertilizers and
simultaneously minimize impact of agriculture on the degradation of environment.
Some ecological modules for integrated agricultural production systems that
have been successfully developed in the red soil regions are:
1. On hill and mountain tops, forests inter-cropped with shrubs and grasses;
2. On the hillsides, cash crops such as citrus, peach, food bamboo, and tea;
3. On the lower and gentle slopes of hills, highland crops such as wheat, com,
and oilseed rape or pastures;
4. In the valleys and basins, rice and other lowland crops;
5. In the lowlands, fish are raised in the ponds with peripheral forage crops.
The integrated agriculture provided both economic and ecological benefit to

the farmers (Chai et aI., 1995, Zhang, and Zhao, 1994). A comparison of both
economic and ecological benefits of six agro-ecological models shows that the tea-
forestry inter-cropping system had the greatest gross output per unit of the land
(4900 US$ ha-1), followed by the food bamboo and fruit-forestry inter-cropping
systems (4800 US$ and 3700 US$ ha-t, respectively); single forestry had the lowest
output (1000 US$ ha- 1). However, net income per hectare of the six agroecosystems
decreased in the order:
Food bamboo> upland cropping> rice-forestry> fruit-forestry> farmland-fish-
poultry> forestry alone.
The output/input ratio had the following sequence:
Forestry alone> food bamboo> farmland-fish-poultry > upland cropping >fruit-
forestry> tea-forestry (Table 6).
The single forestry production system had the highest output/input ratio due to its
very low input although it had the lowest output and net income.
Table 5. Effects of cultivation and organic matter input on soil fertility of red soils of
China. a
Soil Vegetation Soil pH Org Total Avail. Total Bray Soil

No. Coverage type b (H2O) N N" P IP C/N
C glkg rngIkg rngIkg mglkg
glkg
Eroded- Ultisol 6.0 1.7 0.19 32.2 300 0.9 8.2

No crop
2 Wheat! Entisol 4.8 5.1 0.49 59.8 310 1.8 11.2
cotton
- 3 yr
3 Citrus Ultisol 6.0 5.3 0.55 63.7 240 43.8 10.4
-4yr
4 Citrus - Ultisol 5.0 15.1 1.79 113.0 860 171 8.4
7yr
5 Citrus- Ultisol 4.6 18.2 1.93 116.2 1804 215 9.0
12 yr
6 Rapeseed! Ultisol 5.1 20.5 1.98 130.2 750 120 12.3
Rice-15 yr
7 Tea- Ultisol 4.9 27.4 2.15 170.8 550 117 12.9

30yr
8 Forest- Ultisol 5.8 34.3 2.97 193.0 440 4.11 14.4
38yr
• Modified from He et aJ. (1997) and Chen et aJ. (2000).

b Ultisols: clayey, kaolinitic thermic plinthic Aquult; Entisols: loamy, siliceous thermic typic Udorthents.
C extracted by NH.,-N + N0 3-N
Table 6. Comparison of economic benefits for six major agro-ecological models

on red soils
Agro-ecological Output Net income Output! Ecological

modules (US$ ha- 1) (US$ha- 1) input Benefit
Tea-forestry 4900 1600 1.5 Very good
Food bamboo 4800 4200 8.0 Good
Fruit-forestry 3700 1460 1.7 Very good
Upland cropping 2700 1600 2.5 Poor
Farming-fishery- 2000 1260 2.6 Good
poultry
Forestry alone 1000 980 15 Excellent
Source: Luo et aJ., 1995.
On the other hand, all of the forestry, tea-forestry inter-cropping and fruit-forestry
inter-cropping systems provided a favorable ecological benefit. Therefore, by
implementing integrated agriculture, agro-ecological functions of different
production systems can be optimized to obtain an improved economic return and
ecological benefit by taking all of the climatic, topographic, soil and ecological
conditions, as well as socio-economic factors, into consideration in a specific area.
4. REFERENCES
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Zhejiangensis 7:400-404.
Chen, G, Z. L. He, and Y Huang, 1999. Microbial biomass phosphorus and its significance in predicting P
availability in red soils. Commun. Soil Sci. PI. Anal. (Submitted).
Oark, R.B., K.D. Ritchey, and V C. Baligar. 1993. Dry matter yields of maize growth with coal
combustion by-products. Proc. 10th Int. Ash Use Sym.l: 1-11.
Gong, Z. and X. Shi. 1992. Rational soil utilization and soil degradation control in tropical and subtropical
China. pp. 14-21. In: Red Soil Ecosystem Experimental Station (ed.), Research on Red Soil
Ecosystem, Sci. Tech. Press, Beijing.
He, Z. L., H. Yao, G Chen, J.Zhu, and C.Y Huang. 1997. Relationship of crop yield to microbial
biomass in highly weathered soils of China. pp745-746. In: T. Ando et al. (Eds.), Plant Nutritionfor
Sustainable Food Production and Environment, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Tokyo.
Lin, B. 1995. Strategies for efficient use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture. Pp 109-114. In: Proc.
National Congr. Soil Sci. November, Hangzhou, Academic Press, Beijing
Lu, J., MJ. Wilson, and J. Yu 1997. Effects of trench planting and soil chiseling on soil properties and
citrus production in hilly lntisols of China. Soil Tillage Res. 43:309-318.
Luo, J., M. Jiang, Yang, D., M Bao,. and 1. Chen. 1995. Study on degradation of soil fertility through soil
erosion. pp.345-352. In: Q. Zhao (ed), Material Cycling in Pedosphere in Relation to Agriculture
and Environment, Jiangsu Sci. Tech. Press, China
Luo, Y and X. Lu. 1995. The improvement of soil fertility in sustaining agriculture for red upland of
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in a red soil and utilization of deep layer moisture. Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis 7:364-368.
Sm, X. 1995. Effect of material transport from arable lands on waters. pp.233-242. In: Q. Zhao (ed.),
Material Cycling in Pedosphere in Relation to Agriculture and Environment, Jiangsu Sci. Tech.
Press, China
Wang, J. and X. Kong. 1992. Effect of applying limestone powder on soil acidity. pp 141-145. In: Red Soil
Ecosystem Experimental Station (ed.), Research on Red Soil Ecosystem. Sci. Tech. Press, Beijing.
Yang, X., W Werner, and X. Sm. 1994. Effect of organic manure on solubility and mobility of different
phosphate fertilizers in red soils. Fert. Res. 38:233-238.
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fertilizer by ryegrass through organic carbon addition. Acta Agriculturae Universitatis Zhejiangensis
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growth of forages on the red soils of South Central China .pp.l29-132. In :P. M Home, D. A.
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Nanjing.
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC ASPECTS OF
CROP PLANT ADAPTATION TO ELEMENTAL
STRESSES IN ACID SOILS
XIAOE YANG(I)*, WEIMU WANG(l), ZHENQIANYE(1), ZHENLI
HE(I) AND VIRUPAX C. BALIGAR(2)
(l)Dept. Resource Sci., Zhejiang Univ. Huajiachi Campus, 310029 Hangzhou, China
(2)USDA-ARS-ACSL., 10300 Baltimore AV, Beltsville MD 20704, USA
Corresponding author, email: xyang@Zju.edu.cn or xyang@maiLifas.ufl.edu
ABSTRACT
The world population is increasing rapidly and will likely to reach 10 billion by the year 2050 of which
half will probably be living in the regions dominated by acid soils. The limited availability of additional
arable land and the degradation of soil quality make food security a major challenge in the 21" century.
Elemental toxicities and deficiencies are the major constraints limiting crop production in acid soils. Plant
genotypes are known to differ greatly in their tolerance to elemental toxicity or deficiency in soils. In this
paper, physiological and genetic mechanisms of crop plant adaptation to stresses of selected elements in
acid soils are reviewed. Plant tolerance to toxicity stresses such as aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn),
and deficiency stresses of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), boron (B) and zinc (Zn) are
closely related to the physiological processes of ion uptake, transport and re-distribution in the plant. In
the last decade, considerable knowledge in the mechanisms of Al resistance or tolerance has been gained.
The resistance of many plant species to Al toxicity is associated with increased root excretion of organic
acids and with the involvement of specific anion transporters in the plasma membrane, whereas.
Mnanganese tolerance seems to be mainly related to its distribution and compartmentalization in plant
cells. The mechanisms of N, P, K, B, and Zn use efficiency in crop plants are not fully understood even
although in recent years research on these elements has been increased considerably. The definition and
expression of nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of the selected elements (N, P, K, B, and Zn) in crop plants
and the physiological and genetic traits associated with the NUE are addressed in this context. To achieve
sustainable crop production in acid soils, it is essential to increase crop plant tolerance to element stresses
through genetic improvement and to further optimize soil nutrient availability and pest management so
that adaptive and efficient farming systems an be established
Key words: Acid soil, AI tolerance, B use efficiency, genetic bases, genotypic
difference, K use efficiency, Mn tolerance, N use efficiency, P use efficiency,
physiological traits, Zn use efficiency
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil acidification is one of the key factors in soil degradation in tropical and
subtropical areas. It is estimated that acid soils occupy about 3.95 billion ha of land
area, i.e. about 30% of the ice-free land area of the world (von Uexkull and Mutert,
1995). As shown earlier in this book, in addition to being acidic and nutrient
deficient, these soils are also infertile because of low organic matter content and
171
MJ Wilson et al. (eds.). The Red Soils of China, 171-218.
© 2004 KlulVer Academic Publishers.
172 XIAOE YANG et al.
low cation exchange capacity (CEC), as well as poor soil physical properties.
The world population reached 6.05 billion in 2000, and is expected to increase to
7.94 billion by 2025 and to over 9.0 billion by 2050 (WHO, 2002). Over half of the
world population currently lives in the acid soil regions of Asia and South. America.
The world's food crop production yield was 2.3 billion tones in 2000 (FAO, 2002),
which roughly met average adult human requirements at an average level (2350
calories per capita per day). However, around 3.46 billion of the world population
lives on less thanbelow theis critical level. Therefore, it is essential to increase crop
yield and to improve food quality too. It is estimated that 1970 million tons of cereal
grains will be needed by 2025, and it will be necessary to increase the 1990 average
crop yield from 2.5 to 4.5 ton ha- 1 (Borlaug and Dowswell, 1997). Overall, there is
great potential to further increase crop yield and improve the quality of crop products
by means of technology and management including plant breeding, protection
against pests and disease, irrigation, and soil management, etcand by still other
means. With respect to plant nutrition, attention should be paid to elimination or
reduction of soil constraints and improvement of crop plants' adaptation to soil
abiotic stresses, all of which will help in the sustainable use of the acid soils.
However, in practice, it is difficult and expensive to make greata notable progress
in the amelioratingon of soil constraints such as acidity, nutrient deficiency, and ion
toxicity in a short time. Furthermore, the costs of management inputs may be very
high. In contrast, identification, adaptation, and use of stress-tolerant crop
cultivars/genotypes are more feasible as a way of improving the productivity of acid
soils. Combination of traditional and molecular breeding techniques can help
improve crop plant tolerance to abiotic stresses such as soil acidity and aluminium
toxicity, and thus increase nutrient use efficiency. However, success in breeding
ideal crop plants genotypes with a high degree of tolerance to acid soil stresses, and
with the potential for high yield and good quality is largely dependent on our
understanding of the mechanisms of crop plant s adaptation to acid soil abiotic
stresses. In this paper, the physiological and genetic aspects of crop plant s
adaptation to toxicity or deficiency stresses of selected elements in acid soils are
reviewed.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC ASPECTS OF CROP

PLANT ADAPTATION TO TOXICITY STRESSES OF
SELECTED ELEMENTS IN ACID SOILS
2.1 Plant resistance and/or tolerance to elemental toxicity stresses in acid soils:
definition and expression
Acid soils are soils with pH below 6.5 (in water), and most acid soils have a
pH<5.0 and even below 4.5. Low pH soils commonly coincide with stresses of ion
toxicity of AI, Mn, Fe, and H and deficiencies of a number of essential nutrient ions
such as N, P, K. Ca, Mg, S, B, and Mo (Baligar and Fageria, 1997). The element
toxicities and deficiencies associated with major soil groups in region with acid soils
are given in Table 1.
CROP PLANT ADAPTATION TO STRESSES IN ACID SOILS 173
Toxicity of Al and Mn is among the most important factors affecting plant

growth in acid soils. However, some plants have developed special mechanisms to
adapt to environmental stress in their long history through evolution and
competition, so that different crop plant species, and cultivars within the same
species, show variable resistance or tolerance to Al and Mn toxicity. Such crop plant
tolerance is defmed by comparing yields (dry matter or grain yields) of tolerant and
intolerant crop genotypes under the same acid soil conditions. The tolerant genotypes
can produce higher dry matter or grain yields than a normal genotype grown at a
certain Al or Mn level. Different classes of Al tolerance in cereal crops have been
identified according to their tolerance to Al levels in the soil solution (Polle and
Konzak, 1990). Some sensitive barley genotypes have Al tolerance levels of class 1
(0.3 mM AI), whereas some rye genotypes have AI tolerance of class 11 (>2.8 mM AI).
Table 1 Element defiCiencies and toxicities associated with major groups of acid soils
Soil Order Soil Group

Element
U S. Taxonomy FAD
Deficiency Toxicity
Alfisols/ Planosol Most nutrients Al
Ultisols(Albic)
(poorly drained)
Andisols Andosol P, Ca, Mg, B, Mo Al
Entisols(Fluvents) Fluvisol AI,Mn, Fe
Histosols Histosols Si, Cu
Mollisols(Aqu), Gleysol Mn Fe,Mo

Inceptisols,
Eentisols,etc.
(poorly drained)
Oxisols Ferralsol P, Ca,Mg,Mo AI, Mn, Fe
Spodosols(Podsols) Podsol N, P, K, Ca, AI

micro nutrients
Ultisols Acrisol N,P,Ca, AI, Mn, Fe
and most other
micro nutrients
Baligar and Fageria , 1997; Baligar, et al., 2001
To date, systematic screening methods have been established using field,

greenhouse, and solution culture experiments in either the short or long term
(Thomas et a1.1990 ; Bahlia et aI., 1997). Short-term solution experiments are often
used prior to large-scale screening. The simplest method is based on the
Hematoxylin Stain Method (Polle and Kittrick, 1978). The selection of the proper Al
174 XIAOE YANG et al
concentration for the experiment is very important. The AI concentration used in the
experiment varies with the type of plant species under consideration. The most
sensitive selection criterion for AI resistance and/or tolerance in crop plants is
relative root elongation. The methods and criteria to evaluate Al tolerance in
different crop species are summarized in Table 2.
2.2 Aluminum tolerance
2.2.1 Genotypic differences in Al tolerance

In acid soils with pH<5, Al in soil solution exists mainly in the form of AI3+, and its
high activity is a major factor in causing toxicity in most common plants. Aluminium
toxicity significantly decreases crop productivity through inhibition of crop growth,
nutrient uptake and utilization, and microbial activity. Large genotypic differences
were identified in resistance or tolerance to Al toxicity in soils. For instance, rice can
tolerate AI levels in the soil up to 3.83cmol/kg without its dry matter weight (DW) or
grain yield being affected. On the contrary, dry matter and grain yields of soybean
decrease considerably with increasing Al levels in the soil solution (Fageria and
Santos, 1998). Screening of germplasms for genotypic differences in AI tolerance
has been reported for wheat (Baier et aI., 1995; Kim et aI., 2001), maize (Giaveno
and Miranda, 2000), barley (einara et ai., 2002; Echart et aI., 2002), rice (Sivaguru
and Paliwal, 1993), and soybean (Villagarcia et aI., 2001).
2.2.2 Physiological bases ofAl tolerance

The physiological mechanisms of AI tolerance in crop plants have been reviewed by
Kochian (1995) and Kochian et aI. (2002). Plants tolerate Al toxicity either through
escape mechanisms or by altering their morphological and physiological properties.
The former mechanism is termed Al exclusion because it enables the plant to exclude
Al from the root apex, whereas the latter is termed AI tolerance because in this case
the plant tolerates AI accumulated in the cytoplasm (Kochian et al., 2002).
Al exclusion or external avoidance. (1) Excretion of Organic Acids. Many

different mechanisms have been proposed in the literature for AI exclusion or
external avoidance of AI toxicity in crop plant, but supporting evidence is scanty.
Root tips are the primary site of Al toxicity (Ryan et aI., 1993; Sivaguru and Horst,
1998) and it has been shown in a number of crops (e.g. wheat, maize, buckwheat,
rye, snap bean, taro, etc.) that Al exclusion seems to be related to AI-induced release
of organic acid anions such as malate, oxalate, and citrate, which are able to chelate
A13+ in the rhizosphere and so prevent its entry into the root apex (Kochian et aI.,
2002; Ma et aI., 2001). In this way soil Al activity and toxicity is reduced (Delhaize
et aI., 1993a; Pellet et aI., 1995). Using near isogenic lines of wheat , it was found
that AI-tolerant wheat genotypes secreted malic acids at 5-10 fold levels more than
the Al sensitive genotypes (Delhaize et al., 1993b). By examining activities of two
synthetases, that are related to malic acid biosynthesis in root tips of young wheat
seedlings differing in sensitivity to Al toxicity, Ryan et aI. (1995) found that there
CROP PLANT ADAPTATION TO STRESSES IN ACID SOn.,S 175
Table 2 Methods and criteria to evaluate Al toxicity tolerance ofplant species
Growth medium Selected plant

Species Reference
e.roe.erties traits
Alfalfa Solution culture with Seedling dry Dessureaux, 1969
varying levels of Al weight; size of
unifoliate leaf;
seedling vigor Dlgin,1979
Bean Solution culture with Relative root Massot, et al.,1999
varying levels of Al elongation rates
and callose
concentration in
root tips
Coconuts Greenhouse pot culture Relative dry Krizek, et aI., 1997
with soil weight of shoot
and root
Maize Complete nutrient with Relative root Gunse et aI., 2000
50IJM AI elongation rates
and callose
concentration in
root tips
Mung Solution culture with Epicotyllength, Yang et al., 2001
Bean varying levels of AI seedling height,
root length, fresh
weight, dry weight
Sorghum Solution culture with Relative dry Krizek, et aI., 1997
varying levels of Al weight of shoot
and root
Subterran- Solution culture with Shoot weight, root Osborne et al.,1980
ean clover varying levels of Al weight and length,
uptake ofP and Ca
Rice Solution culture with Relative root Vasconcelos et aI.,
varying levels of Al elongation 2002
Triticale Solution culture with Re-grown root Zhang et al.,1999
va!l:in~ levels of Al length
was no difference in the malic acid synthesizing ability of the two wheat genotypes.
Therefore it was assumed that Al tolerance differences induced by malic acid
secretion are probably related to differences in Al channel transportation.
Rapid release of organic acids is consistent with the time frame for the onset of
AI resistance (Ryan et aI., 1995). In the early 1990's, Miyasaka et al. (1991) noticed
that roots of AI-tolerant kidney bean genotypes secreted large amount of citric acid.
Similarly, this phenomenon was also observed in maize ( Pellet et aI., 1995) and
Cassia tora L. (Ma et aI., 1997b). Citric acid chelates AI3+ more stably and is more
effective in detoxifying AI toxicity than malic acid (Ownby and Poham, 1990). It
was also found that AI-stressed root tips of AI-tolerant buckwheat genotypes secreted
oxalic acid to the rhizophere (Ma et aI., 1997a; Zheng et aI., 1998). It appears,
therefore, that there is a strong correlation between AI resistance and organic acid
release in different crop species and/or genotypes within the same species. The
addition of organic acids (malate, citrate, or oxalate) to root media could ameliorate
AI toxicity in AI-sensitive wheat genotypes (Pellet et aI., 1996; Zheng et al., 1998).
(2) Cell membranes and anion channels. The root-cell plasma membranes plays an
important roles in blocking AI absorption by plants. Miyasaka, et aI. (1989)
suggested that maintenance of normal ion absorption and membrane potential are the
main factors for wheat to tolerate AI toxicity. Zhang, et al. (1997) found a decrease
in the proportion of solid lipids and phospholipids in the epidermis plasma
membrane of the AI-tolerant wheat cultivars, while Caldwell (1989) suggested that
the ability of plant tolerance to AI toxicity was related to the affinity of plasma
membrane protein to combine with AI. At 150 J.1M AI, the AI- tolerant wheat
cultivars showed a decrease in membrane potential of as much as 55 mY, and the
membrane was depolarized. In contrast, AI- sensitive wheat cultivars showed little
response to AI treatment (Olivert et aI., 1995). Therefore, a decrease in the
membrane potential might be a signal sent to the inner-cell for generating a
metabolic response for Al exclusion.
An AI-gated anion channel has been identified in protoplasts isolated from the
root apex of AI-resistant wheat and maize and this may be involved in the transport
system facilitating AI-induced organic acid anion release (Kollmeier et aI., 2001;
Pineros and Kochian, 2001; Ryan et aI., 1997; Zhang et aI., 2001). Ryan and co-
workers have used the patch clamp technique on protoplasts isolated from the root
apex of the AI-resistant wheat isoline to identify a novel AI3+-activated anion channel
that could be the release pathway for malate exudation involved in AI resistance
(Ryan et aI., 1997). This channel mediates malate transport and was inhibited by the
compounds that block ion transporters (Zhang et al., 2001). An AI-gated anion
channel in the plasma membrane of protoplasts has been also isolated from the root
tip via AI-induced citrate release in AI-resistant maize (KoHmeier et aI., 2001;
Pinneros and Kochian, 2001). The AI-activated channel mediates the transport of
malate or citrate, and is more active in the AI-resistant genotype than in the AI-
sensitive genotype. These results indicate that the Al responsive machinery is
localized in the plasma membrane, and either directly involves gating of the anion
channel by AI or acts via a closely associated membrane receptor.
( 3 ) Cell walls and other factors: The AI-resistant plant genotypes have the ability
to prevent Atl+ from entering into the cytoplasm of the plant cells, which are
metabolically sensitive to Al toxicity. Plant cell walls play a key role in this
mechanism by chelating or combining strongly with the Ae+ cation. For instance, the
cell walls in root epidermis can chelate AI3+ and block it from combining at certain
loci in the cells. Under the conditions of Al toxicity, the content of pectin, hemi-
cellulose and cellulose in the cell walls of gourd root epidermis increased. These
constituents have been considered to be related to plant tolerance to AI toxicity
(LeVan et al., 1994).

Several workers reported that wheat tolerance of Al toxicity was also related to
phosphorus (Cogligatti and Santa, 1990; Pellet et al., 1996; Huang et al., 1996).
Phosphate can precipitate aluminum located outside the root cell, either on the root
surface or in the rhizophere so reducing Ae+ activity. The solubility of Al is greatly
affected by soil pH and elevation of soil pH in the rhizophere is perhaps another
important mechanism for plant AI tolerance. Talyor (1997) found this phenomenon
on an AI- tolerant wheat genotype grown under conditions of Al toxicity. Using a
microelectrode pH- meter, Miyasaka et al. (1989) observed that the pH in the
rhizophere of an AI- tolerant wheat genotype increased by 0.1-0.2 unit after AI- toxic
stress, while the increase was only 0.02 of a pH unit for an AI-sensitive genotype.
Al internal detoxification. Aluminium is able penetrate into plant cells even though
this may be prevented by external avoidance mechanisms as shown above. When
aluminium is adsorbed by the plant, then internal cell detoxification mechanisms
become operative in AI-tolerant plant genotypes and/or cultivars. One such
mechanism is through the chelation of Al ions by organic acids in the cytoplasm.
Cambraia et al. (1983) indicated that malic acid concentration in the cytoplasm of the
AI-tolerant sorghum genotype was 1.5 times higher than that of the AI-sensitive one.
Higher organic acid concentrations, especially malic acid and trans-aconite acid,
were observed in the roots of AI-tolerant cultivars as compared with AI-sensitive
cultivars in many plants (Suhayda and haug, 1986). However, the stability of
organic-AI complexes may be over estimated because the hydrated ion (AI'6HzO) is
not the main form of aluminium in the near-neutral cytoplasm. The role of organic
acid chelation as a mechanism for Al internal detoxification remains to be further
verified (Kong et al., 2000).
Vacuoles play an important role in storing toxic ions or substances in the
cell. The specified enzyme systems located inion the tonoplast can pump excessive
metallic ions from the cytoplasm into vacuoles so as to eliminate their injurious
effects on the cytoplasm and other organelles. It has been confirmed that vacuole
compartmentalization does contributes to plant tolerance of heavy metal toxicity. But
reports on its effect on Al tolerance are scarce. Proteins and amino acids within cells
may combine with Ae+ to form complexes that help to reduce the effects of Al
toxicity. A 51KD protein induced by the response to Al toxicity in the microsome of
AI-tolerant plant cultivars has been confirmed as being related to Al tolerance (Basu
et al., 1991; Taylor, 1997). However, non-associated proteins can be reduced by the
combination of Al with protein and this may influence other cell functions. Thus, the
role of AI- protein complexes as an Al tolerance mechanism remains to be clarified.
2.2.3 Genetic bases ofAl resistance or tolerance

The inheritance of Al resistance has been studied in many crop plants (Foy,
1988). Wheat has been a widely studied crop species, and Al resistance in wheat
is often controlled by a mono-gene (Delhaize et aI., 1993a, 1993b; Riede and
Anderson, 1996; Somers and Gustafson, 1995). However, some other researchers
178 XIAOE YANG et ai.
reported that Al resistance in wheat is controlled by two genes (Berzonsky, 1992).

Genetic control of aluminum resistance in maize (Sibov et ai., 1999), barley (Tang et
al., 2000), rice (Nguyen et ai., 2002; Ma et ai., 2002), and Arabidopsis (Ezaki et ai.,
2000) seemed to be more complicated than that in wheat, i.e. it is controlled by
multiple genes. Using a doubled-haploid population of rice, Nguyen et al. (2001)
detected a total of 20 QTLs, distributed over 10 of 12 rice chromosomes, controlling
root growth under Al stress, whereas Ma et ai. (2002) found three putative QTLs
controlling AI tolerance in jJaponica rice on chromosomes 1, 2 and 6. Rye is
considered to be the most AI-tolerant species among the Triticeae, and AI tolerance
in rye is controlled by three major genes (Alt genes). Recently, AFLP markers of the
Alt gene have been characterized in rye (Miftahutin and Gustafson, 2002).
2.3 Manganese tolerance
2.3.1 Genotypic differences in Mn tolerance

Under acid conditions, Mn2+ is the major form ofMn in soil solution. It is readily
absorbed by plant roots and is transported to the shoots. Hence, Mn toxicity
symptoms are fIrst observed in the leaves and stems of plants, which include dark
and dead spots on old tissues and crimple on young leaves. When active Mn2+ in soil
is very high, plant roots are also injured, as evidenced by inhibition of root growth
and color change of the root surface (Mao et al., 1993). Large genotypic differences
in Mn tolerance has been reported in rice, mungbean, pasture grass, maize, wheat,
cowpea etc (Iwasaki et ai., 2002a, 2002b; Khan and McNeilly, 1998; Scott et ai.,
1998,2000; Rout et al., 2001; Chacon et ai., 1998). The root tolerance index (RTI)
and the shoot tolerance index (STI) were found to be good indicators ofMn tolerance
in mungbean and rice (Rout et ai., 2001). Tolerance of crop plants to Mn toxicity can
be classed into 5 groups according to Mn concentrations in the leaves (Mao et ai.,
1993) (Table 3).
Some crop plant species or genotypes can tolerate over 15,000 mg Mn kg-! in the
leaves, whereas some sensitive genotypes can only tolerate Mn concentrations of <
200 mg kg-I. Physiological and biochemical responses of the plants to Mn toxicity
have been chosen as criteria to evaluate Mn tolerance. Thus, in addition to (relative)
root and shoot weight, relative root length and Mn content of seeds, the propene
dicarboxylic acid and chlorophyll concentrations in seedling leaves and the
fluorescence spectra of young leaves have been used as indexes of plant tolerance to
Mn toxicity.
2.3.2 Physiological bases/or Mn tolerance

There are fewer published papers on the physiological mechanisms of Mn
tolerance in crop plants compared with those on AI tolerance. Plant tolerance to Mn
is related to the rates of Mn absorption by roots, translocation to the shoots,
detoxification of high Mn in plant tissues, bourid Mn in non-metabolic sites in cells,

and the nutrient status of plant Si, Ca or Fe.
Table 3. Tolerance indexes for Mn toxicity in different plant genotypes
Mn concentration
Tolerance index Plant genotypes
in leaves(mg kg· I )
Highly sensitive 200-300 Lespedeza
Medium sensitive 300-400 Some soybean cultivars, Cruciferae,

lupine, etc
Medium tolerant 400-500 Some soybean cultivars, alfalfa,

wheat, barley, clover, etc
Highly tolerant 500-1500 Some soybean cultivars, oat, some
wheat cultivars, white clover, white
lupine, peanut, potato, cowpea, etc
Very highly tolerant >1500 Cotton, some soybean cultivars,
banana, sunflower, grass, etc
Mn translocation and distribution in the plant. The high Mn tolerance of some

garden plants is attributed not only to low Mn accumulation in roots, but the high
concentrations ofMn and polyphenols in the leaves as well. AThe typical Mn tolerant
plant species is sunflower, which can accumulate very high amounts of Mn in the
shoots without showing any symptoms of Mn toxicity. For, example, Scott et al.
(1998) identified 14 Mn-tolerant genotypes out offi"om 164 wheat genotypes by
nutrient solution culture, with an average Mn concentrations of 1961 mg kg·! in
leaves and 3202 mg kg·! in roots. Plant tolerance to Mn toxicity is strongly related to
internal detoxification ofMn in plant tissues. Early in the 1980's, Horst (1983) found
a relationship between Mn-tolerance of cowpea cultivars and an even distribution of
Mn in the leaves. The Mn tolerance of sunflower was found to be related to an even
distribution of Mn in the plant cells (Blarney et aI., 1986), whereas in bean it was
related to Mn compartmentalization in vacuoles of the leaves (Gonzalez and Lynch,
1999). It seemed that the Mn tolerance in cowpea is not connected with Mn
accumulation in vacuoles or with chelation by organic ions. The tolerance of Mn in
cowpea is more closely related to the control of the concentration of free Mn2+ ions
and Mn2+-mediated oxidation/reduction reactions in non-protoplasts in the leaves
(Iwasaki et aI., 2002a). In common bean, Gonzalez and Lynch (1999) demonstrated
that Mn accumulation in the epidermis-enriched fraction could contribute to its Mn
tolerance, implying that subcellular and tissue compartmentalization of Mn plays an
important role in Mn detoxification in the plant.
Interaction with other ion nutrition. Mn tolerance of plants is also affected by

interactions between Mn and other nutrients. The silicon supply clearly decreased
symptoms of Mn toxicity in Cucwrus sativus L. grown in nutrient solution (Rogalla

and R6mheld , 2002 ; Iwasaki et al. , 2002b). Less Mn was located in the symplast
« 10%) and more Mn was bound to the cell walls (> 90%) in the Si-treated plants as
compared with those in the control. Silicon can also affect the distribution of Mn in
plant leaves (Horst and Marschner, 1978). It seems that obvious antagonistic effects
exist between Mn and Fe. Thus, the iron content of tobacco leaves decreased linearly
with increasing Mn concentration in nutrient solution, but treatment with Fe-EDDHA
decreased the Mn content of the leaves from 1758 to 68 mg kg·I, eliminating the
toxic effects of Mn ( Santandrea et al., 2000 ) . The uptake of Mn by the plants is
affected by the form of the supplied nitrogen. Mcgrath and Rorison (1982) found that
~-N decreased the Mn contents in the leaves of muskmelon from 1500 to 800 mg
kg·I, whereas Horst et al. (1999) reported that cowpeas grown in nutrient solution
with N03-N had a higher Mn tolerance than when grown with ~-N. The exact
mechanisms involved in this effect are as yetstill unclear.
2.3.3 Genetic basesfor Mn tolerance or resistance
Early studies showed that the Mn tolerance traits of wheat genotypes were
controlled by a single-gene (AIU) located on the long arm of chromosomes 4D and
the short arm of chromosomes 5A, respectively (Carver and Rayburn, 1995; Aniol,
1995). Using a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population in the F-9 generation,
consisting of 150 lines derived from a cross between two rice genotypes differing in
tolerance for Mn toxicity, eight QTLs associated with Mn tolerance were detected.
These QTLs were associated with varied Mn toxicity indexes (MTI), of which six
were from the tolerant rice parent (Wang et aI., 2002). The Ccation metal antiporter
from Arabidopsis is likely to mediate Mn2+ transport in isolated tonoplast vesicles,
implying that compartmentalization of Mn in the vacuoles may be controlled by
specific Mn2+ transporter genes (Hirschi et aI., 2000). More evidence is needed to
understand the molecular genetic mechanisms of Mn tolerance in crop plants. The
physiological and genetic bases of AI and Mn resistance and tolerance are
summarized in table 4.
Table 4. Physiological and genetic bases ofAl and Mn resistance or tolerance
Element Trait R~ferenceTable

AI Root growth
Inhibits tap, basal and lateral root Bushamuka and
elongation. Zobel, 1998
Causes root cell death Pan et aI., 2001
Root physiological traits Foy,1983;
Becomes dark Delhaize and Ryan,
coloured,stubby,coralloid and brittle. 1995
Enzymic reaction Ahn et aI., 2001
Inhibits It"-ATPase activity, decreases
surface negativity of plasma
membrane vesicles
CROP PLANT ADAPTAnON TO STRESSES IN ACID SOILS 181
Al Represses mitochondrial activities, inhibits Yamamoto et aI.,

reactive oxygen species (ROS) 2002
production and respiration, depletes ATP,
losse of growth capability
Iinduces peroxidase activities Jan et aI., 2001,
Nutrient influx and uptake
e
Iinhibits K+ 6Rb) influx Zsoldos et aI., 2001
Decreases N, P and Fe in the shoots Lidon et aI., 1999
Prolongs elevations in tip-localized Jones et aI., 1998a
[Ca2+]
Decreases cytosolic calcium Jones et aI., 1998b
concentration in cell cultures
Photosynthesis
Ddecreases photosynthetic capacity, Lidon et aI., 1999
electron transport rate associated with
photosystem I and cytochromes (cyt)
Rreduces protein content in cytoplasm, Jan et ai., 2001
increases the covalently-bound cell wall
protein
Ddecreases nodule number and dry Marziah et aI., 1995
weight of peanut
Iinhibits pollen germination Zhang et aI., 1999
Mn Root
Release phytosiderophore (PS) from Alam et aI., 2001
roots, cause root browning
Leaf
Mild interveinal chlorosis on younger Alam et aI., 2001;
leaves, freckling (brown spots) on EI-Jaoual, Cox,
older leaves and stems 1998; Vega et aI.,
1992; Kitao et aI.,
Growth 2001
Reduce dry matter yield, redistribution Alam et aI., 2001
of growth
Toxic for germination, callus induction, Santandrea et aI.,
shoot regeneration and callus growth 1997
Nutrient interaction
Causes Fe deficiency Alam et aI., 2000;
Vega et aI., 1992
Photosynthesis
Reduces electron transport, inhibits Jucker et aI., 1999;
photosynthesis, reduces accumula- Kitao et aI., 1997a,
tion of oxidation products in leaves 1997b
3. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC ASPECTS OF CROP

PLANT ADAPTATION TO DEFICIENCY STRESSES OF
SELECTED MINERAL NUTRIENT IN ACID SOILS
3.1 Nutrient use efficiency by crops plants - definition and expression
In acid soils, nutrient deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Mo, and Zn often

occur in sensitive crop species or genotypes (Baligar et aI., 2001). Nutrient
constraints which limit crop production in acid soils can be identified by a systematic
diagnostic approach using sorghum as a standard test plant species. In lTItisols,
sorghum crop yield is reduced significantly because of deficiencies of N, P, K, K,
Ca, Mg, S, B, and Mo (Lin et aI., 1998).
Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is defmed in several ways by different researchers.
Li et aI. (2000) expressed NUE as the ratio of "output" to "input" for plant
production, where the "input" is the amount of a nutrient taken up by plants or
fertilizer input and the "output" is the responsive plant yield in terms of economic
product or biomass. Blair (1993) defined the NUE as the ability of a genotype to
acquire plant nutrients from the rhizosphere solution and/or to incorporate or utilize
them in the production of total (above and/or below ground level) plant biomass or
utilizable plant parts (seed, grain, fruit, and forage). Bert (1998) defmed the NUE as
the ratio of plant yield to soil potential nutrient supply. By now, the terminology
about nutrient use efficiency is rather confusing and there is no commonly accepted
defInition. Baligar et aI. (2001) has reviewed all the different defInitions of nutrient
use efficiency.
Here we classify the expressions of nutrient use efficiency into two categories:
(1) nutrient internal use efficiency (NUJE), which is defmed as the yield per unit of
nutrient taken up by the plant; (2) nutrient external use efficiency (NEUE), which is
defmed as the amount of nutrient taken up by the plant per unit of nutrient available
in the soil. The fertilizer use efficiency (FUE), on the other hand, is defmed as yield
produced per unit of fertilizer applied. The NIUE is closely related to nutrient
utilization and incorporation efficiency in the plant, and the NEUE to nutrient uptake
efficiency. Hence, NIUE depends on both the potential of plant productivity and all
the factors related to plant nutrition processes (absorption, transport, translocation,
metabolism, distribution) on plant growth.
3.1.1 Nutrient internal use efficiency (NIUE)

In a physiological sense, the nutrient internal use efficiency is defined as the
amount of yield produced per unit of nutrient taken up by the plant. The yields
include biomass yield at the vegetative growth stage and economic yield at the
reproductive (harvest) stage. This definition is similar in meaning to internal nutrient
use efficiency (INUE) (Witt et aI., 1999; Liu and Yang, 2000; Yang et aI., 2003), or
nutrient efficiency ratio (Gourley et aI., 1994). The NIEU is calculated as follows:
NIUE = yield (grain /biomass) (kg ha"l)lnutrient taken up by the plant (kg ha"l)
The value of NIUE varies with plant species or genotypes and the kind of
nutrient involved. For instance, the internal use efficiency ofN, P and K in lowland
rice in grain production was 69, 345, and 71, respectively (Witt et aI., 1999;
Inthapaya et aI., 2000). The P internal use efficiency in maize and sorghum is as high
as 625 and 1000, respectively (Baligar and Fageria, 1997), while the K internal use
efficiency can be as high as 357 in tomatos (Gerloff and Gabelman, 1997).
3.1.2 Nutrient external use efficiency (NEUE)

The nutrient external use efficiency is defmed as the amount of nutrient taken up
by the plant per unit of nutrient available in the soil in a given area. The magnitude
of the NEUE is determined by the ability of the plant to acquire nutrients from the
soil under low nutrient conditions, mainly relating to apparent nutrient recovery
efficiency and nutrient uptake efficiency. The apparent nutrient recovery efficiency
is expressed as the amount of nutrient taken up from the applied fertilizers by the
plant per unit of fertilizer nutrient applied.
NEUE = nutrient taken up by the plant (kg haoJ) / nutrient avail. in the soil (kg haoJ)
The NEUE also differs among the plant species or genotypes and is affected by
soil and climate factors. The efficient genotypes usually have greater NEUEs than
the inefficient ones (Wang et aI., 2003a).
3.1.3 Fertili=er use efficiency (FUE)

The fertilizer use efficiency is defmed as the yield produced either per unit
nutrient taken up from the fertilizers or per unit of fertilizer applied. The former is
also called nutrient physiological efficiency and the latter the nutrient agronomic
efficiency. Nutrient physiological efficiency (NPE) is used to compare efficiency
between plants receiving fertilizer (F) and those receiving no fertilizer (C). The
yields can be either biomass or economic yields. For cereals crops, grain yields are
often used.
FUE = (yield F, kg-yield, C, kg) / (nutrient uptake F, kg-nutrient uptake C),
or
FUE = (yield F, kg-yield, C, kg) / (quantity of nutrient supplied, kg) = kg / kg

The values of FUE differ remarkably with plant genotypes and kinds of fertilizers
applied as well as environmental conditions.
3.1.4 Classification ofcrop plant responses to nutrient levels

Gerloff and Gabelman (1997) and Blair (1993) have grouped plants into four
response classes, based on their response to given nutrient levels. They include (1)
efficient responder-plants, which produce high yields at low levels of nutrient and
respond to higher levels of nutrient additions; (2) inefficient responder-plants with
low yields at low levels of nutrition which have a high response to added nutrients;
(3) efficient non-responder-plants with high yields at low levels nutrients but which
do not respond to nutrient addition; and (4) inefficient non-responder-plants with
low yields at low levels of nutrition but do not respond to nutrient addition. Thus,
between different genotypes or cultivars of a given crop species, there exist different
capacities for nutrient uptake, nutrient requirement for per unit yield production and
interaction response to environmental factors.
Baligar and Fageria (1997) have classified crop genotypes and cultivars based on
grain yield response index (01) into four groups:(l)non-efficient and non-responsive
(NENR); (2)non-efficient and responsive (NER); (3)efficient and responsive
(ER) ; and (4)efficient and non-responsive (ENR). Cultivars falling within the ER
group would be most desirable because they produce high yields at low as well as
high levels of nutrients. Cultivars in the ENR group would also be desirable because
they produce high yields at low nutrient levels.
3.2 Nitrogen use efficiency
3.2.1 Genotypic differences in N use efficiency

Differences in N use efficiency exist between plant species and genotypes within
species. It has long been recognized that N nutritional characteristics are much
different between the C3 and the C4 plants. Long term fertilizer experiments with
wheat, com, beet and sunflower showed that the yield of com biomass was highest
but biomass N concentration was lowest at the same rate of N fertilizer, indicating
that the NIUE of com (C4 plant) was greater than that of beet and sunflower (Saric et
al., 1983). When external N03- was low (lmM KN03) in the nutrient solution, com
was able to absorb N03- more efficiently than barley, but this situation was reversed
when solution N03- was high (5.0-20.0 mM KN03) (He et aI., 1995). Accumulation
of N03- in the com shoot was more than that of barley regardless of N level in the
nutrient solution. When N was supplied as N03-, com and other C4 plants tested were
able to transport N03- and to transform into protein more effectively than barley and
other C3 plants tested (He et al., 1995). In a field experiment, nitrogen fertilizer use
efficiency (kg grain /kg N supplied) of sorghum and pearl millet were higher than
that of maize. Sorghum had a higher NFUE and NED than pearl millet and maize
(Pandey et aI., 2001). There were large differences in NIUE between dry matter
production (dry matter/ unit N) and grain yield production (Akintoye et al., 1999).
Hybrid rice normally has greater yield potential and higher N use efficiency
compared with the conventional rice cultivars (Yang and Sun, 1989 . 1992 ; Yang et
ai. . 1997). Both NIUE and the NEUE were much higher in hybrid rice than in the
conventional rice cultivars (Yang and Sun, 1990). Differences in NUE among
genotypes have been reported in wheat, com, rice, millet, potato, cotton, rye,
soybean, etc (Wani et aI., 1990; Jacques et aI.,2000; Liu et aI.,2002; Hartemink et aI.,
2000; Fageria and Barbosa-Filho, 2001; Yang X E, 1993) .
3.2.2 Physiological basesjor N use efficiency

Improvement of N internal and external use efficiency by the plants, involves
several physiological processes: i.e. N (NH/ and N03-) absorption, translocation and
utilization by the plant. Yang et ai. (1999a) concluded, from systematic studies on
the morphological and physiological basis of N efficiency in hybrid rice, that N
efficiency in rice is mainly concerned with: (1) higher root absorption potential for
~+ and N03• from soil solution; (2) greater translocation from roots to shoots and
re-translocation in the shoots, and (3) greater shoot N utilization capacity including
N and C assimilation (Fig. 1).
Root morphology and physiology in relation to N absorption efficiency

(1) Root growth and distribution: Root growth and morphology, especially root
length and distribution densities, are closely associated with N use efficiency in rice
(Yang and Sun, 1992). Under field conditions, root weight (fresh and dry) and root
volume at all growth stages were greater in hybrids than in conventional rice
cultivars (Yang and Sun, 1988; Yang and Sun, 1992). Root length density in soils
was two-fold greater in hybrids than in conventional cultivars at all growth stages. A
developed and extensive root system is essential for efficient N uptake, especially for
efficient absorption of the indigenous N in soils (Kirk and Solivas, 1997). In a study
with 1~, 80% of absorbed N by hybrid rice was derived from the indigenous soil N
(Li et aI., 1993). Root growth rate, fresh and dry root weights, root volume
N assimilating activ ity

Carbon assimilating activity Shoot
Energy synthetic metabolism
Tillering power -
- utilization
capacity
Leaf area - '_ _ _--:-........._1
N harvest index
N retranslocation
j . I
Tra.nslocatlon
~1 '
Root growth and
distribution density -
l
Root respiration and Root
-
energy metabolism - - absorption
potential
KmandYmax
N assimilatKln in root -
Figure 1. Physiological parameters associated with nitrogen efficiency in rice. The

higher N efficiency results from higher root uptake capacity, greater shoot utilization
capacity and more efficient translocation ofN to rice grains and their positive
interactions. The major physiological traits related to efficient absorption, utilization
and translocation of N by rice plants are listed
186 XlAOE YANG et al.
and length density were significantly and positively correlated with total N
uptake by rice shoots (Yang, 1987), implying that root morphological characters
of hybrid rice contributed greatly to the efficient acquisition of N from soils.
Large and deep root systems can absorb more N from the subsoil, thus increasing
the N use efficiency. To maintain normal growth, plants enhance their uptake of
N and decrease N consumption when N supply is limited. Young tea trees
increased root growth with little change in shoot growth in the early stages of N
deficiency (Anandacoomaraswamy et aI., 2002). Similarly, supplied with low N,
the root/shoot ratio of jack pine and lettuce was enlarged and the main root
growth rate increased (Tan and Hogan, 1997; Broadley et aI., 2000).
(2). Root N uptake systems: Nitrogen use efficiency is associated with root N uptake
rate. The relationship between N uptake rate and N concentration at the root swface can
be characterized using Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The two parameters VDIlIK and K.n are
measures of the maximum rate of uptake and the affinity of the uptake sites for the N-
ion species, respectively. Both ammonium and nitrate uptake kinetics by hybrid rice fit
the Michaelis-Menten models. With increasing NH/ or N03- concentrations at the root
surface, N uptake rates quickly increase and became saturated at high concentrations of
about 1.0 mM (Yang, 1987; Yang and Sun, 1991c). The N-efficient rice genotypes had
lower Km values of NH/ and N03- uptake than the N-inefficient ones, showing that
efficient rice roots have generally greater affinity for NH/ at vegetative growth stages
and for N03- at the reproductive stage (Yang and Sun, 1991c; Yang and Sun, 1992;
Wang et al., 1998).
Recently, a 1~ method was developed for studying the mechanisms
controlling N uptake at the cellular level. NH/ absorption by rice roots at external
concentrations of [NH/ ] below 1 mM was saturable due to a high-affinity transport
system (Wang et al., 1993a; Wang et al., 1993b). The absorption of l~H/ by the high
affinity transport system seemed to be an active process which is dependent on the
energy supply (Wang et aI., 1993b) and levels of external O2 supply (Kronzucker et al.,
1998). However, the Km values of NH/ uptake were not significantly affected by
external Oz supply levels and there is often a substantial efilux of absorbed ammonium
back out of root cells into the surrounding solution (Kronzucker et al., 1998). With
sufficient understanding of the molecular basis of N absorption and assimilation
processes, it may be possible to increase the efficiency ofN absorption by manipulating
the regulation of influx, efilux or the high affinity transport system.
(3). Root energy metabolism and N assimilation: Assimilation ofNH/ occurs in
the roots near the absorption sites through glutamine synthetase-glutamate synthase
(GS-GOGAT), to prevent injury from excessive accumulation ofNH/, and leads to
little Nf4+ present in the root xylem. Nitrate assimilation occurs both in the roots
near absorption sites and in the leaves. The efficiency of nitrogen uptake also much
depends considerably on root physiology. The activities of dehydrogenase and
cytochrome oxidase, oxidizing power and ATP content of the N-efficient rice root
system were considerably greater than those of the inefficient ones, and such differences
were observed at both early and late growth stages (Yang and Sun, 1988). These root
physiological characteristics were positively and significantly correlated with N
transport to the shoots among the rice cultivars tested (Yang, 1987). In rice, superficial
roots start to grow at the panicle differentiation stage and reach a peak at heading.
They are mainly distributed on the superficial soil layer and their growth rate and
amoWlt are important for grain yield in rice (Yang and SWl, 1991a). Under field
conditions, N-efficient rice genotypes usually have a more developed superficial root
system and greater physiological activities in superficial roots than the inefficient ones
(Yang and SWl, 1992). Therefore, the NUE is not only affected by root morphology
and its ability to absorb, but also adjusted by the process of plant metabolism (Abrol
et aI., 1999).
Shoot utilization capacity in relation to N use efficiency. Shoot demand for N is
one of the crucial factors for efficient acquisition ofN by crop plants. Nitrogen plays
important roles in many metabolic processes in shoots and/or leaves, among which
nitrogen and carbon assimilation metabolisms are the major processes for
determining shoot utilization capacity for N.
(1) Nitrogen Assimilation: Assimilation of N03-N in the leaves includes three
reductive processes and one non-reductive process in converting N03-N to amino-No
The four enzymes involved are nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NiR),
glutamine synthetase (OS), and glutamate synthase (GOGAT). All the amino acids
except glutamate are synthesized by converting amino-N to other keto-acids, and the
two main enzymes involved are Olu-Pyr transaminase (OPT) and Olu-OAA
transaminase (GOT). Under field conditions, the activities of the five enzymes
involved in N assimilation in functioning leaves are responsible to N utilization, but
much larger differences between the N-efficient and the N-inefficient genotypes
were observed for NR and Fd-GOOAT than the other N assimilation enzymes (Yang
and SWl, 1989). The activities of NR in the leaves were 40-60% greater for the
efficient genotypes than for the inefficient one at heading stage. Application of N
increased NR activity in the efficient genotypes more than in the inefficient ones.
Similarly, relative greater responses of Fd-GOOAT to N levels were observed in the
efficient than in the inefficient genotypes Wlder field conditions, whereas less
response of the two transaminases (OOT and OPT) to N application was observed in
rice leaves (Yang and Sun, 1989). Close positive correlations were observed between
leafN concentration and the activities of these enzymes (Yang, 1987), showing that
higher leaf N or protein concentration in the functioning leaves is needed for
maintaining greater N assimilation activities. The NR is a rate-regulating enzyme in
converting N0 3-N to NH3 and the glutamate synthase (GOOAT) is a rate-regulating
enzyme in the process of converting NH3 to glutamate.
(2) Carbon assimilation: Leaf photosynthesis (both light reaction and dark
carbon fixation) is closely associated with N nutrition. To increase leaf
photosynthesis, efficiency per unit of absorbed N is important for improving rice
yield potential and intemal N use efficiency (Mae, 1997). Rubisco (ribulose-1,S-
188 XIAOE YANG et aI.
biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) has been regarded as the rate-regulating enzyme

in photosynthesis and is a key enzyme in N metabolism (Makino et aI., 1983). The
activity of Rubis co in the leaves of the N-efficient rice genotypes was 25-40% higher
at low (4 mg N L- 1) and doubled at adequate (40 mg N L- 1) N levels, as compared
with the inefficient genotypes (Yang and Sun, 1991b; Yang and Sun, 1992).
Similarly, the protein contents of Rubisco in the leaves of the efficient genotypes
were higher to a similar degree at low and at adequate N levels. These results
indicate that N use efficiency is closely associated with the stimulation of the activity
and the level of Rubisco by N. Ranjith and Meinzer (1997) reported that high NUE
ofN is related to high N partitioning into chlorophyll and Rubisco, particularly under
low N supply. Therefore, greater carbon assimilating metabolism and greater
responses of the assimilating enzyme to N supply level could increase remarkably
the demand and utilization capacity for N by the shoots, which in tum stimulates the
root absorbing potential, thus increasing the external N use efficiency.
Nitrogen translocation and re-translocation ability in relation to N efficiency.

Examining factors associated with N use efficiency among 33 lines of rice, De Datta
and Broadbent (1993) concluded that translocation of nitrogenous compounds and
other dry matter from the leaf to spikelets and loss of leaf N between panicle
initiation and harvest were well correlated with N-use efficiency. Among the various
parameters examined, the ratio of panicle weight to total N uptake of soil N was
found to correlate better with the ranking of N use efficiency among 24 rice
genotypes (De Datta and Broadbent, 1990). It appears that the participation of N in
panicle development and grain filling is an important constraint for NIUE. Nitrogen
harvest index (NHI) has been used as one of the major parameters of N internal use
efficiency in cereals (Huggins and Pan, 1993; Paponov et aI., 1996). In a study with
20 rice genotypes, NHI was related to both N uptake and use efficiency, (Singh et aI.,
1998). Under field conditions, the N-efficient genotypes had significantly higher
NHI than the N-inefficient cultivars (Yang, 1987). The distribution of 15N in
diffe~ent plant parts changed with the advance of growth stages. After flowering
more 15N was translocated into the panicles in the efficient than in the inefficient
genotypes (Yang and Sun, 1990). The results imply that increased re-translocation of
nitrogenous compounds is one of the key factors responsible for its higher N internal
use efficiency. However, more direct evidence is needed to understand the roles of
re-translocation ofN from leaves to grains for internal N use efficiency.
3.2.3. Genetic bases for nitrogen use efficiency

The N efficiency in crop plants seemed to be genetically controlled by mUltiple
genes. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for nitrogen utilization efficiency in maize were
detected under N deficiency (Bertin and Gallais, 2000, 2001). It appears that the GS
locus on chromosome 5 has a close correlation with variations in yield or kernel
weight. It was hypothesized that leaf nitrate accumulation and the reactions catalyzed
by NR and GS are co-regulated and represent key elements controlling nitrogen use
efficiency in maize (Hirel et aI., 2001). Using 98 backcross-inbred lines of rice,
Yamaya et aI. (2002) detected seven chromosomal QTL regions for cytosolic
glutamine synthetase (GS1) protein content arid six for NADH-dependent glutamate
synthase (NADH-GOGAT). Some of these QTLs were located in QTL regions for
various biochemical and agronomic traits affected by nitrogen recycling. Nitrogen
assimilation in the efficient rice genotype is regulated at translation level. More
direct evidences are needed to understand the regulation of N assimilation at the
molecular level.
3.3 Phosphorus use efficiency
3.3.1. Genotypic differences in P use efficiency

Deficiency of phosphorus (P) in soils is common due to low total concentrations
and low mobility. Improving plant use efficiency of P is an important strategy for
sustainable agriculture in acid soils (Dobermann et aI., 1998). Plants collected from
various soil P environments exhibited different P absorption abilities and P use
efficienciesy (PUE). Existence of P use efficiency differences among the cultivars or
lines of com, sorghum, barley, bean, alfalfa, cotton, rice had been reoported (Fageria
and Baligar , 1997a , 1997b, 1999; Fageria and da Costa, 2000 ; Inthapanya et aI.,
2000; Ciarelli et aI., 1998 ; Mugwira et aI., 1997). The stronger tolerance to low P of
pigeon pea compared with that of other crops such as millet, soybean, sorghum and
corn appeared to be due to its ability to absorb more Fe-P from the acid soil (Yang,
1993).
3.3.2. Physiological bases for P use efficiency
Root growth, morphology and P absorption. Phosphorus is strongly fixed in acid

soils so that its mobility usually very low. The efficient utilization of soil P can be
adjusted through pathways related to root morphology and root physiology. Under
conditions of P deficiency, growth of plant shoots is usually more inhibited than that
of roots and this leads to an increased RlS ratio (Biddinger et aI., 1998; Ascencio,
1997; Ahmad et aI., 2001). Plant P absorption is positively related to root length
(Otani and Ae, 1996), suggesting that plants with large root systems, such as
sorghum, have obvious advantages with respect to their ability to absorb P in low P
conditions. In barley, the P uptake efficiency was found to be closely related to root
elongation and root length per plant grown in low P medium (Romer and Schenk,
1998). The relation between P uptake and root length and root uptake characteristics
can been described as follows:
Ln P = Vmax xL x(C-Cmi,J/(C-Cmin+K"J
Where: Ln P - P net uptake rate per DW (pmol P / g)

Vmax - maximum uptake rate per unit of root length (pmol P / scm)
L- root length per unit of DW (cm / g)
C -P concentration on root surface (f.t.M)
Cmin-P concentration at net uptake rate being 0 (f.t.M)
Km - Michaelis-Menten constant (f.t.M)
Root hair development, their length and density, also play important roles in
determining the efficiency of P use of plants (Gahoonia et aI., 1999, Fohse et aI.,
1991). The large contribution of root hairs to P uptake is partly due to their large
surface area, small radius and perpendicular growth into the soil from the root axis
(Fohse et aI., 1991). Higher rhizosphere P depletion and higher P absorption were
noted in field grown efficient barley genotypes with longer root hairs, compared
with those of the inefficient genotypes. However, such relation was not observed in
wheat (Gahoonia et aI., 2000). In a study on the affect of low P on root growth of
Arabidopsis, changes in root hairs were found, involving (1) increased root hair
length; (2) enlargement of root hair density; (3) shortened distance for positions of
root hair generation from root tips (Ma et aI. 2001). High P uptake efficiency is
closely associated with many long root hairs in Arabidopsis. In white lupine, cluster
roots were induced by P deficiency, which is seen as an important mechanism in
making available the soil P (Neumann et aI., 1999; Neumann and Romheld, 1999).
It was also found that root architecture may be related to P acquisition efficiency
of plants, the ideal root architecture of common bean being an 'umbrella-shape' root
system while for upland rice it is a 'beard-shape' root system (Liao and Yan, 2001).
Phosphorus availability regulating root gravitropic growth and genotypic adaptation
to low P is correlated with the ability of the plant to allocate more roots to shallow
soil horizons in common bean (Liao et aI., 2001).
Exudation of organic acids and root physiology. Phosphorus deficiency strongly

increased the net release of protons from roots of tomato, chickpea, and white lupine,
but only small effects were observed in wheat. Release of protons coincided with
increased exudation of carboxylic acids in roots of chickpea and white lupine, but not
in those of tomato and wheat (Neumann et aI., 1999a, 1999b). There isare
muchmanyis much evidences in the literature showing that P efficiency, especially
acquisition efficiency, is closely related to exudation of organic acids by roots
(Neumann et aI., 1999a,1999b; 2000; Sas et aI., 2001). Thus, white lupine subjected
to P deficiency exudes organic acids in the root zone which was confirmed as being
90% citric acid and 10% malic acid (Sas et aI., 2001). Again, the cluster roots of
Hakea have been found to exude high amounts of citrate, manolate, malate, trans-
aconinate, and acetate to the rhizosphere (Shane et aI., 2001). The mechanisms by
which the exuded organic acids increase P efficiency include (1) changing
rhizosphere pH; (2) occupying P binding sites on soil particles; (3) chelation of AI,
Fe so preempting their ability to bind P. However, different organic acids have
different effects on soil P phytoavailability, and citric acid, in particular, normally
has a greater effect than other organic acids.
The citric acid secreted by roots is generated through the TeA cycle and is
inhibited by extrinsic anion-channel blockers such as ethacrynic-or anthracene -9-
carboxylic acids. This suggests that the accumulation and subsequent exudation of
citric acid is a consequence of both enhanced biosynthesis and reduced turnover of
citric acid in the cluster root tissue (Neumann et ai., 2000). Organic acid exudation
peaked at the valley of root respiration in Hakea prostrata, and the greatest amount
of alternative oxidase proteins in the roots appeared before exudation peaks(Lamer et
ai., unpubi.).These results imply that organic acid exudation in P-efficient plants
relates to the altered root physiological activity.
Phosphorus deficiency enhanced expression of sucrose synthase, fructokinase,
phosphoglucomutase, phosphoenol-pyruvate carboxylase, but reduced activity of
aconitase and decreased root respiration of 3-4 week old white lupine (Neumann et
ai., 2000). Acid phosphatase was detected in the rhizosphere of several crops types,
and its activation was positively related to status of soil P deficiency (Ascencio,
1997).
High-affinity P transporters. The characterization of the kinetics of the P uptake

system of whole plants indicates a high-affmity transporter activity operating at the
micromolar range (Raghothama, 1999). High-affmity transporters are a key
component of P uptake by plants at the very low P concentrations that prevail in
many soils. Under such conditions, the expression of genes encoding high affmity P
transporters is up-regulated in plant roots of barley (Smith et ai., 1999), Arabidpsis
(Muchhal et ai., 1996); tomato (Liu et ai., 1998) and a constant increase in the
transporter protein is observed (Muchhal and Raghothama, 1999). When the P
concentration is high in the root growth medium, expression of genes encoding the
high -affmity P transporters is repressed, and the accumulation of the corresponding
protein is decreased. Huang et ai. (2000) observed that zinc deficiency up-regulates
the expression of high-affmity P transporter genes in both P-sufficient and P-
deficient barley roots. In acid soils, P in soil solution is very low (sub-micromolar)
and it may be possible to improve P uptake efficiency by genetic manipulation of the
regulatory systems of genes encoding high-affmity P transporters.
High-affinity P transporters. The characterization of the kinetics of the P uptake

system of whole plants indicates a high-affmity transporter activity operating at the
micromolar range (Raghothama, 1999). High-affmity transporters are a key
component of P uptake by plants at the very low P concentrations that prevail in
many soils. Under such conditions, the expression of genes encoding high affmity P
transporters is up-regulated in plant roots of barley (Smith et ai., 1999), Arabidpsis
(Muchhal et ai., 1996); tomato (Liu et ai., 1998) and a constant increase in the
transporter protein is observed (Muchhal and Raghothama, 1999). When the P
concentration is high in the root growth medium, expression of genes encoding the
high -affmity P transporters is repressed, and the accumulation of the corresponding
protein is decreased. Huang et ai. (2000) observed that zinc deficiency up-regulates
the expression of high-affmity P transporter genes in both P-sufficient and P-
deficient barley roots. In acid soils, P in soil solution is very low (sub-micromolar)
and it may be possible to improve P uptake efficiency by genetic manipulation of the
regulatory systems of genes encoding high-affmity P transporters.
VA-mycorrhiza. Another important mechanism whereby the root absorbs P more

efficiently from the soils is through its association with YAM (vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhiza). The VAM facilitates exploitation of a greater volume of soil thereby
increasing the potential for absorption of P by the plant. At the same time, the P
uptake ability of the infected roots is enhanced (Kothari et aI., 1991) as well as
subsequent plant growth (Monzon and Azcon, 2001). In celery, it seems that YAM
can improve plant growth and P use efficiency under low P soil conditions (Rice et
aI., 2002).
3.3.3 Genetic bases for phosphorus use efficiency

Like N use efficiency, the P use efficiency of crop plants is genetically controlled
by quantitative traits. P accumulation in maize was found to be controlled at least by
two genes. In soybean, large root biomass was screened as a hereditary characteristic
of P efficiency, and its broad-sense habitability was 69.9%. In rice, four QTLs were
identified for P uptake and two for internal P-use efficiency, including the major one
on chromosome 12 (Wissuwa et aI., 1998; Wissuwa and Ae, 2001). One QTL for the
activity of acid phosphatase (AAP) and three QTLs for P-deficiency stress induced
AAP (Psi-AAP) were detected on chromosome 1, 6 and 12 of upland rice,
respectively (Hu et aI., 2001). Micro QTLs were also detected in rice for relative
amounts of root exuded acid phosphatase, relative P allocation between shoot and
root, relative plant P concentration, and relative shoot P concentration, respectively
(Ming et aI., 2001).
3.4 Potassium use efficiency
3.4.1 Genotypic differences in K use efficiency

In recent years, potassium deficiency has become one of the most limiting factors
for sustainable crop production in acid soils with the continuing application ofN and
P fertilizers. Genotypic differences in potassium use efficiency (KUE) have been
studied in many crops, such as rice (Wang and Yang, 1999; Fageria, 2000 ; Fu et
aI., 1994; Yang et aI., 2003), wheat (Zhang et aI., 1999 ; Jia et aI., 1999; Wang et aI.,
2000), sorghum (Duncan, 1987), sweet potato (Lu and Ding, 2001), bean (Fageria et
aI., 2001) , tomato (Chen and Gabelman , 1999, 2000) , cotton (Pettigrew et aI.,
1996; Bednarz et aI., 1998), turf grass (Liu et aI., 1995), and apple (Lebedev, 1985).
In maize, the KUE of the low-yielding genotype was only half of the mid- to high-
yielding genotypes (Zhang et aI., 1999). In lowland rice, large genotypic differences
in K internal use efficiency were reported in seedling biomass as well as grain
production (Yang et aI., 2003; Liu and Yang, 2001; Wang et aI., 2003).
3.4.2 Physiological bases ofplant K use efficiency
Root morphological characteristics. The root is the major part of plant to absorb
nutrients and also the first obstacle for nutrient entry into the plant cells. The KUE is
greatly affected by root morphological and physiological characteristics. For
example, K-efficient plant cultivars are usually characterized by greater root weights
and root to shoot (R/S) ratios, larger root absorption areas, higher absorption rates
and greater affinities for K (Graham, 1984; An and Ni, 1991; Liu et aI., 2000; Yang
et aI., 2003). Comparison of 4 tomato cultivars which are similar in K absorption
efficiency but differing in their KIUEs under low K (0.1 mM) showed that the RlS
ratio of the high K-efficient genotypes is 3 times greater than that of K-inefficient
ones (Chen and Gabelman, 1999). In ramie, genotypes having stronger ability to
absorb K have a larger root system, especially with respect to rootlets, larger total
root and active absorption areas, and higher CEC, as compared with those having a
lower ability to absorb K (Cui and Li, 2000). The K-efficient wheat cultivars also
have similar superior root morphological characteristics such as longer root length,
smaller root radius, greater root weights and specific absorption area (Zou et aI.,
2000).
Potassium uptake kinetics and F release. Under conditions of low K, root

absorption of K is an active process, and is closely related to energetic metabolism in
roots. The K absorption rate of the efficient genotypes was found to be much greater
than the inefficient genotypes of indica rice (Liu and Lillo 1995). Using 86Rb+ trace
analysis it was revealed that the K-efficient rice genotypes had a higher K+ influx rate
across the root plasma membrane as well as a lower K+ etllux rate. Thus the net
uptake rate ofK was 4.6 times higher than that of the K-inefficient genotypes (Xie et
aI., 1989). Besides the smaller Cmin value for K uptake by roots, the K-efficient rice
genotypes had greater root total carbohydrates and total ATP contents, and greater
activity of root plasma membrane ATPase (Li and Xie, 1991). In sand culture, the
contents of ATP and non-structural carbohydrate in young cotton seedling leaves
significantly increased after 19 days of K deficiency treatment (Bednarz et aI., 1998,
1999).
PotassiumK uptake and external pH change appears to be interdependent
(Cooper et aI., 1991). A greater decrease in the pH of the culture solution was found
when growing wheat genotypes with high K absorption rate (Glass et aI., 1981).
Similarly, a decrease in pH coincided with a decrease of K+ concentration in rice
(Lin et aI., 1995). The effectiveness ofW secretion stimulated by K+ is more evident
in K-efficient rice genotypes than in K-inefficient ones, although the ability to
secrete W differed little between the different rice genotypes (Lin et aI., 1998).
However, the ability of root W secretion did not seem to be relevant to K+
absorption in wheat (Zou et aI., 2001).
KUE is also related to the ability of crop roots to activate and utilize non-
exchangeable K in the soil. Munson (1995) suggested that the main cause of plant K
deficiency is that the rate of K release is too slow from the soil minerals is too slow.
Our recent studies indicated that the more the non-exchangeable K was taken up, the
higher the KUE of the plant genotype (Wang et aI., 1998). Similar results were also
reported for wheat (Zou et aI., 2000). The utilization of non-exchangeable K by rice
plants is closely associated with sharp decrease of pH in the rhizosphere (Li et aI.,
2003).
Potassium translocation and re-translocation. Reports on the relationship between K

translocation in crop plants and KUE are few. Chen and Gabelman (1999) reported
that K concentrations and K flow rates in the xylem bleeding sap of K inefficient
tomato genotypes were much higher than those of K efficient ones when grown at
low K. This indicated that there is little relation between KUE and translocation rate
of K from root to shoot. Further studies showed that K concentrations in matured
leaves and stems of the two efficient genotypes were markedly lower than those of
the inefficient ones. K concentrations in young and expanding leaves of the efficient
genotypes were significantly higher than those of the inefficient ones, indicating that
the ability to mobilize K from matured leaves to young and expanding leaves is an
important factor for K use efficiency in tomato under low-K stress. In lowland rice,
the K internal use efficiency in grain yield production was closely associated with
the translocation ofK and carbohydrates from the vegetative tissues (source) to grain
(sink), and the harvest index is positively and significantly correlated with the KlUE
among the genotypes (Yang et aI., 2003). This implies that the re-translocation of K
from 'source' to 'sink' is critical for improving K internal use efficiency for grain
production.
K transporters. The accumulation of K+ by plant roots' sympast imposes a

substantial energetic cost and requires specialized transport systems (Gierth et aI.,
1998). Transmembrane movement of K+ is catalyzed by channel and transporter
proteins, and energized by the negative membrane potential of plant cells. At least
two general transport systems are involved in K uptake: i.e. high-aff"mity transporter
systems (Schachman and Schroeder, 1994) and low-aff"mity transporter systems. The
high-aff"mity K+ transporters can maintain high uptake rates at low K supply. The low
Km value and the rate of K+ uptake are extremely sensitive to plant K status. By
contrast, there is a rapid up-regulation of high-aff"mity K+ uptake when external K
supply is interrupted, whereas the elevated rates of high-aff"mity K+ influx observed
in K+-deprived plants are rapidly down-regulated when K is replenished (Fernando et
aI., 1990). Recently, it was shown that in addition to these changes of K+ influxes
across the plasma membrane, adjustments in K+ fluxes across the tonoplast and K
transport to xylem contribute to K+ homeostasis (Walker et aI., 1996). Wang et ai.
(1998) demonstrated that, a rapid and large up-regulation of HAT 1 mRNA levels in
roots resulted when K was withdrawn from growth media for both barley (Hordeum
vulgare L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). This effect was specific for K.
Increased expression of HKT 1 mRNA was evident before a decline in total root K
concentration could be detected. Therefore, the characteristics and molecular
regulation of the high-aff"mity K transporter systems in K-efficient genotypes in crop
plants need to be clarified further.
Sodium substitution. Sodium (Na+), to certain extent, can replace K, particularly in

its osmotic functions in the vacuole. Thus, under K deficiency, addition of Na may
actually promote plant growth. The grain yield of rice grown at 25 uM K plus 43
mM Na was 2-fold higher than that with only K supplied (Mengel and Kirkby, 1982).
In sugar beet, replacement of 5 mM K in the nutrient solution with 2.5 mM each ofK
and Na increased the plant biomass yield and sucrose content in the roots (Marschner
et aI., 1981). Furthermore, Na may improve water imbalance in the plant. The extent
to which Na can replace K varies between different plant species and different
CROP PLANT ADAPTATION TO STRESSES IN ACID SOn..s 195
cultivars of the same species. The younger leaves rely more on K than the older ones,
so Na substitution for K occurs more in the old leaves. It is well known that major
Na for K substitution in halophytes relates to their high tolerance to salt stress
(Marschner, 1995). The growth of a spinach cultivar (Atlas) was increased by CROP
applying 20 mM Na irrespective of K levels, whereas that of another cultivar (All
right) increased only when K was at deficient level (Tomemori et aI., 2002).
However, addition of 20 mM Na reduced the growth of the plant species
Komatsuma. In rice, greater Na substitution for K was noted in salt-tolerant
genotypes as well as K-efficient genotypes (Liu et al., 2002). The Na replacement for
K occurred mainly in leaf sheaths of rice. The substitution of Na for K and its
significance in K use efficiency in crop plants has been recently reviewed (Jiang et
aI.,2001).
3.4.3 Genetic bases ofpotassium use efficiency

It was confirmed that K inefficiency is one of the quantitative genetic traits in
rice (Li, 1985). Three Q1Ls both for shoot and root dry weight induced by low-K
stress were also detected, one of which was related to K concentration, K
accumulation and KUE in the plant. All the three QTLs for K concentration
explained 8-15% of the variation (Wu et aI., 1998). Potassium concentration in the
spike was observed to be controlled by additive genes while that in the flag leaf by
non-additive genes in maize.
There is a close relationship between the QTLs for K nutrition and those for
salinity tolerance. Foolad (1997) identified eight QTLs for salinity tolerance in
potato, indicating the polygenic control of salinity tolerance. Gu et ai. (2000)
detected four putative Q1Ls for salt tolerance of rice at the seedling stage and all of
the positive alleles came from the salinity tolerant parent. The QTLs for salt
tolerance at the mature stage were distributed in one or two linkage regions on six
chromosomes and the favorite alleles dispersed in both parents. Using mutagenesis,
Borsani et ai. (2001) isolated three tomato salt-hypersensitive (tss) mutants, and
found that the TSSI locus is necessary for K+ nutrition because tssl mutants are
unable to grow on a culture medium containing low concentrations of K+. There is a
major salt tolerance gene controlling the Na+/K+ ratio on the chromosome I in rice.
Common QTLs for low Na+ absorption, high K+ absorption, and low Na+/K+
absorption ratio were detected in rice using RFLP and SSLP analyses (Bonilla et aI.,
2002).
There are many studies on the molecular genetics of K channel and transporters
in plants, and the molecular identification of initial plant K+ channel and transporter
cDNA (Anderson et aI., 1992; Sentenac et aI., 1992; Schachtrnan and Schroeder,
1994). A number of plant genes encoding K+ transporters have been cloned and
characterized by expression in S. cerevisiae, Xenopus oocytes and E. coli. The recent
completion of the Arabidopsis genome sequencing project has offered the
opportunity to make an inventory of all the plant's putative transporter proteins
(Ward, 2001). A genome wide survey revealed six major families of Arabidopsis
cation transporters that are: with varying selectivity, permeable to K+; shaker-type K+
channels (nine genes); 'two-pore' K+ channels (six genes), cyclic nucleotide-gated
channels (20 genes), putative K+!H'" antiporters (six genes), K+ uptake

perrneaselhigh-affmity K+ transporters/ K+ transporters (13 genes), and high-affinity
K+ transporters (one gene) (Maeser et aI., 2001). An additional K+-perrnease
transporter, LCn, has been identified in wheat (Schachtrnan et aI., 1997). The
molecular characteristics of these K channels and transporters are referred to in a
recent review (Maeser et aI., 2002).
Table 5 shows the physiological and genetic bases of plant N , P , K use
efficiency .
Table 5. Morphological, physiological and genetic bases of plant N P K use efficiency
Ele- Morphological, physiological and physiological

Reference
ment traits
N Root
less branching, longer root hair, lower Ourry et aI., 1990;
protein N remobilization Vouillot and
Devienne, 1999; Clark
Shoot and Baligar, 2000
slower leaf emergence, pale yellow near tips Longnecker et aI.,
and margins of older leaves than yOlmg 1993; Ma et aI., 1997
ones, declining growth
reduction in ribosome and endoplasmic Palomaki and
reticulum content at the ultrastructural Holopainen, 1995
level, early degeneration of
cytoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum
and ribosomes
lower chlorophyll and carotenoid content of Lima et aI., 2000;
leaves, lower photosynthetic rate Shangguan et aI.,
2000; Vidal et aI.,
1999; Meinzer and
decreased hydraulic conductance, midday Zhu, 1998
leaf water potential psi(w), and Radin et aI., 1991;
transpiration, higher fructan Mak and Yeh, 2001;
accumulation Wang et aI., 2000
P Root
smaller root system, less number of root Sun and Zhang, 2002a;
axes, shorter and coarser lateral roots Mollier and Pellerin,
1999; Yan and Liao,
2001; Li et aI.,2001
excess cations uptake; less ammonium Tang et aI., 2001;
uptake and N2 fixation; more proton Almeida et aI., 2000;
release and molybdenum uptake Magalhaes et aI., 2000;
Heuwinkel et aI., 1992
higher acid phosphatase activity Sun and Zhang, 2002b
Table 5 continued
Shoot
slower leaf expansion, less leaf area ,leaf Lima et aI., 2000;
Lynch et aI., 1991;
number and number of nodes and
McArthur and
branching; purple-red-orange
Knowles, 1993; Clark
coloration near tips and margins of
and Baligar, 2000
leaves, dark green newer tissue
P decreasing Rubisco, ADP-glucose pyro- Sa and Israel, 1998;
phosphorylase and sucrose-phosphate Guo et aI., 2002;
synthase activities; lower rate ofRuBP Passarinho et aI., 2000;
regeneration and carbon assimilation; Crafts-Brandner, 1992
higher nonstructural carbohydrate
concentration in the mesophyll
changing nutrient concentration, decreas- Saleque et aI., 2001;
ing shoot to root ratio, lower amino Lima et al., 2000
acids and nitrate in xylem sap
K Root
less dry weight, length, lower formation of Clark and Baligar,
ftrst- and second-order laterals, higher 2000; Singh and
root respiration Blanke, 2000
Shoot
fewer leaves per shoot , decreased Broschat, 2000 ; Itoh
mesophyU cell numbers , white spots et aI., 1997; James et
aI., 1995
on leaflets and marginal
chlorosis , sharply delimited necrotic
spotting on old leaves
lower chlorophyll concentration and Bednarz and
photosynthesis rate , higher ATP and Oosterhuis, 1999
nonstructural carbohydrate
3. 5 Boron use efficiency
3.5.1 Genotypic differences in B use efficiency.

Boron (B) is one of the most common deftcient micronutrients acid soils. Plant
species or genotypes vary greatly in their responses to low B in soils (Rerkasem et
aI., 1988, 1993a; Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997a). Dicotyledons usually require more
B than monocotyledons, and Cruciferous and Umbelliferous families have a high B
requirement. Plants normally considered to be sensitive to low soil B include lucerne,
rape, beet, celery, grape, apple, pear, cotton, and sunflower. Among forage legumes,
red clover is most tolerant to low B. A wide range of genotypic differences in B
efficiency was reported in soybean (Granham, 1993; Rerkasem et aI., 1993b). Under
fteld conditions, the range of plant sensitivity to low B varied with crop species, such
as, 9-71% for black gram, 34-100% for green gram (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997a),
11-71% for peanut, and 64-100% for wheat (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997a; Subedi,
et aI., 1997). The genotypic difference in B efficiency of wheat can span a range as
great as 0-100% in terms of grain set index when 253 genotypes were compared in
the field (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997a). Boron deficiency is a major factor that
limits production of oilseed rape in South China. Large genotypic differences of B
use efficiency exist in oilseed rape (Xue, 1998; Stangoulis, 2000). The better quality
"double low" cultivars of rape are more sensitive to B deficiency than the traditional
cultivars (Yang et aI., 1993).
3.5.2 Physiological basis for B use efficiency

A number of mechanisms have been suggested for the genotypic differences in B
use efficiency (Yang and Romheld, 1999). They include the ability to acquire B from
the soil, and the way that B is distributed and utilized within the plants. The
susceptibility of tomato to B deficiency is due to the lack of the ability of the plants
to transport B from roots to shoots. Boron efficiency mechanisms may differ with
crop species or genotypes and the intensity of deficiency. Clarification of B
efficiency mechanisms greatly depends on an understanding of the physiological
functions ofB in plants.
Internal requirement for Boron. Boron concentration in plant tissues varies greatly
among crop species and genotypes. Boron sufficient levels are 5-10 mg kg- 1 for
wheat and 6-12 mg kg- 1 for ryegrass, but 35-80 mg kil for alfalfa and 40-100 mg ki
1 for sugar beet (Bergman, 1992). Grasses thus have a very low B requirement
(Marschner, 1995). For wheat this low B requirement was found to be associated
with a low B absorption rate per unit root weight when compared to a dicotyledon
crop species such as pea (Chapman et aI., 1997). The distribution of B in different
compartments may be another factor controlling the internal B requirement. Hu et ai.
(1996) found that the B concentration in the cell wall of grasses was much lower
than that of dicotyledons. The internal requirement for B at the vegetative growth
stages often differs from that at the reproductive growth stages. At vegetative stages,
B concentrations in the youngest opened leaf or youngest fully expanded leaf seemed
to be a better indication of genotypic difference than total B concentrations in shoots
of rape, black and green gram, sunflower, and wheat. In wheat, a higher functional B
requirement for reproductive development was observed than that for vegetative
growth, with higher B concentrations in the anthers and the carpel than those in
leaves (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997b). Thus grain set index has been used as a
parameter for identifying B-efficient genotypes at the reproductive growth stage for
wheat, and also for other cereals. Similarly, dicotyledons showed a higher B
requirement for reproduction, mostly due to a higher requirement of B for pollen
germination and hence fertilization. For instance, maximum fertilization of grape
flowers requires 50-60 mg kg- 1 B in the stigma (Marschner, 1995). In vitro pollen
germination in mango (Mangifera indica) (de Wet and Robberts, 1989), avocado
(Smith et aI., 1997), and wheat (Chen and Rerkasem, 1993) has been shown to
respond to B supplied internally through the plant. However, it remains unclear
whether B efficient genotypes simply require less B for anther and pollen
development, or whether they are more efficient in re-translocating B within the

plant.
B absorption system. The mechanisms of B uptake by the plants areis not yet fully
understood although recent research suggests that B is absorbed by an active process
when the B supply is low; otherwise a passive process is dominant when the B
supply is adequate (Dannel et aI., 2000). Under B deficient conditions, uptake by B
efficient oilseed rape genotypes significantly exceeds that of B inefficient genotypes.
The former also contained up to two times higher leaf concentrations of B (Lin and
Yang, 1999, Yang et aI., 1993). It has also been reported that the root absorption area
and specific root surface area of B efficient oilseed rape genotypes are larger than
that of B inefficient ones (Lou, 2001). When B inefficient oilseed rape plants were
treated with low B for 5 days, root physiological activity was suppressed and root
structure was destroyed more seriously than that of B efficient genotypes (Song et
aI., 2000). The structural damage in roots in response to B deficiency may be an
important morphological mechanism that results in different B efficiencies between
genotypes. However, the exact mechanisms ofm B use efficiency at a molecular level
need to be further to be further researchedresearched (Hu and Brown, 1997).
Boron re-translocation and phloem mobility. Boron is mainly translocated in the

form of borate in the xylem, which is affected by the transpiration steam. Recent
studies showed that B is translocated and re-utilized through phloem in the form of a
B-sugar complex in some plant species (Patrick et aI., 1997). The B being re-utilized
within plants can be divided into three forms: free B , semi-bound B and bound B
(Du et aI., 2002). Under B deficient conditions, the concentration of free B and
bound B in B-efficient plants of oilseed rape genotypes was significantly lower than
that in B-inefficient genotypes. This situation was reversed for semi-bound B. The
ability of a plant genotype to re-translocate B into reproductive non-transpiring
organs where higher B is required for development seems to be important for B
efficiency (Brown and Hu, 1996; Hu et aI., 1997). Boron efficient genotypes of
broccoli were shown to re-distribute B into young leaves and florets (Shelp et aI.,
1992). Applying boric acid enriched with lOB to mature leaves showed that only in
B efficient cultivars was B re-translocated to the younger leaves (Stangoulis, 2001).
In China, foliar B application is a common field practice for correcting B deficiency
in rape, the responses differing with genotypes and years. The study by Xue et ai.
(1998) with different genotypes showed that the ability to re-translocate B to younger
leaves was closely associated with B in rape. Boron efficient genotypes have been
identified with higher B concentrations in newly developed leaves. In sunflower,
efficient genotypes were those with higher B concentrations in the uppermost mature
leaves (Blarney et aI., 1979). Similarly, black gram and green gram genotypes, which
were less severely affected by low B in soil, also had a higher B concentration in
their youngest fully expanded leaf (Rerkasem, 1993). In oilseed rape, B efficient
genotypes had a higher B concentration in the youngest open leaf growing in a low B
soil than the B -inefficient genotypes (Yang et aI., 1993; Xue et aI., 1998). These
results indicate that the role of B re-translocation and phloem mobility might be
important physiological traits in B efficiency. Direct evidence is needed to prove the

relationship between B efficiency and B re-translocation from the vegetative parts of
the plant to important reproductive organs like anthers and pollen tubes.
A close relationship between B use efficiency and enzyme activity in plants has
been reported (Yang et aI., 1999b; Cao et aI., 1997). Under B deficiency conditions,
the activity of peroxidase (POD) activity in the cell-walls of the lower leaf was
significantly higher in B-efficient cultivars than that in B-inefficient cultivars. The
activity of 1AA oxydase in the cell wall also decreased significantly in the B-
inefficient cultivars (Yang et aI., 1999b). It was also found that the activities of G-6-
P dehydronase and catatase in the leaves of B-inefficient rape genotype were
significantly decreased by B deficiency, but they were changed little in those of the
B-efficient ones (Cao et aI., 1997).
Interaction with environmental factors. The plant response to B is influenced by

environmental factors. Genotypic variations in B efficiency are likely to be
associated with the ability to alleviate the effects of environmental stress factors.
Boron efficiency ranking for wheat has been consistent over a wide range of
environments (Rerkasem et aI., 1993), implying that efficient genotypes have better
strategies for overcoming some environmental stresses than inefficient genotypes.
Low temperatures at the seedling stage, water deficit in soils and light intensity in
flowering and pod setting stages seem to be related to the incidence of B deficiency
in rape. Greater tolerance to soil drought and low temperatures at the seedling growth
stage after transplanting resulted in lower seedling mortality and higher yield for the
B efficient genotypes than that for the B-inefficient genotypes (double low) (Xue et
ai. , 1998). The existence of interactions between Al toxicity and B deficiency has
been reported (LeNoble et aI., 1996a, 1996b). However, it is not clear whether B
efficiency is related to Al tolerance. Root geometry and soil-root interaction,
including rhizosphere effects, may also play a role in B efficiency, but direct
evidence is not yet available.
3.5.3 Genetics ofB Efficiency

Most researchers report that responses to low B of plant species such as celery,
tomato, and red beet were under a single gene control (Yang and Romheld, 1999).
Boron efficiency in sunflower was found to be highly heritable, with additive gene
action being predominant (Blarney et aI., 1984). Similarly, both additive and
dominant gene effects were involved in controlling B efficiency in bread wheat
(Jamjod et aI., 1992). However, complicated genetics of B efficiency is also
suggested for wheat (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997b). In the F2 population of a cross
between a B-efficient oilseed rape genotype and a B-inefficient one, the ratio of B-
efficient to B-inefficient individuals fitted the expected ratio of 3:1, indicating a
major gene controlling the B-efficient trait located in the ninth linkage group.
Genome-wide (QTL) analyses detected one major locus near the major gene, which
explained 64.0% of the phenotypic variance. At the same time, three minor loci in
three linkage groups were also detected, and these minor loci individually explained
39.2%,32.5% and 36.9%, respectively, of the phenotypic variance (Xu et aI., 2001).
Further genetic studies on B efficiency are needed to provide a basis for transferring
B-efficient traits into modem cultivars with better agronomic traits through genetic
improvement.
3.6. Zinc use efficiency
3.6.1 Genotypic differences in Zn use efficiency

Zinc (Zn) is an essential micro-element for plants, animals and human-beings. Zinc
deficiency results in reduced plant growth and crop yield. The health of animals and
human-beings is greatly affected by low Zn in food chain. Zinc deficiency is one of
the worldwide nutritional problems in soils affecting crop production. Large
genotypic differences in Zn efficiency have been identified in a number of crop
species, such as rice, wheat, barley, soybean, maize, sorghum, oilseed rape, gram,
spinach, potato, bean, tomato, pearl millet, oats and other crop species (Wang and
Yang, 2001 ; Cakmak et aI., 1999; Genc et aI., 2002; Khan et aI., 1998; Graham,
1992; Grewal et aI., 1997a; Saxena et aI., 1992; Saradha et aI., 1985; Yang and
Romheld, 1999; Yang et aI., 1993, 1994a , 1994b; Clark et aI., 1983). Some crops
such as maize, rice, cotton, sunflower and celery are relatively sensitive to a low
supply of Zn, while some other crops such as wheat, pea, alfalfa and carrot, are more
tolerant (Chen, 1993). Durum wheat and oats grown in low Zn soil or in a culture
solution without Zn showed obvious symptoms of Zn deficiency. In triticale and rye
few symptoms were apparent, while sensitivity in terms of symptoms shown was
moderate in barley. Biomass reduction due to Zn deficiency was in the order of
Ddurum>wheat>oats >triticale>rye (Cakmak et aI., 1998).
3.6.2 Physiological bases for Zn use efficiency

A number of possible mechanisms may operate in different species and
different genotypes within species. These mechanisms may be operational at
several levels of plant organization (molecular, physiological, structural, or
developmental) and/or soil environments (Graham et aI., 1993). Like other
nutrients, Zn efficiency closely relates to root growth and geometry, root
physiology and exudation, zinc absorption, translocation, and transporter system,
etc.
Root growth and geometry characteristics. Plant species or cultivars which produce
smaller roots with diameter «3.0 mm) can explore a larger volume of soil and hence
more efficiently scavenge small amounts of the immobile Zn ion, making them as
Zn-efficient types. For example, cv. Excalibur, a Zn-efficient wheat genotype,
developed fmer roots than the cv. Gatcher, the Zn-inefficient wheat genotype
(Graham et aI., 1993). In addition, plant species with longer root systems are
expected to be more highly Zn-efficient, as the deeper rooting zone can be explored
for Zn more efficiently in the subsoil (Grewal et aI., 1997b). In lowland rice, the Zn-
efficient rice genotypes developed fmer roots, larger root surface areas and a stronger
Zn uptake ability than the Zn-inefficient genotypes (Wang et aI., 1997;
Yang et aI., 1993). A close relationship exists between Zn use efficiency and root
length, total Zn accumulation in roots, RlS ratio, and Zn uptake per unit root length
in exacum (Riseman and Craig, 2000) and alfalfa (Grewal and William, 1999).
Under low Zn conditions, shoot dry weight and root dry weight of barley were higher
in a Zn efficient genotype than in a Zn inefficient one (Genc, 2002).
Root exudation of organic acids and chelators. In most cases, efficient species and
genotypes are characterized by greater Zn acquisition from soils. Differences in Zn
efficiency between plant species are probably related to inherent differences in
modification of rihzosphere pH and root exudation (Marschner, 1995). Under Zn
deficiency, exudation of organic acids, like citric acid or H+ by roots of some plant
genotypes can be greatly enhanced, which results in an increased Zn uptake through
rihzosphere acidification and lor Zn complexation reactions (Chairidchai and Ritchie,
1993).
Graminaceous species respond to Zn deficiency by the release of non-
proteinogenic amino acids, called phytosiderophores (PS) or phytometallophores.
These compounds form stable chelates with Zn and are effective in mobilizing Zn
from soils. Zinc use efficiency correlates closely with root excretion of PS in wheat
(Rengel and Romheld, 2000), barley (Erenoglu et aI., 2000). Root secretion of PS
from two contrasting wheat genotypes was remarkably different when grown at
different Zn levels. The amount of released PS was 38 times greater at low Zn than at
adequate Zn in a Zn-efficient wheat genotype (Warigal). However, in a Zn-
inefficient genotype (Durati), PS secretion was only increased by 3 times at low Zn.
The amount of PS in Durati was only 114 of that in Warigal when supplied at the
same Zn level (Rengel, 1997; Rengel and Romheld, 2000). When Zn supply was at a
sufficient level, the rate of PS secretion from barley roots was very low regardless of
genotypes. In contrast, under low Zn conditions, the rate of PS secretion by a Zn
efficient genotype was 2-3 times higher than that of a Zn inefficient genotype.
Increasing secretion of PS may be a significant mechanism by which plants adapt to
Zn deficiency (Erenoglu et aI., 2000). Thus, Zn-inefficient Durati grew poorly on
soils low in Zn, in contrast to the Zn efficient Aroona (Graham et aI., 1992), which
released higher amounts of phytosiderophores than Durati (Cakmak et aI., 1993).
However, some reports show that Zn efficiency in plants has no relationship to PS
secretion rate (Cakmak, 1998). PS secretion also changed little when plants were
treated with different levels of P and Zn (Pedler et aI., 2000). The relationship
between PS and Zn availability and NUB for Zn needs to be further studied.
Zinc absorption and translocation. Reports on differences in Zn uptake dynamics
between plant genotypes are rare. Zn-uptake rate of a Zn efficient rice genotype was
usually higher with a lower Km than that of Zn inefficient genotype (Bowen, 1987).
Also the Vmax of a Zn efficient tomato genotype was 2-4 times that of a Zn inefficient
one (Bowen, 1987). Similarly, using 65Zn, it was found the rate and amount of Zn
translocation to shoots was higher in Zn efficient genotypes of wheat and rye than in
Zn inefficient ones (Cakmak et aI., 1998). Zn-efficient genotypes appear to have a
better absorption and root to shoot transport systems, probably through high-affinity
Zn transporters, ion channels or ion pumps (Reid et aI., 1996; Grewal et aI., 1997a;
Khan et aI., 1998). Using contrasting wheat genotypes (Zn-efficient Dagdas and Zn-
inefficient BDME-I0), the presence of two separate Zn transport systems mediating
high and low-affinity Zn influx in barley roots was demonstrated (Hacisalihoglu et
aI., 2001). The apparent Km of the low-affinity uptake system was 2-5 ~M, whereas
that of the high- affinity uptake system was 0.6 -2.0 ~M.
Zinc efficiency in crop plants relates to translocation and re-translocation of Zn
from roots to shoots or seeds. The efficient chickpea genotypes (CTS-60543, CTS-
11308 and T-1587) have a higher Zn accumulation per plant and higher Zn uptake
than the inefficient genotypes, and transported more than 70% of the total absorbed
Zn to the shoot (Khan et aI., 1998). For oilseed rape, the Zn-efficient genotype
(CSIRO-l) had a higher Zn concentration and content in the seed than the inefficient
genotype (Zhongyou 821), suggesting it has a superior Zn transport mechanism from
source (roots) to sink (seed) (Grewal et aI., 1997b). Physiologically active Zn
concentrations in the leaves of the highly efficient rye and bread wheat genotypes
were higher than those of low efficient genotypes, as expressed by higher enzyme
activity of SOD, one of the Zn containing enzymes (Cakmak et al., 1998).
Infection of Vesicular-arbuscular (VA) Mycorrhiza. Infection of VA mycorrhizae can

enhance uptake of Zn by the host plants through the increased root surface of the
external hyphae. The effects are usually more distinct in soils low in extractable Zn
or of low Zn mobility. and in plants with coarse root systems, such as fruit trees
including peaches, citrus and apple, and tree legumes (George et aI. 1994;
Marschner, 1995). In graminaceous species such as maize and wheat gown in soils
with low Zn contents, VA mycorrhizae increase Zn uptake and shoot contents in the
dry matter, despite an increase in shoot biomass (Sharma et al., 1994). The Zn uptake
rates of mycorrhizal corn roots were around 10-fold greater than nonmycorrhizal
roots at very low zinc concentrations (below I mmol m·3 ) (Sharma et aI., 1994).
Obviously, mycorrhizal plant species are expected to be more Zn-efficient than the
non-mycorrhizal species. More work is needed to address the relationship between
Zn-efficiency and mycorrhizal infection.
3.6.3 Genetic basesfor Zn use efficiency

Although some physiological mechanisms involved in Zn use efficiency have been
documented, little information is available on the genetic control of these
mechanisms and identification of molecular backgrounds or genes responsible for Zn
efficiency. Zinc efficiency in plants is inheritable. Studies of addition lines have
shown that Zn efficiency in rye was an independent trait carried on different
chromosomes. The rye chromosome lR and 7R seems to carry genes affecting plant
Zn efficiency (Schlegel et aI., 1997). By using the disomic wheat-rye addition lines
to study the roles of rye chromosomes on Zn efficiency, it was confirmed that rye is
inherent for high Zn efficiency, and its chromosome lR and 7R carry the genes
controlling Zn efficiency (Cakmak et aI., 1997). It seemed that the Zn-efficient genes
are transferable into wheat. For Agropyron, chromosome L 1 seemed to be
responsible for Zn efficiency, while for Haynaldia, chromosome V2 and V7 carry

the genes controlling Zn efficiency (Schlegel et aI., 1997). Similarly, a few genes
efficiency in rice were suggested to be mostly additive, and to a lesser extent,
dominant (Majumder et aI., 1990). Diallet crossing analyses showed that most
genetic effects of plant traits associated with Zn efficiency in lowland rice were
additive (Wang et aI., 2003). Different responses of soybean genotypes to Zn
fertilizer appeared to result from differential efficiency of Zn absorption. The
distribution of F3 lines from the cross between Zn-efficient and Zn-inefficient
genotypes suggested that only a few genes control the Zn efficiency trait in soybean
(Hartwig et aI., 1991). One hundred percent of the progeny from the inefficient
parent hybrids of Exacum were classified as inefficient, while the progeny from the
efficient parent segregated 32% inefficient to 68% efficient (Riseman and Criag,
2000).
Zinc is absorbed by plant roots via transporting proteins located in the plasma
membrane. The first zinc transporter genes were reported to be cloned from
Arabidopsis thaliana (Grotz et aI., 1998). It was found that the expression of three
genes designated ZIP1, ZIP2 and ZIP3, conferred zinc uptake activities in yeast. In
the plant, ZIPI and ZIP3 are expressed in roots in response to zinc deficiency,
suggesting that they encode the proteins for zinc transport across root membranes.
Although expression of ZIP2 has not been detected, a fourth related Arabidopsis
gene identified by genome sequencing, ZIP4 is induced in both shoots and roots of
zinc-deficiency plants. In Escherichia coli, the genes responsible for the high-affinity
uptake for Zn have been cloned, and the complementing gene, zur, showed 27%
sequence identity with the iron regulator Fur (Patzer and Hantke, 1998). In giant
algal cells, Zn uptake was considered to be controlled by two separate transport
systems, a high-affmity system and a low-affmity system (Reid et aI., 1996). Future
research should be directed to identifying those uptake systems in higher plants and
to clarifying the molecular bases of Zn efficiency in higher plants.
Physiological and genetic bases of plant Zn and B use efficiency are summarized
in table 6.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
Elemental toxicities and deficiencies are the major constraints that limit crop
production in acid soils. The adaptation of crop plants to elemental stresses in acid
soils varied greatly between different crop species and cultivars or genotypes within
the same species. Tolerance to toxic stresses of Al and Mn or deficiency stresses of
N, P, K, B, Zn etc. in crop plants is closely related to the physiological processes of
ion uptake, transport, and re-translocation in the plant. Uptake is a decisive process
in ion acquisition. In the last decade, our knowledge of the mechanisms of Al
resistance or tolerance has been advanced considerably. The AI resistance of a
number of crop plant species is mainly through increased root excretion of organic
acids and through specific anion transporters in the plasma membrane. Future
research should be directed towards clarifying the mechanisms involved, as well as
the role of regulatory proteins, which may be closely associated with the transporters
and are candidates for Al resistance genes. However, the mechanisms responsible for
the efficient use of N, P, K, B, and Zn iri crop plants are not fully understood,
although research into these elements has increased in the last decade. More
extensive and intensive studies are certainly needed to understand the mechanisms of
plant adaptation to P, K, B, Zn deficiencies. Future research needs to be redirected to
understand the physiological basis and molecular background of the high-affinity
transport systems of these macro- and micronutrients in major crop plants. Extensive
gene resources for AI resistance and nutrient efficiency are available; however, up to
now, these potentials have not been exploited to any great extent by breeders. Plant
adaptation to acid soils is also greatly affected by a series of external factors
Table 6. Morphological. physiological and genetic bases ofplant Zn and B use efficiency
Element Morphological and physiological traits Reference

Zn Root
less dry matter, length and surface Cakmak et al" 1999; Swietik, 1995;
area, shorter and thicker Rengel and Wheal, 1997
laterals
Phytosiderophore releaseing I Hopkinset al" 1998; Cakmak et al"
1996
Shoot
less shoot dry weight, shorter stem, Yu and Rengel, 1999; Erenoglu et al"
smaller leaves and rosette-type 2000; Cakmak et al" 1996; Swietik
leaf bunches, whitish-brown 1995; Clark and BaIigar, 2000
necrotic patches on leaf blades
lower soluble protein concentration
in seedling
IErenoglu et ai" 2000
lower carbonic anhydrase activity Yu and Rengel, 1999; Sasaki et ai"

in leaves, higher transfer 1998; Hu and Sparks, 1991;Sharma
resistance from the stomatal et al" 1995; Volschenk et al" 1996
cavity to the site of CO2
fixation, decreasing
photosynthetic activity
B Root
stop elongating, becoming stubby Clark and Baligar, 2000
or bushy in appearance
Shoot
Yu and Bell, 1998; Ramirez and
Hollow or decayed stem, light
Linares, 1995; Delland and
colour or chlorosis on young
Malajczuk, 1994
leaves and stems, dark green
upper leaves with edges
curved down
Table 6 Continued)
B Damaged leaf cell inner structure, higher Wang et al., 2000;
leakage of K across plasma membrane
lower net photosynthetic rate , less grain

number and grain yield
IDell and Malajczuk, 1994;
Rerkasem and Loneragan 1994
reduced cell wall plastic extensibility, lower Hu and Brown, 1994; Camacho
nitrate reductase activity, higher content of
carbohydrates
I and Gonzalez, 1999
male sterility I Rerkasem and Jamjod, 1997
including soil physical properties, fertilizer and soil amendment application, fanning
systems (crop rotation), environmental factors etc. In order to achieve sustainable
crop production in acid soils, it is necessary to make optimal use of plant breeding
techniques, focusing on adaptable crop genotypes, including those with high
tolerance to elemental toxicities and high nutrient use efficiencies, as well as
employing optimal soil, nutrient and environmental management practices (Fig. 2).
Tolerant and efficient Integrated and optimal

as well as high yielding fertilizer and nutrient
crop genotypes management
Sustainable crop
productivity
in acid soils management
Integrated
Integrated pest and Adaptive and efficient

disease management farming system
Figure 2. Major components and their interactions for achieving sustainable agriculture
production in acid soils. Apart from improving crop plants highly adaptable to toxic and
deficient stresses in acid soils, it is also important to establish integrated and best nutrient,
soil and pest! disease management as well efficient farming systems to achieve sustainable and
improved crop yields
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support by the Natural Science Foundation of China (# 39925024) and the
Natural Science Foundation of Zbejiang Province (#41332500) are greatly
appreciated.
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RESPONSE OF UPLAND RICE GENOTYPES TO
SOIL ACIDITY
N K FAGERIA(l)E M CASTRO(l) AND V C BALIGAR(2)
(l)National Rice and Bean Research Center of Emhrapa, Caixa Postal 179, Santo
Antonio de Goias, GO, Brazil
(2)Alternate Crops and Systems Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agriculture
Research Center, USDA-ARS Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA
ABSTRACT
In many parts of the world where the soils are highly weathered Oxisols, acidity is one of the major
factors that contributes to the reduction of crop yields. In addition to liming, use of acid tolerant crop
species or cultivars within species, is a complementary solution for the improvement of crop production
on such soils. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of 20 upland rice (Ory=a
sativa L.) genotypes to two levels of soil acidity. An Oxisol (Typic Haplustox) was amended without and
with dolomitic lime (6g /kg soil) to achieve pH values of 4.5 (High soil acidity) and 6.4 (Low soil
acidity). At both soil acidity levels, genotypes differed significantly in growth parameters, grain yield and
yield components. Grain yield and most of the yield components were significantly decreased at low soil
acidity as compared with high soil acidity, demonstrating the tolerance of upland rice genotypes to soil
acidity. The majority of the genotypes that produced higher yields at high soil acidity did not produce
high yields at low soil acidity level, demonstrating strong genotype x acidity interactions. Grain yield
gave positive significant correlations with plant height, shoot dry weight, panicle number, grain harvest
index, and 1000- grain weight and it had negative and significant correlation with spikelet sterility.
Genotypes differed significantly in nutrient use efficiency and there were also significant acidity x
genotype interactions for almost all nutrient use efficiencies for grain production. Grain yield gave
significant negative correlations with soil pH, Ca saturation and base saturation. Grain yield gave
significant positive correlations with, soil AI, H+AI and CEC, confirming that upland rice genotypes are
tolerant to soil acidity.
1. INTRODUCTION
On highly weathered soils in many parts of the world, soil acidity is a major yield-
limiting factor for crop production (Foy, 1984; Fageria, 2001a). Acid and low
fertility Oxisols and Ultisols cover about 43% of the tropics (Sanchez and Logan,
1992). Most of the central part of Brazil is tropical savanna, known as the Cerrado,
covering about 205 million ha or 23% of the country.
219
220 FAGERIA et al.
Major soils of this region are Oxisols (46%), Ultisols (15%), and Entisols (15%),
with low natural fertility, high aluminum saturation and high P fixation capacity
(Baligar and Fageria, 1997). Acid soil toxicity is not caused by a single factor but by
a complex of factors that includes toxicities of AP+, Mn2+, and W, and deficiencies
of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and micronutrients (Baligar and Fageria, 1997). In Oxisols of
central Brazil, deficiencies of Zn, B, and Cu have been reported (Fageria and
Baligar, 1997). These constraints to crop production are all typical of the red soils of
China.
Rice grown under rain-fed conditions on well-drained soils without surface water
accumulation, normally without phreatic water supply, and normally not bunded is
called upland rice or aerobic rice (Fageria, 2001a). Upland rice is mainly produced
in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Upland rice is grown annually on about 17
million ha ofland area worldwide including 10.5 million ha in Asia, 3.7 million ha
in Latin America, and 2.8 million ha in Africa (lRR!, 1999). Brazil is the largest
producer of upland rice in the world, with average yield of about 2 t ha·!, whereas
average yield potential of lowland rice is about 5 t ha·!. As in Brazil, low yields are
achieved in other upland rice producing regions of the world, such low yields being
attributed to unstable environmental factors. However, although upland rice yields
are relatively low compared to lowland rice, nevertheless it will continue to be a
dominant crop in regions where it can be grown mainly because of low production
costs of production and lack of irrigation facilities. In Brazil, new varieties of upland
rice have been developed which have high yield potential and excellent grain
quality. In Asia, Africa, and Latin America, however, upland rice is planted in low-
fertility soils and nutrient deficiency is one of the major yield limiting factors.
Improving upland rice yield along with that of other annual crops is of a paramount
concern in meeting food requirements, especially in the developing countries and
use of acid soil tolerant cultivars is an important strategy for improving yield
potentials of this crop under tropical conditions. The objectives of this study were 1)
to evaluate response of upland rice genotypes to soil acidity and 2) to determine
influence of soil acidity on nutrient use efficiency of lowland genotypes and soil
chemical properties.
A greenhouse experiment was conducted at the National Rice and Bean Research
Center ofEMBRAPA, Santo Antonio de GOlas, GOlas to evaluate the response of 20
upland rice (Oryza sativa L) genotypes to soil acidity. The soil used in the
experiment was an Oxisol (Typic Haplusthox a Dark Red Latosol in the Brazilian
RESPONSE OF RICE GENOTYPES TO SOIL ACIDITY 221
soil classification system). It had the following chemical and textural properties
before the application of lime: pH 4.7 (1:2.5 soil-water ratio), extractable P 0.6 mg
kg'I, extractable K 39 mg kg'I, extractable Ca 0.27 cmole kg'I, extractable Mg 0.1
cmole kg"I, extractable Al 0.6 cmole kg-I, extractable Cu 1.3 mg kg-I, extractable Zn
0.5 mg kg-I, extractable Fe 44 mg kg'I, extractable Mn 3 mg kg-I, and organic matter
of 16 g kg- I of soil. Textural analysis values were 582 g kg- I clay, 123 g kg"1 silt and
295 g kg- I sand. Phosphorus and K were extracted by the Mehlich 1 extracting
solution (0.05 M HCI + 0.0125 M H2S04), Phosphorus was determined
colorimetrically, and K by flame photometry. Calcium, Mg, and Al in soil were
extracted with 1 M KCl. Aluminum was determined by titration with NaOH, and Ca
and Mg by titration with EDTA. Micronutrients were determined on a portion of the
Mehlich 1 extracting solution by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Organic
matter was determined by the Walkley-Black method, and textural analysis by
pipette method. Soil analysis methods used in this study are described in a soil
analysis manual published by EMBRAPA (1997).
The treatment consisted of two acidity levels, i.e., without lime application
(high) and an application of 6 g dolomitic lime per kg of soil (low) and 20 upland
rice genotypes. Average soil pH across genotypes at harvest was 4.5 at high acidity
level and 6.4 at low acidity level. Genotypes used in the experiment were: CRO
97505, CNAs 8983, CNAs 8812, CNAs 8938, CNAs 8960, CNAs 8989, CNAs
8824, CNAs 8957, CRO 97422, CNAs 8817, CNAs 8934, CNAs 8952, CNAs 8950,
CNA 8540, CNA 8711, CNA 8170, Primavera, Canastra, Bonancra and Carisma.
These are the promising genotypes supplied by the breeders of the National Rice &
Bean Research Center. A complete randomized design was used in a factorial
arrangement, and treatments were replicated three times.
Plastic pots, with 5 kg of soil in each were used for the plant growth. Limestone was
applied 4 weeks before sowing and all pots were subjected to wetting and drying
cycles during the incubation period to improve liming effects on soil properties. At
the time of sowing, each pot received a basal application of 600 mg N as ammonium
sulfate, 787 mg P as triple superphosphate, 996 mg K as potassium chloride and 51
mg Zn as zinc sulfate. Each pot also received top dressing of 400 mg N as
ammonium sulfate 50 days after sowing. These fertilizer rates were based on the
recommendations of Fageria and Baligar. (1997). After germination four uniform
plants were maintained in each pot and pots were watered to maintain soil moisture
approximately at field capacity during the experimentation. At maturity, plant
height, number of panicles, dry matter of shoot, grain yield, weight of 1000 grain
and spikelet sterility were determined. Plant material (shoot and grain) was dried in
a forced-draft oven at about 70°C until of a constant weight, and milled. The ground
222 FAGERIA et al.
plant material was digested with sulfuric acid for N determination. Total N in the
plant tissue was determined with a Tecator 1016 digester and 1004 distilling unit
according to method of Bremner and Mulvaney (1982). Ground material was
digested with a mixture of nitric and perchloric acids (2:1) for other nutrients
determination. The P concentration in the digest was determined colorimetrically,
while all other elements were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(Morais and Rabelo, 1986). After plant harvesting, soil samples were taken from
each pot for determination of chemical properties as described earlier. All data were
analyzed by analysis of variance, and F-test was used to determine treatment
significance. Tukey's test was used to compare treatment means at the 5%
probability level. Nutrient use efficiency across two acidity levels was calculated
using following formula:
Nutrient use efficiency = Grain yield

Nutrient accumulated in grain plus straw
3.1 Growth parameters, yield and yield components
Genotypes significantly differed in shoot dry weight and height. However, soil
acidity treatment did not have significant effect on these growth parameters (Table
1). Shoot dry weight varied from 66.32 g porI to 42.92 g porI, a variation of about
55% observed between the lowest shoot dry weight- producing genotype Bonan~a
and the heighest shoot dry weight-producing genotype CRO 97422. At high soil
acidity, plant height varied from 90 to 132 em among genotypes, a variation of about
47% recorded between the lowest height genotype CNA 8170 and the tallest
genotype CRO 97422. Variation in shoot dry weight and plant height in upland rice
genotypes grown on Brazilian Oxisols has been previously reported (Fageria et al
1988) and is related to tillering, plant height and culm thickness. These plant
characters are influenced by environmental factors (Yoshida, 1981) and are also
genetically controlled (Jennings et al. 1979). The tallest genotype CRO 97422
produced maximum shoot dry weight but dwarf genotypes such as e CNA 8170
(high soil acidity level) and Carisma (low soil acidity level) did not produce lowest
shoot dry weight, suggesting that factors other than height (for example, tillering)
must determine the overall shoot dry weight. Grain yield was significantly affected
by soil acidity, genotype and their interactions (Table 1). It varied from as low as
30.97 g porI produced by genotype CNAs 8824 to as high as 74.27 g porI produced
by genotype CRO 97505 at high soil acidity level. At low acidity level, genotype
CRO 97505 also produced maximum grain yield (52 g porI) but minimum grain
yield was produced by genotype Carisma (17.50 g porI). The variation in grain yield
of lowest and highest yield producing genotypes was about 140% at high acidity
level and about 197% at low acidity level. This means that mechanisms of genotype
adaptability to acid soils for grain production are different at different acidity levels.
Hence, it is suggested that upland rice genotypes should be evaluated for their
performance at more than one level of soil acidity. The existence of variation in
grain yield potentials of upland rice genotypes grown on Oxisols of Brazilian has
been reported previously (Fageria 1984 and Fageria and Morais 1987).
Grain yield was lower at low soil acidity (or liming reduced grain yield) for all the
genotypes except genotypes CNAs 8824, CNAs 8817 and CNAs 8952. A 24%.
decrease in grain yield at low soil acidity levels was found across the genotypes
compared with yields at high soil acidity levels. This decrease indicates that upland
rice genotypes are rather tolerant to soil acidity. Fageria and Zimmerman (1998)
reported that on Brazilian Oxisols, upland rice produced maximum dry weight of
roots and tops at the lowest pH (4.1 in water) as compared to common bean and
wheat that produced maximum yield at pH about 6.0. Fageria and Santos (1998)
also reported that rice dry matter and grain yield were significantly and linearly
increased when Al3+ concentration in a Brazilian acid Inceptisol was increased from
o to 3.83cmolc kg· I of soil. Fageria et al. (1989) reported stimulation of growth of
rice at 10 mg Al3+ L- I in nutrient solution.
Panicle number and spikelet sterility were significantly affected by soil acidity and
genotype and their interactions (Table 2). Grain harvest index and lOOO-grain
weight were only significantly influenced by genotype and genotype x acidity
interactions. These parameters, however, were not affected significantly by soil
acidity treatment. Significant interaction between acidity and genotypes
corresponded to change in genotype panicle number, spikelet sterility, harvest index
and 1000-grain weight with change in soil acidity. Panicle number varied from
24.33 to 43.33 at the high soil acidity level and 17.67 to 32.33 at the low soil
acidity level. Across the 20 genotypes, the decrease in panicle number at low acidity
was about 30% compared with the high acidity level. Spikelet sterility varied
from13.18 to 41.21% at the high acidity level and 11.41 to 38% at the low acidity
level.
224 FAGERIA et al.
Table 1. Dry matter yield ofshoot, plant height and grain yield under acidity
treatments of 20 upland rice genotypes
Genotype Shoot Dry Plant Height (em) Grain Yield (g pOfl)

Wt 1
(gpofl) High Low High Low
Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity
CR097505 59.30ab l09cde 117abcd 74.27a 52.00a
CNAs8983 50.07ab 101efgh l09cde 55.23b 42.93abc
CNAs8938 57.97ab 120bcd 120abcd 56.30ab 25.20cd
CNAs8960 59.60ab 137a 128a 51.70bc 47.43ab
CNAs8989 58.03ab 108defg 112cde 58.1Oab 51. 73a
CNAs8957 59.50ab 120bcd 114bcde 50.73bc 39.53abc
CR097422 66.32a 132ab 123abc 53.87bc 47.80ab
CNAs8817 59.25ab 113cde 115abcde 44.90bcd 46.60ab
CNAs8934 55.32ab l09def 114abcde 47.40bcd 39.43abc
CNAs8952 47.80ab 110cde 111cde 35.63cd 37.77abc
CNAs8950 53.53ab 112cde 113cde 40.17bcd 26.93cd
CAN8540 46.57ab 94gh 93cde 36.6Ocd 30.67bcd
CAN8711 53.55ab 130ab 127ab 45.63bcd 40.00abc
CAN8170 58.00ab 90h 94fg 45.33bcd 38.37abc
Primavera 49.47ab 124abc I 22fg 53.00bc 47.20ab
Canastra 56.02ab l09def 10Ief 51.63bc 38.90abc
Bonan~a 42.92ab 95fgh 93fg 47.80bcd 36.53abc
Carisma 51.25ab 9gefgh 85g 50.77bc 17.5Od
Av~e 54.64 III 110 40.09 39.53
FTest
Acidity (A) NS NS *
Genotype(G) * ** **
AXG NS ** **
CV~%~ 19 4 13
[ Across two acidity levels
(*) and (**) Significant at the 5 and I % probability levels and nonsignificant, respectively.
Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% probability
level by Tukey's t
On average, the decrease in spikelet sterility was about 26% at low acidity compared
with that at high acidity. Liming has a helpful effect on decreasing spikelet sterility.
In most of the genotypes overall spikelet sterility was high at both soil acidity levels.
In rice under normal environmental conditions, 15% spikelet sterility is normally
expected (Yoshida, 1981). Only 20%of the genotypes used had spikelet sterility less
than 20% at high acidity levels and 40% had low spikelet sterility at low acidity
level (Table 2). Some genotypes like CNAs 8952 and CNAs 8950 showed sterility
as high as 41 and 38%, respectively at high acidity levels. An improved plant
breeding program is needed to reduce spikelet sterility at low as well as at high
acidity levels.
Grain harvest index varied from 0.38 to 0.55 at the high soil acidity level and 0.27 to
0.51 at the low soil acidity level. Across the genotypes the decrease in grain harvest
index was about 4.5% at the low soil acidity level compared with that at the high
soil acidity level. In modem rice cultivars harvest index is generally in the range of
0.45 to 0.50 (Yoshida, 1981; Peng et al. 2000). Average grain harvest index was
within the lower range at low as well as at high soil acidity levels. However, 20% of
the genotypes had a harvest index lower than 0.45 at high soil acidity level and 55%
of the genotypes had a harvest index of <0.45 at low soil acidity levels (Table 2),
indicating that lime decreases grain harvest index. Even though variation was
observed in the 1000-grain weight within genotypes and between soil acidity levels,
overall these factors did not influence the 1000-grain weight trait in all the
genotypes. However, at both acidity levels 50% of the genotypes had 1000 grain
weights lower than average of all 20 genotypes. Based on analysis of yield
components, it can be concluded that the decrease in grain yield at low soil acidity
levels (Table 1) was mainly due to decrease in panicle number and grain harvest
index. Overall at both soil acidity levels, grain yield of upland rice genotypes were
low mainly due to high spikelet sterility and low 1000 grain weight.
Correlation coefficients between grain yield and yield components and plant
morphological characteristics were determined to evaluate effects of these plant
parameters on yield (Table 3).
Shoot dry weight, panicle number, plant height, grain harvest index and 1000-grain
weight had significant (P <0.01) positive correlation with grain yield. However,
spikelet sterility had significant (P <0.05) negative correlation with grain yield as
expected. These correlation data show that grain yield in upland rice genotypes can
be increased with increasing shoot dry weight, panicle number, plant height and
grain harvest index and by reducing spikelet sterility. The major plant traits that
contributed to the yield in rice are number of panicles per unit area, spikelet number
per panicle, percentage of spikelet fertility, and grain weight, normally expressed as
1000-grain weight (Yoshida, 1981; Fageria et al. 1997). Among these yield
components, number of panicle or spikelets per unit area is usually the most variable
yield component, accounting for about 74% of the variation in yield (Yoshida,
1981). Filled spikelet percentage and grain weight together account for 26% of the
yield variation (Yoshida and Parao, 1976). Rao (1988) has suggested that the greater
number of high-density grain per panicle is one of the major physiological
components of high yielding cultivars. Thus it is evident that efficient sink size,
number of panicles, spikelets and filled spikelets play a pivotal role in enhancing
rice yield potential.
226 FAGERIA et al
Table 2. Influence ofsoil acidity on panicle number, spikelet sterility and grain
harvest index of 20 upland rice genotypes
Genotype Panicle number Spikelet sterility Grain Harvest Index

(por') (%)
High Low High Acidity Low High Low
Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity
CR097505 38.00ab 28.33abc 13.85g 13.66d 0.55a 0.49a
CNAs8983 29.00bcd 25.67abc 14.93fg 17.23cd 0.52ab 0.47ab
CNAs8812 36.67abc 32.33a 25.50bcdefg 12.22d 0.45abc O.44ab
CNAs8938 33.33abcd 19.67bc 31.94abcd 38.00a O.46abc 0.35bc
CNAs8960 24.33d 24.00abc 14.87fg 13.02d 0.45abc 0.47ab
CNAs8989 34.67abcd 27.33abc 15.59fg 16.35d 0.48abc 0.49a
CNAs8824 35.33abcd 31.00ab 26.98bcdef 18.24cd 0.42abc 0.41abc
CNAs8957 27.00bcd 19.33bc 18.36efg l1.92d 0.45abc 0.42ab
CR097422 28.00bcd 23.67abc 15.23fg 1l.41d 0.43abc 0.45ab
CNAs8817 31.67abcd 24.33abc 25.51bcdefg 13.56d 0.41bc 0.47ab
CNAs8934 34.67abcd 30.33ab 19. 84defg 22.94bcd 0.49abc 0.41ab
CNAs8952 25.67cd 19.67bc 41.21a 29.81abc O.42abc 0.46ab
CNAs8950 31.67abcd 19.00bc 37.96ab 16.58d 0.38c 0.41abc
CNA8540 38.00ab 25.67abc 20. 14defg 17.11cd 0.41bc 0.43ab
CNA8711 30.00bcd 24.00abc 25.64bcdefg 20. 79bcd 0.45abc O.44ab
CNA8170 32.33abcd 30.33ab 13.18g 12.54d 0.45abc 0.40abc
Primavera 25.00cd 21. 67abc 33.59abc 32.51ab 0.50abc 0.51a
Canastra 32.00abcd 26.33abc 21.09cdefg 16.74d 0.45abc O.44ab
Bonan~a 26.33bcd 20.67abc 17.4gefg 13.89d 0.50abc 0.49a
Carisma 43.33a 17.67c 28.93abcde 17.52cd 0.47abc 0.27c
Average 31.85 24.55 23.09 18.30 0.46 0.44
FTest
Acidity (A) * * NS
Genotype ** ** **
AXG **
CV(%) 14 20 10
" ", NS Significant at the 5 and 1% probability levels and nonsignificant, respectively.
Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5%
probability level by Tukey' s test.
Table 3. Correlation coefficients (r) between grain yield and plant parameters
across two acidity levels and 20 upland rice genotypes
Variable Grain Yield ~ot"~

Dry Weight of Shoot (g pot") 0.517**
Panicle Number (por') 0.476**
Plant Height (cm) 0.312**
Spikelet Sterility (%) -0.200*
Grain harvest index 0.423**
" Ii Significant at the 5 and 1% probability levels, respectively.
3.2 Nutrient use efficiency
To evaluate nutrient use efficiency, four highest yielding genotypes (CRO 97505,
CNAs 8983, CNAs 8938 and CNAs 8989), four lowest yielding genotypes (CNAs
8824, CNAs 8952, CNAs 8950 and CNA 8540) and two intennediate yielding
genotypes (Primavera and Carisma) at high soil acidity levels were selected.
Nitrogen use efficiency varied from 43 to 65 ~g grain produced per ~g N
accumulated in the grain and straw depending on genotypes (Table 4). The highest
yielding genotype CRO 97505 ranked second in N utilization for grain production
after Primavera, an intennediate grain producing genotype. The lowest yielding
genotypes CNAs 8824, CNAs
Table 4. Nitrogen, P and K utilization efficiency (Ilg grain yield per Ilg nutrient
accumulated in plant) by 10 upland rice genotypes at two aciditylevels
Genotype NUE l PUB KUB

High Low High Low
Acidity Acidity Acidity
Acidity
CR097505 62a 438a 449a 59ab
73a
CNAs8983 59ab 424a 426ab 68abc
55abc
CNAs9838 52bcd 404ab 335abc 45bc
61abcd
CNAs8989 57abc 367abc 436ab 54abc
52abcd
CNAs8824 43d 360c 359abc 42d
39bc
CNAs8952 50bcd 288bc 372abc 54abc
53bcd
CNAs8950 43d 292bc 306bc 44cd
44bc
CAN8540 44d 288bc 317abc 4ld
52abc
Primavera 65a 452a 40 I abc 77a
85a
Carisma 48cd 362abc 279c 56abcd
23c
Aver!!.l!ie 52 358 368 57
51
FIest
Acidity (A) * ** **
Genotype (G) •* ** *•
AXG NS ** •
CV(%l 11 12 19
I ••• , NS Significant at the 5 and I % probability levels and nonsignificant, respectively,
Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5%
probability level by Iukey' s test
8952, CNAs 8950 and CNA 8540 had lowest N use efficiency compared with the
highest and intennediate yielding genotypes.
Phosphorus and K use efficiencies varied with acidity level and genotypes (Table 4).
All the genotypes had higher P use efficiency at low soil acidity levels with the
exception of genotypes CNAs 8938, Primavera and Carisma. At high soil acidity
levels, with the exception of genotypes Primavera, CNAs 8952 and CNA 8540, all
228 FAGERIA et aI.
other genotypes had high K use efficiency. In upland rice genotypes under low soil
acidity conditions, P use efficiency was higher but converse was true for K use
efficiency. Higher P use efficiency at lower soil acidity may be related to a favorable
environment for its availability and uptake, as well as utilization by genotypes.
Fageria (1984) reported that P availability for rice in Brazilian Oxisols improved
with liming due to liberation of P from the iron and aluminum hydroxides. Fageria
et al (1995 and 1997) have reported the existence of differences in P and K use
efficiency in upland rice genotypes. The highest yielding genotypes had higher P
and K use efficiencies at lower as well at higher soil acidity levels compared with
lowest yielding genotypes. From these results it can be concluded that improved
utilization of N, P and K in grain production is probably one of the mechanisms for
acidity tolerance in upland rice genotypes. Inter and intra specific variation for plant
growth and mineral nutrient use efficiency are known to be under genetic and
physiological control and are modified by plant interactions with environmental
variables (Baligar and Fageria, 2001). Genetic variation for nutrient use efficiency
has been widely reported within and among crop species. Gene factors and
inheritance of traits related to nutrient use efficiency have been well documented
(Clark and Duncan, 1991; Sattelmacher et aI., 1994; Duncan and Carrow, 1999).
Calcium and Mg use efficiency varied from genotype to genotype and in all
genotypes the use efficiency of both these nutrients was higher at high soil acidity
levels compared to low soil acidity (Table 5).
Calcium and Mg use efficiencies were higher in the highest yielding genotypes
(CRO 97505, CNAs 8983, CNAs 8938 and CNAs 8989) compared with the lowest
yielding genotypes (CNAs 8824, CNAs 8952, CNAs 8950 and CNA 8540). The
intermediate yield ranking genotype, Primavera also had high Ca and Mg use
efficiencies at low as well as at high soil acidity levels. Another medium yield
ranking genotype Carisma had intermediate Ca and Mg use efficiency at high soil
acidity level but had very low Ca and Mg use efficiency at low soil acidity levels.
This means that this genotype was very sensitive to low acidity in relation to grain
production. On average Ca use efficiency was about 23% higher at high soil acidity
levels compared to low acidity levels. Similarly, Mg use efficiency at high acidity
was 52% higher than low soil acidity levels. The lower Ca and Mg use efficiency at
low soil acidity may be related to lower grain as well as straw yield at low acidity
levels. Further, in the classical mode of plant response to increasing nutrient supply,
the greatest amounts of yield produced per unit of absorbed nutrient were at the
lowest level of nutrient supply (Fageria et aI., 1988).
In addition, Fageria (1992) reported that maximum nutrient use efficiency is

obtained when the nutrient concentration is near the critical level, because near
RESPONSE OF RICE GENOTYPES TO UPLAND ACIDITY 229
maximum yield occurs at this point without excessive nutrient levels in the plant.
Values of nutrient use efficiencies decline in the profuse and toxic range because
yield levels even out or decrease while nutrient concentrations increase (Fageria,
1992). Nutrient use efficiency among macronutrients was in the order of P > Mg >
Ca > K> N at high soil acidity levels. Accumulation of these nutrients in the shoot
and grain was in the order of N > K > Ca > Mg > P (Table 6). Hence, highest P use
efficiency among macronutrients is related to maximum use of this nutrient per Wlit
grain production although it was accumulated in the minimum quantity in shoot and
grain (Table 6). Similarly, the lowest efficiency of N is related to minimum use of
this nutrient in grain production even though it was accumulated in straw and grain
in maximum quantity.
Table 5. Calcium and Mg use efficiency (pg grain per pg nutrient accumulated in
plant) by 10 upland rice genotypes
Genotype CaVE MgUE

High Low High Low
CR097505 208a 196a 358a 236ab
CNAs8983 206ab 163abc 345a 232ab
CNAs8938 206ab l04bcd 321ab 114c
CNAs8989 196ab 176ab 307abc 225ab
CNAs8824 125b 147abc 200bc 184abc
CNAs8952 146ab 146abc 239abc 185abc
CNAs8950 135ab 128abcd 213bc 172abs
CAN8540 130ab 101cd 191c 139bc
Primavera 206ab 175abc 360a 249a
Carisma 163ab 61d 261abc 92c
Average 172 140 279 183
FTest
Acidity (A) ** **
Genotype (G) ** **
AXG ** **
CV(%) 17 17
.. Significant at the 1% probability level. Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not
significantly different at the 5% probability level by Tukey' s test
Use efficiencies for Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn varied with genotypes and soil acidity levels
(Tables 7 and 8). All micronutrients produced higher grain yields per unit of
nutrients accumulated at low soil acidity levels compared with high soil acidity
levels, except two genotypes for Cu and three genotypes for Mn.
230 FAGERIA et al.
On average, highest yielding genotypes CRO 97505, CNAs 8983, CNAs 8938 and
CNAs 8989 had higher Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn use efficiencies compared with low
yielding genotypes CNAs 8824, CNAs 8952, CNAs 8950 and CNA 8540. However,
the intermediate-
Table 6. Nutrient accumulation in shoot and grain under two soil acidity levels
across 20 upland rice genotypes
Nutrient Accumulation in shoot Accumulation in grain

High Low acidity High acidity Low acidity
acidi~
N (mg porI) 297.99a 229.84b 655.41a 472.87b
P (mg pori) 36.75a 27.46b 98.71a 75.02b
K (mg pori) 635a 606a 228a 17tb
Ca (mg pori) 219.32a 212.78b 73.14a 59.16b
Mg(mgporl) 128a 174a 55a 46b
Zn (J,lgporl) 8824a 2598b 2029a 1294b
Cu (J,lg pori) 155a 90b 370a 162b
Mn(J,lgpor l) 13032a 10289a 1560a 782b
Fe {J,lg )20rl} 32633a 8009a 1997a 1464b
Means followed by the same letter in the same row lUlder two acidity levels are not significantly different
at the 5% probability level
yielding genotype Primavera had the highest Zn use efficiency at high soil acidity
levels among the 10 genotypes evaluated for Zn use efficiency. Fageria et al
(2002)reported the existence of genotypic differences in micronutrient use in crop
plants including upland rice. Among micronutrients, Cu produced maximum grain
yield per unit nutrient accumulated in the grain and shoot, followed by Zn, Mn and
Fe. The higher use ofCu may be related to better utilization ofthls nutrient in grain
production by genotypes compared with other micronutrients. Accumulation of Cu
was minimum in the shoot and grain across 20 genotypes at two acidity levels
compared with other micronutrients (Table 6). Fageria (2001b) reported that Cu
produced maximum grain yield of upland rice per unit of Cu accumulation in grain
and straw as compared with Zn, Fe and Mn.
3.3 Soil chemical properties
Soil acidity indices - pH, H+AI and base saturation - were determined at harvest of
upland rice genotypes (Table 9). Soil pH and H+AI were significantly (P<O.Ol)
influenced by soil acidity and genotype and their interactions. Soil pH varied from
4.2 to 4.8 at high soil acidity levels and from 6.1 to 6.7 at low acidity levels
depending on genotypes. Average pH across the genotypes was 4.5 at low soil
acidity level and 6.4 at high soil acidity level. The increase in pH at low soil acidity
level was expected due to liming. H+AI varied from 59 to 75 mmolc dm- 3 at high
soil acidity and 11 to 17 mmol c dm- 3 at low soil acidity. Average values of H+AI
were 68 mmol c dm-3 at high soil acidity levels and 14 mmolc dm- 3 at low acidity
levels. Variation in soil pH as well as in H+AI was higher at high soil acidity as
compared with low soil acidity. At low soil acidity, change in H+AI parameters
by upland
Table 7. Zinc and Cu use efficiency (mg grain per flg nutrient accumulated in the
Genotype ZnUE CuUE

High Low High Low
acidi~ acidi~ acidi~ Acidi~
CRO 97505 5.0 11.3ab 150bc 197
CNAs 8983 5.2 11.6a 207a 182
CNAs 8938 5.3 8.3ab 191ab 184
CNAs 8989 4.1 10.9ab 138bcd 176
CNAs 8824 3.1 8.9ab 86de 122
CNAs 8952 3.8 9.7ab 96cde 152
CNAs 8950 4.2 8.8ab 7ge 141
CNA8540 4.6 10.6ab 76e 144
Primavera 6.4 12.2a 117cde 192
Carisma 5.2 6.6b 127cde 114
Average 4.7 9.9 127 160
F test
Acidity (A) * *
Genotype ** **
AXG * *
CV(%) 20 18
8, " "Significant at the 5 and I % probability level, respectively, Means in the same column followed
by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% probability level by Tukey' s test~
genotypes was low compared with high soil acidity. Hence, it can be concluded that
the adaptability mechanisms of rice genotypes function better under acidity stress
conditions compared with nonstress acidity conditions. This is also reflected in the
higher variation in grain yield at high acidity levels compared with the low acidity
treatment. Further, four highest yielding genotypes CRO 97505, CNAs 8983, CNAs
8938 and CNAs 8989 had higher concentrations of H+AI in the soil (average of 4
232 FAGERIA et al.
genotypes 71 mmol c dm- 3) compared with the four lowest yielding genotypes CNAs
8824, CNAs 8952, CNAs 8950 and CNA 8540 (average of 4 genotypes 66 mmolc
dm- 3). This means these genotypes had a higher ability to acidifY the rhizosphere
compared to the lower yielding genotypes. This might help the genotypes in their
higher absorption and utilization of micronutrients and consequently their higher
yield.
Base saturation was influenced by acidity treatment but not by the genotypes. On
average, it was 16% at high soil acidity and 82% at low soil acidity, an increase of
413% by liming. Normally, in Oxisols of the Cerrado region of Brazil for crops like
common bean, soybean and com, the optimum value for pH is about 6.0, H+AI is
about less than 50 mmolc dm- 3 and base saturation is about 60% (Fageria, 2001b,
Fageria and Baligar, 2001). Results ofthis study show that upland rice genotypes
can grow well at an average pH of 4.5, H+AI of 68 mmolc dm- 3 and base saturation
of 16%.
Table 8. Iron and Mn use efficiency (mg grain per j1g nutrient accumulated in the
Genotype FeUE MnUE

High Low High Low
CRO 97505 2.63a 4.65ab 4.26ab 3.90ab
CNAs 8983 2.38ab 6.23a 3.46abcd 3.95ab
CNAs 8938 l.39ab 3.09bc 4.56a 2.21ab
CNAs 8989 1.54ab 6.56a 3.56abcd 3.76ab
CNAs 8824 O.92b 4.69ab 2.21d 3.58ab
CNAs 8952 1.17ab 5.78a 2.86bcd 3.98ab
CNAs 8950 1.18ab 4.67ab 2.79bcd 3.91ab
CNA8540 0.85b 2.92bc 2.63cd 2.95ab
Primavera 2.03ab 5.76a 3.79abc 5.26a
Carisma 1.02b 1.85c 3.36abcd 1.97b
Average 1.51 4.62 3.35 3.85
F test
Acidity (A) ** *
Genotype ** **
AXG ** *
CV(%) 25 41
., .. Significant at the 5 and I % probability levels, respectively. Means in the same column followed by
the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% probability level by Tukey' s test.
RESPONSE OF RICE GENOTYPES TO UPLAND ACIDITY 233
This indicates that upland rice can grow well on acid soils. Tolerance of upland rice
to soil acidity has been reported by Fageria (2001b) compared to other crops such as
soybean, common bean and com. Other soil chemical properties determined after
harvest of upland rice genotypes at two acidity levels are presented in Table 10. Soil
exchangeable Ca and Mg, extractable P, and Ca, Mg and K saturation were
significantly higher at low soil acidity compared with high soil acidity. However, AI
and Fe contents significantly decreased at low acidity levels. The increase in some
soil properties and decrease in others were expected due to liming (Fageria, 2000).
Phosphorus is one of the most yield-limiting nutrients in Oxisols of the Cerrado
region. (Fageria and Baligar, 2001). The increase in P content at low soil acidity
indicates that liming can be beneficial in improving P uptake of crops on acid soils.
However, the decrease in Fe content at low soil acidity means that the probability of
causing deficiency of this micronutrient is higher when Oxisols are limed to achieve
desirable higher soil pH (about 6.0) for acidity sensitive crops. Fageria (2000)
reported deficiency symptoms of Fe in upland rice genotypes at pH values higher
than 6.0. Correlation coefficients between grain yield and soil chemical properties
show significant negative correlations with pH, Ca saturation and base saturation
and significant positive correlations with AI, H+AI, and cation exchange capacity
(CEC) (Table H).This means increasing pH and Ca content in the soil decreases
grain yield and increasing AI, H+AI and CEC increases grain yield. In this current
study, the upland rice genotypes evaluated were tolerant to soil acidity.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Upland rice genotypes differ significantly in grain yield, yield components and
morphological traits in relation to soil acidity on an Oxisol of central Brazil. In all
the genotypes, on average a reduction of soil acidity meant a reduced grain yield.
The decrease in grain yield at low soil acidity levels was mainly associated with
decrease in panicle number and grain harvest index. However, percentage of spikelet
sterility and 1000-grain weight were also not at an adequate level in most of the
genotypes at the low as well at high soil acidity levels. To improve yield of upland
rice genotypes under acid soil conditions, more breeding work is required to
improve 1000 grain weight and reduce grain sterility. Liming improved spikelet
sterility but its positive effect was not sufficient to overcome the negative effects of
panicle number and harvest index reduction on grain yield at low soil acidity level.
Among the 20 upland rice genotypes evaluated, CRO 97505 and CNAs 8989 were
234 FAGERIA et al.
Table 9. Soil pH, H+Al and base saturation as influenced by 20 upland rice
genotypes and two acidity levels at harvest
Genotype pRin water R+A1 Base Sat. (%)

~mmolcdm-32
High Low High Low High Low
Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity Acidity
CR097505 4.7ab 6.1b 70ab 16a 21a 79a
CNAs8983 4.8a 6.3ab 66abc 15a 19a 80a
CNAs8812 4.6abc 6.3ab 70abc 14a 16a 82a
CNAs8938 4.4abc 6.4ab 73ab 17a 15a 77a
CNAs8060 4.5abc 6.3ab 72ab 15a 15a 82a
CNAs8989 4.2c 6.3ab 75a 14a 16a 82a
CNAs8824 4.5abc 6.4ab 72ab 11a 15a 86a
CNAs8957 4.3bc 6.5ab 65abc 13a 17a 83a
CR097422 4.5abc 6.5ab 65abc 14a 17a 83a
CNAs8934 4.7ab 6.6a 64abc 12a 14a 85a
CNAs8950 4.6abc 6.5ab 62bc 14a 19a 81a
CAN8540 4.5abc 6.4ab 66abc 14a 16a 81a
CAN8711 4.7abc 6.4ab 59c 16a 16a 79a
CAN8170 4.3bc 6.5ab 66abc 11 14a 86a
Primavera 4.6abc 6.6a 69abc 12a 14a 84a
Canastra 4.4abc 6.6ab 72ab 13a 15a 81a
Bonanc;:a 4.8a 6.5ab 68abc 14a 14a 80a
Carisma 4.5abc 6.7a 71ab 13a 15a 80a
Average 4.5 6.4 68 14 16 82
FTest
Acidity ** * **
Genotype ** ** NS
AXG ** ** *
CV~%~ 3 9 6
Significant at 5 and 1% probability levels and nonsignificant, respectively. Means in the same
., .. , NS
column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level by Tukey' s test.
Base saturation = L [Ca2++ Mg2+ + K+/ CEC] X 100, where CEC = L[ Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K + A13+ + II'" ].
Table 10. Soil chemical properties across 20 upland rice genotypes at two soil
acidity levels at harvest
Soil chemical High Acidity Low

property Acidity
Ca (mmole dm- 3) 9.54b 39.03a
Mg (mmolc dm-3) 2.95b 22.05a
Al (mmole dm- 3) 7.47a O.OOb
CEC (cmolc elm- 3) 8.08a 7.52b
Ca saturation (%) 11. 79b 51.82a
Mg saturation (%) 3.65b 29.19a
K saturation (%) 0.48a 0.51a
P (mg dm-3) 6.21 b 11.05a
K (mg dm- 3) 16.08a 15.75a
Zn (mg dm-3) 8.98a 9.61a
Cu (mg dm- 3) 1.47a 1.50a
Fe(mgdm-3) 228.17a 180.76b
Mn (mg dm- 3) 5.86a 6.35a
Means lUlder two acidity levels followed by same letter are statistically not significant at 5%
probability level by Tukey' s test. Ca, Mg or K saturation = (Ca2+ , Mi+ , or K+/ CEC) X lOO
Table 11. Correlation coefficients (r) between grain yield and soil chemical
properties across two soil acidity levels and 20 upland rice genotypes at
harvest
Soil chemical property

pH in water -0.232
P(mg dm- 3) -0.071
Ca (mmole dm- 3) -0.168
Mg (mmole elm-3) -0.158
K(mg dm-3) -0.222"
AI (mmole elm-3) 0.189'
H+Al (mmole elm- 3) 0.231'
Base saturation (%) -0.207'
CTC (cmole elm- 3) 0.274"
Ca saturation(%) -0.212'
Mg saturation(%) -0.158
Zn(mg dm- 3) 0.002
Cu(mg dm- 3) -0.149
Mn(mgdm-3) -0.228'
Fe (mg dm- 3) -0.051
236 FAGERIA et al.
the most desirable ones, because they produced higher grain yields at low as well as
at high soil acidity levels. Correlation studies revealed a positive relationship
between the yield components and morphological traits analyzed and grain yield,
with the exception of the spikelet sterility. Hence, from a breeding standpoint, a
moderate increase in shoot dry weight, number of panicles, grain harvest index and
lOOO-grain weight are important strategies for increasing upland rice yield.
Significant positive correlations of grain yield with AI, H+AI and CEC and
significant negative correlations with soil pH, Ca saturation and base saturation
indicate tolerance of upland rice genotypes to soil acidity. One of the mechanisms of
acidity tolerance in upland rice genotypes may be their higher nutrient utilization
efficiency.
5. REFERENCES
Baligar, V C, Fageria N K 1997 Nutrient use efficiency in acid soils: Nutrient management and plant use
efficiency. In Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH: Sustainable Agricultural and Forestry Production.
Ed. A. C. Moniz et al. pp 75-93. Brazilian Soil Science Society, Campinas, Brazil.
Baligar, V C, Fageria N K 2001 Nutrient use efficiency in plants. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 32, 921-
950.
Bremner, J M, Mulvaney C S 1982 Nitrogen. In: Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2; 2nd Edition. Ed. A L
Page. pp 595-624. Agron. No.9. American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI.
Clark, R B, Duncan R R 1991 Improvement of plant mineral nutrition through breeding. Field Crops
Res. 27,219-240.
Duncan, R R, Carrow R N. 1999 Turfgrass molecular genetic improvement for abiotic/edaphic stress
environment. Adv. Agron. 67,233-306.
EMBRAPA. 1997 Manual for methods of soil analysis, 2nd Ed.; National Research Center for Soils: Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil. 212p.
Fageria N K. 1984 Response of rice cultivars to liming in cerrado soil. Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 19,883-889.
Fageria N K 1992 Maximizing Crop Yields. Marcel Dekker New York, 274p.
Fageria N K 2000 Upland rice response to soil acidity in cerrado soil. Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 35, 2303-
2307.
Fageria N K 2001a Nutrient management for improving upland rice productivity and sustainability.
Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 32, 2603-2629.
Fageria N K 2001b Response of upland rice, dry bean, corn and soybean to base saturation in Cerrado
soil. R. Bras. Eng. Agric. Ambiental5, 1-9.
Fageria N K, Baligar V C 1997 Response of common bean, upland rice, corn, wheat, and soybean to soil
fertility of an Oxisol. J. Plant Nutr. 20, 1279-1289.
Fageria, N. K. and Baligar, V. C. 2001.Improving nutrient use efficiency of annual crops in Brazilian acid
soils for sustainable crop production. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 32:1303-1319.
Fageria N K, Bahgar V C, Clark R B. 2002 Micronutrients in crop production. Adv. Agron. 77: 185- 268.
Fageria N K, Baligar V C, Jones C A 1997 Growth and Mineral Nutrition ofField Crops, 2nd Ed.; Marcel
Dekker: New York, 624p
Fageria N K, Baligar V C, Wright R J 1989 The effect of aluminum on growth and uptake of AI and P by
Rice. Pesq. Agropec. Bras. 24, 677-682.
Fageria N K, Morais 0 P 1987 Evaluation of rice cultivars for utilization of calcium and magnesium in
the cerrdao soil .. Pesq. Agropec. Bras,22. 667-672.
Fageria, N K, Santana E P, Morais 0 P 1995 Response of favorable upland rice genotypes to soil fertility.
Pesq. Agropec. Bros. 30,1155-1161.
Fageria N K, Santos A B 1998 Rice and common bean growth and nutrient concentration as influenced
by aluminum on an acid lowland soil. J. Plant Nutr. 21,903-912.
Fageria N K, Wright R J, Baligar V C 1988 Rice cultivar evaluation for phosphorus use efficiency. Plant
Soil 111, 105-109.
Fageria N K, Zimmermann F J P 1998 Influence of pH on Growth and Nutrient Uptake by Crop Species
in an Oxisol. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 29,2675-2682.
Foy C D. 1984 Physiological effects of hydrogen, aluminum, and manganese toxicities in acid soil. In
Soil Acidity and Liming, 2nd Edition., Ed. F. Adams. pp 57-97. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Monograph No.
12, Madison, Wisconsin.
IRRl1999 Program Report for 1998. International Rice Research Institute: Los Banos, Philippines.
Jennings P R, Coffinan W R, Kauffman H E 1979 Rice Improvement. International Rice Research
Institute, Ed; Los Banos, Philippines, 186p.
Morais J F V, Rabelo N A A 1986 Simple plant tissue digestion method EMBRAPA-CNPAf, Document
No. 12, Goiania, Brazil, 12p.
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and lines developed in the Philippines Since 1966. Crop Sci. 40, 307-314.
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duration oflowland irrigated paddy. Ory=a 25, 47-51.
Sanchez P A, Logan T J 1992 Myths and science about the chemistry and fertility of soils in the tropics.
In Myths and Science of Soils of the Tropics. R Lal, P A Sanchez Ed., pp 35-46. SSSA Special
Publication number 29, Madison, Wisconsin.
Sattelmacher B, Horst W J, Becker H C 1994 Factors that contribute to genetic variation for nutrient
efficiency of crop plants. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 157,215-224.
Yoshida S 1981 Fundamenta1s of Rice Crop Science; International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos,
Philippines, 269p.
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tropics. In Climate and Rice. Ed. International Rice Research Institute. pp 471-494. Los Banos,
Philippines.
SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE
AND OPTIMAL IRRIGATION IN CROP FIELDS IN
A IDLLY RED SOIL REGION OF SOUTHERN
CHINA
JUN LV, ZIDZHEN HUANG AND YONG XU
College of Environment and Natural Resources Science, Zhejiang University,

ABSTRACT
The water balance in crop growth field for wheat, rice, com and soybean was analyzed using the crop
growth and soil water balance model MACROS (LlO, L2C, and L2SS), in combination with the local
soil, crop, and weather data in a hilly red soil region of southern China. Water saving irrigation
approaches are developed and discussed according to the requirements of each different crop.
Intermittent irrigation for rice showed that the total water requirement for early and late rice production
could be decreased by more than 60% and 80%, respectively, as compared with the conventional flooding
irrigation .. For the winter wheat in the region, the major problem for water management was
waterlogging during the spring and early summer. For spring com, measures should be taken to avoid the
drought season starting from the middle of July. The yield of autumn com and soybean in the red hilly
soil region is closely related to irrigation conditions.
Keywords: Red soil, water balance, simulation analysis, water use efficiency, water-
saving irrigation
1. INTRODUCTION
A hilly red soil region is distributed extensively in the midwest of Zhejiang

Province, Jiangxi Province, and the mideast of Hunan Province over an area of
1.755xl05 km2 , with hills and basins elevated to 50-500m above sea level. This
region, which is covered with Ferrosilicic and Allitic soils, is crossed by the Tropic
of Cancer. Because of the long-term influence of sinking anticyclones, most areas of
the world on both sides of the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn are dry and hot. This
is not the case in China, because both the south and east of the country are adjacent
to the Pacific Ocean, and the monsoon air ensure an input of moving air so that a
megathermal and humid ecotope is formed. The red soil region of China typically
occurs in a humid tropical and subtropical climate, of a megathermal and rainy
239
© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
240 JUN LV et al.
nature with four obvious seasons, and alternating dry and wet durations. In this
region, mean annual temperature and precipitation range from 16.6-18.9°C and
1300-200Omm, respectively. With abundant water, heat, and other natural resources,
this region has enormous agricultural potential productivity, with a very high
multiple crop index, especially in Zhejiang Province. Here, this index reaches 247,
because of the high population and food pressures in the province. A higher multiple
crop index should depend on a higher and more uniform distribution of water
resource. The seasonal drought, from July to September, or even to February in the
following year, is always one of the most important problems for local agricultural
development. Because of the high multiple crop index, water deficiency in any
season will inevitably affect agricultural production.
Based on a simulation model of soil water balance and crop growth dynamics,
combined with local meteorology and crop and soil data in the red soil region, the
water balance in a crop growth field was studied under local production conditions
for the main food crops. Optimal irrigation methods were investigated according to
the water consumption laws for different crops in the hilly red soil region.

2.1 Simulation model
The computer simulation model MACROS (modules LID, L2C, and L2SS;
Penning de Vries et ai., 1989) was used to simulate the water balance in rice, wheat,
com and soybean fields, with local soil and weather data, including daily air
temperature, sunshine, rainfall, air humidity, and wind. It is a crop growth model for
the case where the limitations for crop growth are only weather and soil water
conditions. The soil water balance module L2SS is based on the simulation of one-
dimensional vertical water movement in soil, subjected to a pressure head condition
at the lower boundary, surface evaporation and uptake of water by the crop (i.e.,
crop transpiration), and rainfall or irrigation conditions (Wopereis et al., 1994;
Tuong et ai., 1994). For a more detailed description of the MACROS model, see
Penning de Vries et ai. (1989).
2.2 Soil data
Soil data used in the model include water characteristic curve, saturated soil
water constants, field capacity, wilting point, air drying conditions, soil hydraulic
conductivity in the saturated and unsaturated states, soil texture, the depth and
thickness of soil horizons and the depth of ground water table. Most of soil data
were directly obtained from the local red soil region, except unsaturated soil
hydraulic conductivity, which was calculated by equation [1].
SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE 241
k(h) = ke-al~ (I~ ~ I~max)

{
[1] k(h) = ~~-1.4 (I~ > I~max)
where k(h) and Ie. are representative of unsaturated and saturated soil hydraulic
conductivity, respectively; h is the soil water potential; (l and y are both coefficient
factors for soil bulk density and soil texture (Penning de Vries et aI., 1989).
2.3 Crop growth character data
Crop variety and growth data were included in the module LID. These data were
all provided from the SARP network, which is an international research network
called "System Analysis and Simulation for Rice Production" organized by the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
2.4 Meteorological data
Six weather parameters were input in the model for the simulation of crop growth
and water balance in the field. They are daily maximum and minimum temperature,
daily sunshine light, daily rainfall, daily average humidity, and wind speed. Ten
years weather data were used in the simulation analysis, from 1985 to 1995, all of
the data having been recorded in the weather station of the Shilifeng Agricultural
Science Research Institute, Zhejiang Province. This station is located at 119.58"E
and 28.68"N.
2.5 Simulation results and their validations
The outputs of the simulation model included crop growth parameters and all
components of water balance in the field. Crop growth parameters included daily
grain and straw yields, and weights of individual, such as leaves, stem, and roots;
water balance components were daily soil water content proflle, rainfall, irrigation,
runoff, evaporation, transpiration, soil water seepage and drainage or soil water
capillary rising height.
Validation of the model applied in the red soil region and its sensibility analysis has
been done by Lu Jun (1998a, b).
3.1 Simulation results offield water balance

3.1.1 Winter Wheat
Simulation results of water balance in the winter wheat field for ten seasons from
1985 to 1995 at Shilifeng farm are shown in Fig. 1 under a non-irrigation regime. All
the simulations begin from the September 25 th of previous year, the period of
242 JUN LV et al.
emergence, and end in May of the next year, the time of maturation. Among the ten
seasons, the average duration for wheat growth in the field is 170.8 days, with a
longest duration of 179 days in 1992 and a shortest of 168 days in 1988. The mean
simulated yield is 3957.2 kg/ha. As shown in Fig.l, the total rainfall was 771.4mm
during the winter wheat growth season, and the total water output in the field was
750.9mm. The margin value 20.5mm was for the change of water storage in the soil.
Crop transpiration (171.2mm) accounted for only 23.0% of the total water
consumption, but if the combination of crop transpiration and soil evaporation is
viewed as eco-physiological consumed water necessary for wheat growth, which for
winter wheat was 322.5mm, then this accounts for 42.9% of the total water
consumption. This means that rainfall during the wheat growth season was much
more than the water quantity for crop eco-physiological demand. The soil surface
800
600
"""" 400
~
'--'
200
-=
.e
~
0"
0
-200
1-0
~
cu
-400
~
-600
-800
0 30 60 90 120
Time (days, after emergence)
Figure 1. Average simulation results of water balance in winter wheat growth field
for ten seasons from 1985 to 1995 in Shilifengfarm, Zhejiang province. The positive
and negative value of water quantity in the figure represent input and output water
to the field, respectively. Ra, Ev, Tr, Pe and Ru is rainfall, evaporation,
transpiration, percolation, and runoff, respectively
runoff sharply increased after the middle of February, and the sum of percolation
and runoff is always larger than that of transpiration and evaporation. This indicates
SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE 243
that in this region there is too much rainfall in spring and summer seasons, which is a
widespread and important problem impacting on winter wheat production.
3.1.2 Rice
Rice is the main food crop in the hilly red soil region so that the irrigation for double-
season rice is one of the main components of local agricultural water consumption.
Under local traditional flooding irrigation conditions, the water balance in a paddy
field for early and late rice is shown in Fig.2. It is seen that the total consumed water
by early and late rice amounted to 682.9 mm and 808.5 mm, respectively. The eco-
physiological water consumption is 328.7 mm for the early rice and 355.4 mm for the
late rice. In order to meet the demand for the water consumption, irrigation needed to
provide 131.0 mm for the early rice and 551.8 mm for the later rice. Among all of the
water consumption components, the maximum was percolation, 298.4 mm for the
early rice and 450.9 mm for the late rice, accounting for 43.7% and 55.8% of the total
consumed water, respectively. The difference in water consumption between the early
and the late rice mainly resulted from the difference of crop growth duration. This
averaged 69 days for the early rice and 100 days for the late rice in the ten years of
the experiment.
3.1.3 Corn and Soybean

In the hilly red soil region, due to appropriate sunshine light and temperature, the
suitable periods for seeding com are quite long. These are spring, summer and
autumn com. But under rain-fed conditions, com production is so strongly restrained
by the water regime that the conventional culture of spring com is seriously
threatened by drought damage, and the production of summer and autumn com
production is not possible. The rainy season in the region often starts from March,
and reaches a peak in June (the mean rainfall in June reaching 354mm). Beginning
from July 10-15 th , frequent drought could last at least 20 days, and even more than 60
days. After 20 days continuous high temperatures and drought duration, the soil water
content rapidly declines to wilting point at rooting depth. Local conventional com is
usually directly seeded in the middle or during the last ten days of April, and
harvested in late July. Therefore local conventional spring com production is often
harmed by seasonal drought. Average simulation results of the water balance in a
spring com field under rain fed conditions are shown in Fig. 3. Soybean is one of the
main upland crops in the hilly red soil region, whose water-consuming trend is similar
to that of com, and its consumed water is often lower than that of com. With too
much rainfall, soybean is also easily affected by waterlogging conditions. The
average ten years simulated results of water balance in the spring and autumn soybean
growth field indicates that the physiological water consumption is 123.7mm and
94.2mm, the soil evaporation is 235.1 mm and 161.6mm, respectively. The total
consumed water by both is 640Amm and 271.5mm, with very little runoff and
percolation capacity for autumn soybean.
244 JUN LV et al.
3. 2 Simulation analysis ofpaddy field water-saving irrigation
The maximum water consumption component for rice production is due to soil
percolation. The rate of water percolation in a paddy field is determined by the
hydraulic head and the water-transport properties of the soil (Bouman et aI., 1994;
700
--ee
'-'
SOO
300
0 100
''':
=:
~ ·100
...
~
·300
B
('I
~ ·soo
· 700
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 69
Time (days, after transplanting)
800
--.. 600
~
'-"
400
.~ 200
§ 0
.
::J
C" -200
B
('I -400
~-600
Time (days, after transplanting)
Figure 2. The average simulation results ofwater balance in early rice (A) and late
rice (B) growthfieldfor ten seasons from 1986 to 1995 in Shilifengfarm, Zhejiang
province. The positive and negative value of water quantity in the figure represent
input and output water to the field, respectively. Ir, Ra, Ev, Tr, Pe and Ru is rainfall,
evaporation, transpiration, percolation, and runoff, respectively
Ramamoorthy et al.,1993). Although hydraulic conductivity is quite low in a well-

puddled paddy field, some experiments indicated that an increase in the depth of
ponded water (i.e. an increase in the hydraulic head) resulted in higher losses due to
percolation (Jun Lu et aI., 2000). In order to control percolation, a water-saving
SIMULAnON RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE 245
irrigation method was designed, which is called intennittent irrigation (1un Lu et aI.,
2000; Peng et aI., 1994; Borrell et aI., 1997). Under intermittent irrigation regimes as
600
400
-..
§
'-'
200
.€..... 0
C
«I
::s
cr'
1-0
-200
.....
Q)
~ -400
-600
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (days, after tansplanting)
Figure 3. The average simulation results of water balance in spring corn growth
field for ten seasons from 1986 to 1995 in Shilifengfarm, Zhejiang province. The
positive and negative value of water quantity in the figure represent input and
output water to the field, respectively. Ra, Ev, Tr, Pe and Ru is rainfall, evaporation,
transpiration, percolation, and runoff, respectively
the simulation input conditions, the maximum ponded water above the soil surface
was limited to 3 cm for each irrigation, and the irrigation was not executed until the
surface soil moisture decreased to the field capacity.
Figure 4 shows simulation results of the individual components of water

consumption for double rice under conventional flooding irrigation and intennittent
irrigation regimes in 1992 on Shilifeng Farm. Transpiration and evaporation were
almost the same under the two irrigation regimes. This implies that the two irrigation
regimes could meet the physiological demand of water for crop growth. The runoff
is significantly different under different irrigation conditions, especially for late rice,
in which no runoff occurs under intermittent irrigation conditions. lntennittent
irrigation regimes decreased water consumption to 340 mm and 414.2 mm for the
early and late rice respectively. Comparison of the total water use efficiency shows
246 JUNLU etal.
that irrigation water decreased by 60.8% (278.3 mm) for early rice and 85.4% (491
mm) for late rice with the intermittent irrigation approach.
_300
E -200
E200
~ ISO
~100 -100
~ so
IISO
;KlOO
so
_100 /~ ..... ..... ..... ......
~100 -so
'5100 ~40
-30
0::: 100
ti20
10
_100
"f
400
~IOO
300
Q)'100
0. 100 Q)' 200
0.
20 40 60 80 100
20 40 60 80 100
Tme (Days, after 1ralspIcnti1g)
Figure 4. Simulation results of the individual items of water consumption for double
rice under conventional flooding irrigation and intermittent irrigation regimes in
1992 in Shilifeng Farm. Tr, Ev, Ru and Pe represent transpiration, evaporation,
runoff and percolation, respectively. (Left; early rice, right; late rice)
achieved by transplanting before the end of May (Fig. 5). As shown in Fig. 5, under
irrigation conditions the com grain yield could be maintained at more than 4.5 t ha'!
even if the transplanting date was delayed to the end of July. Obviously, the later the
transplanting date, the higher need for irrigation water. The simulation results
indicated that the irrigation water requirement for com growth differs greatly from
year to year because of rainfall variation.
Due to poor water penetration in the hilly red soil, the water quantity for each
irrigation should be less than 60-70 mm. If it is more than 7Omm, the increased
water does not benefit the crop yield, but increases soil surface runoff significantly
(Fig.6). For the soybean crop, because of its sensitive to drought and waterlogging, it
is difficult to obtain high yield both in the rainy season and in drought season under
rain fed conditions. Under adequate irrigation conditions, the yields of soybean
increased when planting periods were delayed until the end of August .
SIMULA nON RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE 247
700
I
750 0 I:/"
t
600 0
600
D) iI::J
~
4500 I...
·a
400
I
1,.,.l.&tlo_ ~
e=
3000 .... t ...
u 200
1500
100
0 0
2/9 4/10 5/30 7/19 9/6
Transplan~ing da~e (m/d)
Figure 5. Under satisfied irrigation conditions, the effects of transplanting date on

the corn grain yields and the demand of irrigation water in hilly red soil region of
China. It is the average results of simulation analysis from 1986 to 1995 in Shilifeng
Farm. The vertical bars represent the standard error of the means for ten years
simulation results
5000 400
n
I
o Yield.
I
o Jl_f'f'
4000 6. I. • . 300 g.
i 3000 -! I::J
....1If'
<:)
.~
200 ...... i'
2000 go
= I::J
5 lOOD
100 B-
~
:::q
0 0
o 30 60 90 120
Water quantity for each irrigation (mm)
Figure 6 Simulation results of optimum water quantity for each irrigation for
summer corn (seedling in the middle ofJuly and harvest in late of September) in red
soil ofShilifeng Farm. 1. W. in the figure is the abbreviation of irrigation water
248 JUN LU et al.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Using simulation approaches and local soil, crop, and ten years weather data,
the water balance in crop growth fields for double rice, wheat, com and soybean in a
hilly red soil region of China was analyzed. Results for rice indicated that the
average evapo-transpiration for the early and late rice was 328.7 mm and 355.4 mm,
respectively, while the average percolation in the field is 298.4 mm and 450.9 mm,
respectively. An intennittent irrigation approach for rice production decreased the
water lost to percolation in the rice growth field. The corresponding simulation
results of intennittent irrigation for rice showed that the total water requirement for
the early and later rice production decreased by more than 60% and 80%,
respectively. For a wheat crop in the hilly red soil region, simulation results showed
that soil water-logging during spring and summer is a main limiting factor for winter
wheat production. Water management for spring com should focus on measures to
avoid the drought season starting from the middle of JUly. If the harvesting date of
spring com could be advanced to the first ten days of July from the last ten days of
July under traditional cultivation, both the yield and its stability should be raised.
The yield of autumn com in the hilly red soil region is closely related to irrigation
conditions. A maximum yield could be achieved with less than 200-300 mm
irrigation water. Soil water-logging could cause damage to spring soybean and
drought might become the problem for the autumn soybean crop in the region.
5. REFERENCES
Borrell A, Garside A and Fukai S, 1997 Improving efficiency of water use for irrigated rice in a semi-arid
tropical environment. Field Crop Res. 52,231-248
Bouman B A M,Wopereis M C S, Kropff MJ, ten Berge H F M and Tuong T P, 1994 Water use
efficiency of flooded rice fields: II. Percolation and seepage losses. Agric. Water Manage. 26,291-
304.
Brown K W, Turner F T, Thomas J C, Deuel L E and Keener M E 1978 Water balance of flooded rice
paddies. Agric. Water Manage. 1,277-291.
Lu Jun, 1998a, Simulation of soil water balance in crop growth field in red hilly red soil region of Clllna.
Journal 0/Hydraulic Engineering. 1998 No. 1.
Lu Jun, 1998b, Simulation of the effects of soil water conditions on winter wheat production in Zhejiang
province. Journal a/Hydraulic Engineering. 1998 NO.7.
Peng S Z, Li S S, Xu GLand Wu Z J 1994 New water consumption pattern of rice under water-saving
irrigation. Irrigation and Drainage System 8, 97-108.
Penning de Vries,FWT,Jansen D M,ten Berge,H F M and Bakema A Simulation 0/ Ecophysiological
Processes a/Growth in Several Annual Crops. Pudoc Publisher,The Nether1ands,1989.
SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE
Ramamoorthy K, Se1varao K V and Chinnaswami K N 1993 Varietal response of rice to different
irrigation regimes. Indian J. Agron. 38, 68-469.
Tuong T P, Wopereis M C S, Marquez J A and KropffM J 1994 Mechanisms and control of percolation
losses in irrigated puddled rice fields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 1794-1803.
Wopereis M C S, Bouman BAM and Kropff M J, ten Berge H F M and Tuong T P 1994 Water use
efficiency of flooded rice fields. 1. Validation of the soil-water balance model SAWAH. Agric.
Water Manage. 26, 277-289.
ACID TOLERANCE OF SOME FORAGE GRASSES
AND EFFECTS OF PHOSPHATE, POTASSIUM, AND
MAGNESIUM APPLICATION ON THEIR GROWTH
XIANGYUN CHU, ZHENLI HE AND CHANGYONG HUANG
Department of Resource Science, Zhejiang University, Huajiachi Campus,

Hangzhou 310029
ABSTRACT
Pot experiments were conducted to study the acid tolerance of six perennial forage species and the
effects of phosphate (P), potassium(K), and magnesium(Mg) fertilizer applications on the growth of
forage crops in acid red soils. The results showed that the sequence of acid tolerance among the six
species were as follows: Sheep's Festuca, Paspalum dilatatum >Lolium perene.L., Trifolium repens
L.>Meadow Festuca, Trifolium .pratens L. There were no obvious differences in aluminum and
phosphorous concentrations among the acid tolerant forages at different pH. At low pH, acid-sensitive
forage crop species contain significantly higher aluminum concentrations. The yields of the -P, -K or -
Mg treatments were 11-17%, 87-93%, and 77-90%, respectively of the control (with complete fertilizers
). These results suggest that phosphorous deficiency was the key factor for limiting forage crop yields.
Phosphorous and potassium concentrations of plants with the treatment of -P decreased significantly,
whereas nitrogen concentrations of the plants increased, as compared to those of the control.
Key words: Acid soil, acid tolerance, forage species, magnesium, phosphate,
potassium.
1. INTRODUCTION
Acid red soils are extensively distributed in southern China and suffer from
multiple nutrient deficiencies and serious erosion (Xiong and Li, 1990). Cultivation
and utilization of forage grasses is an effective approach for the protection and
improvement of these soils (Yu, 1991;Tao,1991). Therefore, based on characteristics
of the forage grasses with high tolerance to acidic conditions, determinations of
appropriate lime and fertilizer applications are key problems for the production of
forage grasses on these acidic red soils. The objectives of this study were to examine
the acid tolerance of six forage species and the effects of phosphate, potassium, and
magnesium fertilizer applications on the growth of the grasses in two of the major
acid red soils, the first derived from Quaternary red clay and the second from red
sandstone, in Zhejiang Province, China.
249
250 XIANGYUN CHU et al.
2.1 Materials
The soils tested were taken from Longyou County in Zhejiang Province. Some
of the soil properties are listed in Table 1. A Quaternary red clay soil and a red
sandstone soil were collected for this experiment. Both soils are highly acidic and P-
deficient. Most Quaternary red clay soils developed since that period and have been
cultivated at some stage. The soils sampled were from land that was recently
cultivated. The red sandstone soil developed from a red arenaceous rock over a short
period of time. The soil is a thin skeletal soil, poorly developed and highly acidic
(Table 1). The soil sampled was from uncultivated land.
Table 1. Some properties of the soils under the study
Soils pH Exchange- ECEC AI OlsenP Exchange- Exchange-

-able AI cmol/kg sat. mg/kg -able K -able Mg
(H2O) cmol/kg % cmol/kg cmol/kg
QRC 4.16 5.04 6.62 76.1 3.21 0.19 0.30
RSS 4.55 3.74 4.53 82.6 2.71 0.06 0.11
QRC= Quaternary red clay; RSS= red sandstone soil (the same below)
1.2 Methods
Two experiments were performed, the first to test the tolerance to acidity of six
forage grass species, these being Sheep's Festuca, Paspalum dispalum dilatatum,
Lolium perenne L.,Trifolium repens L., Meadow Festuca and Trifolium pratense L.
and the second to test the effect ofP, K and Mg applications on the growth of Lolium
perenne L. and Meadow Festuca. The first experiment used a red sandstone soil and
the second soils derived from the Quaternary red clay and the red sandstone (lkg soil
per pot). The test design was as follows.
Experiment I: According to the results of the lime titration curve, the soil pH was
adjusted to 4.55, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 and 6.5 by application of 0.00, 0.64, 1.28, 1.46 and
1.59 g lime respectively. N(65mg), P(50mg),K(53mg) were applied and Mg, S, Cu,
Zn, Mo, B applied each at the same rate. There were three replications for each
treatment.
Experiment II: Soil pH for all treatments was adjusted to 6.0 by liming. The same
rate of N( 65mg), Cu, Zn, Mo and B were applied to each pot as in Experiment 1.
There were six treatments for each soil:
(l)+All: (with P, K and Mg)
(2) -P: (without addition of phosphate)
(3)-K: (without addition of potassium)
(4) -Mg: (without addition of magnesium)
(5) -K-Mg: (without addition of potassium and magnesium)
(6) -All: (without addition ofP,K and Mg)
ACID TOLERANCE OF FORAGE GRASSES 251
There were three replications for each treatment. After harvesting, plant samples
were dried at 80 °C, and digested in a H2 S04-H20 2, solution. N, P, K and Al were
determined by standard methods.
3.1 Tolerance of six forage species to acidity
As shown in Table 2, Sheep's Festuca and Paspalum dilatatum had the

highest tolerance to acidity. They grew best on the strongly acid soil as well as on the
limed soils. Their relative yields at pH 4.55 were 80% and 112% of those at pH 6.0,
whereas Trifolium repens L.,Lolium perenne L., Meadow Festuca and Trifolium
pratens L.were affected greatly by acidity. The yields of these species were increased
with increasing lime application or pH. Relative yields at pH 4.55 were
49%,40%,12%and 22% of these at pH 6.0 respectively.
Table 2. The effect ofacidity onforage yield (g pOfI)
pH 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Forage Shoot Root
Sheep's 2.92 3.13 3.66 3.63 3.41 1.74 1.64 2.05 2.15 l.76
Festuca
Papsalum 4.61 5.01 4.11 3.69 2.53 2.50 2.05 l.84
dilatum
Trifolium 1.57 3.19 2.99 3.23 3.36 0.78 1.59 1.65 1.67 1.85
repem L
Lolium 0.88 1.68 2.15 2.21 2.25 0.40 1.01 1.52 l.74 2.00
perenneL
Meadow 0.23 1.01 1.69 1.73 1.90 0.12 0.52 1.07 0.97 l.42
Festuca
Trifolium 0.86 2.52 2.81 3.90 3.85 0.40 1.26 l.89 2.16 2.09
pratem L
Root growth was poorest at low pH, and the ratio of root to shoot was increased
with increasing pH. The yields of Trifolium repens L.and Lolium perenne L,were
stable when pH was over 5.0 and 5.5. Meadow Festuca, Trifolium pratens L. were the
least tolerant to acid conditions. Table 3 shows that the Al content in the acid-
tolerant Sheep's Festuca and Paspalum dUatatum changed only slightly with pH,
whereas the AI content in acid intolerant forage grasses, such as Trifolium repens L.,
Lolium perenne L. and Meadow Festuca increased significantly when soil pH was
below 5.5. As shown in the Table 3, changes of N and P levels in the grass family
forages were related to their tolerance to acidity. For Lolium pernne L. and Meadow
Festuca, which had low tolerance to acid conditions, the P level in the plants was
increased with increasing pH, whereas the N level decreased with increasing pH.
For acid- tolerant- grass species, Sheep's Festuca showed slight increases in yield
and P concentrations with increasing pH and Paspalum dilatatum showed a decrease
in yield and P concentration with increasing pH or lime application. The N
concentrations in both grasses were only affected slightly by pH. However, for the
leguminous forage, except for Trifolium repens, application of lime did not affect the
p and N concentrations in plants significantly, but did increase dry matter yield.
From Table 3, it seems that the acid-tolerant grasses, Paspalum dilatalum and
Sheep's Festuca, needed less P for growth than the other four grasses. Chemical
analysis of roots also showed that the P contents in Sheep's Festuca, Lolium perenne
L. and Meadow Festuca varied from 1.3g /kg to 2.0g/kg, and increased with
increasing lime application. The K level in the plants was independent of soil pH.
Table 3. Effects oft acidity on N, P, K and Al contents (g/kg) inforage shoots
For Sheep's Feslllco PopSalulll dilotlllll Trifolilllll repens L

~e
pH AI N P K AI N P K AI N P K
4.5 0.31 17.4 18.6 11.3 0.36 10.2 21.3 5.2 0.78 20.7 26.6 8.4
5.0 0.26 16.4 13.9 13.0 0.38 11.3 24.5 6.8 0.83 17.8 30.6 5.2
5.5 0.30 20.5 15.9 12.7 / / / / 0.55 18.8 24.6 6.5
6.0 0.31 21.5 20.7 8.6 0.36 10.3 21.3 8.2 0.45 17.1 28.7 8.1
6.5 0.29 17.6 17.7 9.8 0.34 10.0 22.3 7.3 0.56 18.3 30.3 5.9
EH Lolillllll!!.renne L Meadow Festllca Trif!lillllll!.ralens L
4.5 0.82 23.7 34.7 15.8 0.77 32.2 20.2 17.9 2.29 17.1 19.4 5.2
5.0 0.76 20.9 30.4 10.0 0.71 34.2 30.3 13.7 0.83 16.9 21.7 5.6
5.5 0.50 19.6 30.5 7.5 0.55 25.2 28.1 9.7 0.68 20.6 21.7 6.9
6.0 0.59 19.0 29.0 7.3 0.40 24.6 32.8 9.5 0.59 17.7 21.3 7.4
6.5 0.59 17.7 28.6 6.1 0.54 21.0 31.0 5.8 0.52 17.6 20.6 6.1
3.2 Effect ofP, K and Mg application on forage grass
The responses of the two forage grasses, Meadow Festuca and Lolium perenne, to P,
K, and Mg applications were investigated at pH 6.0. As shown in Table 4, the
highest yields of shoot and root were obtained in treatment +AlI, while the poorest
growth and lowest yield were obtained following treatment -P and -All for the two
species on both soils. For treatment -P, the relative yield was only 11-17% of that of
treatment +All, and this treatment had highest yield ratio of root to shoot, especially
in the plants on the Quaternary red clay soil. As expected, the P level of the plants
after treatment -P was very low, and was only one third of that for the normal plant
with treatment +All. At the same time, K levels decreased, whereas N concentrations
increased. For treatment -K, -Mg, the relative yield reached 80-90% of that of
treatment +All' The yield and N, P and K levels in plants for treatment -P were the
same as those for treatment -All. These results showed that P deficiency was the
most limiting factor for the growth of the two tested forage species on the acid soils.
Exchangeable K in the red sandstone soil was very low, whereas exchangeable K in
the Quaternary red clay soil was relatively high. K saturation of the Quaternary red
clay soil was about twice that of red sandstone soil (Table 1). However, Table 4
showed that relative yields after treatment -K in both soils were about 90%,
ACID TOLERANCE OF FORAGE GRASSES 253
Table 4. Effects oj P, K and MgJertilizer application onJorage yield (g/pot)
Fo~e Lolium eerenne L Meadow Festuca

Treat- Shoot Root RlS Shoot Root RlS
Ment Yld % reI Yld % reI Yld % reI Yld % reI
Quaternary Red Clay
+ALL 3.04 100 1.57 100 0.52 2.67 100 1.11 100 0.42
-ALL 0.33 10.8 0.33 21 1.00 0.28 10.5 0.24 21.6 0.86
-p 0.52 17.1 0.45 29 0.86 0.27 13.9 0.35 31.5 0.95
-K 2.83 91.1 1.54 98 0.54 2.42 90.6 1.27 114 0.52
-Mg 2.67 87.6 1.51 96 0.59 2.41 90.3 1.28 115 0.53
-K,Mg 2.69 88,5 1.60 102 2.54 95.1 1.33 120 0.52
Red Sandstone Soil
+ALL 4.54 100 2.08 100 0.45 4.00 100 1.44 100 0.36
-ALL 0.51 11.0 0.37 18 0.72 0.52 13.0 0.35 24 0.67
-p 0.57 12.5 0.30 14 0.52 0.43 10.8 0.23 16 0.53
-K 4.03 86.9 2.38 114 0.59 3.67 91.8 1.61 113 0.44
-Mg 3.56 76.7 1.47 71 0.41 3.62 88.0 1.64 114 0.47
-K,~ 3.53 76.1 1.69 81 0.48 3.70 92.5 1.96 136 0.53
indicating that K had a minor effect on the grasses in both soils and that application
of K only increased the yield slightly. The K level in the plants after treatment -K
was lower than that of treatment +AlI, but it was much higher than that after
treatment -Po In addition, deficiency of K ( treatment -K) resulted in significant
increases in P concentrations in plants on the red sandstone soil, but had no effect on
the P concentrations in plants on the Quaternary red clay soil. Also, deficiency of K
had no effect on N concentrations in the plants.
Exchangeable Mg and Mg saturation in Quaternary red clay soil were 2-3 times
those of the red sandstone soil, but the Mg levels in both soils were much lower than
normal values. Relative yield after treatment -Mg was slightly higher on Quaternary
red clay soil (about 90% ) than on the red sandstone soil (76.7-88%). In addition,
Table 4 also shows that Mg deficiency had a greater effect on Lolium perenne L. than
on Meadow Festuca. Magnesium deficiency had little effect on the N, P, and K levels
of the plants.
The yield, relative yield, and N and P concentrations in the plants after treatment
-K, and -Mg were similar to those for treatment-Mg but the K concentration in
plants after treatment -K -Mg was closer to that after treatment -K. Although soil
nutrient status (available P, K, and Mg ) of the red sandstone soil was poorer than
that of the Quatemary red clay soil, the yield of the two grasses after any of the
treatments was always higher on the red sandstone soil.
4. REFERENCES
Nanjing Agricultural College (NAC). 1980. Agrochemical Soil Analysis (in Chinese) Agricultural Press.
Soil Survey Office of Zhejiang (SSOZ ). 1994. Soils of Zhejiang (in Chinese),Zhejiang Science and
Technology Press.
Tao,S., 1991. Multi-utilization of red soil resources in Zhexi and some water protection. Journal of
Chinese Soil Science (in Chinese ).
Xiong, Y. and Li, Q. G. (eds.), 1990. Soils of China (in Chinese). Second Edition. Science Press.
Yu, J. Y.,1991. Grass cultivation and utilization in the region of red soil. Journal of Chinese Soil Science
(in Chinese).
EFFECT OF P FERTILIZER AND LIME
APPLICATIONS ON GROWTH OF ANNUAL
RYEGRASS ON ACID RED SOILS
XIANGYUN CHU, CHANGYONG HUANG AND ZHENLI HE
Dept. ofResource Science, Zhejiang University, Hang=hou 310029
ABSTRACT
Pot experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of P fertilizer and lime on ryegrass growth on
highly acid and P deficient soils. The results showed that application of P fertilizers could considerably
increase dry matter yields of annual ryegrass grown on these soils. The requirement for phosphate
fertilizer was relatively higher for a Quaternary red clay soil than for a red sandstone soil. A close
correlation was fO\Dld between phosphate application rates and Olsen P as well as with the dry matter
yield of ryegrass. Critical Olsen P was higher for the red sandstone soil than for the Quaternary red clay
soil. The effect of liming on ryegrass yield was less obvious. The increase in yield due to lime varied with
phosphate fertilizer application rates. The yields increased with increasing lime at low P application rates.
When soil pH was lower than 5.5, the effect of high 1iming rates on yield was much reduced at higher
phosphate application rates. The results demonstrated that P is a more important factor than liming for
ryegrass growth on acid red soil.
Keywords: acid soil; phosphate; lime; annual ryegrass
1. INTRODUCTION
There is a widespread range of acid red soils in Zhejiang Province (SSOZ, 1994 ).
Annual ryegrass is the major forage grass grown on these soils during winter and
spring because of its high production, high quality and acid tolerance (Yu et aI,
1991). But high acidity and P-deficiency are still important factors inhibiting
ryegrass growth on red soils. The present experiment was designed to show the
effects of phosphate fertilizer and lime on the growth of annual ryegrass and to
supply fundamental guidelines for rational fertilization.
2.1 Materials
A Quaternary red clay soil and a red sandstone soil were collected from Longyou
County in Zhejiang Province for this experiment. Both soils are highly acidic and P-
deficient. Most Quaternary red clay soils have developed since that period and
have been cultivated at some stage. The soils sampled were from land that was
255
MJ Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils ojChina, 255-260.
256 XIANGYUN CHU et a1.
recently cultivated. The red sandstone soil developed from a red arenaceous rock
over a short period of time. The soil is a thin skeletal soil, poorly developed and
highly acidic. (Table 1.). The soil sampled was from uncultivated land.
2.2 Methods
The fIrst experiment was conducted from 1994.12.01-1995.03.02: lime levels were 0,
0.5 and LOg Ca(OH)2lkg soil ;P levels were 0, 9 and 27mg Plkg soil. The second
experiment was conducted from 1995.03.06 to 1995.04.24. There were two sections.
One group used a fIxed amount ofP, but applied different levels oflime, according
Table 1. Some properties of the soils used
Soil Property Quaternary Red Clay Red Sandstone Soil

Texture Loamy clay Silty Loam
pH (H20) 4.16 4.55
Exch. AI cmollkg 5.04 3.74
O.oI M CaCl2 extr. Al 6.2 6.2
Olsen P 3.21 2.71
Organic Matter (%) 0.84 0.65
Exch. K cmollkg 0.19 0.06
Exch. Na cmollkg 0.02 0.02
Exch. Ca cmollkg 0.69 0.38
Exch. Mgcmollkg 0.30 0.11
ECEC cmollkg 6.62 4.53
Al saturation (%) 76.1 82.6
to the titration results of the soil, adjusting soil pH to 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, and 6.5. In the
other group soil pH was adjusted to 6.0 and different P levels applied. Po, P IO , P 20 ,
P 40 , P 60 and P so denote applications of 0, 10, 20, 40, 60 and 80mg Plkg soil,
respectively. Phosphate fertilizer was KH2P04 • The same rates of N, K, Mg, S, and
microelements (Mo, B, Zn, Cu) were used for all the treatments in the experiment.
Before placing into the pot, the soil sample was mixed well with lime (as a solid).
Then, other nutrient solution were added and mixed well. During ryegrass growth,
the total amount of applied N was 49 kglha. The ryegrass shoots were harvested
after 60 d growth and the plant tissue was oven-dried and weighed. After harvest, the
soil was sampled and air-dried. Soil available P was extracted using 0.5 mol/L
NaHC0 3 • Aluminum was determined using a colorimetric method. Plant tissue was
digested by H 2S04-H20 2. Plant P was determined using a
EFFECT OF P FERTILIZER AND LIME ON RYEGRASS IN ACID SOILS 257
vanadium molybdenum yellow colorimetric method (NAC, 1980).
3.1 Effect ofphosphate fertilizer on ryegrass yield
The tested Quaternary red clay and red sandstone soils contained low Olsen P (Table
1 ). The effect ofP fertilizer on ryegrass dry matter yield (DMY) was significant and
showed about a three-fold increase (Tables 2 and 3 ). The highest ryegrass DMY
was obtained when soil pH was adjusted to 6.0 by liming and P applied at the rates
of 63 mglkg soil and 50.2mg/kg soil, for the Quaternary red clay and red sandstone
soils respectively. (Tables 2 and 3).
The results also showed that at the time of ryegrass harvest, Olsen P in the soil was
linearly correlated with the amount of P applied O. There was a positive correlation
between the ryegrass DMY and Olsen-P in the soil. When the level of Olsen P in the
Quaternary red clay soil was 8.8mg/kg soil, the ryegrass DMY was the highest
attained, but the correlation between Olsen P and ryegrass DMY in the red
sandstone soil was not significant, although the ryegrass DMY did tend to increase
with increasing Olsen P.
Table 2. Effect ofphosphate fertilizer on ryegrass dry matter(g/pot)
Treatment Quaternary Red Clay Red Sandstone Soil

PO 1.89 1.59
PI0 3.88 3.71
P20 3.95 4.40
P40 4.73 5.04
P60 5.27 4.49
P80 5.23 4.41
Soil pH was adjusted to 6.0; The number besides P represents P amOlmt applied (mglkg soil)
Table 3. Effect ofphosphatefertili=er and lime on ryegrass dry matter (g/pot)
Treatment Quaternary Red Clay Red Sandstone Soil

PO/Ca 1.27 1.16
P9/Ca 1.95 2.44
P27/Ca 4.33 4.49
PO/Ca 1.14 1.14
P9/Ca 2.35 2.95
P27/Ca 5.43 4.78
PO/Ca 1.90 1.90
P9/Ca 3.70 4.29
P27/Ca 5.53 5.08
The number besides Ca represents amOlmt of applied Ca(OH)2 (glkg soil)
The fixation of P was stronger in the Quaternary red clay soil than in the red
sandstone soil (Table 4 ). To obtain the highest ryegrass DMY, a lower Olsen P was
required in the Quaternary red clay soil than in the red sandstone soil. Before
fertilization, the Quaternary red clay soil had a higher Olsen P than the sandstone
soil but required a greater amount of P fertilizer to achieve an optimal ryegrass
DMY due to its greater P fixation capacity. The ryegrass DMY rapidly increased
with increasing P rate at the early stage of growth.. In this experiment, the
concentration of P in ryegrass was positively correlated with the applied P rate, and
the critical plant P concentrations for ryegrass were 0.17% and 0.20% for the
Quaternary red clay and the red sandstone soils respectively. At a higher P
application rate, the increase in ryegrass DMY diminished. The NIP ratio in the
plant was highest in the P deficient soil, and the appropriate ratio for achieving the
optimal yield was about 6.0.
3.2 Effect of liming and P fertilizer on ryegrass yield
3.2.1 Potential titration curve of the soils and the change of P and aluminum.
The two tested soils were highly acidic and showed distinct breaks in their potential
titration curves around pH 5.5. Both soils are characterised by very low Olsen P
concentrations and high amounts of aluminum as extracted by 0.01 mollL CaCh.
The extractable aluminum concentration decreased rapidly after increasing the soil
pH by liming. However, the Olsen P concentration increased with pH when this
was below 5.5, but decreased rapidly with pH at pH higher 5.5 ( Table 4 ).
2 I____ RSS I
: aRC
o +-~--~--~-+--~--~-+--~--~-+~
o 0,5 1,5 2 2 ,5 3 3 ,5 4 4 ,5 5 5 ,5
1I2Ca(OHMcmol.kg· 1)
Figure 1. Potential titration curves ofthe Red sandstone soil and the
Quaternary red clay
EFFECT OF P FERTILIZER AND LIME ON RYEGRASS IN ACID SOILS 259
Table 4. Effect ofsoil pH on Olsen-P and extractable Al byO.Olmol/L CaCI]
Soil pH Olsen P (mg/kg) AI (mgIL)

Quaternary 4.16 3.31 6.20
Red 4.61 3.75 2.13
Clay 5.13 4.10 0.30
5.60 3.02 0.00
5.94 2.80 0.00
Red 4.55 2.54 6.20
Sandstone 5.00 3.11 1.32
Soil 5.37 3.21 0.12
5.62 2.03 0.09
6.44 2.04 0.03
3.2.2 Effects of liming on ryegrass yield

The results of two experiments (Tables 3 and 5) showed that ryegrass DMY
increased after liming the soils, but the effect was less than after fertilizer P
applications.
Table 5. Response of annual ryegrass(g/pot) to liming*
Soil pH Quaternary Red Clay Red Sandstone Soil

Original 4.43 3.92
pH
4.5 5.41
5.0 4.67 4.31
5.5 5.60 5.01
6.0 5.47 5.10
6.5 5.10 5.16
*Applying fixed amount ofP, 50mgP/kg soil
The increase in ryegrass DMY by liming varied with P application rates. This
increase was greater than the control (without P) when the soil received 9mg P/kg
soil, but there was no significant effect of liming for soil receiving 27 or 50 mg P/kg
soil At lower P levels, yield increased with increasing lime application rate, but the
liming effect was minimal when soil Olsen-P reached a certain level . The
mechanism of P-liming interaction was not clear. Probably, soil-available P
increased after liming when the soil was initially very low in available P, thus
increasing remarkably ryegrass DMY .Liming the Quaternary red clay to pH 4.16
(Cao), 4.5 (Cao.s), 4.89 (Ca1.0 ) and the red sandstone soil pH to 4.55 (Cao ), 4.90
(Cao.5 ), 5.37 (Cal.O ) (Table 3) significantly increased the ryegrass DMY, probably
due to a rapid increase in available P at low Olsen-P levels. However, when soil-
available P was sufficient for ryegrass growth, the effect of liming on yield increase
was not significant due to the dominant effect of P. When the soil pH increased, the
Al concentration extracted by 0.01 mollL CaCh decreased with increasing lime

application rate (Table 4). There was no significant difference in yield from soils
receiving higher levels of P (Tables 3, 5) or in Al concentrations in the plant (Table
5). Therefore, we can conclude that the tested ryegrass was AI- and acid tolerant. At
high available P levels, the effect of liming on yield increase was mainly caused by
an increased Ca supply. The calcium supply was sufficient at low levels of lime and
consequently the effect of liming on yield increase occurred only at low level of
liming.
3.2.3 The effect ofP fertilizer and lime on nutrient uptake by ryegrass
The experimental results showed that P application significantly increased the P
concentration in the plants and that total P uptake by ryegrass decreased the plant
N:P ratio. The N concentration in plants without fertilizer P was significant higher,
but ryegrass DMY and total N uptake by ryegrass were lower due to P deficiency.
There was no significant difference in total N uptake by ryegrass in the soil treated
with P at rates higher than 20mg P/kg soil. When the P supply was sufficient,
liming did not affect the concentrations ofP or Al in the plant.
4. REFERENCES
Nangjing Agricultural College (NAC), 1980. Agrochemical soil analysis (in Chinese), Agricultural
Press
Soil Surrey Office of Zhejiang (SSOZ), 1994. Soils of Zhejiang (in Chinese), Zhejiang Science and
Technology Press
Yu J.Y., Huang C. Y. and Lu J., 1991. Grass cultivation and utilization in the region of red soil. Journal
ofChinese Soil Science (in Chinese ).
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE
CROPPING SYSTEMS ON RED SOILS IN THE
IDGHLANDS OF SOUTH CHINA
MAFULLEN
on behalf of SHASEA (The Sustainable Highland Agriculture in South-East Asia

Research Team):
M.A. Fullen, T.J. Hocking, D.J. Mitchell, E. Milne, A.M. McCrea, C.A. Booth and
M. Subedi The University of Wolverhampton, U.K
M.J. Wilson The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, U.K.
M.P. Cuddy, S. Steele, T. McDonough and A. Ni'Leime The National University of
Ireland (Galway), Ireland
L. Bock, S. Dautrebande, D. Lacroix, C. Casse, P. Vinck, J.G. Baudoin, D. Van
Caillie, S. Baire and J. Ghuisoland Gembloux Agricultural University, Belgium
WU Bo Zhi, LID Liguang, LI Yong Mei, HUANG Bizhi, CHEN Jiding, WANG
Shu Hui and LID Hong Mei Yunnan Agricultural University, P.R. China
WANG Yongzhong, MA Cheng Yun, PU Jia Lin, JIN Zhen Biao and MA Shun You
The Government ofKedu Township, P.R. China
Mattiga PANOMTARANCHAGUL, Charoon SUKKASEM and Sanan PEUKRAI
Chiang Mai University, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Soil conservation on the highland red soils of Southern China is essential for sustainable agro-
environmental development. The effectiveness of soil conservation treatments developed in runoff plots was
investigated in farmer-managed plots on a natural catchment. This was achieved by the development and
scientific evaluation of modified and novel cropping practices in a representative highland catchment in
Yunnan Province, China. Wang Jia Catchment covers 40.1 hectares near Kedu, in Xundian County, north-
east Yunnan (25"28' N, 102°53' E). The initial project consisted of an evaluation of the effects of modified
cropping practices on maize productivity and soil properties. This programme was extended to investigate
ways of increasing the productivity of maize, wheat and soybean on fragile slopes in a sustainable and
environmentally-friendly way. The approach incorporates modified and novel agronomic and soil
conservation measures, with the evaluation of their agricultural, environmental and socio-economic impacts
using multidisciplinary approaches. This European Union funded project involved an international research
team from Belgium, China, Ireland, Thailand and the UK Five co-ordinated work packages were
implemented Involving:
(1) Background agricultural and environmental assessment of Wang Jia Catchment.
(2) Implementation and evaluation of modified and novel cropping systems for wheat, maize and soybean in
the catchment.
(3) Cost-benefit analyses of the socio-economic impacts of the changed cropping practices, assessing
returns for stakeholders, poverty alleviation, income augmentation and rural development.
(4) Comparative scientific evaluation of the cropping techniques in the highlands of northern Thailand.
(5) Dissemination of project outcomes and establishment of training programmes for best practice in
highland rural development.
Key words: China, Plastic mulch, Straw mulch, Yunnan.
261
MJ. Wilson et 01. (eds.), The Red Soils o/China, 261-274.
262 M A FULLEN et al.
This Project was funded by The European Union (DG Research) under the
'International Co-operation with Developing Countries' Programme (Contract
Number ERBIC18 CT98 0326).
1. INTRODUCTION
Agro-environmental systems on red soils in the highlands of South-East Asia are
under considerable pressure. Crop yields on sloping land in South China have
decreased due to soil erosion and it is possible that in 50-100 years most topsoil will
have been removed (Fullen et al., 1998). Rapid industrialization and urbanization,
coupled to continuing demands for increased food production, are putting further
pressure on land use. This is encouraging agricultural intensification and greater use
of these fragile areas. More effective soil conservation is therefore essential for
sustainable increases in productivity on red soils on hill slopes.
The outlined project is an integrated and holistic attempt to increase the productivity
and sustainability of cropping systems in the highlands of South-East Asia by the
SHASEA (Sustainable Highland Agriculture in South-East Asia) Research Team. It
involves the participation of scientists from many different disciplines (agriculture,
biology, economics, geology, hydrology and soil science), from different West
European and Asian countries, working alongside local farmers and their families in
South-East Asia. Attention has particularly focused on the effects of cultivation and
conservation treatments on crop productivity and soil erosion rates on the
subtropical arable red soils of the Upper Yangtze basin in the Central Plateau of
Yunnan Province, China.
2. AN INTEGRATED STUDY OF WANG JIA CATCHMENT:

PHASE 1
To contribute to the development of appropriate soil conservation strategies, a runoff

plot study at Yunnan Agricultural University (Lat. 25 0 08' N, Long. 1020 45' E,
elevation 1930 m) evaluated the effectiveness of various soil conservation
measures. Various cropping treatments were applied to maize (Zea mays) grown in
30 erosion plots at three different slope angles. A treatment programme has been
maintained for each cropping season since 1993. Throughout each season,
measurements were taken of runoff and erosion rates, crop yield and yield
components and soil thermal and hydrological regimes. Results strongly suggest the
benefits of straw mulch and contour cultivation in conserving soil, water and
nutrients (Fullen et a!., 1997, 1999; Barton 1999; Milne, 2001; Milne et al. ,this
volume; AN Tongxin, 2002).
The team recognized that further progress required full evaluation of the
applicability of techniques developed in plot studies to actual field conditions. The
research team achieved this by the development and scientific evaluation of
modified and novel cropping practices in a representative highland catchment in
north-east Yunnan, 60 km north-east from Kunming. The selected catchment, Wang
DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS 263
Jia (25°28' N, 102°53' E) covers 40.1 hectares near Kedu, in Xundian County and
serves as a teaching, research and extension facility. The catchment has an altitude
of 2044-2191 m and has 27.3 ha of sloping cultivated land, 1.1 ha of sweet chestnut
trees, 0.4 ha of rocky land, 9.5 ha offorest trees and 1.8 ha of barren hills.
The initial phase of the Wang Jia Project consisted of an evaluation of the
effects of modified cropping practices on maize productivity and soil properties.
Fifteen plots were established in a randomised block design, with five treatments
and three replicates, in 1998. The plots were planted with maize and the treatments
were: (1) traditional cultivation + downslope planting; (2) traditional cultivation +
contour planting, (3) traditional cultivation + contour cultivation + straw mulch, (4)
minimum tillage + contour cultivation + straw mulch and (5) traditional cultivation
+ contour cultivation + polythene mulch. Results in 1998 and 1999 confirm
significantly higher maize productivity on areas covered by plastic mulch (HUANG
Bizhi,2001).
3. THE WANG JIA STUDY: PHASE 2

Phase 1 of the Project provided invaluable preparatory data for Phase 2. It was
imperative that the full socio-economic implications of changed cropping strategies
were assessed. Preliminary cost-benefit analysis of plot data suggested that increased
crop yields could increase farm incomes by ~10% per year ($180 per hectare) and
thus provide a significant stimulus to the rural economy. There is a strong need to
evaluate the effectiveness of any suggested soil conservation strategy within the
appropriate socio-economic context. Therefore, the next phase aimed to increase the
productivity of wheat, maize and soybean grown on hill slopes in sustainable and
environmentally friendly ways. These twin goals of increased productivity and
sustainability were achieved by the development and scientific evaluation of
modified and novel cropping practices. Full environmental and socio-economic
assessments of these developments were also carried out, covering physical,
chemical and ecological impacts, the conservation of natural resources, levels of
inputs and losses, management of wastes, returns for stakeholders, poverty
alleviation, income augmentation and rural development. This holistic approach has
not been attempted previously in this region. The catchment is being used as an
experimental area and training model for sustainable agricultural development in the
South China highlands.
A project team was assembled to provide multidisciplinary analyses of the
complex agro-environmental problems. The SHASEA team consists of scientists
from Belgium, China, Ireland, Thailand and the u.K. Results from the plot studies
have been used to develop and test novel cropping techniques. This on-going
programme has established experiencing-sharing links with the local community
(farmers, villagers and township officials), which was thought to be crucial to
incorporating 'end users' in the research programme and to 'bottom-up'
development. The participative research strategy, with the sharing of experience
between European and Asian partners, facilitated a holistic approach, which is
essential to the long-tenn success of this progranune. The Project aimed to

disseminate infonnation to the international research community, regional training
agencies, local agricultural and conservation services and village communities. The
team believes the interchange of research infonnation between China and Thailand
will be beneficial for sustainable development in the highlands of South-East Asia.
Five co-ordinated work packages were implemented: (1) Background
agricultural and environmental assessment of the highland catchment. (2)
Implementation and evaluation of modified and novel cropping systems for wheat,
maize and soybean in the catchment. (3) Evaluation of the socio-economic impact of
the changed cropping practices. (4) Comparative scientific evaluation of the
cropping techniques in the highlands of northern Thailand. (5) Dissemination of
project outcomes and establishment of training progranunes for best practice in
highland rural development.
3.1 Work Package 1: Agricultural and Environmental Assessment of Wang Jia

Catchment
Work Package 1 was co-ordinated by Gembloux Agricultural University (Belgium)

and particularly focused on catchment geomorphopedology. The research support
infrastructure included an integrated irrigation system, catchment flume, upgraded
access road, Delta-T Weather Station and gully check dams. A land management
plan was designed and implemented, in consultation with local farmers. This
included afforestation of upper areas with pine, prickly ash and sweet chestnut trees,
while arable cultivation was concentrated on the gentler slopes of the mid-
catchment. A total of 11,037 sweet chestnut seedlings, 4,076 prickly ash seedlings
and 24,150 pine seedlings were transplanted into forest gaps in August 2000.
Irrigation facilitated a good wheat crop during the dry winter season and assisted
early spring growth of maize, thus encouraging the rapid development of crop cover,
which protects the soil from erosive monsoon rains.
3.1.1 Mapping and geomorphopedological synthesis

The main results achieved included the improvement of the existing topographic
map to produce a digitized catchment map, georeferenced in the UTM projection
system, which is the base document for all thematic maps produced, such as the land
use and plantation maps. The representativeness of Wang Jia Catchment was
evaluated by comparing its geomorphological and land use characteristics with those
of the whole mountainside south of Kelang village, in which it is included. The
comparison between hypsometric curves, slope classes, SPOT satellite image
interpretation (coloured image composition, image classification, vegetation index)
showed that Wang Jia is indeed representative of the Kelang mountainous area. A
detailed catchment land use map was built up from observation by field survey and
aerial photographs. Lithological and geomorphological surveys were also carried
out, including catchment geology and geomorphology. This included an assessment
of erosion and an investigation of soil physical properties, especially water
availability for plants. Soil identification and soil fertility evaluation allowed a
geomorphopedological synthesis in the fonn of a catchment geomorphopedological
(a ) View of calc"-nr from Kelang village.
.-
SoiI ....~ U~
eao:o."...
I.ow.r-S«i<w
StM
.................
--~
--
--
MIdIt.~ SNM.
SInd. . . . 00i0IMe
--
DoIomto
.....
u.-_
----
~
......
",--
"""'"""
100 100 M
(c) Upper seclOr On shole looking down Ihe

cIJlchmenlll1Wartis Ke/ang village.
Figure 1. Geological/Geomorphological sketch of the Wang Jia catchment

sketch map and associated table legend (Figure 1). Reference plots ensured a link
with socio-economic data gained at the farm level in Work Package 3 (Cuddy et al.
this volume).
A digitized 1 :50,000 topographic map was prepared and in 2000, new field
observations led to improved map accuracy. A land cover map was prepared using a
image. A map of potential runoff was calculated according the method of the u.s.
Natural Resources Conservation Service. These maps were also used to produce
maps showing plant water availability. Erosion features were identified in the field
and located on the topographic map. An assessment of sheet erosion, based on the
Universal Soil Loss Equation, shows that sheet erosion is unacceptably high. A
quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of soil conservation practices was
conducted on three representative slopes.
The study shows that, due to erosion on convex and steep linear slopes and to
accumulation in concave positions, soils are young and show strong evidence of
rock heritage. This is indicated by the dominant illite / chlorite clay mineral
assemblage, a silty texture and a yellowish brown colour in soils on slopes where
sandstone and shale outcrops. Many of the soils have a reddish hue, however, often
reflecting the influence of carbonate parent rock. From upstream to downstream and
from top- to downslope, the colluvial mixing increases, the texture becomes fmer,
the soil colour darker (except in the catchment outlet) and soil pH increases. This
has a direct impact on relatively high soil potentialities, plot fertility ranging from
dystric (low fertility status) to eutric (high fertility status).
3.1.2 Soil mineralogy and chemistry

Mineralogical analyses of the Wang Jia soils identified the influence of three main
lithologies, namely shale, sandstone and dolomitic limestone/dolomite (dolostone).
Shale outcrops in the northern and eastern part of the catchment and are locally
interbedded in the dolomitic limestone in the mid-catchment and with thin beds of
sandstone. The shales have a high mica content. Sandstones outcrop mainly in the
southern and uppermost part of the catchment. Thin section analysis shows that they
are feldspatbic with an average composition of quartz (58-60%), K feldspars (29%),
chalcedony (4-10%) and micas (1-10%). Dolomitic limestone and dolomite
constitute a large part of the substratum in the mid-catchment. They have a
(dolo)sparitic or micro( dolo)sparitic fabric with rather large crystals of dolomite
forming the bulk of the rock or appearing in a fme matrix of micritic calcite and/or
dolomite. Mineralogical analysis of 19 soil profiles showed the strong influence of
the geological parent material from which they are derived. Optical microscopy
confirmed the presence of free carbonate minerals in the soils, in addition to other
weatherable primary minerals, such as biotite and chlorite. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
studies of the <2 J.Ull fraction of some parent rocks showed a predominance of
chlorite and mica, as well as an absence of kaolinite, exactly reflecting the major
clay mineralogy found in the catchment soils.
Fifty four soil samples, representing 19 soil profiles from the catchment and
different landscape units were analysed for pH (H20 and CaCh), exchangeable H,
AI, Mn and Fe, exchangeable bases (Ca, Na, K and Mg), total C and total N. From
these data, the soil cation exchange capacity, % base saturation, % H+ saturation and
CIN ratios were calculated. In many parts of the catchment, it was found that soil pH
was relatively high, often approaching or even exceeding a pH value of 7, and had
full base saturation. The most acidic soils were found mainly in the upper parts of
the catchment. Six benchmark soil profiles were also sampled from the various
landscape units of the catchment. Profiles 1 and 2 were sampled from the upper part
of the catchment. Both soils are of a yellowish brown colour and tend to be acidic in
reaction towards the surface, with a pH of <5.5 and base saturation of <50%. They
were classed as Inceptisols (Dystropepts) and from the mineralogical data it was
concluded that they showed little or no evidence of intensive weathering. Profiles
3,4 and 5 occurred mainly in the intermediate sector of the catchment. The soils are
now more reddish in colour and have a higher pH with higher levels of base
saturation, depending on the nature of the parent material. Profile 6 occurs in the
lower catchment, near the outlet and Kelang village. The soil is yellowish brown to
yellowish orange, has a pH always >7 and is fully base saturated throughout. The
clay mineralogy is identical to that of Profiles 4 and 5.
Preliminary SEM observations were also made on the nature of the water stable
aggregates separated from selected catchment soils. Various types of soil aggregate
could be identified including (a) compact or loose clay-rich aggregates with discrete
segregations of iron or manganese oxides, (b) compact aggregates of sandy grains
embedded in, or coated by, clayey material and (c) compact to loose aggregates
containing carbonate grains and various kinds of decomposed organic matter. These
observations suggest that water stable aggregates may form though binding by
oxides, clays and organic matter.
3.1.3 Mineral magnetic analyses.

The magnetic properties of the Wang Jia soils are similar to those of some igneous
rocks and coarse-grained metamorphic rocks. Most samples contain moderate to
high concentrations of magnetic minerals, most of which are magnetically soft (Le.
magnetite-type minerals) and display a dominance of superparamagnetic grain size.
Typically, these characteristics are chiefly indicative of ferrimagnetic minerals.
Based on this information, and knowledge of the mainly carbonate bedrock geology,
it is inferred that in situ secondary magnetic minerals must be enhancing the
magnetic signature of these soils beyond the magnitude of the signature of the
magnetically weak parent material, to produce the moderate to high concentration of
magnetic minerals. As mineral magnetic measurements have previously been used to
trace the movement of soils and sediments, and considering the colluvial nature of
many Wang Jia soils, it is suggested that future work could employ magnetic
measurements to monitor mass movement and, in doing so, quantify soil erosion
throughout the catchment.
3.1.4 Soil classification and implications for extrapolation to other red soil areas.
At the commencement of the Project, it was believed that the soils at Wang Jia could
be classed as Ultisols, according to the US system of Soil Taxonomy. In fact, most
of the soils classified as "Red Soils" according to the Chinese system of soil
classification would indeed be regarded as Ultisols. However, the properties of the
Wang Jia soils described above shows that they cannot be classified in Ultisols
and are, therefore, not representative of most red soils in southern China. The Wang
Jia soils may be more appropriately viewed as Alfisols or even Inceptisols.
An important feature of the Wang Jia soils is that they are essentially colluvial
in nature. This means that they are continually being replenished by material moving
downslope. It is probable that this provides the explanation for the variation found in
clay mineralogy within the catchment. The upper catchment would be continually
subject to mass movement further downslope and any weathering mantle that does
form here would be subject to this movement and tend to accumulate in the middle
and lower catchment. Hence, soil mineralogy at the head of the catchment is
dominated exclusively by contributions from parent rock (illite and chlorite), whilst
the soils in lower parts of the catchment additionally contain contributions from
previous weathering episodes (kaolinite and gibbsite). It may be concluded that it
would be unwise to extrapolate uncritically the results from the cropping
experiments on soils of Wang Jia Catchment to other red soil areas of southern
China, which are inherently less fertile and subject to a much wider range of soil
constraints with regard to crop growth. This would also apply to the cost-benefit
analysis undertaken for the cropping strategies in Wang Jia Catchment (Cuddy et al.,
this volume).
3.2 Work Package 2: The implementation and evaluation of modified and novel
cropping systems
Work Package 2 was co-ordinated by Yunnan Agricultural University (YAU) and

several field experiments were established on maize and soybeans. These include:
(1) Investigation of different cultivation techniques, including use of contour
cultivation, straw mulch, vetiver grass, minimum tillage, plastic mulch and a
novel combination of mulching techniques and intercropping.
(2) Investigation of alternative cropping strategies, including the use of different
cash crops and perennial crops, fallow areas and different rotations, leading to
the development of a catchment management plan for improved productivities,
increased economic return and improved sustainability (WANG Shu Hui, 2003;
LI Yong Mei, 2003).
(3) Implementation of improved water conservation and irrigation management
systems.
(4) Implementation of engineering measures to reduce flooding.
(5) Planting of trees (pine, sweet chestnut and prickly ash) and grass strips on
steeper slopes to stabilize the soil.
3.2.1 The Incoplast Technique

Based on experience gained in field and plot studies, the team designed a composite
maize cropping system to maximize both crop yield and soil and water conservation.
INCOPLAST (Integrated Contour Cultivation, Plastic and Straw Mulch
Treatment) combines contour cultivation, straw mulch and plastic mulch. In the
field, irrigation water is applied prior to monsoon rains, thereby maximizing yield by
early establishment of crop growth. The system is then installed, to both maximize
yield (by addition of plastic mulch) and conserve soil, water and associated nutrients
(by installation of contour cultivation and straw mulch) (Fig. 2). Ridge morphology
is shaped to route water towards the maize roots, beneath the plastic mulch.
Experiments proved that soil bulk densities beneath the plastic mulch remained low
throughout the growing season, thus promoting easier root penetration, higher
infiltration and lower runoff rates.
The INCOPLAST technique was first installed in Wang Jia in 1999 and
resulted in significant increases in grain yields (WANG Shu Hui, 2003). These
positive results encouraged adoption of the technique by local farmers. Crop yield
increases are comparable to the significant improvement produced by plastic mulch.
However, INCOPLAST may offer the added advantages of improved soil, moisture
and nutrient conservation and it is thought that these benefits will be particularly
apparent in erosive and/or drought periods. The INCOPLAST technique was
repeated in the 2001 and 2002 cropping seasons and was applied to the runoff plots
in the 2000 and 2001 cropping seasons (AN Tongxin, 2002). To enhance soil, water
and nutrient retention within fields, experimental plots were bordered with grasses,
including vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanoides). Evaluation of the performance of the
grass is still in progress but it may be noted that it is near its climatic tolerance limits
and so the results will prove valuable for agro-environmental management in the
uplands of South China.
3.2.2 Plot studies

Five maize cropping practices were evaluated. These were (i) traditional cultivation
with downslope planting (D); (ii) traditional cultivation with contour planting (C);
(iii) traditional cultivation with double ridge contour planting and polythene mulch
(C+P); (iv) traditional cultivation with double ridge contour planting, polythene
mulch and straw mulch (C+P+S) (i.e. the INCOPLAST treatment) and (v)
traditional cultivation with contour planting, polythene mulch and intercropping
with soybean (C+P+IS). The main conclusions from these plot studies were:
1. The control treatment (D) produced maize cob yields in the range 4-7 t/ha, with
a mean (three cropping seasons 1999-2001, three replicate plots) of 6.7 t/ha,
which is above the average maize yield for Ywman Province of 3.9 t/ha.
2. The contour treatment (C) produced yields in the range 5-8 tiha, with a mean of
7.6 t/ha. In most experiments, the mean value was not significantly different
from treatment D.
3. The polythene treatment (C+P) produced yields in the range 8-12 t/ha, with a
mean of 9.6 t/ha. These yields were no greater than those obtained in a
separate experiment for a single ridge system.
4. The addition of straw mulch between the ridges and the use of a double ridge
(INCOPLAST, C+P+S) compared to a single ridge, as used in a separate
experiment, produced no significant additional increases in yield over C+P.
5. Intercropping with soybean (C+P+IS) produced yields in the range 8-10 t/ha,
with a mean of 9.3 t/ha, which was not significantly different to either
treatment C+P or C+P+S.
6. The mean yield responses over three years are summarized in Table 1.
Table I. Effects of treatment on mai=e crop yield (mean ofthree years 1999-2001)
Treatment D C C+P C+P+S C+P+IS

Yield (t/ha) 7.0 7.8 9.6 9.6 9.3
% increase 11.4 43.3 43.3 38.8
(D): traditional cultivation with downslope planting; (C); traditional cultivation with contour
planting; (C+P) traditional cultivation with double ridge contour planting and polythene
mulch (C+P+S) traditional cultivation with double ridge contour planting. polythene mulch
and straw mulch (i.e. the INCOPLAST treatment) and (C+P+lS) traditional cultivation with
contour planting. polythene mulch and intercropping with soybean.
7. In a separate experiment using a single ridge, the highest yield for C+P was
10.2 t/ha. Physical measurements suggest that the increased crop response may
be partly due to higher soil temperatures and improved soil moisture retention
in the early season. Pre-irrigation in advance of the onset of the rainy season,
followed by mulching treatment, is particularly beneficial. This enables rapid
crop development and thus high crop yields. Furthermore, rapid development
of vegetative cover, especially maize canopy closure, is highly beneficial for
resource (soil, water and nutrient) conservation.
8. In a separate experiment using erosion plots, the C+P+S treatment was the
most effective for soil and water conservation, producing least runoff and soil
loss.
9. In terms of increasing maize productivity, the most effective treatments were
C+P and C+P+S, with no apparent advantage from using double ridge or straw
mulch. For soil and water conservation, C+P+S was significantly more effective
than C+P, suggesting the former would achieve the best combined performance
of increasing yields and improving soil and water conservation. However, it has
not been possible to quantify the magnitude of these conservation benefits under
the conditions existing in the catchment. The additional inputs required for
C+P+S (INCOPLAST), in terms of straw mulch and labour to install the double
ridge compared to the single ridge, could only be justified on technical grounds
if achieving improved soil and water conservation was a high priority.
10. The increased yields obtained from the use of polythene mulch, with or without
straw, were maintained over four years. Therefore, the technique appears to be
agronomically sustainable in the short term, but a longer period of monitoring is
necessary to determine the long term effects on soil fertility and structure.
I 200m:
'+---11
Oirection 01 SI0P6 . 0.5 m
'.+ t::
Figure 2. Sketch of the 'INCOPLAST' (Integrated Contour Cultivation, Plastic and

Straw Mulch Treatment) Technique
11. The relatively high maize yields obtained in this study (more than twice the
yield in Ywman Province (ZHOU Kaillian, pers. comm., 2002» were
achieved through the use of high levels of manure and inorganic fertilizers,
with irrigation supplied when necessary to offset early season drought.
Detailed cost benefit analysis is required to determine if the more labour-
intensive techniques and additional inputs required are offset by the value of
the increased yield.
The results from two seasons of winter wheat studies, with wheat being grown
in the season between maize crops, showed that notable yields were achieved of
both wheat grain and straw. This was very valuable for straw mulching needs in the
summer. However, results showed that previous crop treatments had no significant
influence on the crop.
3.2.3 Other Land Management Improvements

During the research period at Wang Jia Catchment, there were significant
improvements in soil conservation and increased crop production, whether through
engineering, biological or cultivation methods. These included adjusting planting
patterns, improving traditional cultivation methods and stabilizing a major gully in
the middle of the catchment.
Land management measures were successfully installed, including barrage
dams, water conservation ponds for irrigation and tree plantations and contour grass
strips on the steeper slopes. The establishment of dams along the gully has prevented
stream erosion from triggering landsides during the rainy season, thus protecting the
general ecology of the area and cultivation fields. However, the effects may be short
term and the situation will need to be monitored. The irrigation system in the
experimental area ensured sufficient water for early irrigation during the dry season,
to enhance maize germination, rapid growth and increased fmal yield. According to
the research results, irrigation at the early stage of maize growth was very effective
and significantly increased maize dry matter yields.
3.2.4 Overall Conclusions

It has been demonstrated that the cropping practices evaluated increase the
productivity of maize under the environmental conditions encountered in the
catchment. In seasons where early season rainfall is limiting, these increases can be
as high as 50%. Parallel plot studies quantified their effectiveness in improving soil
conservation, but it was not possible to estimate these effects within the catchment.
By combining catchment and erosion studies, it is possible to conclude that the
practice that will achieve the best combination of increased productivity and
improved soil conservation on sloping land is INCOPLAST. This conclusion is
based on the scientific/technical evaluation. Cost-benefit analysis (Cuddy et al., this
volume) suggests that this practice may not be justified on economic grounds, unless
a high value is given to the loss of soil and nutrients by erosion. Grass strips
appeared to playa very notable role in reducing soil erosion. Contour ridges fonned
naturally where the grass strips grew, allowing natural terraces to be gradually
developed. Applying conservative cultivation practices to arable land, combined
with engineering measures (building dams) and biological measures (growing
different tree types) on the steeper slopes in the catchment, appeared to protect soil
resources and improve the local environment. However, longer-tenn monitoring is
required to evaluate the impact of the biological measures. Water shortage is a key
limiting factor to both winter and summer crop production in most of Yunnan
Province, therefore irrigation improvements helped to increase crop yields
significantly.
4. EXTENDING STUDIES TO THE mGHLANDS OF SOUTH-

EAST ASIA: THE PANGMAPA STUDY
A parallel study to the Wang Jia Project scientifically evaluated the agronomic and
physico-chemical impacts of improved agronomic techniques in the highlands of
north-west Thailand (Panomtaranchagul et aI., 2001). This sub-project tested the
broader applicability of the cropping practices developed at Wang Jia for other areas
of South-East Asia. The experimental site is located near Jabo village, Pangmapa
District, Maehongson Province (latitude 19°33'47" N, longitude 98°12'9" E, altitude
783 m) and consists of 12 plots each measuring 6 x 40 m (240 m2) on slopes
ranging from 30-35% (19-23° ). The soils of this experimental site are similar to
those of Wang Jia in that they are developed on limestone, have a high pH and are
fully base saturated.
During 1999, the SHASEA team designed cropping systems based on the best
management practices of both Chinese and Thai agriculture. Chinese systems (ridge
tillage, contour cultivation, plastic mulch and INCOPLAST) were modified and
adapted to Thai conditions. These novel techniques were applied to 12 of the
Pangmapa plots during the 2000-2002 cropping seasons. The team believes this
interchange of research information between China and Thailand will be beneficial
for sustainable development in the highlands of South-East Asia.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Collation of the experimental data enable several conclusions, which should assist
the development of sustainable agro-environmental systems on highland red soils in
China, similar in nature to those of Wang Jia Catchment. Where the priority is to
increase maize yields on sloping land under conditions where the risk of soil erosion
is low, contour planting with single ridge polythene mulch is recommended. Where
the risk of soil erosion is higher, or rainfall is likely to be limiting early in the
growing season and irrigation water is available for application prior to the
application of polythene mulch, the INCOPLAST technique is recommended.
Where this technique is used, straw must be readily available to be used as the
mulching material.
In all cases, the availability of sufficient manure and, in the case of
INCOPLAST, the availability of sufficient straw, may be major constraints. The
availability of sufficient water for early season irrigation will also be a constraint
when rainfall in May and June is considerably below average.
The soil and water conservation benefits of polythene mulch/intercropping with
soybean have not been evaluated in this study but, if the effects are similar to those
of INCOPLAST, this practice may be recommended where soybean production is
important without significant reduction in maize yield. However, soybean yield is
less reliable than that of maize.
It has been demonstrated that the productivity of maize can be increased, by up
to 50% compared to traditional methods, on sloping fragile land, using simple cost-
effective technologies, which in parallel plot studies have been shown to improve
soil and water conservation. A detailed scientific evaluation has been carried out in
Wang Jia Catchment to quantify the effectiveness of these technologies and develop
explanations of how the crop responses have been produced.
Improvements in maize cropping practices have been linked to a land
management plan to develop a more sustainable agricultural system in Wang Jia
Catchment. This plan has included a range of engineering measures to control
erosion, the installation of an irrigation system to improve the level and reliability of
crop yield, including maize and winter wheat, the planting of trees as cash crops
(sweet chestnut and prickly ash) on the steeper slopes, the planting of pine on parts
of the upper catchment to return that land to forestry and the development of a
monitoring system to evaluate the effectiveness of these measures over the longer
term.
The land management plan has been based on a comprehensive survey and
description of the biophysical characteristics of the catchment, which has provided a
baseline for subsequent change and established the representativity of the catchment
in relation to the surrounding area. The catchment has been shown to be
representative of the mountainside where it occurs, and the soils at the different sites
to be representative of red soils dominated by the influence of limestone and
strongly affected by contributions from material further upslope. Such areas are
extensive in the highlands of Yunnan Province. The description and analysis of the
site is ongoing, as the changes to the catchment proceed, and will be developed into
a GIS-based land management and evaluation system for sUbtropical highland
catchments, such as Wang Jia.
6. REFERENCES
AN Tongxin 2002 Research about maize cultivation practices of high yield and conservation and soil
erosion pattern on sloping arable land. MSc. dissertation, Ywman Agricultural University, 77 pp. (In
Chinese, with English abstract)
Barton A P 1999 Soil erosion and conservation on arable sub-tropical Ultisols in Ywman Province,
China. Ph.D. thesis, The University ofWolverharnpton, 291 pp.
Fullen M A, Mitchell D J, Barton, A P, Hocking T J, LIU Liguang, WU Bo Zhi, ZHENG Yi and XIA
Zheng Yuan 1997 Soil erosion and conservation in YwmanProvince. China Review Issue 6, 27-31.
Fullen M A, Mitchell D J, Barton A P, Hocking T J, LIU Liguang, WU Bo Zhi, ZHENG Yi and XIA
Zheng Yuan 1999 Soil erosion and conservation in Ywman Province, China. Ambio (The Journal o/the
Royal Swedish Academy o/Sciences) 28 (2), 125-129.
HUANG Bizhi 2001 Effects of cultivation techniques on maize productivity and soil properties on
hillslopes in Yunnan Province, China. Ph.D. thesis, The University ofWolverhampton, 248 pp.
Milne E 2001 Soil conservation in relation to maize productivity on sub-tropical red soils in Yunnan
Province, China. Ph.D. thesis, The University ofWolverhampton, 271 pp
PanomtaranchaguJ M, Sukkasem C, Peukrai, S, Fullen M A, Hocking T J and Mitchell D J 2001
Comparative evaluation of cultural practices to conserve soil and water on highland slopes in
northern Thailand. pp. 147-152, In: Helming K. (Ed.), Multidisciplinary Approaches to Soil
Conservation Strategies. ZALF (Zentrum fUr Agrarlanschafts- Wld Landnutzungsforschung e. V.),
Miincheburg, 191 pp.
SHASEA Project URL: http://www.wlv.ac.ukiscience/environmentiSHASEAI
WANG Shu Hui 2003 Cultivation practices, crop productivities and soil properties on fragile slopes in
Yunnan Province, China. Ph.D. thesis, The University ofWolverhampton, 241 pp.
Michael A. Fullen
School ofApplied Sciences, The University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton
WVIISB, UK
EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON THE CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS
MINGKUI ZHANG(l), ZHENLI HE(I) AND M J WILSON(2)
(1) Department ofResource Science, College of Resource and Environmental

Sciences, Zhejiang University,Hangzhou 310039, China
(2) The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, AB15 8QJ, UK
ABSTRACT
Land use patterns have a significant effect upon the chemical and physical properties of the red soils in the
hilly regions of Zhejiang Province. The organic matter content of the red soils Wlder forest is significantly
higher than for similar soils Wlder other land uses. However, available K and P tended to be higher in the
red soils Wlder upland crops as well as when used for growing tea bushes or fruit trees. For upland crops
and orchards too, the percent base saturation of the red soils was very much higher than Wlder forest.
There was also a noticeable effect ofland use for available microelements. On the other hand, the content
of water stable aggregates in the red soils tended to increase in the order; orchard> tea garden> wasteland
> upland crops > forestland. This order reflected the organic matter content Wlder the different land uses
and emphasizes the importance of increasing the organic matter content as a means of improving the
structure of the red soils and hence making them less susceptible to erosion.
Keywords: red soils, chemical properties, physical properties, land use, soil erosion.
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soils in the hilly regions of Zhejiang Province are currently under a variety of
land uses, reflecting the attempts to farm these soils over the passage of time. In
some instances these attempts have been conspicuously unsuccessful and the red soil
sites have been abandoned and left to whatever vegetation can become established.
These sites are referred to as "wastelands". In other instances the soils are used for
plantation and natural forests, tea gardens and the growing of fruit trees in orchards.
Still other red soil sites are used for growing upland crops, horticulture or as rice
paddies. The question arises as to whether these various land uses have a significant
influence on the chemical and physical properties of the red soils. Clearly, this is an
important question to answer, bearing as it does on the sustainability of the various
land uses to which these soils are put. In this paper, data are presented showing how
land use impacts upon the content of organic matter, base saturation, major nutrient
content in total and available forms, as well as the content of some of the minor
nutrients. The impact of land use on the content of water stable aggregates, which
may be regarded as a surrogate for susceptibility to erosion, is also assessed.
275
276 MlNGKUI ZHANG et al.
2. EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON RED SOIL PROPERTIES
2.1 Effects on Soil Fertility Characteristics
Concentrations of organic matter, total P, available P, total N, available N

(alkaline hydrolysable N), available K and base saturation were greatly affected by
land uses in the hilly region (Table 1).
Organic matter concentrations in soils varied among different land uses in the
following order: forestland> upland, tea garden> wasteland, orchard land. Total P
declined in the order: tea garden> upland> orchard land> wasteland> forest land
and available P in the order: tea garden, orchard> upland> forest land> wasteland.
The order for both total and available N was: forestland> tea garden> orchard land,
upland > wasteland and for available K was orchard land> upland> tea garden>
forestland, wasteland. For base saturation the order was: orchard land, upland>
wasteland, forestland > tea garden. However, land use did not appear to have a
significant effect on soil ECEC.
Table 1. Effects of land use on contents oforganic matter and nutrients of the red soils
Land uses Forest Tea Upland Orchard Waste

Land Garden Land
Sample number 12 8 9 5 10
Organic matter (g kg-I) 40.4 23.1 23.9 18.9 19.9
Available K (mg kg· l ) 120 147 184 233 103
Total P (g kg· l ) 0.67 1.21 1.13 0.97 0.85
Available P 10.6 52.1 33.2 51.0 6.8
Total N (g kg-I) 1.49 1.29 0.97 1.05 0.83
C/N 15.6 11.4 14.2 10.5 12.8
Alkaline hydrolysable N 159 135 112 105 96
(mg kg· l )
ECEC (cmole kg· l ) 7.79 7.28 7.76 7.50 7.17
Base saturation {%2 39.3 28.5 51.4 58.0 42.1
Changes of land use had significant effects on soil properties (Table 2).
Following cultivation of red soil forest land for upland crops, soil organic matter,
total N, and C/N ratio were declined, available P and K increased due to application
of P and K fertilizers, as did base saturation and pH following application of lime
(Zhang, 1995).
EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON RED SOILS 277
Table 2. Changes ofsoil properties after transformingforestland into upland
Soil types Land OM Tot. C/N Avail. Avail. pH ECEC Base

Use N P K H2O Sat.
!gkg0ll (mgkgo1l ! cmol.,kgOll !%l
Sandy-clay Forest 24.5 0.95 15.0 1.3 23.0 5.4 5.87 24.4
red soil UEland 16.5 0.68 11.4 11.8 62.0 5.8 7.01 64.3
Yellowish Forest 30.3 1.25 14.1 3.9 91.0 5.6 7.58 24.1
red soil UEland 20.5 1.02 11.7 14.9 103 6.0 8.01 58.4
Mountain Forest 57.7 2.17 15.3 2.3 119 5.1 8.49 30.8
~ellow soil UEland 26.5 1.35 11.4 16.7 162 5.8 5.77 57.7
Land use had great effects on concentrations of available micro-elements of the red
soils in the hilly region (Table 3).
Table 3. Effects ofland use on available micro-elements of red soils in hilly region
Land use Sample Mean concentrations of available micro-elements

No. {mg kg-I}
Fe Mn Cu Zn B
Forestland 16 34.5 28.4 0.75 0.93 0.17
Upland 11 30.1 36.1 0.62 0.89 0.15
Teagarden 9 23.2 31.6 0.70 0.90 0.16
Orchard 6 21.5 28.0 0.50 0.54 0.14
Rice field 1 48.0 29.0 1.76 1.22 0.18
Vegetable land 1 133.0 35.0 2.24 1.18 0.29
Wasteland 11 29.6 27.1 0.75 0.76 0.13
Soil available Fe declined in the order: paddy field> vegetable land > forest land>
upland> wasteland> tea garden> orchard land whereas for available Mn the order
was: upland> vegetable land >tea garden> paddy field> forest land> orchard land,
wasteland. Available Cu declined in the order: vegetable land > paddy field> forest
land, wasteland> tea garden> upland> orchard land, which was slightly different
from the order for available Zn: paddy field > vegetable land > forest land > tea
garden, upland> orchard land. Finally, the order found for available B was:
vegetable land > paddy field > forest land > tea garden > upland > orchard land,
wasteland. The concentrations of available micro-elements were generally the lowest
in the soils from orchard land.
2.2 Effects on the Formation of Water-Stable Aggregates
2.2.1. Effect ofLand Use on Distribution and Quality of Water Stable Aggregates
Major cementing substances varied greatly among the different soils. Clay
contents ranged from 96 to 498 g kg-I, being related largely to soil parent materials,
whereas organic matter, ranging from 6.2 to 59.3 g kg·\ was dependent on land use
(Table 4).
Table 4. Effect ofland use on concentration ofclay, organic matter

and free iron oxides
Land use Soil No. Parent material Clay OM Free Fe

Oxides
(g kg· l ) (g kg· l ) (g kg-I)
Forestland 01 Limestone 392 51.5 39.7
D2 Q2 red clay 346 28.8 40.8
D3 Quartz. Sandstone 209 51.1 18.5
D4 Basalt 394 38.9 18.8
D5 Red sandstone 130 19.6 11.7
D6 Metamorphic rock 414 30.7 30.0
D8 Shale 313 24.4 22.7
Upland D9 Q2 red clay 245 14.9 24.9
010 Basalt 498 27.7 67.1
011 Metamorphic rock 324 28.4 59.5
Teagarden D12 Limestone 440 19.9 41.0
DB Q2 red clay 410 36.0 44.6
014 Quartz. Sandstone 284 27.1 16.0
015 Basalt 476 21.8 55.9
016 Red sandstone 151 16.7 12.6
017 Metamorphic rock 468 19.8 97.4
Orchard D19 Q2 red clay 270 23.3 33.1
D20 Q2 red clay 401 22.8 33.9
Wasteland D22 Q2 red clay 337 15.5 44.6
D23 Q2 red clay 393 6.2 32.7
D24 Q2 red clay 303 14.6 33.2
D25 Quartz. Sandstone 207 25.3 18.9
D26 Basalt 395 59.3 81.4
D28 Shale 443 7.5 52.6
Given the same parent material, land use had great effects on the distribution and
quality of soil aggregates. Forest lands contained, on average, 91.7% and 63.3% of>
0.25 mm and > 5 mm dry aggregates respectively, and 72.3% and 34.9% of water-
stable aggregates respectively. These aggregates had high a water stability
coefficient (Table 5). After deforestation, the amounts and stability of the soil
aggregates declined significantly. There was a major decrease in the large size
fractions of the dry aggregates (>5mm), suggesting that portions of these were
transformed into small size aggregates. The amounts of >5mm dry aggregates in
soils followed the order:
Forestland> wasteland> tea garden> upland> orchard land, whereas the order for
the >O.25mm dry aggregates was forestland > upland > tea garden > wasteland >
orchard.
Table 5. Effect of land use on si=e class distribution of soil aggregates (%)
Land use Soil MethodT Size classes of a88!egates ~mml PAD!

No. >5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25- >0.25 (%)
0.5
Forest- 01 D 93.7 3.5 0.5 1.0 0.4 99.1 5.0
Land W 77.3 8.7 2.8 3.9 1.6 94.3
D2 D 94.2 3.7 0.5 0.6 0.2 99.2 7.6
W 53.7 14.9 8.6 11.3 3.2 91.7
D3 D 45.0 11.3 6.4 13.0 6.9 82.5 0.5
W 36.1 15.2 7.4 16.4 7.1 82.2
D4 D 43.4 26.2 8.3 10.7 3.6 92.1 14.8
W 25.8 24.9 9.4 12.8 5.7 78.6
D5 D 48.5 13.8 3.6 4.9 3.4 74.0 65.6
W 10.2 6.1 1.4 5.1 2.7 25.5
D6 D 65.8 14.4 5.0 8.4 3.1 96.7 23.5
W 40.8 10.7 6.6 12.3 3.6 74.0
D7 D 38.8 16.0 8.3 18.8 8.7 90.5 11.2
W 25.4 15.8 8.2 21.4 9.7 80.4
D8 D 77.2 14.1 3.8 3.5 0.5 99.1 47.8
W 9.9 7.8 6.2 16.6 11.3 51.8
Upland D9 D 47.0 19.7 8.1 12.0 3.0 89.9 30.6
W 3.4 12.2 10.2 24.6 12.0 62.4
010 D 24.5 17.6 10.4 25.1 12.1 89.6 13.4
W 15.8 14.4 11.2 25.5 10.7 77.6
011 D 55.7 20.1 5.6 9.5 3.3 94.2 58.0
W 0 3.3 7.4 17.8 11.1 39.5
Tea 012 D 79.8 9.9 2.9 4.3 1.2 98.1 43.6
garden W 0 8.6 7.1 23.7 15.9 55.2
DB D 81.2 8.8 1.8 3.7 1.2 96.7 26.7
W 35.9 7.9 5.0 13.6 8.5 70.9
014 D 41.3 20.9 8.6 13.6 5.6 89.9 40.2
W 0 7.1 6.3 23.8 16.6 53.7
015 D 31.3 13.0 7.9 24.0 12.1 88.4 52.9
W 5.2 5.0 4.7 15.6 11.2 41.6
016 D 27.4 15.8 4.8 8.3 5.8 62.1 73.4
W 3.0 3.5 1.5 5.8 2.7 16.5
D17 D 46.2 23.9 9.7 14.7 3.3 97.7 50.8
W 1.3 4.8 9.5 23.2 9.3 48.1
018 D 36.2 33.7 10.6 13.3 3.3 97.2 50.3
W 2.3 3.3 8.4 21.9 12.5 48.3
Table 5 continued on next page
(Table 5 continued)
Land use Soil Methodt Size classes of aggregates {mm~ PAD:

No. >5 2-5 1-2 0.5-1 0.25- >0.25 (%)
0.5
Orchard D19 0 64.0 15.3 5.1 7.6 2.7 94.7 59.6
W 6.4 5.7 4.6 12.3 9.2 38.2
020 0 24.2 14.0 6.4 19.0 15.6 79.1 52.9
W 7.2 7.1 4.0 10.6 8.4 37.4
021 0 37.9 17.8 4.7 9.1 6.7 76.3 47.8
W 21.3 3.5 2.7 5.6 6.8 39.9
Waste- 022 0 92.6 3.5 0.9 1.4 0.6 99.0 34.0
Land W 28.2 7.2 5.9 14.6 9.565.3
023 0 43.1 14.3 6.7 15.1 8.6 87.8 46.4
W 2.7 7.9 6.9 17.7 11.947.1
024 0 40.5 20.5 9.0 17.4 6.293.7 34.2
W 3.7 9.7 10.0 23.7 14.561.6
025 0 25.5 14.4 8.2 21.1 12.6 81.7 15.3
W 15.3 6.6 8.7 24.3 14.269.2
026 0 70.0 16.5 5.9 4.5 1.998.8 5.9
W 46.2 20.7 9.0 12.6 4.593.0
027 0 11.6 20.6 8.3 13.7 7.962.1 49.6
W 9.0 5.1 1.9 10.5 4.831.3
028 0 53.0 22.6 7.7 10.2 2.996.5 77.0
W 1.3 1.0 4.7 9.4 5.822.2
to: measured by dry sieving, W: measured by wet sieving.
Ipercentage of aggregate destruction (%) = (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates - > 0.25 mm water-stable
aggregates) x 100%1 (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates).
Table 6. Effect ofland use on the amounts and water stability ofaggregates in the
soils
Land use Number AmOlmt of water stable aggregates {%) PAD: (%)
of samples >5mm >0.25mm
Forestland 8 o 63.3 ± 22.8 91.7 ± 9.2 22.0± 23.0
W ~9±22~ n.3±229
Upland 3 o 42.4 ± 16.1 91.2 ± 2.6 34.0± 22.5
W 6.4 ± 8.3 59.8 ± 19.2
Teagarden 7 o 47.6 ± 23.6 90.0 ± 12.9 48.3 ± 14.2
W 6.8 ± 12.1 47.8 ± 16.5
Orchard 3 o 42.0 ± 20.2 83.4 ± 9.9 53.4 ± 5.9
W 11.6 ± 8.4 38.4 ± 1.3
Wasteland 7 o 48.0 ± 27.1 88.5 ± 13.2 37.5 ±23.4
W 15.2 ± 16.6 55.7 ± 24.1
TD: measured by dry sieving, W: measured by wet sieving.
IPercentage of aggregate destruction (%) = (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates - > 0.25 mm water-stable
aggregates) x 100%1 (> 0.25 mm dry aggregates).
Land use had a significant effect on the distribution of the water-stable aggregates
(Table 6). Amounts of> 5 mm water-stable aggregates followed the order: forestland
> wasteland > orchard land > tea garden > decreased with increasing frequency of
cultivation (agricultural tool and human activity). Amounts of> 0.25 mm water
stable aggregates gave different order, namely forestland> upland> wasteland> tea
garden > orchard. The results suggest that cultivation activity mainly affected water-
stable aggregates of > 5mm size and upland, and transformed a proportion of large
size water-stable aggregates into smaller ones. Mean percentage of aggregate
destruction in water was forestland < upland < wasteland < tea garden < orchard,
indicating that soil aggregates in forestland were the most water- stable, while those
in orchard were the least water-stable.
2.2.2 Degradation ofAggregates After Deforestation

Statistical analysis showed that clay, iron oxides, or organic matter were more or
less correlated with > 0.25 mm or >5 mm dry aggregates (Table 7), but that the
correlations were significant only between clay, iron oxides, and > 0.25 mm dry
aggregates.
Table 7. The correlation coefficients (r) between the contents ofvarious aggregates
and cementing substances in the soils
Aggregates Size (mm) Clay Free Fe oxides OM

Dry aggregates >5 0.357 0.264 0.345
>0.25 0.649** 0.528* 0.282
Water-stable >5 0.129 0.073 0.720**
aggregates >2 0.139 0.080 0.774**
>1 0.178 0.124 0.780**
>0.5 0.230 0.131 0.788*
>0.25 0.278 0.200 0.726**
Percentage of aggregate -0.135 -0.219 -0.717**
destruction
The amounts of water-stable aggregates in soils were dependent more on organic

matter content than on clay and iron oxides. The percentage of aggregate destruction
in water was negatively correlated with organic matter (Table 7), suggesting that
organic matter is major factor affecting the amounts and water stability of soil
aggregates. For the same land use, water stability of aggregates was also correlated
with organic matter. Except for the upland, where extensive cultivation masked the
effect of organic matter, the percentage of aggregate destruction in water was
negatively correlated with organic matter for each land use. All the results suggest
that increased decomposition and decreased input of organic matter after
deforestation were responsible for the decline in both the amounts and water stability
of aggregates in the red soils. Therefore, increasing organic matter input is crucial for
improving the structure of red soils (Zhang et al., 1997a). The contents of> 0.25 mm
water-stable aggregates increased in the following order: orchard > tea garden >
wasteland > upland > forestland. Increased decomposition and decreased input of
organic matter after reclamation were responsible for the decrease in both the water-
stability of aggregates and the amount of water-stable aggregates in red soils.
Therefore, increasing organic matter input is crucial for improving the structure of
the red soils.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The data presented in this paper show that land use does have an impact on the
chemical and physical properties of the red soils in the hilly regions of Zhejiang
Province. Specifically, the use of red soils for upland crops and fruit orchards results
in an increase in soil pH and exchangeable bases, as well as an increase in available
K and P. Presumably, these are residual effects due to the application of the lime and
fertilizers necessary for crop growth. On the other hand, soil organic matter declines
considerably when red soils under forest are converted to upland crops. Associated
with this is an increase in the percentage destruction of water stable aggregates and
the implication is that the red soils become more susceptible to erosion. The results
therefore call into question the long-term sustainability of growing crops on the red
soils in hilly areas and reinforce the desirability of maintaining the content of organic
matter.
4. REFERENCES
Zhang, M.K. 1995. Effect of vegetation degradation on physical and chemical properties of red soil in
hilly regions of subtropics. Soils. 27(5): 241-245.
Zhang, M.K., Z.L. He, G.c. Chen, C.Y. Huang. 1997a. Formation of water-stable aggregates in red soils
as affected by land use (in Chinese). Acta Pedolog;ca Sinica. 34: 359-365.
Zhang, MK., Z.L.He, G.c. Chen, c.Y. Huang, and MJ. Wilson. 1996. Formation and water stability of
aggregates in red soils as affected by organic matter. Pedosphere. 6: 39-45.
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT
ON NITROGEN UTILIZATION AND
TRANSFORMATION IN RED SOILS USING 15N
TRACER TECHNIQUE
QINGFU YE(l), QINZHENG ZHANG(l) AND ZHENLI HE(2)
(1) Institute ofNuclear-Agricultural Sciences

(2) Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry ,Zhejiang University,
Huajia Campus, Hangzhou 310029, PR.China
ABSTRACT
The influence of fertilization with urea and ryegrass on nitrogen utilization and transformation in a typical
red clayey soil has been investigated. When urea or ryegrass were applied alone, the percentage of N
uptake by ryegrass from labeled urea was 3 times that from labeled ryegrass. However, the ratio declined
to 1.7 when urea and ryegrass were applied in combination. Combining application of ryegrass and urea
reduced uptake of urea N and increased uptake of ryegrass N by the ryegrass plants, but the percentage of
residual N in the soil increased for urea and decreased for ryegrass. When urea and ryegrass were applied
alone, the percentage ofN remaining in the soil from labeled ryegrass was more than 69% while that from
labeled urea was less than 25%, and much more ryegrass N was incorporated into humus than urea N.
Keywords: Organic matter; nitrogen utilization and transformation, red soil, ryegrass
1. INTRODUCTION
In developing countries, the increasing prices of chemical fertilizers coupled with

growing concerns for sustaining soil productivity has led to renewed interest in the
use of organic manures as fertility-restorer inputs (Sankaram, 1996; Reddy et ai.,
2000). Applications of organic manures may provide valuable nutrients to pioneering
vegetation, stimulate microbial activities (because of increased sources of energy and
nutrients for microorganisms), replenish organic matter content of most agricultural
soils and prevent further degradation of soil structure and thus erosion, particularly in
the tropical and subtropical regions (Christensen, 1987; Dennis et ai., 1989;
Iyamuremye et ai., 1996; Joseph et ai., 1995; Kapkiyai et ai., 1999; Khaleel et ai.,
1981; Lu, 1992; Sharpley, 1985; Simis, 1990; Stewart et ai., 1987; Stevenson,
1982; Trindade et ai., 2001 ; Woomer et ai., 1994). Nutrients released from the
283
284 QINGFU YE et aI.
mineralization of organic matter may be incorporated into microbial biomass as a

fraction of potentially-available plant nutrients (Smith and Paul, 1991; Okano et
aI.,1987). This would further emphasize the need to use organic manures alone or in
conjunction with chemical fertilizers in soil fertility maintenance for sustainable crop
production (Aceves et aI., 2001; Diekmann et aI. 1993;Meelu and Morris, 1988).
The area of red soils in China covering about more than 2 million km2 accounts for
22.7% of the whole country's area (Liu, 1985). Most of the red soils are deficient in
nutrient elements which are indispensable to plant production; moreover, red soils
are readily eroded and their physical characteristics are not suitable for arable
practice and crop production. For these reasons, effective measures must be taken to
ameliorate the fertility and productivity of red soils. One of the commonest methods
used is to enhance the input of organic matter. Ryegrass has strongly vigorous fibrous
roots, and not only can prevent the red soils from being eroded, but can also be used
as a source of animal forage. Cultivating ryegrass in red soils and applying ryegrass
as a green manure to the soils have been demonstrated to be feasible for the
amelioration of the soils (Liu, 1985). Green manure application to soil has been
reported to increase soil organic matter, available N and other nutrients in the plow
layer (Sing, 1984). For soils in general, there is a lot of information available on the
utilization of organic N, the effects of organic amendment on utilization of inorganic
N, as well as N transformations (Bhatta et aI., 1997; Christensen, 1987; Huang et ai.,
1991; Lao, 1988; Lu et aI.,1992; Mo et ai., 1983; Norman et aI., 1990; Rasiah, 1999;
Sisworo et aI., 1990; Thomsen et aI., 2001; Vigil et aI., 1991; Whalen et aI., 2001; Xu
et aI., 1989). For red soils in particular, the influence of organic amendments on the
transformation and availability ofN is less well documented (Wang et ai., 1994). The
objective of this study was to determine utilization and transformation of N in red
soils after cultivation with ryegrass and fertilization with urea.
2. 1 Treatment of soil and ryegrass plantation
The red clayey soil was taken from surface layer of fallow land in Longyou county
of Zhejiang Province. The properties of the soil are as follows: pH (H20)=4.16,
Organic matter =8.4 g'kg-I, CEC =6.62 cmol'kg-I, Available P= 3.21 mg'kg-I, Total
N= 0.34 g'kg-I, Exchangeability of K+, Na+ ,Ca2+ and Mg2+ is 0.19, 0.02, 0.69 and
0.30 cmol'kg-I, respectively. The soil sample was air-dried and ground to pass
through a 2mm sieve. 250g of each air-dried soil sample was put into 200 m1
polyethylene pots, to which pulverized ryegrass and/or urea was added as shown in
Table 1, and then mixed thoroughly. To obtain uniformly labeled ryegrass, 15N
labeled (N}4)2S04 (10.5% abundance) was applied to soil and mixed well, then
ryegrass was sown in the soil one month later. The properties of the added ryegrass
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC AMENDMENT ON NITROGEN UTILIZATION 285
are shown in Table 2. Each treatment was triplicated. The mixtures as well as the
control soil were adjusted to 40% of maximum water holding capacity (WHC). The
pots were pre-incubated indoors under room temperature for 20d. Each pot was
weighed every day and the weight loss was compensated by the addition of distilled
water to keep the moisture content constant. After 20d of incubation, 130 ryegrass
seeds were sown in each pot, and then weighed in order to adjust the soil moisture as
mentioned above.
Table 1. Adopted treatments and labeledfertili=er abundance in the experiment
Treatment ----=-:---=-A.::Ip:J:p:.=li=,c=at:::cio=n::..:r:.::ac:.::te:.. ;o=f,-=tI.:.:erti:.;c·=liz;=e=;r,-,C.:=m::.g2..:N,-,ik:..:::.;g,-:a=ir=:--dri=:=·e:::d:...:s:.=o.=ilL)_ _

No. Urea Ryegrass Labeled-urea Labeled-ryegrass
Rate 13N Rate I'N
abund. abund.
T 1CCK) 0 0 0 0
Tz 0 0 200 2.793 0
T3 0 0 0 200 5.209
T4 0 100 100 4.346 0
Ts 100 0 0 100 5.209
T6 0 0 100 2.793 0
T7 0 0 0 100 5.209
Table 2. Properties of the applied ryegrass
Ryegrass type C weight Nweight ClNratio

fraction fraction
C%) C%)
15N-ryegrass 47.36 3.52 13.45
Unlabeled ryegrass 49.39 3.33 14.83
2.2 Sampling ofsoil and ryegrass
After 20d incubation, fresh soil samples were taken from each pot, corresponding to
5g air-dried soil, for the determination of mineral N and microbial biomass N. After
the ryegrass seeds had germinated, the pots were managed in the same way as
ryegrass in the field and the soil in pots was kept at field water content during the
ryegrass growth period. The first harvest of ryegrass was carried out when the
ryegrass grew into 17d-old seedlings. The above ground ryegrass was clipped and
the pots were then managed as before. The second harvest of ryegrass was carried
out after 41 d. The whole ryegrass plants were separated from the moist soil and
washed free of adhering soil under tap water. All the ryegrass plants were dried
at 60°C until constant mass. The ryegrass was then pulverized and kept in a
286 QINGFU YE et al.
desiccator for the determination of total N and l~ abundance. After the second
harvest, the fresh soil in each pot was mixed thoroughly, and a soil sample
corresponding to 5 g air-dried soil from each pot was taken for the determination of
soil total N, microbial biomass N, mineral N, humus N and l~ abundance.
2.3 Soil and ryegrass analysis
Analyses performed included total soil N and 1~ abundance, soil mineral N

and 1~ abundance, soil humus N and 15N abundance, soil microbial biomass N,
ryegrass plant total N and 1~ abundance, and ryegrass dry matter mass.
Total N in the soil and ryegrass samples was determined by the Kjeldahl
digestion method with a mixed catalyst (M K2S04:M CUS04:M Se = 100:10:1)
(Lao,1988). Mineral N in soil samples was extracted with 20% (w/v) NaCl and the
extracts were analyzed by distillation with 10mollL NaOH and Zn-FeS04 (M Zn:M
FeS04 = 1:5) agent(Lao,1988; Mo et al.,1983). The microbial biomass N in soil
samples was determined using a modified chloroform fumigation-direct extraction
procedure (Brookes et al.,1985). Soil samples were fumigated with chloroform for
24h in a vacuum desiccator and extracted with 30ml 0.5 mollL K2S04 for 30min at
25°C following the removal of chloroform. The other homogeneous soil samples
(unfumigated) were extracted in the same manner when the fumigation commenced.
Extracts were subjected to Kjeldahl digestion for total N determination. The
difference in K2S04 extractable N between the fumigated and unfumigated soil
samples represented the chloroform-labile N fraction of the soils, and a correction
factor (Kn) of 0.54 was applied to estimate the microbial biomass N.
For extraction and analysis of humus N, the fumigated soil samples following
0.5mollL K2S04 extraction were extracted with O.lmollL NaOH solution, the
extracts were concentrated and subjected to Kjeldahl digestion and the N in extracts
was measured with distillation method (Wen, 1984). 1~ abundance of all the
samples was analyzed with mass spectrometer. With the total N content and 1~
abundance, the amount of N in various forms from the labeled source can be
calculated as the following:
N diff (N derived from fertilizer or ryegrass) =
15N atom % excess of sample

15N atom % excess of labelled source
Amount N in samples from labelled source = amount of total N x Ndiff


3. I Effect of application of urea and ryegrass on microbial biomass N and mineral N
in red clayey soil before cultivating ryegrass
As can be seen from Fig. 1, after 20d incubation, the amount of mineral N in T 2
was the highest among the treatments, whilst the amount of mineral N in T3 and T 7
was the lowest. Paul and Beauchamp (1995) have suggested that N immobilization
occurs during a flush of microbial activity. In our experiment, when ryegrass was
applied alone, the amount of mineral N was much less than that in the control. The
reason for the decrease of mineral N may be attributed to immobilization of mineral
N in soil by microorganisms following ryegrass application. When urea was applied
in combination with ryegrass (T4 and T 5) or 200mg N kit was applied alone (T 3), the
microbial biomass N was much higher than those in other treatments, demonstrating
that addition of ryegrass stimulated the microbial activity in the soil.
SO.O . Biomass N
SO.O oMineral N
~
zCI 40.0
.s 30.0
~
E
0 20.0
()
10.0
0.0
T1 T2 1'3 T4
Treatment No
Fig.1 Microbial biomass N and mineral N in different treatments
before cultivating ryegrass
3.2 Effect of different treatments on ryegrass dry mass and N accumulation
The dry mass of ryegrass and N accumulation were influenced significantly by

the fertilization treatment (Table 3). The largest yield of dry matter was obtained
when urea and ryegrass were applied in combination. The two treatments also
resulted in a higher accumulation ofN in the ryegrass plants; however, when 200 mg
urea N·kg"l was applied alone, the amount ofN accwnulated in ryegrass plants in the
second harvest was higher than when urea and ryegrass were applied in combination.
The amount of both dry matter and N accwnulation at second harvest in T6 and T 7
was significantly less than that in the other treatments. Comparing Fig.1 and Table 3,
it can be seen that the dry matter and N accwnulation in ryegrass plant are to some
extent related to the content of mineral N in the soil.
Table 3. Effects ofdifferent treatments on ryegrass plant dry mass and N

accumulation
Treatment Dry mass of N Dry mass of N accumulated

No first harvest accumulated Second harvest (mg/pot)
(g/pot) (mgipot) (gipot)
1 0.135 5.7 0.375 4.6
2 0.153 9.0 1.023 30.6
3 0.160 6.7 1.173 16.9
4 0.183 9.0 1.623 25.5
5 0.187 9.7 1.457 24.2
6 0.153 8.6 1.223 18.4
7 0.163 6.6 0.928 11.2
LSDo.05 0.153 1.0 0.341 3.7
LSDo.01 0.212 1.5 0.473 5.1
The results indicate that ryegrass growth and N accwnulation in ryegrass plants
mainly depend on the amount of available N in soil and that addition of organic
matter to soil is also favorable to ryegrass growth and uptake ofN by ryegrass.
3.3 Effect ofdifferent treatments on N transformation in red soil
As shown in Table 4, when ryegrass was applied alone or in combination with

urea, the content of microbial biomass N was increased compared with that when
urea was applied alone. It can be seen that application of ryegrass increased
accumulation of humus N significantly. The amount of humus N with 200mg
ryegrass N·kg- 1 application in soil (T2) was significantly higher than that with 100
mg ryegrass N·kg"l (T7).
When ryegrass was applied in combination with urea, the amount of humus N was a
little higher than that when lOOmg ryegrass N'kg"l was applied alone (T7)' The
increase in hwnus N in soil may be attributed to urea, because when urea was
applied alone (T2, Ts), the amount ofhwnus N in the soil was higher than that in the
control. It can also be seen from Table 5 that when ryegrass was applied alone or in
combination with urea, more ryegrass N was incorporated into hwnus N, and also
that more N derived from ryegrass or urea remained in the red clayey soil than when
urea was applied alone. The mineral N in the red clayey soil was highest when urea
was applied alone.
Table 4. Content oJN in differentJorms in soil after ryegrass harvest
Treatment Biomass N HumusN MineralN

No im~Eer Eot~ im~EerEot~ im~EerEot)
T, 0 17.8 3.1
Tz 1.6 19.7 5.9
T3 3.9 29.3 3.6
T4 2.7 25.6 2.3
Ts 4.1 24.9 3.5
T6 3.9 19.6 3.3
T7 5.1 23.5 2.8
LSD 0.05 2.4 3.6 1.0
LSD oOl 3.4 5.0 1.3
Table 5. Nitrogen derivedfrom labeledJertilizer (N dff) in soil

after ryegrass harvest
Treat Humus Content Mineral Conte Residual Content

ment N (mglpot) N nt N (mglpot)
No NcUf Ndff (mglp Ndff
ot)
Tz 0.1294 2.6 0.3487 2.1 0.1529 15.5
T3 0.3265 9.6 0.1216 0.4 0.3108 42.1
T4 0.1010 2.6 0.1035 0.2 0.1053 12.5
Ts 0.1326 3.3 0.1192 0.4 0.1316 15.3
T6 0.0717 1.4 0.3137 1.0 0.066 6.1
T7 0.2074 4.9 0.1231 0.3 0.1605 18.2
LSD 0.05 0.7 0.04 1.8

LSD 0.01 1.0 0.05 2.5
3.4 Effect ofdifferent treatments on the balance offertilizer N
It can be seen from Table 6, when urea (T2, T6) and ryegrass (T3, T7) were
applied alone, the percentage of N taken up by ryegrass from urea was 3 times that
from ryegrass, whereas the percentage of N transformation to humus N from
ryegrass was significantly higher than that from urea. However, the percentage of
mineral N from ryegrass was significantly less than that from urea. Combining
application of urea and ryegrass (T4, T5) reduced the difference in N taken up by
ryegrass, as well as recovery of humus N and mineral N from urea and ryegrass.
When ryegrass and urea were applied alone, the residual N in the soil from ryegrass
was also significantly higher than that from urea. Combining application of urea and
ryegrass could increase the residual N compared with that from urea alone but was
less than that from ryegrass alone. About 60-70% of ryegrass N remained in the soil,
perhaps because most of the ryegrass N was retained in undecomposed forms
because transformed humus N only accounted for less than 20% of the ryegrass N.
Furthermore, the mineral N and microbial biomass N also accounted for a very small
percent of the ryegrass N. When ryegrass was applied alone, the utilization of
ryegrass N by growing ryegrass was much lower than that when urea was applied
alone or in combination with ryegrass, but the residual N in soil was the highest of
all the treatments. Thus, the loss of ryegrass N is reduced significantly compared
with that in the other treatments. It can also be been from Table 6 that when urea was
applied alone, the utilization of urea N was highest, but the residual N in the red soil
was lowest. When urea was applied in combination with ryegrass, the utilization of
urea N was reduced, while the utilization of ryegrass N was significantly increased.
With combined application of urea and ryegrass, the residual urea N in soil was
increased significantly but the residual ryegrass N in soil was decreased significantly.
Also, when urea was applied in combination with ryegrass, the loss ofN was greatly
reduced.
From above results, it was demonstrated that urea N can be much more easily
be taken up by growing ryegrass than by ryegrass N, but that urea N is much more
easily lost from soil during ryegrass growth. Combining applications of urea and
ryegrass reduced uptake and loss of urea N and increased the residual urea N in soil
compared with that when urea was applied alone. It can be assumed, therefore, that
application of organic matter to soil improves soil organic matter status and reduces
the loss of nutrients. The above results are similar to those of Christensen (1987) and
Xu et a1.(1989). From our experiment, it may be suggested that combining
application of urea and ryegrass (both at the application rate of 100mg·kg-1 soil) is
appropriate for the growth of ryegrass in red soils and improvement of red soil
fertility.
Table 6. Nitrogen taken up by ryegrass and N recoveries from

labeled N after ryegrass harvest fA)
Treat Ntaken Recovery Recovery Residual Total Loss

Ment up of humus of mineral Nin soil Recov- Of
No by N N ery N
ryegrass ofN
T2 58.6 5.2 4.2 25.0 83.6 16.4
T3 19.2 19.2 0.8 70.6 89.8 10.2
T4 50.0 10.4 0.8 40.8 90.8 9.2
Ts 28.4 13.2 1.6 60.2 88.6 11.4
T6 58.8 5.6 4.0 24.4 83.2 16.8
T7 19.2 19.6 1.2 69.6 88.8 11.2
LSD 0.05 5.1 1.9 1.0 7.8 5.6

LSD 0.01 7.1 2.6 1.4 10.9 7.8
4. CONCLUSIONS
Fertilization with urea furnishes large amounts of mineral N to the red soil used
in this experiment, while the amount of mineral N in the red soil fertilized with
ryegrass material alone was much less than that in the control soil. This suggests that
N immobilization occurred during the flush of microbial activity associated with
ryegrass amendment.
Amounts of microbial biomass N and humus N derived from ryegrass material were
significantly higher than that from urea alone. Moreover, 70% of the ryegrass N
remained in the soil, while only 25% remained after urea fertilization. Thus, the
amount of lost N derived from ryegrass was much less than that from urea. When
urea and ryegrass were applied alone, 58.7% of urea N and 19.2% of ryegrass N
were taken up by growing ryegrass, respectively. Combined application of urea and
ryegrass increased uptake of organic N by growing ryegrass and reduced losses of
urea N. Moreover, organic amendments decreased uptake of urea N by the growing
plants and increased the residual N in the soil. The results are in good agreement
with other reports (Christensen, 1987; Xu et aI., 1989).
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Commission of the European Communities for its
fmancial support (Contract No. Cll-CT93-0009)
6. REFERENCES
Aceves MB., Dendooven L., 2001. Nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus mineralization in soils from semi-
arid highlands of Central Mexico amended with tannery sludge. Bioresource Technology 77,121-130
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EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT ON
UPTAKE OF INORGANIC P BY RYEGRASS AND
TRANSFORMATION DYNAMICS OF PHOSPHORUS
FROM 32p LABELLED RYEGRASS IN RED SOIL
QINGFU YE *(1), QINZHENG ZHANG (I) AND ZHENLI HE (2)
(I) Institute o/Nuclear-Agricultural Sciences

(2) Department o/Soil Science and Agric. Chemistry,Zhejiang University, Huajia
campus, Hangzhou 310029, PR.China
ABSTRACT
Either 32P_Iabeled KH2PO. with or without unlabeled ryegrass or 32P_Iabeled ryegrass with unlabeled
KH2PO. was applied to red clayey and red sandy soils belonging to the Ultisol order. Ryegrass was grown
in the fertilized soil and harvested one month after sowing. The radioactivity and total P content in the
ryegrass samples were measured. The results showed that application of organic matter to the red soils
significantly enhanced the uptake of P by ryegrass seedlings from the inorganic P applied to the soil, and
that the utilization of P from inorganic source was 5.3 times that from the organic source under the same
conditions. Moreover, at the same application level of phosphorus, a larger proportion of the phosphorus
derived from 32P-Iabeled inorganic phosphate was distributed in shoots than that from the 32P-Iabeled
ryegrass.
The transformation dynamics of phosphorus from 32P_Iabeled ryegrass in the two red soils were also
investigated under laboratory incubation conditions. The results showed that a rapid increase in 32p flush
related to microbial biomass P (Pmi.) was accompanied by a decrease in extractable 32p during the first 3d
after incubation in both red sandy and clayey soils. Between 3-20 days after incubation, flush 32p
fluctuated greatly in the red sandy soil, but was about the same in the red clayey soil. At the later stage of
incubation, the increase in extractable 32p was accompanied by a decrease in flush 32p. The opposing
changes in content of extractable 32p and flush 32p suggested that transformation of ryegrass P was closely
related to its utilization and subsequent release from microorganisms in the red soils. It can be concluded
that application of organic matter accelerated the release of soil native P according to the changes in the
extractable soil P during incubation.
Keywords: Organic matter; red soil; transfonnation dynamics of ryegrass P; uptake

of inorganic P.
1. INTRODUCTION
In developing countries such as China, increasing interest in organic agriculture

has led to greater use of organic manures for the restoration of soil fertility. Organic
manures are a vital resource not only for supplying plant nutrients but also for
295
© 2004 KJuwer Academic Publishers.
replenishing organic matter content in soils, particularly in the tropical and

sUbtropical regions (Aceves and Dendooven, 2001; Dennis and Fresquez, 1989;
Khaleel et aI., 1981; Liu, 1985; Reddy and Rao et aI., 2000; Sharpley, 1985; Stewart
and Tiessen, 1987; Woomer and Martin et aI., 1994). Organic manures can be applied
alone or along with chemical fertilizers for maintaining soil fertility and sustaining
crop production.
The effects of organic manure on phosphorus (P) adsorption and desorption
(Iyamuremye and Dick, 1996), P transformations in soil (Sharpley et al., 1984), and
P availability and recovery by crops (Damodar Reddy et aI., 1999; Morel and Tiessen
et aI., 1994) have been intensively investigated. Most of the previous studies focused
mainly on the importance of inorganic P for plant nutrition. Organically-bound P,
however, constitutes a significant portion of total P, ranging from 15 - 80% in most
soils (Stevenson, 1982), and may contribute substantially to plant-available P
through the process of mineralization.
Organic P plays a vital role in P cycling and plant nutrition. Application of
organic manures increases P solubility and bioavilability in both temperate and
tropical soils (Adepetu and Corey, 1976; Erich and Fitzgerald et aI., 2002; Sanyal
and De Datta, 1991; Sharpley, 1985; Stewart and Tiessen, 1987). Phosphorus in
plant materials added to soil can be mineralized into inorganic forms through
microbial activity and becomes available to growing plants (Hundal and Chouhang,
1991; Joseph and George et aI., 1995). Hundal (1992) studied mineralization of
phosphorus from 32P-Iabeled cowpea residue added to soil in the presence of the
growing maize and found that the presence of growing maize plant significantly
increased P mineralization from the labeled material. Many studies have been
conducted to understand the uptake of nitrogen from plant materials used as soil
amendments and the effects of incorporating plant residues into the soil on uptake of
nitrogen from fertilizer by growing crops (Diekmann and De Datta et aI., 1993;
Huang and Liao, 1992; Kapkiyai and Karanja et aI., 1999; Lu and Huang, 1992;
Norman and Gimour, 1993; Sisworo and Esken et aI., 1990; Thomsen and Olsen et
aI., 2001; Vigil and Kissel et aI., 1991). However, there have been fewer attempts to
investigate the effects of plant material amendments on the uptake of phosphorus
from inorganic sources by plants in soils in general and very few on the red soils of
China in particular. Such red soils cover more than 2 million krn2 in China and
account for 22.7% of the whole country's area.
The objectives of the present study are to investigate the uptake of phosphorus
from labeled ryegrass by growing ryegrass in a red clayey soil; to compare
the uptake of fertilizer P by growing ryegrass in the presence of ryegrass plant
material with that in the absence of ryegrass plant material; and to study the
dynamics of inorganic P and biomass P after the addition of 32P-Iabeled ryegrass
material to a red clayey soil and to a red sandy soil.
EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER ON UPTAKE OF INORGANIC P 297
2.1 Uptake of phosphorus by ryegross and effect of organic matter on inorganic P

availability
The red sandy soil and the red clayey soil were taken from the surface layer (0-
20 cm) of fallow land in Longyou County, Zhejiang Province, China. The basic
properties of the soil are listed in Table I. It can be seen that both soils are acidic,
low in organic matter and have a low CEC. Each soil was air-dried and screened
«0.96 mm), adjusted to 40% of water holding capacity (WHC) and mixed either
with 3zP-labeled ryegrass « 0.42 mm) plus KHZP04 or with KHZP04 plus 3Zp_
NaHzP04 in the presence or absence of unlabeled ryegrass «0.42 mm) according to
the designed treatments (Table 2).
The mixture was put into a 250mL-plastic cup with three holes and a piece of
sponge at the bottom. The cups were placed in culture dishes, water was added to the
dishes so that soil could absorb water through holes at the bottom of the cup. 100
ryegrass seeds were sown on the soil surface and covered with 109 air-dried soil and
then 2 mL distilled water was added to each cup on day 12 after the treatments.
Urea (0.1 g) and a given amount of KCl were applied to each cup 17 days after
seedling emergence. After one month growth, the ryegrass shoots were cut, the roots
were separated from soil and washed to remove the adhered soil. The dried and
ground samples were digested with H ZS04-HzO z• and radioactivity in the digests was
measured by liquid scintillation counter (Packard 1900TR, USA). Total P in the
digests was analyzed using a colorimetric method. Total radioactivity in ryegrass was
calculated by the following equation:
Where a, the counts per minute (cpm) of samples, Vm , the volume of samples
measured (ml), Wd, the mass of samples digested (g), J-(, the volume of digests (ml),
Wt, total mass of shoots or roots (g).
The fraction ofP in ryegrass derived from labeled source (PDFL) was the ratio
of specific activities of sample (cpm in sample measured/,ug P in sample) over
specific activities of labeled source. With the fractions (PDFL), the amount of Pin
ryegrass from both labeled and unlabeled sources was calculated:
Amount ofP from labeled sources = PDFL x total P (2)

Amount ofP from unlabeled sources = (1- PDFL) x total P (3)
Table 1. Properties of the soil
Item Red Clayey Soil Red Sandy Soil

pH (H20) 4.16 4.55
Avail. P (mg kg'l) 3.21 2.71
Org. Matter (g kg'l) 8.4 6.5
Total N. (mg kg'l) 340 280
Exch. K+ (cmol kg'l) 0.19 0.06
Exch. Na+(cmol kg'l) 0.02 0.02
Exch. Ca2+{cmol kg'l) 0.69 0.38
Exch.Mg2+(cmol kg'l) 0.30 0.11
CEC (cmol kg'l) 6.62 4.53
Table 2. Different treatments for experiment ofP uptake from organic and
inorganic fertilizer sources
Treatment Tl T' T' T4 112 (LIP+OM)

L"IPb LIP+OM" 1I2(LOM+IP)
KH'po4(mg) 137.2 137.2 68.6 68.6
l2p,NaH2PO/(ml) 3.28 3.28 0 1.64
Ryegrass (g) 0 5 0 2.5
l2P'ryegrass (g) 0 0 2.5 0
(NH2hCO (mg) 186 61 93 124
a: L represents labeled source, b: IP represents inorganic phosphorus, c: OM represents organic

matter, d: specific activity oe 2p,NaH2PO. solution was 1.14 MBq I ml at the application time.
2.2 Transformation dynamics ofryegrass P
2.2.2 32p -Labeling ryegrass

Ryegrass was labeled uniformly by growing it in a gravel culture system in which the
cultural solution contained 32p _NaH2P04. Phosphorus content of the ryegrass was
0.625%,as measured by colorimetric analysis and the relative specific activity of 32p
was 4174 cpml~g.P measured by Cherenkov counting method with a liquid
scintillation counter (Packard 1900 TR, USA) at the time of being mixed with the
soils.
EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATIER ON UPTAKE OF INORGANIC P 299
2.2.2 Incubation ofsoil with labeled ryegrass

Air-dried sandy and clayey soils were adjusted to 40% water holding capacity
(WHC), pre-incubated at 25°C for 10 d, and mixed with 4% labeled ryegrass «0.40
mm) based on dry weight. The mixtures were adjusted to 60% WHC, incubated at
25°C, and the sample WHC maintained during the incubation by weighing the flask
with the sample and supplementing it with distilled water periodically.
2.2.3 Sampling and analysis

The samples were taken to analyze extractable P with 0.5mollL NaHC~ (pH8.5) and
flush P (difference in O.5mollL NaHC03-extractable 32p between CH3Ch-fumigated
and unfumigated soil samples) at intervals of 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,20,30,45 and 60d
incubation. 0.5mollL NaHC03-extracts from both fumigated and unfumigated
samples were measured by the Cherenkov method for 32p and by colorimetric
analysis for total P content. The results were corrected for decay of radioactivity and
recoveries, and expressed as pg P/(g air-dried soil).

3.1 Fraction and distribution ofP in ryegrass
The fraction and distribution of P in ryegrass derived from inorganic or organic

sources are shown in Fig.l and Fig.2, respectively. The fraction of P in both roots
and shoots of ryegrass from the labeled ryegrass was much lower than that from the
labeled phosphate at the same P application rate. Combining application of inorganic
phosphate with unlabeled ryegrass increased the fraction of P in ryegrass from
labeled phosphate by 2-3 times, as compared with the application of inorganic
phosphate alone. As can be seen from Fig.2, a larger proportion of P derived from
labeled inorganic phosphate was found in shoots than that from the labeled ryegrass,
and addition of unlabeled ryegrass significantly increased the distribution of labeled
inorganic phosphate in the ryegrass shoots. The results showed that P in phosphate
was preferentially absorbed by ryegrass compared with P in ryegrass added to the
soil and that the addition of unlabeled ryegrass accelerated the absorption and
transportation of phosphate by ryegrass in red soils.
3.2 Uptake and utilization of P from labeled sources
The difference in total absorbed labeled P between T 1 (absence of ryegrass) and T2

(presence of ryegrass) treatment was much greater compared to that derived from
300 QINGFU YE et a1.
60.00
50.00
cRoat
~
40 .00 o Shoot
~
30.00
~
20.00
10.00
0.00
Tl 1'2 1'3 T4
Treatment No.
Fig 1.Fraction 01 P Inryegrau deltlOKl fIom labeled IOLfI:8
90.0
Roat
80.0
o Shoot
70.0
.
~
i'
60.0
SO.O
J
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Tl 1'2 1'3 T4
TreetmentNo.
Fig.2 DistribUlion of P in ryegrass deNied from labeled soU'Ce
the corresponding inorganic sources, and consequently utilization of labeled

inorganic P by ryegrass differed greatly between the two treatments (Table 3). The
result indicated that absorption and utilization of applied inorganic P by ryegrass
seedlings was greatly increased by adding organic matter. When the amount of
inorganic P and ryegrass applied was the same as treatment T 2, but the utilization of
P reduced to half (T3 and T 4), the utilization ofP from organic matter (T3) was much
lower than from inorganic P by ryegrass (T4) and was almost entirely from inorganic
P.
3.3 Uptake of P from unlabeled sources
The amount of P derived from unlabeled sources in the treatment amended with
organic matter was slightly higher than that in the treatment without organic matter
Table 3. Uptake and utilization ofP from labeled sources
Trtmnt P from labeled sources (mg) Utilization oflabeled P (%)

No Roots Shoots Whole Roots Shoots Whole
0.188 ±O.017 0.379±O.083 0.567±O.100 0.60±0.05 1.21±O.27 1. 82±0.32
0.547±O.044 1.672±O.121 2.218±O.157 1.7S±O.14 5.35±O.50 7.10±0.50
0.082±O.014 0.14O±O.018 0.222±O.030 0.53±O.1O 0.89±O.11 1.42±O.21
0.353±O.01S 0.837±O.158 1.191±O.I72 2.21±O.10 S.35±1.01 7.57±1.05
LSDo.o, 0.026 0.231 0.274 0.632 1.164 1.329

LSDo.01 0.085 0.332 0.394 0.908 1.670 1.910
(Table 4). At the rate of 125 mg·P kg-! soil, the slight increase may be attributed to
the P from the organic matter amendment. However, the amount of P taken up from
the unlabeled source by shoots with a labeled inorganic source more markedly
decreased (by more than 50%) than that with labeled organic source, suggesting that
uptake of P by ryegrass seedlings was much greater from the inorganic source than
from the organic source under the same conditions.
Table 4. Uptake ofP from unlabeled sources
Treatments Roots (mg) Shoots (mg) Whole (mg)

0.56O±O.039 2.025±O.238 2.625±O.270
0.643±O.162 2. 116±O.038 2.766±O.188
0.525±O.071 2.259±O.074 2.784±O.144
0.678±O.049 1.001±O.127 1. 692±O.083
2.
LSDo.os 0.089 0.594 0.396
LSDoo! 0.291 1.930 0.569
3.4 Dynamics ofextractable 32P
As can be seen from Fig.3, a high content of NaHC0 3-extractable-32p, which

accounted for 83.6% of the total 32p, was measured in the soils amended with
ryegrass. The addition rate of 32p labeled ryegrass was 250 !J.g g-! (air-dried soil)
containing 208.9,ug of extractable P. The amount of 32p extracted from samples
immediately after ryegrass was mixed with soil was 115.4,ug g-! for the sandy red
soil and 100.0,ug g-! for the clayey red soil. These results indicate that fIxation of 32p
by soil occurred during the mixing of the soil with ryegrass and the fIxation rates
were 44.77% and 52.12%, for the sandy and the clayey soils, respectively.
Extractable 32p in both soils declined sharply during the fIrst 3 days of
incubation and then fluctuated from 3 to 20 days of incubation, with two peaks on
the 6th day and the 15th day for the sandy soil, and on the 6th day and 12th day for
the clayey soil. During 2(}-60d of incubation the amount of extractable 32p increased
with incubation time for both soils, but it fluctuated in the sandy soil. The
concentration of extractable 32p in the sandy soil was always higher than that in the
clayey soil at all sampling times.
3.5 Dynamics ojincorporation oj32p to microbial biomass
Changes in 32p flush (difference in O.5mollL NaHC0 3-extractable 32p between

the CH3Ch-fumigated and unfumigated soil samples) with incubation time reflected
the dynamics of incorporation of ryegrass P into microbial biomass.
To take account of the effects of 32p fIxation by soils on flush 32p , a
supplementary experiment was conducted. Inorganic 32p C2p-KH2P04)
corresponding to the amount of extractable 32p in ryegrass was added to the control
soils, mixed thoroughly and incubated at 25°C, and sub-samples were taken to
measure the extractable 32p every day. Table 5 shows that the fIxation of 32p by soils
occurred within 2d after it was added to the soils. The extractable 32p from ryegrass
in the test soils was also subjected to fIxation by the soils. Thus, the flush of 32p for
one day samples after incubation can be corrected for the recovery, as recoveries of
extractable 32p for the control samples measured on day 1 after incubation differed
from fumigated samples extracted 2 days after incubation.
130
120 -<>- Extractable P
__ Flush P
110
100
~
-g 90
·c 80
"
·iii 70
~ 60
0. 50
.§. 40
1: 30
I
Q.
20
10
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 20 30 45 60
Incubation time (day)
Fig.3 Changes in contents of extractable P and flush P

from ryegrass in red sandy soil
130
120
_ Eldractable P
110
;;: 100 .......... FlushP
51 90
i.c: 80
"2'OJ 70
~ 60
0. 50
.s 40
c: 30
~0 20
u
c.. 10
o 3 6 9 12 15 20 30 45 60
n:ubation time (day)
Fig.4 Changes in conterts of elClractable P and flush P

from ryegrass in red cla}'8y soil
The flush 32p on day 1 of incubation reached over IIf.Lg gO' ,then rapidly increased
and reached the highest value three days after incubation in both soils. Thereafter, the
values of flush 32p in the sandy soil fluctuated with peaks on the 9th and the 20th d
and declined linearly from 20 d to 60 d of incubation (Fig. 4). The values of flush 32p
in the clayey soil declined after 3 d and increased between the 9th and the 15th d of
incubation, and then displayed a flat up to the 45th d and declined after 45d of
incubation (see Fig.3 and 4).
Table 5. Recoveries of inorganic 32p added to check red soils (%)
Soils Incubation days

o 1 2 3 4
Sandy soil 65.01 58.49 51.11 49.23 50.23
Clayey soil 51.52 42.86 33.61 33.62 32.33
The changes in flush 32p were just the opposite to those of extractable 32p. The
results suggest that transformation of ryegrass P was closely related to its utilization
and its release from microorganisms in the soils. The contents of extractable 32p and
flush 32p in the sandy soil were higher than those in the clayey soil. This may be
attributed to the difference in the fixation capacity for 32p between the two soils and
to differences in microbial activity.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Application of organic matter in red soils significantly stimulates the uptake of P by

ryegrass seedlings from applied inorganic fertilizer P. The utilization of P from the
inorganic source was more than 5 times that from the organic source under the same
conditions. Fixation of extractable P from ryegrass mainly occurred within 2 days
after the ryegrass was mixed with the soils. When the red clayey and red sandy soils
were mixed with ryegrass straw powder and incubated, the extractable P from
ryegrass increased sharply during the first 3 d of incubation, then fluctuated between
3-20d of incubation, and afterwards, increased with time. However, dynamic
changes of flush P related to biomass P from ryegrass contrasted with the extractable
P, indicating that transformation of ryegrass P was closely related to its utilization
and release by microorganisms in the soils.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is a part of the research project "characterization, management, and

utilization of red soil resources in Southern China" with contract No. Cll-CT93-
0009. The authors wish to thank Commission of the European Communities for its
financial support.
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EFFECTS OF pH ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -C AND
-PIN RED SOILS
G C CHEN AND ZHENLI HE
Department of Natural Resource Science, College of Environmental

and Resource Sciences, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University,
ABSTRACT
Effects of pH change on microbial biomass-C and -P were examined using three red
soils under citrus production but with different cultivation periods. Microbial
biomass e and P were significantly affected by soil pH. The changes of em;, and Pm;,
as a function of soil pH appeared to follow a normal distribution pattern with the
original pH value as its center. Microbial biomass e or P was the greatest at the
original soil pH and declined when the pH shifted to either acid or alkaline side.
Moreover, there was a critical pH value at both the sides, beyond which the microbial
biomass e or P abrupHy decreased. The critical pH values were approximately 3.0 at
the acid side and 8.0 to 8.5 at the alkaline side. The effect of pH on microbial
biomass e and P was related to the original soil pH. The higher the original soil pH
was, the less the microbial biomass e and P were affected by pH change. It is
explained that soil microorganisms that grow in the soil environment with nearly
neutral soil pH range (pH 5.5-7.5) may have greater tolerance to pH changes than
those grow in the acid or alkaline soil pH conditions.
Keywords: soil pH; microbial biomass-C and -P; red soils
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil microorganisms are sensitive to many soil environmental changes. Soil

microbial biomass, for example, is significantly affected by factors such as different
land use and management (Aslam et aI., 1999; Chen and He, 1998), soil erosion
(Islam and Weil, 2000), fertility restoration of eroded land (Mao et aI., 1992;), tillage
and fertilization practices (He et aI., 1997; McCarty and Meisiner, 1997), crop
rotations (Chan and Heenan, 1999), and heavy metal contamination (Giller, et aI.,
1998). Soil pH is an important soil chemical factor, not only affecting soil physical
and chemical properties(Haynes,1982;Haynes and Naidu,1998), but also influencing
biological properties such as microbial biomass (Babich and Atotzky,1978a,b). The
influence of pH on soil microbial biomass has been studied for more than two
decades. Many studies have been carried out concerning the effect of soil
acidification on microbial biomass (Anderson,1998; Blagodatskaya and Anderson,
307
308 G C CHEN AND ZHENLI HE
1999), mainly in the contexts of natural acidification during soil development

(Ulrich,1980), or liming of acid soil. (Anderson,I998). There is a general agreement
in the vast body of literature that acidification exerts a detrimental effect on the
microbial community in terms of decreased microbial biomass, while liming of acid
soil generally improves soil physical and chemical properties, including nutrient
availability, and increases microbial biomass.
Most studies relating to the effects of pH on microbial biomass have been
carried out on neutral or slightly acid soils developed under a temperate climate.
Little information on this aspect is available on the acid red soils which are
widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions of China. However, Anderson and
Domsch, (1993) showed that soil microflora from soils of different sites and different
types are controlled by soil pH as the major independent variable and deduced that,
despite differences in soil type, the level of microbial biomass carbon would be the
same at a particular soil pH. This conclusion needs to be supported by more
experimental data and this is one of the purposes of this study.
One of characteristics of acid red soils in China is a strong phosphorus
adsorption capacity, which may affect microbial transformation and cycling of this
nutrient. It has been shown that soil pH obviously influences phosphorus availability
to plants (Lopez-Hemandez and Burnham,1974; Haynes,1982) and it is possible that
the phosphorus bioavailability to soil microorganisms is also affected. This work
therefore also investigates the effect of pH on microbial biomass phosphorus.

2.1 Soils
Three red soils with the same land use (citrus orchard), but under cultivation for
different periods of time,were sampled from 0-20 cm depth in Longyou County,
Zhejiang Province. The soils are all derived from Quaternary red earths. Some basic
properties of the soils are shown in Table 1. Soil organic C and total N were
determined by dichromate oxidation and Kjeldahl digestion-distillation method
(Keeney, 1982; Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Soil pH was measured using a
Beckman 120 pH Meter (Beckman Inc. CA) at the soil:water ratio of 1:1. Total P,
organic P and exctractable P were measured by the HCI04-H2 S04 digestion method
Table 1. Basic properties ofthe soils
Organic Total Total Organic Available

Soil Land use pH
C N P P P
No. history (H2O)
(g/kg) (g/kg) (gikg) (mgikg) (mg/kg)
Citrus
1 6.0 8.4 0.55 0.24 113.2 43.78
orchard-4yr
Citrus
2 5.0 15.2 1.79 0.86 434.1 171.01
Orchard-7yr
Citrus-?
3 4.6 18.4 1.93 1.80 760.2 215.17
orchard-12yr
EFFECTS OF pH ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS 309
H20 2 oxidation method, and the 0.025 N HCL-0.03N ~F (Bray I)extraction

method (Olsen and Sommers, 1982), respectively.
2.2 Incubation Study
Soil pH was adjusted using O.IM HCL or O.IM NaOH.. Prior to adjustment, the soils
were placed in plastic bags. O.IM HCL was used for decreasing soil pH and O.IM
NaOH for increasing soil pH. They were applied with a spray gun by gently mixing
the soil in the plastic bag. The pH value of each soil was approximately adjusted to 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 8.5, respectively, one of which was soil original pH value (without
pH adjustment). After soil moisture was adjusted to 70% of field water holding
capacity, the soils were incubated at 25 D and 100% humidity for 7 days. Soil
microbial biomass-C (Cmic) and -P(Pmic) were determined. Each measurement was
carried out in triplicate.
2.3 Determination ofMicrobial Biomass-C and -P
Soil microbial biomass C and P were measured using the fumigation-extraction

method as described by Wu et aI.(1990) and Brookes et aI.(1982), except that O.5M
NaHC03 was replaced by the 0.025N HCL-0.03N ~ as P extractant (He, et aI.,
1997). Briefly, fresh moist soil samples (5.0 g for biomass P and 10 g for biomass C,
oven-dry basis) were exposed to alcohol-free CHCh vapor in a vacuum desiccator at
room temperature for 24 h. The fumigated soils were then placed in a clean empty
desiccator and the residual CHCh was removed from the fumigated soil by repeated
evacuation. Microbial biomass C was measured by extracting the fumigated soil
immediately following CHCh removal by shaking for 30 min with 40 mL of 0.5 M
K2 S04 at a solution:soil ratio of 4: 1. After filtering through a Whatman No 42 filter
paper, the filtrate was analyzed for organic C using an automated TOC analyzer (500
model, Simadzu Inc., Japan) and the biomass C was calculated from the increase in
extractable C in the fumigated soil over that in the control (without fumigation) using
a conversion factor (KEd of 0.45 (Wu et aI., 1990). Microbial biomass P was
measured by extracting both the fumigated and non-fumigated soil samples with
0.025N HCL - 0.03N ~F for 30 min at a solution:soil ratio of 4:1. The suspensions
were centrifuged (3000 x g for 10 min) and filtered through a Whatman No 42 filter
paper. Phosphorus concentrations in the filtrate were determined colorimetrically
(Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Biomass P was calculated from the increase in
extractable P in the fumigated soil over that in the control using a conversion factor
(Kp) of 0.4 (He et aI., 1997).
3. RESULTS
Figure 1 shows that Cmic is significantly affected by soil pH. The changes of Cmic as
a function of soil pH appeared to follow a normal distribution pattern with the
original soil pH value at its center for the three soils. On the acid side, with a pH
450
C; 400 ~ so ilno.1
-" ___ soil no.3
0OJ 350 --soil no.2
E 300
U
III
III
250
III
E 200
0
:c 150
(ij
:c0 100
...
()
50
~
0 •
0 2 4 6 8 10
pH
Fig.1 Effect of pH on soil microbial biomass C
value lower than original soil pH, the Cmie was reduced with decreasing pH. When
the pH value was reduced to 3.0, Cmie for soils no. I, 2 and 3 decreased by 94.3%,
91.9%, and 76.9%, respectively. On the alkaline side, when the pH was higher than
the initial soil pH, the Cmie decreased with rising pH. When the pH was raised to 8.0
for soil no.2 and 8.5 for soils no. I and no.3 , the Cmie was reduced by 94.4%, 87.9%,
and 94.6%, respectively.
In addition, the decrease in Cmie was related to the original pH value for the three
soils. The higher the original soil pH, the lower the decrease in C mi e . When soil pH
was reduced by 2 units on the acid side, the decrease in C mie for soils no.l , 2 and 3
was 52.1%, 91.9%, and 76.9%, respectively. On the other hand, when the pH was
raised by 2 units on the alkaline side, the corresponding decrease in C mi e was
36.3%,64.4%, and 48.7%, respectively.
The changes of Pm ie as affected by pH were similar to those of C mie . The amount of
Pmi e was the greatest at original soil pH. When the soil pH was adjusted to the lower
or higher side, Pmi e gradually decreased and when the pH was near to 3.0 on the acid
side or 8.5 on the alkaline side, the amount ofPmie was close to zero. The decrease in
Pmie for the three soils was also related to the original soil pH. The original pH of
soil no. I was higher than those of the other two soils and the corresponding decrease
in Pm ie with pH adjustment was also lower than these soils. The decrease in Pmie for
soils no.l , 2, and 3 was 54.7%, 94.1%, and 79.4%, respectively when the pH
decreased by two units on the acid side, and 39.1%, 65.1%, and 54.3%, respectively
when the pH was raised by two units on the alkaline side for the three soils.
50
-+- scil no. 1
45
..... scilno.3
«l --scilno2
Oi
it 35
Ol
.§. 3)
0..
<Il 25
'"'"
E
.2 20
.c
OJ 15
:0
e<.>
10
~
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
pH
Fig.2 Effect c:i pH on soil niaobial biorrass P
4. DISCUSSION
The results of our study indicate that changes of ernie as affected by pH appear to
follow a nonnal distribution pattern with the original soil pH at the centre of this
distribution. Whether the soil pH was reduced or raised against original soil pH, the
amount of microbial biomass as a whole decreased . This change in microbial
biomass as a function of pH may be related to the initial soil microbial communities.
For instance, on the acid side, a rapid pH decrease must have caused the death of
some microorganisms sensitive to acidity. Some studies have reported changes in
fungal and bacterial communities under acid stress (Blagodatskaya and Anderson,
1998;1999; Baath et al. ,1980). Raising pH, such as by liming acid soils, also brings
about a shift in the microbial community structure (Frostegard et al. ,1993).
Therefore, the effect of pH on microbial community merits further study in the
future. What is more interesting is that raising soil pH by liming generally increased
microbial biomass (Anderson, 1998). However, in our study, microbial biomass
decreased with rising pH. The differences may be explained by the following two
factors. Firstly, liming was used to raise soil pH in the previous studies, whereas
NaOH was applied in our study. Liming is more gentle and slower whilst NaOH is
strong and rapid in raising soil pH. Secondly, the previous studies demonstrated a
long-term effect of pH change on microbial biomass (several months), whereas our
results emphasize the short-term effect of pH on microbial biomass (within a week).
It is possible that new populations which are more adapted to new soil pH conditions
can develop with extended incubation periods after pH adjustment.
Curic significantly decreased with increasing or decreasing pH against initial soil
pH. There are critical pH values i.e. 3.0 at the acid side and 8.5 at the alkaline side at
which microbial biomass decreased to an extremely low levels in the three soils.
Most of microorganisms grow in the pH range of 3.0 to 8.5 and at pH below 3.0 or
above 8.5 only those most extreme pH tolerant populations may develop. Therefore,
pH 3.0 and 8.5 may serve as critical levels for the general viability of soil
microorganisms. Effects of pH changes on the microbial quotient, i.e. the percentage
of Cmic in the total organic C (Cmic/Corg) were also analyzed (Table 2). Anderson et
al. (1993) assumed on the basis of their experiments that, despite different soil types,
the level of Cmic/Corg would be the same at a particular soil pH. However, the
results we obtained were not consistent with their assumption. For instance, at a soil
pH of 3, the Cmic/Corg they obtained was about 0.5% and the corresponding values
we obtained were in the range of 0.13-0.20% for the three soils; while at pH 7 their
value was about 2.4%, and our values were in the range of 0.66-2.03% (Table 2).
Obviously, although the level of soil Cmic was, to a large extent, controlled by soil
pH, other factors, such as organic substrate quality and biovailability, which are
critical to the development of microbial biomass, should be also taken into account.
Table 2. Effects ofpH changes on CmiciCorg and CmiclPmic
PH
Soil
Item
No. 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5
Cmic/Corg 0.13 1.08 1.79 2.25 2.03 1.43 0.36
1 (%)
CmiclPmic 8.3 8.9 8.4 8.4 8.8 8.8 10.1
Cmic/Corg 0.15 1.19 1.85 1.43 0.66 0.10 I
2 (%)
CmiclPmic 11.9 9.6 8.7 10.6 8.9 13.2 I
Cmic/Corg 0.20 1.52 2.12 1.67 1.09 0.54 0.12
3 (%)
CmiclPmic 10.2 10.3 9.1 8.9 10.2 10.9 9.2
The change of Pmic as affected by pH was similar to that of Cmic ' Table 2 also shows
that the ratio of CmiclPmicwas not significantly affected by pH. This is mainly
because there is a relatively stable CIP ratio in the body of microorganisms. It has
been reported that the microbial CIP ratio ranged from 7 to 12 (Anderson and
Domsch, 1980), and the microbial CIP ratio we obtained was within the reported
range. However, despite the similarity of Pmic changes to that of Cmic , the
mechanisms of pH effects on Pmic and Cmic may be different. Phosphorus adsorption
should be taken into consideration because of strong P adsorption capacity of the
acid red soils. The effects of pH on P adsorption have been extensively studied
(Lopez-Hernandez and Bumham,1974; Haynes,1982) but there have been conflicting
reports that raising pH by liming could increase, decrease or not affect P availability
(Janghorbani et aI., 1975; Mokwunye, 1975; Ryan et aI., 1975). The effect of pH on
P adsorption may also influence microbial bioavailability of P.
The higher the initial soil pH, the lower the decrease in Cmic or Pmic • This suggests
that microorganisms in a soil with higher original pH (6.0) are more tolerant to pH
changes than those in soils with lower original pH (pH4.6 or 5.0). This is probably
because bacteria that dominate in soil with pH close to neutral are generally more
tolerant to stressed conditions than fungi that are dominant in acid soils (Giller,
1998). This could explain why application of lime to acid soils to raise soil pH
usually improves microbial communities and soil quality.
In conclusion, the long-term effect of pH change on both microbial biomass and
microbial community structure appears to be worthy of further study, as does the
impact of substrate quality on microbiological properties, as changes in soils pH
might conceivably change substrate bioavailability.
5. REFERENCES
Anderson TH 1998 The influence of acid irrigation and liming on the soil microbial biomass in a Norway
spruce stand. Plant and Soil, 199(1), 117-122.
Anderson,J.P.E. and Domsch,K.H. 1980 Quantities of plant nutrients in the microbial biomass of selected
soils. Soil Science, 130: 211-216
Anderson J E and Domsch K H 1993 The metabolic quotient for C02(qC02) as a specific activity
parameter to assess the effects of environmental conditions, such as pH, on the microbial biomass of
forest soils. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 25,393-395.
Andersson SAnd Ingvar Nilsson S 2001 Influence of pH and temperature on microbial activity, substrate
availability of soil-solution bacteria and leaching of dissolved organic carbon in a mor humus. Soil
Bioi. Biochem. 33,1181-1191.
Aslam T, Choudhary M A, and Saggar S 1999 Tillage impact on soil microbial biomass C, N, and P,
earthworms and agronomy after two years of cropping following permanent pasture in New Zealand.
Soil and Tillage Res. 51, 103-111.
Baath, E., Berg, B., Lohm, u., Lundgren, B., Lundkvist, H., Rosswall, T., Soderstrom, B., Wiren, A., 1980
Effects of experimental acidification and liming on soil organisms and decomposition in a Scots pine
forest. Pedobiologia 20: 85-100.
Babich H and Stotzky G 1978a Influence of pH on inhibition of bacteria, fungi, and coliphages by
bisulfite and sulfite. Environ. Res. 15, 405-417.
Babich H and Stotzky G 1978b. Atmospheric sulfur compounds and microbes. Environ. Res. 15,513-
531.
Blagodatskaya E V and Anderson T H 1998 Interactive effects of pH and substrate quality on the
fungal: bacterial ratio and qC02 of microbial communities in forest soils. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 30:
1269-1274.
Blagodatskaya E V and Anderson T H 1999 Adaptive responses of soil microbial communities under
experimental acid stress in controlled laboratory studies. Applied Soil Ecology, 11,207-216
Brookes P.C., D.S. Powlson, and D.S. Jenkinson. 1982. Measurement of microbial biomass phosphorus in
soil. Soil Bioi. Biochem.14: 319-329
Chan K Y and Heenan D P 1999 Microbial-induced soil aggregate stability under different crop rotations.
Soil Bioi. Biochem. 30,29-32.
Chen G and He Z L 1998 Microbial biomass in red soils in relation to cropping systems. Chinese J. Soil
Sci. 29:276-279.
Frostegard A, Baath E and Tunlid A 1993 Shifts in the structure of soil microbial communities in limed
forests as revealed by phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Soil Bioi. Biochem., 25, 723-730.
Giller K N, Witter E, Steve P, and McGrath S P 1998 Toxicity of heavy metals to microorganisms and
microbial processes in agricultural soils: a review. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 30, 1389-1414.
Haynes R J 1982 Effects ofliming on phosphate availability in acid soils-A critical review. Plant Soil 68,
289-308.
Haynes R J and Naidu R 1998 Influence oflime, fertilizer and manure application on soil organic matter
content and soil physical conditioo: a review. Nutrient Cycl. in Agroecosys. 51, 123-137.
He Z L, Wu J, O'Donnell A ~ and Syers J K 1997 Seasonal respooses in microbial biomass carbon,
phosphorus and sulfur in soils under pasture. Bioi. Fert. Soils. 24,421-428.
Islam K R and Weil R R 2000 Soil quality indicator properties in mid-Atlantic soils as influenced by
conservative management. J. Soil Water Conserv. 55, 69-78.
Janghorbani M, Roberts S and Jackson T L 1975 Relationship of exchangeable acidity to yield and
chemical composition of alfalfa. Agron. J. 67,350-354.
Keeney, D. R 1982. Nitrogen-availability indices. pp.711-730. In: A. L. Page, R H Miller and D. R
Keeney (eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. SSSA Pub!. Inc. Madison, WI.
Lopea-Hernandez I D and Burnham C P 1974 The effect of pH on phosphate adsorption in soils. J.Soil
Sci 25, 207-217
Mao D M, Min Y W, Yu L L, Martens R, and Insam H 1992 Effect of afforestation on microbial biomass
and activity in soils of tropical China. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 24, 865-872.
Mccarty G W and Meisinger J J 1997 Effects ofN fertilizer treatments on biologically active N pools in
soils under plow and no tillage. Bioi. Fert. Soils 24, 406-412.
Mokwunye U 1975 The influence of pH 00 the adsorption of phosphate by soils from the Guinea and
Sudan savannah zones of Nigeria. Soil Sci.Soc.Am.Proc. 39,1100-1102.
Nelson, S. R and L. E. Sommers. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. pp.539-577. In:
A. L. Page, R H. Miller and D. R Keeney (eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. SSSAPub!. Inc.
Madison, WI
Olsen S. R and L. E. Sommers. 1982. Phosphorus. PP.403-430.In: A. L. Page, R H Miller and D. R
Keeney (eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. SSSA Pub!. Inc. Madison, WI.
Ryan J and Smillie G W 1975 Liming in relation to soil acidity and P fertilizer efficiency. Commun. Soil
Sci. Soc. Plant Anal. 6, 409-420.
Ulrich B 1980 Production and consumption of hydrogen ions in the ecosphere. In Effects of Acid
Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems. Eds.T C Hutchinsoo and M Havas. PP255-282. Plenum
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Wu, 1., RG Joergensen, B. Pommerning, R Chaussod, and P. C. Brookes. 1990. Measurement of soil
microbial biomass by fumigation-extraction: An automated procedure. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 22: 1167-
1169.
EFFECT OF LAND USE ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -
C, -N AND -P IN RED SOILS
G C CHEN AND ZHENLI HE
Department of Natural Resources, College of Environmental and

Resource Sciences, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hang=hou
310029, China
ABSTRACT
Eleven red soils varying in land use and fertility status were used to examine the effect ofland
use on microbial biomass carbon (C m;.), nitrogen (Nm;.) and phosphorus (Pm;.)' Microbial biomass-
C in the red soils ranged from 68.3 to 224.9 mg C kg· I , which is generally lower than
that reported from other types of soil, probably because of low organic matter and
high acidity in the red soils. Land use had considerable effects on the amounts of soil
Cm;•. The Cm;. was the lowest in the eroded fallow land, followed by the woodland,
tea-garden, citrus-grove and grassland, and the highest in vegetable and paddy fields.
There was a significant correlation between Cm;. and organic matter content,
suggesting that the influence of land use on Cm;. is mainly related to the input and
accumulation of organic matter. Microbial biomass-N in the soils ranged from12.1 to
31. 7 mg N/kg and was also affected by land use. The change of Nm;. with land use
was similar to that of Cm;•. The microbial biomass C/N ratio ranged from 5.2 to 9.9
and averaged 7.6. The Nmic was significantly related with soil total N (r=0.787**)
and available N (r=0.794·"). Microbial biomass-P in the soils ranged from 4.5 to
52.3 mg P kg-I. The microbial biomass C/P ratio was in the range of 4-23. The Pm;.
was relatively less affected by land use due to difference in fertilization practices for
various land use systems.
Key words: Land use; microbial biomass-C, -N and -P, red soils
1. INTRODUCTION
The importance of microorganisms to soil fertility and soil quality has been
commonly accepted (Smith and Paul, 1990; Brookes, 1995; Dalal, 1998; Wick et aI.,
1998). Soil microbial biomass as an important microbial property has been
extensively studied since it is the living component of soil organic matter (Jenkinson
and Ladd, 1981), and serves as a labile pool of soil nutrients including carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus (Sparling et aI., 1992; Diazravina et al, 1993; Dalal, 1998;
He et al., 1997; Chen et aI., 1999a; ). Microbial biomass is affected by many factors,
of which land use effect has received most attention due to its impact on soil organic
matter (Lovell et aI., 1995; Wardle, 1998; Chen and Stank, 2000).
The change of microbial biomass was reported to be consistent with that of soil
organic matter due to land use change (Sparling et aI., 1992; Bargett et aI., 1997;
315
Garcia et al., 1997 Islam and Weil,2000; Degens et aI., 2000;). However, most of the
studies on land use effects on microbial biomass were conducted on temperate zones
or tropical forest soils. Minimal information is available on acid red soils, which are
widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions. Being highly weathered and
subjected to soil erosion, nutrients released from minerals in red soils are very
limited. The nutrients supplying for plant growth mainly come from the input of
organic matter and its decomposition by microorganisms. Therefore, microbiological
processes are crucial for sustaining soil fertility. Moreover, microbial biomass may
be more easily affected by land use change in acid red soils than in other types of
soil.
The objectives of this study were to examine the effect of land use on microbial
biomass-carbon, -nitrogen and -phosphorus as well as available N and P in red soils
and to understand the relationships of microbial biomass with organic matter and
available nutrients.
2. MATERIALS AND MEmODS
2.1 Soil
Eleven red soils with different land uses were sampled from the 0-20 em depth in
Lanxi City, Zhejiang Province. They were all derived from Quaternary red earths.
Some related properties of the soils are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Basic properties o/the tested soils
Organic Total Available Total Available pH

Soil
C N N P P
No. Land Use
(gIkg) (gIkg) (mglkg) (g/kg) (mg/kg) (H2O)
1 Eroded fallow 1. 87 0.46 28.1 0.40 2.5 4.5
2 Woodland 7.42 0.63 60.8 0.38 3.4 4.5
3 Woodland 5.80 0.52 43.9 0.22 4.0 4.4
4 Woodland 10.61 0.76 91.7 0.40 4.1 4.5
5 Bamboo land 5.92 0.52 51.9 0.49 5.0 4.9
6 Citrus grove 6.90 0.64 64.1 1.25 175 5.0
7 Fallow 4.00 0.55 35.5 1.12 165 5.9
grassland
8 Upland 5.57 0.70 55.4 1.13 170 6.1
9 Teagarden 6.84 0.50 46.1 0.43 5.5 4.2
10 Vegetable 12.30 0.81 85.9 1.30 160 5.6
field
11 Paddr field 11.66 0.84 94.9 1.23 7.5 5.0
Soil organic C, total N and available N were determined by the dichromate

oxidation, Kjeldahl digestion-distillation method and Conway-diffusion method,
EFFECT OF LAND USE ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS 317
respectively (Keeney, 1982; Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Soil pH was measured
using a Beckman 120 pH meter (Beckman Inc, CA) at the soil:water ratio of 1:1.
Total P and extractable P were measured by the HCL04-H2S04 digestion method and
the 0.025 N HCL-0.03N ~F (Bray I) extraction method (Olsen and Sommers,
1982), respectively. Soil samples were sieved «2 mm) to remove plant roots,
adjusted to 70% of water holding capacity, and stored at 4 °c prior to soil microbial
biomass analysis.
2.2 Determination ofsoil microbial biomass-C, -N and-P
Soil microbial biomass-C (Cmic) ,-N (Nmic) and -P (Pmic) were measured following
the methods described by Brookes et aI.(1982;1985) and Wu et aI.(1990), except that
O.5M NaHC03 was replaced by the 0.025N HCL-0.03N NH& as extractant (He, et
aI., 1997a). Briefly, fresh moist soil samples (5.0 g for biomass P and 10 g for
biomass C and N, oven-dry basis) were exposed to alcohol-free CHCh vapor in a
vacuum desiccator at room temperature for 24 h. The fumigated soils were then
placed in a clean empty desiccator and residual CHCl3 removed from the fumigated
soil by repeated evacuation. Microbial biomass C and N were measured by
extracting the fumigated soil immediately following CHCh removal by shaking for
30 min with 40 mL of 0.5 M K2 S04 at solution: soil ratio of 4:1. After filtering
through a Whatman No 42 filter paper, the filtrate was analyzed for organic C using
an automated TOC analyzer (500 model, Simadzu Inc., Japan) and for extractable
total N using a steam distillation method. Microbial biomass C was calculated from
the increase in extractable C in the fumigated soil over that in the control (without
fumigation) using a conversion factor (KEd of 0.45 (Wu et al., 1990), and microbial
biomass N was calculated from the flush in extractable N in fumigated soil over that
in the control using a conversion factor (KEN) of 0.54 (Brookes et aI.,1985).
Microbial biomass P was measured by extracting both the fumigated and non-
fumigated soil samples with 0.025N HCL - 0.03N NH& for 30 min at solution: soil
ratio of 4:1. The suspensions were centrifuged (3000 x g for 10 min) and filtered
through a Whatrnan No 42 filter paper. Phosphorus concentration in the filtrate was
determined colorimetrically (Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Microbial biomass P was
calculated from the increase in extractable P in the fumigated soil over that in the
control using a conversion factor (KEP) of 0.4 (He et aI., 1997a).
3. RESULTS
Microbial biomass-C in the red soils varying in land use ranged from 68.3 to 224.9
mg C kg" I, which are generally lower than those reported from other types of soil
(Figure 1), for the red soils had lower levels of organic C, ranging from 1.87 to 11.6
g kg-I. A strong relationship existed between the Cmic and soil organic C (r =
0.869**) (Table 2). Land use had considerable effect on the amount of soil ~c. The
~c was the lowest in the eroded fallow (68.3mg C kg-I), followed by the woodland,
tea-garden, citrus-grove and grassland (93.9-186 .1 mg C kg-I), and the highest in
vegetable and paddy fields (206.6 -224.9 mg C kg-I) (Figure. 1).
Microbial biomass-N was also affected by land use although there was a smaller
range in absolute values of N mic (12.1-31.7 mg N kg'!), as compared with Cmic
(Figure 2). The changes in N mic were consistent with those in Cmic, which is
evidenced from the narrow range of microbial biomass CIN (5.0-9.9) (Table 3) and
the significant relationship between Nmic Cmic (r = 0.803**) (Table 2).
Table 2. Correlation coefficients between microbial biomass and soil

chemical properties
C mic Nmic P mic C org N tot N avail P tot

C mic
Nmic 0.803**
P mic 0.550 0.1 84
C org 0.869** 0.687* 0.571
Ntot. 0.928** 0.787** 0.611 * 0.870**
N Avail 0.902** 0.794** 0.601 0.954** 0.930**
P tot 0.557 0.216 0.480 0.342 0.598 0.379
P Avaii 0.197 0.083 -0.107 0.000 0.269 0.Ql5 0.808**
*- significant at the level 0[0.05; **-significant at the level 0[0.01
'M:lodIand
Eroded fallow ~~~~~~~--L---j----l---J

o 50 100 150 200 250
Soil microbial biomass C (mg elkg)
Figure 1 Effect of land use on microbial biomass C

Table 3. Biochemical properties of the tested soils
Soil No. NmicfNt (%)

1 3.7 3.0 5.0 12.2
2 2.2 4.0 6.6 21.5
3 1.6 2.5 7.3 20.8
4 1.8 4.2 5.9 19.2
5 2.5 3.8 7.5 22.3
6 2.1 2.8 7.9 11.6
7 3.3 3.1 7.8 13.0
8 3.0 3.2 7.5 22.3
9 1.7 2.4 9.7 9.8
10 1.7 3.2 8.0 14.9
11 1.9 2.7 9.9 4.3
Pal*jysdl
\/egeIaIje g!I"den
Teag!l"den
~
FalloN gassIa1d
atJusactad
BaTtIoo g!I"den
II'Itxxtln:I
II'Itxxtln:I
II'Itxxtln:I
Erodedfabv
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Soil rriaobial biomass N (rrg Nlkg)
Rgure 2 Effect of land use on niaobial biomass N
From the data of total P and available P (Table 1), it can be seen that total P and
available P for soil No.6, 7, 8, and 10 were significantly higher than those for
other soils, and obviously P more fertilizers were applied in these soils. For the other
soils, total P and available P were not influenced by land use (Figure 3).
Paddy soil jiiiiiiiliiiiiiijijiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiji-j

Tea garden
Fallow grassland
Bamboo garden
V\Oodland
Eroded fallow
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Soil microbial biomass P (mg Plkg)
Figure 3 Effect of land use on microbial biomass P
4. DISCUSSION
Our results showed that the amounts of Crnie in the red soils under different land use
are generally lower than that reported in temperate neutral soils. This can be
explained by two factors: fIrstly, red soils become strongly acidic mainly due to
intense weathering of soil minerals, which limits the growth of microorganisms;
secondly, rapid decomposition of soil organic matter under the warm and moist
climate in the subtropical regions and less input of organic matter into these soils
brings about a lower content of organic matter «13 g C kg· I ). Therefore, there is a
lack of energy resource for the growth of microorganisms in these soils. Land use
had considerable effects on soil Crnie. It can cause changes in soil C and N cycling
rates and accumulation of organic matter (Chen and Stark, 2000; Vmton and Burke,
1995; Jackson and Caldwell, 1993). Our results also showed that land use change
had signifIcant effect on the content of soil organic C. The correlation analysis
showed that a signifIcant relationship exists between soil Crnie and organic matter.
The land use effect on Crnie was probably related to the changes in soil C cycling
rate and in accumulation of soil organic, which is crucial for Crnie formation.
The similarity of the change in Nmie under different land uses to Cmie is mainly
due to relatively stable microbial C/N ratio (ranging from 5.0 to 9.9). The mean
microbial C/N ratio of 7.6 we obtained was close to that (6.7) reported by Anderson
et al. from neutral soils in the temperate zones. This implies that a relatively stable
C/N ratio exists in the body of microorganisms of different types of soil. Good
relationships of Nmie with total N and available N on one hand indicated that N mie
might be mainly controlled by total N and available N; on the other hand, it was
evident that there existed a dynamic balance between Nmie and available N (Smith
and Paul, 1991). Microbial biomass N might be a potential biological indicator of
soil N-supplying level.
The chloroform fumigation-O.5M NaHC03 extraction procedure proposed by
Brookes et al. (1982) has been frequently used to measure soil microbial biomass P
(Pmie). The 0.5M NaHC03 extraction is SUbjected to limitations of low P recovery
when applied to highly weathered acid soils due to strong adsorption of P by
variable-charge minerals (Feigl et al., 1995; Chen et aI., 2000). Replacement ofO.5M
NaHC03 by 0.025 N HCl+0.03 N ~ (Bray PI reagent) improved P recovery and
the reliability of the Pmie estimation (He et al., 1997a; Oberson et aI., 1997).
Therefore, 0.025 N HCl+0.03 N ~ as extractant was used for determining Pmie in
this study.
Microbial biomass P was less affected by land use, as compared with ~e and
Nmie. There is a wider range of microbial biomass CIP ratio than microbial biomass
C/N ratio. This could be mainly because there were lower P contents with less
stability within the soil microorganisms. Comparing the data of total P and available
P of each soil, it can be seen that P fertilizers were obviously applied to soils no.6, 7,
8 and 10. However, the amounts of Pmie in these soils were not significantly higher
than those in the other soils. This implies that application of P fertilizers alone,
without inputs of C and N from farm manure and N fertilizers, may not increase
Pmie·
5. REFERENCES
Anderson J P E and Domsch K H 1980 Quantities of plant nutrients in the microbial biomass of selected
soils. Soil Science, 130, 211-216.
Bardgett R D, Leemans D K, Cook R and Hobbs P J 1997. Seasonality of the soil biota of grazed and
Wlgrazed hill grasslands. Soil Bioi. Biochem.29,1285-l294.
Brookes P C 1995 The use of microbial parameters in monitoring soil pollution by heavy metals. Bioi.
Fertil. Soils 19,269-279.
Brookes P C, Landman A, Pruden G; and Jenkinson D S 1985 Chloroform fumigation and the release of
soil organic nitrogen: a rapid direct extraction method to measure microbial biomass nitrogen in
soils. Soil Bioi. Biochem.17, 837-842.
Brookes P.C., D.S. Powlson, and D.S. Jenkinson. 1982. Measurement of microbial biomass phosphorus
in soil. Soil Bioi. Biochem.14:319-329
Chan K Y and Heenan D P 1999 Microbial-induced soil aggregate stability Wlder different crop rotations.
Chen G; He Z L, and Huang C Y 2000 Microbial biomass phosphorus and its significance in predicting P
availability in red soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 31, 655-667.
Chen G; He Z L, and Yao H 1999a Seasonal variation of microbial biomass in red soils. Acta Universitasis
Zhejiangensis (Agriculture & life Sci.) 25,387-388.
Chen J and Stark J M 2000 Plant species effects and carbon and nitrogen cycling in a sagebrush-crested
wheatgrass soil. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 32,47-57.

Dalal R C 1998 Soil microbial biomass-what do the number really mean? Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 38, 645-
665.
Degens B P, Schipper L A, Sparling G P and Vojvodicvukovic M 2000 Decreases in organic C reserves
in soils can reduce the catabolic diversity of soil microbial communities. Soil Bioi.
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Diazravina M, Acea M J, and Carballas T 1993 Microbial biomass and its contribution to nutrient
concentrations in Forest soils. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 25, 25-31.
Feigl B J , Sparling G P, Ross D J, and Cerri C C 1995 Soil microbial biomass in Amazonian soils-
evaluation of methods and estimates of pool sizes. Soil BioI. Biochem., 27, 1467-1472.
Garcia C, Roldan A and Hemandez T 1997 Changes in microbial activity kafter abandonment of
cultivation in a semiarid Mediterranean environment. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26,285-
291.
He Z L 1997 Turnover of soil microbial biomass and its relation to nutrient cycling in agricultural
systems: A review. Tura 29, 61-69.
He Z L, Wu J, O'Donnell A U and Syers J K 1997a Seasonal responses in microbial biomass carbon,
phosphorus and sulfur in soils under pasture. Bioi. Fert. Soils 24, 421-428.
Islam K R and Weil R R 2000 Land use effects on soil quality in a tropical forest ecosystem of
Bangladesh. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 79,9-16.
Jackson R B and Caldwell M M 1993 Geostatistical patterns of soil heterogeneity around individual
perennial plants. Journal ofEcology 81, 683-692.
Jenkinson D S and Ladd J N 1981 Mcrobial biomass in soil: measurement and turnover. In: Paul E.A and
Ladd J N (Eds), Soil BiochemiStry, vol.5, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 415-471.
Keeney, D. R 1982. Nitrogen-availability indices. pp.711-730. In: A. L. Page, R H. Miller and D. R
Keeney (eds.), Methods ofSoil Analysis, Part 2. SSSAPubl. Inc. Madison, WI.
Ladd J N, Foster R C Nannipieri P, and Oades J M 1996 Soil Structure and Biological Activity. In Soil
Biochemistry VoL 9, Eds. G Stotzky and J M Bollag, pp 23-78, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
Lovell R D, Jarvis S C and Bardgett R D 1995 Soi microbial biomass and activity in ling -term
grassland: effects of management changes. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 27,969-975.
Nelson, S. R and L. E. Sommers. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. PP.539-577. In:
A. 1. Page, R H. Miller and D. R Keeney (eds.), Methods ofSoil AnalYSiS, Part 2. SSSA Publ. Inc.
Madison, WI.
Oberson A, Friesen D. K, Morel C, and Tiessen H 1997 Determination of phosphorus released by
chloroform fumigation from microbial biomass in high P sorbing tropical soils. Soil Bioi. Biochem.
29, 1579-1583.
Olsen S. R and L. E. Sommers. 1982. Phosphorus. pp.403-430.In: A. 1. Page, R H. Miller and D. R
Keeney (eds.), Methods ofSoil AnalYSiS, Part 2. SSSAPubl. Inc. Madison, WI.
Smith J L and Paul E A 1991 The significance of soil microbial biomass estimations. In: Soil Biochemistry
Vol.6, Eds. J M Bollag and G Stotzky. pp 359-396, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Smith J L and Paul E A 1991 The significance of soil microbial biomass estimations. In: Soil Biochemistry
Vol.6, Eds. J M Bollag and G Stotzky. pp 359-396, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Sparling G P, Shepherd T G and Kettles H A 1992 Changes in soil organic C, microbial C and aggregate
stability under continuous maize and cereal cropping, and after restoration to pasture in soils from
the Manawatu region. New Zealand Soil Till. Res. 24,225-241.
Vinton MA and Burke I C 1995 Interactions between individual plant species and soil nutrient status in
short grass steppe. Ecology 76, 1116-1133.
Warkle DA 1998 Controls oftemporal variability of the soil microbial biomass: a global-scale synthesis.
Wick B, Kuhne R F, and Vlek P L G 1998 Soil microbiological parameters as indicators of soil quality
under improved fallow management systems in south-western Nigeria. Plant Soil 202, 97-107.
Wu, J., RG Joergensen, B. Pommerning, R Chaussod, and P. C. Brookes. 1990. Measurement of soil
microbial biomass by fumigation-extraction: An automated Procedure. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 22:
1167-1169.
DYNAMICS OF SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION
PATTERN IN RED SOILS: AN INDICATOR OF SOIL
QUALITY CHANGES
H YAO AND ZHENLI HE
Department of Resource Science, Zhejiang University, Huajiachi Campus,

ABSTRACT
A laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of different land uses, soil fertility and
environmental quality on substrate utilization patterns. Multivariate analysis of Biolog sole carbon source
utilization tests demonstrated that land use history and plant cover type had a significant impact on
microbial commwrity structure. However, there was no systematic change in microbial commwrity
structure associated with increased organic matter or microbial biomass. Microorganisms were sensitive to
environmental change. Addition of Cu to three red soils (short-term cultivated red sandy soil, mid-term
cultivated red clayey soil, and long-term cultivated red clayey soil) at a rate of 500mg kg" resulted in a
lower utilization rate for 21 carbon sources. In addition, microbial commwrity structure in the long-term
cultivated red clayey soil was significantly altered by Cu addition at the rate of 500 mg kg".
Keywords: substrate utilization pattern, land use, copper, red soil
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil quality is a combination of the physical, chemical, and biological

properties that contribute to soil function. The definition of soil quality is " the
capacity of a soil to function within ecosystem boundaries to sustain biological
productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health"
(Soil Society of America, 1997). Since soil microorganisms are of fundamental
importance in the biological cycles of almost all the major plant nutrients, the
analysis of soil microorganisms has become an area of great interest in recent years
and has great potential in its application in the research work on soil fertility and
environmental quality. Up to now, a number of soil microbiological parameters,
notably microbial biomass carbon and basal respiration have been suggested as
possible indicators of soil quality, and have been employed in national and
international monitoring programs. More recently, microbial community structure,
which is sensitive to changes in ecosystem processes, has been recommended as an
early indicator of ecosystem function and for evaluating disturbed or contaminated
systems (Kennedy and Smith, 1995).
In the Biolog system, different carbon sources are used to produce a metabolic
323
324 H YAO AND ZHENLI HE
profile of microorganism (Garland and Mills, 1991). Biolog has been used to assess
the metabolic diversity of microbial communities from diverse ranges of habitat, soil
types, grassland, and tree species. The technique has become popular because it is
simple, uses automated measuring apparatus and yields a great deal of information
about an important functional attribute of microbial communities, although the
analysis and interpretation of such data are often more complicated (Haack et al.,
1995). Consequently, changes in substrate utilization pattern have been used to
compare different land use systems and crop management as well stress.
In this study, the Biolog technique was used to evaluate microbial community
structure in a sequence of soils with different fertility and land uses. In addition, we
also set out a modified sole carbon source utilization approach for specifically
investigating the effect of copper addition on soil microbial community structure.
The objective was to understand the changes in substrate utilization pattern in red
soils with different fertility and environmental quality status.
2.1 Soils
The soils used were collected from the surface layer (0-20cm) of red soils in
Longyou County, Zhejiang Province, China. Mean annual rainfall in this area is
about 1450mm and mean temperature is lrC. All soils were developed on
Quaternary red earths except for soil No.2, which was derived from red sandstone.
Basically, they were Ultisols with kaolinite, AI-chlorite, and Fe and Al oxides as the
dominant clay minerals. The selected soils cover a wide spectrum of soil fertility, i.e.
from the severely eroded (uncultivated) to the highly fertile soil, as judged by the
contents of organic matter, total N, and P. The land use history, geographical location
and some basic properties of the soils are shown in Table 1. Sixty soil cores were
taken at random for each soil sample and divided into three replicates. Field moist
soils were sieved to < 2mm and large pieces of plant residues and soil animals were
removed before use. The soils were incubated for 7 days at 25°C and their moisture
contents adjusted to 45 % of their water-holding capacity prior to microbiological
measurements.
2.2 Sole carbon source utilization profiles
Fresh soil (lOg oven dry weight) was placed into a flask containinglOO mL of
distilled water and the suspension shaken on a wrist action shaker at full speed for
10 min. Ten fold serial dilutions were made and the 10-3 dilution was used to
inoculate the Biolog plates. The dilution was centrifuged at 750 x g RCF for 10min
to separate the soil and 150 ilL of the supernatant was inoculated into each well of
the microtitration plate. Plates were incubated at 25°C for 7 days and color
development was measured as absorbance (A) using an automated plate reader
(VMAX, Molecular Devices, Crawley, UK) at 590nm (or 405 nm for the modified
sole-carbon-source utilization approach) twice a day and the data collected using a
Microlog (Biolog Inc.). The average well color development (AWCD) for all carbon
DYNAMICS OF SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION IN RED SOILS 325
sources was calculated as being indicative of total activity.

To investigate the effect of copper addition on soil microbial community
structure, micro-titration plates with 96 wells and 21 carbon sources were used.
These particular C sources were chosen to represent the main types of compounds
exuded by plant roots, namely, sugars, amino acids, carboxylic acids, phenolic acids
and long chain aliphatic acids (Table 2). The characterization medium was the same
as traditional Biolog plates except that it was adjusted to pH 4.7 instead of 7.0. Each
set of 21 carbon sources, including three blank controls (24 in total), was replicated
four times in a single micro-titration plate with 96 wells. No TIC was used because
it may be of disadvantage to the microbial technique.
Table 1. Land use history, geographical location and basic properties of the tested
soils
Soil Latitudel pH Org.C TotaiN Microb.

Land use gkg· t gkg·t
No. Longitude (H2O) Biomass-C
(Ilg got)
Eroded-lDlcultivated 29"2' N/119°10'E 5.42 2.34 0.28 29.2
Upland vegetable-3yr
2 29°5' NI119"8'E 6.31 4.81 0.43 152.2
(Brassica pekinensis Rupr.)
Citrus orchard-4yr
3 29°3' N/ll9"9'E 4.68 4.08 0.42 108.4
(Citrus unshiu Marc.)
Citrus orchard-8yr
4 29"4' N/119°12'E 5.53 14.54 1.73 235.2
Citrus orchard-12yr
5 29"2' N/119°00'E 5.59 16.46 1.82 264.4
Paddy-15yr
6 29°2' N/ll9"ll'E 5.11 16.00 1.41 301.8
(Ory=a sativa L.)
Tea orchard-3Oyr
7 29"2' N/I19°12'E 4.34 26.33 2.04 400.2
(Camellia sinensis 0. Kt=e.)
Forest-3 8yr 465.6

8 29"4' N/119°10'E 4.57 34.48 2.26
(Pinus massoniana Lamb.)
326 H YAO and ZHENLI HE
2.3 Statistics
All analysis of variance (ANOYA), regression and multivariate analyses were

conducted using Genstart 5.3 (NAG Ltd., Oxford, UK). Means, least significant
differences of 5% level were calculated by a one-way ANOYA. The Biolog data were
transformed by dividing by the AWCD so as to avoid bias between samples due to
different inoculum densities, i.e. numbers of culturable organisms. The absorbance
data were analyzed by canonical variate analysis (CYA), after ftrst reducing the
dimensionality by principal component analysis (Campbell et al., 1997).
Table 2. List ofcommon root chemi-exudates used as carbon sources in microtitre

plates
Sugars Carboxylic acids

Glucose Fumaric acid
Arabinose Oxaloacetic acid
Fructose Citric acid
Sucrose Succinic acid
Amino acids Phenolic Acids

Glutamic acid p-hydroxy benzoic acid
Aspartic acid Caffeic acid
Glycine Protocatechuic acid
Arginine Ferulic acid
Lysine Long chain aliphatic acids
Alanine Oleic acid
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
3.1 Effect ofdifferent land uses and soil fertility on substrate utilization patterns
The average utilization (AWCD) of the carbon sources for the eight soil samples
using the Biolog GN and MT plates generally followed a sigmoidal pattern with
time, which was in agreement with the results of previous studies (Grayston and
Campbell,1996) regarding the utilization of the carbon sources in Biolog plates.
However, the AWCD of the microbial communities from the tea orchard soil was
significantly less (P<O.OOI) than any of the other soils. Even when 5 and 10 fold
higher inoculum densities were used to inoculate the Biolog plates, the AWCD
increased by only 5 and 10% and was still significantly lower than the other soils.
Canonical variate analysis, using all 125 carbon sources, gave good discrimination
among the soils with a mean Mahalanobis distance = 11.1 (SCL =3.5 at 5% level),
indicating that they had significantly different patterns of potential carbon utilization
and different microbial communities (Fig. 1). In particular, there was clear
discrimination between samples from the tea orchard soil, which had higher ordinate
values on canonical variate (CV) 1 (explaining 60.0% of the variance), when
compared with the other soils. This discrimination was still evident when 5 and 10
fold higher inoculum densities were tested at equivalent AWCD values (Fig. 1). The
eroded soil and the 4 year old citrus orchard was also distinct from other soils on
CVl. Some soils were discriminated on CV2 (explaining 20.1 % data variance). The
soils under vegetables (Soil 2) had the highest ordinates. Two of the older orchard
soils (Soils 4 and 5) were clustered together while the other younger orchard soil
(Soil 3) was quite different and was closer to the eroded soil (Soil 1). Correlation and
analysis of the loadings of the most influential carbon sources on CVl showed
7
• I
,-------~----------------~
• I
.+. .".A
3.5 - ~ I •
I
N
II A •
> 0.0 -r----~------~----
o l:I.l:I. I
I
I
I
P@
-3.5 -
cP
l 0
-7 I I I I I
-8 -4 o 4 8 12 16
CV1
Figure 1. Plot of ordination of canonical variates (CV) CVs1 against CVs2

generated by canonical variate analysis ofsole carbon source tests after 168h in
Biolog and MT plates showing discrimination between different soils: eroded soil
(0), upland vegetable (0), citrus orchard -4yr (0), citros orchard -8yr (_), citrus
orchard -12yr (0), paddy soil (.1), tea orchard (.1)Jorest (0). For soil No.7 small,
medium and large symbol size refer to l(Jl, 5x1(J3 and 1(J3 dilutions respectively
that cellobiose, rhanmose, chlorogenic acid and xylitol were positively correlated
and L-serine, D-serine glycerol and maltose were negatively correlated. The C
sources with highest loadings on CV2 were fumaric acid, which was negatively
correlated, as were glucoronic acid and glucose 1, 6 phosphate. Cellobiose,
succinamic acid, glycogen and L-glutamic acid were positively correlated with CV2.
The sole carbon source utilization tests indicated that land use history and
plant cover type had an impact on microbial community structure and the unusual
microbial ecology of the tea orchard soil warranted further investigation. However,
there was no correlation between CVs from the canonical variate analysis and the
microbial biomass or soil C and N contents. This supports previous studies that no
systematic change in microbial community structure is associated with increased soil
fertility (Bossio et al., 1998).
3.2 Effect ofcopper addition on substrate utilization patterns

In previous studies (Campbell et al., 1997; Grayston and Campbell, 1996), it was
noted that there were significantly redundant carbon sources in the Biolog GN plate,
in which many of the carbon sources were highly correlated with the biomass of
microbes and contributed little to the discrimination of microbial populations.
Although 95 carbon sources have been used in most studies on Biolog plates, there is
no reason why fewer carbon sources might not be able to discriminate adequately
between populations. In studies of characterizing isolates, as few as 20 or even 9
carbon sources were enough to determine shifts in carbon source utilization profiles.
In the present study, 21 carbon sources were used to characterize soil microbial
community structure. Three soils (3-year red sandy soil, 4-year red clayey soil and
38-year red clayey soil) were used to evaluate the effect of environmental change on
microbial community structure due to their different pH or microbial biomass. The
average utilization (AWCD) of the carbon sources for the soil samples using the
modified Biolog plates generally followed the same pattern with incubation time.
Addition of copper to the three soils at the rate of 500 mg kg'! resulted in a lower
utilization rate for 21 carbon sources. The most distinct decrease in AWCD was
found in the 3-year red sandy soil. The AWCD of the contaminated soil (3-year red
sandy soil ) was only 20% of the control. The effect decreased among the three soils
in the following order: short-term cultivated red sandy soil (3 years upland) > mid-
term cultivated red clayey soil (4 years citrus orchard ) > long-term cultivated red
clayey soil (38 years forest). Since the AWCD was calculated as a measure of total
activity, the changes in AWCD indicate that the heavy metal pollution have a
significant impact on microbial activity. The differential effect of Cu addition on the
activities of organisms in the three soils may be due to differences in soil organic
matter, texture, and pH.
Canonical variate analysis of the modified sole carbon source test is shown in Fig. 2.
Canonical variate 1 (CV1) explained 73% of the variation and discriminated the
amended 38-year forest soil. CV2 explained 13% of the variation in the data and
discriminated the 4-year cultivated red clayey soil. Correlation and analysis of the
3.------------.-----------------------,
~
2 o.•
• •
•
S!u 1 o •
~:
•
o ------------~-----------------------.
~
··6
6
-1 7
-2 • • •
-3+-----------~----------~----------~
-5 o 5 10
CV1
Figure 2. Plot of ordination of canonical variates (CV) a) CV 1 against CV 2

generated by canonical variate analysis of A 405 using modified sole carbon source
test plates for six different treatments: upland vegetable soil(£1), upland vegetable
soil contaminated with copper (L1),citrus orchard (4yr) soil (0), citrus orchard (4yr)
soil contaminated with copper (o)Jorest soil (())Jorest soil contaminated with copper
(.)
loadings of the most influential carbon sources on CVl indicated that glycine and
ferulic acid were positively correlated and lysine and palmitic acid were negatively
correlated with CVl. The result confrrmed that microbial community structure in the
long-term cultivated red clayey soil was significantly altered by Cu addition at the
rate of 500mg kg-!, indicating that substrate utilization pattern in red soil may be a
potential diagnostic tool for soil environmental quality. However, no difference was
found in the short-term cultivated red sandy soil or the mid-term cultivated red
clayey soil after Cu addition. Therefore, substrate utilization patterns should be
applied carefully as heavy metal pollution may not be always accompanied by a
change in microbial community structure.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the help of Dr C D Campbell, The
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen for supervising this work and
Springer- Verlag, New York Inc for permission to reproduce Figure 1 and Tables 1
and 2. A fuller account of this work is published in Microbial Ecology, (2000), 40,
223-237.
5. REFERENCES
Bossio, D. A, Scow, K. M, Gunapala, N. and Graham, K. J. 1998. Determinants of soil microbial
communities: effects of agricultural management, season and soil type on phospholipid fatty acid
profiles. Microb. Ecol. 36: 1-12.
Campbell, C. D., Grayston, S. J. and Hirst, D. J. 1997. Use ofrhizosphere carbon sources in sole carbon
source tests to discriminate soil microbial communities. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 30:
33-41.
Garland, J. L. and Mills, A L. 1991. Qassification and characterisation of heterotrophic microbial
communities on the basis of patterns of community-level-sole-carbon-source utilization. Applied
Environmental Microbiology. 57: 2351-2359.
Grayston, S. J. and Campbell, C. D. 1996. Functional biodiversity of microbial communities in the
rhizosphere ofhybird larch (Larix eurolepis) and Sika spruce (Picea sitchensis). Tree Physiology. 16:
1031-1038.
Haack, S.K., Garchow, H., Kiug, M. J. and Fomey, L. J. 1995. Analysis of factors affecting the accuray,
reproducibility, and interpretation of microbial community carbon source utilization patterns.
Applied Environmental Microbiology. 61: 1 458-1 468.
Kennedy, A C. and Smith, K. L. 1995. Soil microbial diversity and the sustainability of agricultural soils.
Plant and Soil. 170: 75-86
Soil Science Society of America, 1997. Glossary of Soil Science Terms. Soil Science Society of America,
Madison, WI, USA
SOIL ACIDIFICATION UNDER TEA BUSHES AND
ITS INFLUENCE ON THE BIOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF A RED SOIL
SHEN YU(l), ZHENLI HE(1), CHANGYONG HUANG(l),

GUOCHAO CHEN I ) AND BINGLIANG ZHU(2)
(1) Department of Resource Science, School of Environmental and Resource Sciences,

Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310029, China
(2)Station of Soil and Fertilizer, Bureau ofAgriculture, Longyou County, Zhejiang
Province, 324400, China
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the soil acidification caused by continuous planting of tea bushes and its influence
on the population distribution and community structure of microorganisms, soil basal respiration and
activities of 3 soil enzymes (urease, invertase, acid phosphomonoesterase) and related ecological factors in
the rhizosphere of 10-, 40- and 90- year old tea bushes, respectively, in Hangzhou, China. Soil pH
decreased significantly by 0.57 of a pH unit with the tea bushes' age, from 10- to 90-year old. Total
exchangeable acidity of the soil also increased, ranging from 1119 to 1436 mmol (1/3 Al'+ + Ir) kg"'
oven-dried soil. However, the dominant component of soil total exchangeable acidity shifted from
exchangeable Ir to exchangeable Al'+ with increasing cultivation age of the tea bushes. The soil organic
carbon and total nitrogen contents, as well as the CIN ratio and soluble phenol content were significantly
negatively correlated with soil pH, suggesting an accumulation of organic matter in the root-layer of the tea
bush soils caused by the soil acidification. The bio-characteristics of these soils varied with the increasing
age of the tea bushes and with soil acidification. Bacteria dominated the microbial community of the
root-layer soils and soil microorganisms were not generally affected by soil pH. However, oligotrophic
bacteria were obviously inhibited by soil acidification. Soil microbial biomass carbon and daily basal
respiration were stimulated by soil acidification and the reverse was true for the metabolic quotient (qCO,).
Decline of soil pH enhanced only the activity of soil acid phosphomonoesterase but not the activities of
urease and invertase. The numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes in the soils of the 40- and 90-year old tea
bushes were only half those in the 10-year old tea bush soil; however, the amount of soil microbial biomass
carbon and the potential of daily basal respiration showed a two-fold increase for the 40- and 90-year old
tea bush soil, compared with the 10-year old tea bush soil. The metabolic quotient (qCO,) declined as the
cultivation age increased. Activities of urease and especially invertase in the root-layer soils declined with
increasing tea bush age but, on the contrary, the activity of acid phosphomonoesterase increased.
Keywords: Soil acidification, soil bio-characteristics, tea bushes, red soil
1. INTRODUCTION
Tea (Camellia sinensis), an important cash plant cultivated artificially with intensive
density, is planted widely on acid red soils in the tropical and subtropical zones in
Asia. The tea plant differs from other plants in that it is acid-resistant and requires Al
for normal growth. Therefore, tea grows better in some strongly acid soils, even in
331
MJ. Wilson et al. (eds.), The Red Soils a/China, 331-345.
332 SHEN YU et ai.
soils with pH<5.0 or lower. Soil acidification Wlder tea bushes is well documented.
Soil pH (H20 or KCI) Wlder tea bushes gradually decreases from near neutral or
moderately acidic to strongly acidic (about 4, even lower) (Pansombat et aI., 1997). In
China, more than 40.8% of tea soils have a pH lower than 4.5 and soil acidification
continues with the increasing period oftea plant growth (Wu, 1991). Two hypotheses
to explain this decrease in pH have been proposed in the literature. One is due to
AI-accumulation from tea litter decomposition in the surface soils, which is
intensively acidifying. Song and Liu (1990) reported that the pH of tea bush top soil
(0-5cm) decreased from 5.37 to 2.98 and that aluminum saturation increased from
0.19% to 71.07% within 80 years of tea planting. The content of exchangeable-AI in
soils increases with planting age of tea bushes (Guo and Liu, 1997) and so does the
ratio of exchangeable AI over the total soil exchangeable acidity (Wu, 1991). The
other hypothesis attributes tea soil acidification to large applications of ammonium
sulfate fertilizer (Kosuge, 1982, cited by Nioh et al., 1993), especially, from 1970's to
80's in China (Guo and Liu, 1997).
Few studies have been conducted on the biological ecology, of continuously
acidifying soils Wlder tea bushes. In this context, it is now possible to assess
indicators such as microbial populations and overall commWlity structure (Huang and
Wen, 1982; Pansombat et al., 1997), commWlity structure of N-fixing
microorganisms (Tian et aI., 1999), microbial biomass and biochemical
characteristics (Nioh et aI., 1993), enzymes that mediate major nutrient cycling of
soils (such as protease (Pansombat et al., 1997), urease (Wu and Liu, 1999; Ding et aI.,
1988), phosphatase (Ding et al., 1988; Wang et aI., 1989; Lin et al., 1991), invertase
(Ding et aI., 1988), dehydrogenase (Ding et aI., 1988)), as well as the rhizosphere
effect on soil microbes (Pandey and PaIni, 1996). Soil enzymes and microorganisms
are well-related to soil fertility and nutrient cycling in general and to tea yield and
production in particular (Ding et aI., 1988; Wang et al., 1989). However, little is
known yet about the changes of such biological characteristics as the tea bush soil
becomes acidified in the root-layer.
China is one of main tea producing cOWltries of the world with a long and wonderful
history of tea culture. Longjing Tea is one of the most famous green teas in China and
even worldwide. This study investigated soil acidification in three tea gardens with
10-, 40- and 90-year old tea bushes. In particular, the research focused on the
influence of soil acidification on soil biological characteristics in the root-layer soil of
Longjing tea bushes in the Meijiawu valley in Hangzhou, one of the original regions
of Longjing Tea production. Three groups of soil microbes: bacteria (including
SOIL ACIDIFICATION UNDER TEA BUSHES 333
eutrophic and oligotrophic bacteria and bacillus), fungi, and actinomycetes, were
determined by the plate-count method and activities of three enzymes concerned with
soil C, N, and P cycling, i.e., invertase, urease, and acid phosphomonoesterase, were
measured. Soil respiration potential, microbial biomass and metabolic quotient (qC~)
were also investigated in relation to temporal change of tea bush planting and to
change in soil pH.

2.1 Soils
Soil samples were collected from 10-, 40- and 90-year old tea bush gardens in the
middle part of Meijiawu valley, West Lake district, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. The
soils were derived from the same parent material, namely quartzose sandstone
interbedded with shales. The soils have a loam textures according to the American
Texture Grade System (Table 1). Triplicate samples were obtained from each garden
at 0-15 cm depth in the rooting-layer. Each soil sample was a composite from more
than 10 sampling cores. All fresh moist soil samples were passed through a 2-mm
sieve before they were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C. Sub-samples were air-dried and
passed through I-mm or 0.15 mm sieves for chemical analysis. Some basic properties
of the soils are given in Table 1.
2.2 Measurement ofphysical and chemical properties
Soil organic carbon was determined by a modified Tinsley method (Tinsley, 1950),
soil N by the Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982), total soluble phenol
by Folin-Ciocalteau's phenol reagent (Box, 1983), total soil exchangeable acidity and
exchangeable-Al3+ and -W by titration (Liu et al., 1996) and particle size distribution
by density meter (Liu et al., 1996). Soil pH (H20) was measured with a glass electrode
at 1:5 ratio of air-dried soil to solution by a Beckman pH meter.
2.3 Count of microorganisms
To estimate the number of soil microflora, counts were calculated on the basis of
serial 100fold dilutions, in triplicate, using the plate-count method with 10 g
field-moisture soil, and an appropriate dilution (ISSAS, 1985). The media used for
these counts consisted of (1) peptone beef extract agar for eutrophic bacteria (5g
peptone, 3g beef extract and 18g agar with volume made up to 1 liter with distilled
water, pH 7.0-7.2) and only 1 per cent concentration of peptone and beef extract for
oligotrophic bacteria; (2) Rose Bengal agar for fungi (LOg KH2P04, O.5g
MgS04 ·7H20, 10.0 g glucose, 5.0 g peptone, 18 g agar and 3.3 mll% Rose Bengal
334 SHEN YU et al.
Table 1 Some basic physical and chemical properties o/the root-layer soils o/tea
bushes
Age of tea bush IOyr 40yr 90yr

Particle components (g kg· l)
Clay «0.002mm) 242.3 (15.0)a 225.6 (39.3)a 118.4 (60.2)b
Silt «0.05 & >0.002 mm) 391.8 (4.5)ns 471.8 (28.3)ns 412.3 (71.8)ns
Sand(>O.05 mm) 366.0 (12.4)ab 302.7 (31. O)b 469.3 (113.3)a
Texture
Loam Loam Loam
(American textural grade)
Soil organic carbon(OC)
6.17 (0.54)cB 19.27 (0.45)aA 17.84 (0.66)bA
(g C kg· l)
Soil total nitrogen (TN)
1.16 (0.06)cB 2.25 (0.05)aA 2.12 (0.02)bA
(gNkg·l)
OC!TN 5.35 (0.48)bB 8.57 (0.25)aA 8.40 (0.36)aA
Total soluble phenol (SP) 724.71
156.64 (57.70)bB 644.40 (9.39)aA
(mg Phenol kg -I) (131.65)aA
BC**/OC(%) 0.91 0.98 1.11
Nin-N !TN (%) 0.27 0.45 0.24
BCINin-N 17.66 18.73 38.03
*Mean (SD), and capital letter means significant at p<O.Ollevel, and small letter significant at p<O.05Ievel
upon multiple comparisons by LSD. And ns means not being significant, the following labels are the same.
• * Be means microbial biomass carbon, Nin-N ninhydrin-reaction nitrogen.
solution with volume made up to 1 liter with distilled water, add 3mll % streptomycin
solution before dish pouring); (3) starch agar for actinomycetes (1.0g KN03 , O.5g
K2HP04, O.5g MgS04'7H20, O.5g NaCI, O.Olg FeS04'7H20, 20g starch and 18g agar
with volume made up to 1 liter with distilled water, with the addition of 10ml 1%
KCr207 before dish pouring); (4) wort peptone beef extract agar for bacillus (mix
500ml wort (7")and 500ml peptone beef extract agar (double concentration) before
dish pouring). All media were autoclaved for 20 minutes at the pressure of 10 kg.
Colony-forming units (CFU) were counted after 3 days of incubation for the bacteria,
bacillus and fungi, and after 14 days for the actinomycetes.
2.4 Measurement o/microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen
A chloroform fumigation-0.5M K2S04 extraction method was used to obtain extracts,

and total organic carbon in the extracts was measured by a TOC-500 (Shimadzu)
automated analyzer with the adoption of Kc=0,45 was adopted (Wu et aI., 1990).
Nitrogen was estimated by the ninhydrin reaction method (Ohlinger, 1995a).
2. 5 Estimation ofsoil basal respiration potential
Field moist soil samples were incubated in a dark room at 25°C for 1 week before soil
basal respiration potential was estimated. 20 g of pre-incubated soil was placed into a
fine texture (0.05 mm) nylon bag, and 20 ml of 0.05 M NaOH was pipetted into a
250-mL flask. Any Ion bag with soil was then inserted into the flasks and hung at the
bottom of the rubber stopper used to seal the flask. Three sealed blank flasks with
NaOH solution were used as the controls. All flasks with soils were incubated at 25°C
in a dark incubator for 6 days. Each day the NaOH solution in the flask was replaced
with a freshly prepared solution and titrated for the COrC amount released from the
soil (Ohlinger, 1995c).
Assay ofsoil enzyme activity: Colorimetric methods were used to determine activities
of invertase (sugar as substrate) (Mersi and Schinner, 1995), urease (urea as
substrate)(Kandeler, 1995) and acid phosphomonoesterase (phenylphosphate as
substrate)(Ohlinger, 1995b).
2.6 Statistical analysis
All data were processed by Microsoft® Excel 2000, and the Pearson product-moment
correlation was conducted using the programs of SAS® Release 6.12 (SAS Institute
Inc. 1996, Cary, NC, USA).

3.1 Soils
Temporal changes of soil pH and total exchangeable acidity in the rooting-layer soil
under the 10-, 40- and 90-year old tea bushes are presented in Fig. 1. Soil pH
decreased significantly by 0.57 of a pH unit (p<O.OOI, Table 4), from the 10- to the
90-year old tea bush soil. A long-term investigation of tea soil pH in Japan showed
that soil pH had decreased since 1973 for 3 volcanic ash soils and 2 non-volcanic ash
soils in the past 20 years. Here, soil pHH20 reduced from 5.02-6.28 to 3.23-3.79 and
pHKCl from 3.66-5.68 to 3.59-4.82 (Pansombat et aI., 1997). For the Hangzhou soils,
total exchangeable acidity was positively correlated with tea bush age, increasing
from 1119.0 at age 10 to 1436.2 mmol (1/3 Al3+ + ID kg-! O.D soil) at age 90. The
two components of total exchangeable acidity, i.e., exchangeable-Al3+ (EA) and
exchangeable-W (EH), varied oppositely with tea bush age, EA increasing while EH
showed a remarkable decrease (p<0.01, Table 4). However, soils from the 10- and
40-year old tea bushes were similar in levels of EA and EH, with EH values being
about 3.9 to 7.1 times those of the EA values. On the contrary, in the rooting-layer
336 SHEN YU et al.
soil of the 90-year old tea bushes, EA (1303.4 mmol1l3 AI 3+ kg·! O.D. soil) increased
rapidly, and EH (132.8 mmol W) kg"! O.D. soil) was reduced to the same level ofEA
in the rooting-layer soil of 10- and 40-year old tea bushes. The ratio of EAlEH
reached about 9.8.
It is evident that after long tenn cultivation of tea bushes, the soil has become more
and more acidic and that the dominant component of soil exchangeable acidity has
shifted from EH to EA. This result agrees with the reports of Guo and Liu (1997) and
Wu (1991). Further evidence comes from the investigation by Song and Liu (1990) of
soil profiles in 9-, 29- and 80-year old tea gardens. They concluded that leaching of
base cations and accumulation of Ae+ contributed to soil acidification, with an
approximate decrease between 0.22-2.39 pH (H20) unit with increasing tea planting
age in the top 0-5cm soil. Li et al. (1989) reached the same conclusion from their
results. The AI saturation of the topsoil increased sharply from 0.19% for the control
to 1.83-71.07% for the tea bush age from 9 to 80 years old (Song and Liu, 1990).
Contents of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and C/N ratio, and soluble phenol were
significantly negatively correlated with soil pH (Table 4). This implies that soil
~.: l ijj
~
- --
5
-_-__ aA
lli
- -- bB
5.5
"0 ;;- 1500
E
E 0
f/)
:- q 1200
~o
... Ol
0':'< 900
• Q:;
Q) Co aA aA
:c . 600
~<
Ole?
~::: 300
.c. 0
0 . bB bB
tti :I: 0
10 40 90
o Exchangeable-AI !ill Exchangeable- H Age of tea bush (year)
Fig. 1 Soil pH, and total exchangeable acidity and its

components in the root-layer soils of tea bushes
acidification influences the turnover of soil C and N and causes an accumulation of

soil organic matter.
3.2 Microorganism communities
The numbers of soil eutrophic (EB) and oligotrophic bacteria (OB), fungi and
actinomycetes, and Bacillus were measured by the plate-count method in the
rooting-layer soil of the tea bushes (Table 2).
Soils under tea bushes for 40 and 90 years, lost nearly a half of their bacterial numbers
(EB and OB) as compared with tea bushes of lO-year old. However, the ratio of
OBIEB decreased from 0.93 to 0.78 with the increasing age of tea bushes. Bacillus
thrived and reached the largest number in the rooting-layer soil of 40-year old tea
bushes and then decreased in the 90-year old tea bush soil to a similar level as for the
10-year old tea bush soil. The percentage of Bacillus in EB showed the same tendency
(Table 2). However, on the root surface oftea bushes, the percentage of Bacillus in EB
increased with increasing tea planting age (Huang and Wen, 1982).
Table 2. Microbial structural community in the root-layer soil oftea bushes with
different ages
Age of tea bush lOyr 40yr 90yr

Eutrophic Number 42.3 (21.3)ns** 20.9 (7.70)ns 23.9 (4.63)ns
Bacteria (EB) Percentage*** 97.2 96.8 97.2
Fungi(FU) Number 4.36 (1.21)ns 2.61 (0.57)ns 4.39 (2.03)ns
(X10Scfug·!
O.D. soil) Percentage 1.0 1.2 1.8
(AC) Number 7.23 (0.02)a 3.89 (3.43)ab 2.54 (1.30)b
(x lOscfu g.!
O.D. soil) Percentage 1.7 1.8 1.0
Total Number 43.5 (21.4)a 21.6 (8.04)b 24.6 (4.92)b
CFU(TCFU)
(x107cfu Percentage 99.9 99.8 100
g.1 O.D. soil)
Bacillus (BA)
6.43 (1.39)ns 16.9 (3.37)ns 7.50 (8.58)ns
(x lOscfu g.! O.D. soil)
Oligotrophic Bacteria (OB)
39.4 (8.22)aA 18.3 (3.53)bB 18.7 (1.99)bB
(x 106cfu g.1 O.D. soil)
Ratio ofOBIEB 0.93 0.88 0.78
Percentage of bacillus in
1.5 8.1 3.1
EB(%)
*cfu is the abbreviation of "the colony forming units".
**Mean (SD), and capita11etter means significant at p<O.Ol level, and small letter significant at p<0.05
level upon multiple comparisons by LSD. And ns means not being significant, the following labels are the
same.
***Percentages ofEB, FU and AC (Actinomycetes) in TCFU.
338 SHEN YU et al.
The amount of fungi decreased from 4.36XI05 cfu g'! O.D. soil in the rooting-layer
soil of 10-year old tea bushes to 2.61XI05 cfu g'! O.D. soil in the 40-year old tea
bushes, and then increased up to 4.39XI05 cfu g'! O.D. soil in the 90-year old tea
bushes. The community of actinomycetes, nevertheless, obviously declined in
numbers with increasing tea planting age and decreasing soil pH (Table 4). As for the
structural community of total microorganisms which could be grown on the enriched
media in the rooting-layer soil of tea bushes, it was found that EB dominated and
maintained the same percentage, fungi slightly increased, and actinomycetes varied
with tea bush age (Table 2).
With regard to the relation of microorganisms to soil pH (Table 4) in the rooting-layer
of the tea bush soil, it is clear that EB, OB, actinomycetes, Bacillus, and total
colony-forming units (TCFU) bear a positive relationship with soil pH, whilst fungi
are negatively related to this parameter. However, only OB had a significant
correlation with soil pH (r=O.788, p<0.05) and actinomycetes had a significant
negative correlation with total exchangeable acidity (r=-0.747, p<0.05). These
relationships suggest that the microorganisms in the rooting-layer soil of tea bushes
are inhibited by soil acidification, except for the fungi which are able to grow in the
more acidic environment. Overall, the results indicate that soil microbial structural
community in the rooting layer soil of tea bushes is changed after their long-term
cultivation.
Data from 4 Indian tea bush gardens (established gardens of 4-, >30- and
> 1OO-year old and one abandoned garden of> 1OO-year old) revealed the same trend.
Bacteria dominated the soil microorganisms' community either in a dormant or active
status in the soil rooting layer and their numbers were reduced with tea bush age
(Pandey and Palni, 1997). However, numbers of fungi and actinomycetes varied.
These workers attributed the inhibitory effect on bacteria in these tea bush soils to
some anti-microbial substances exuded by the roots or released upon tea leaf litter
decomposition. This suggestion was supported by a significant decrease in the colony
number of the most abundantly aboriginal bacterial strains (up to 50% lost) after the
medium was supplemented with an extract of the tea bush rooting-layer soil. Soil
ammonium-N content can also affect soil microorganisms. An inhibitory effect of
ammonium-Non soil bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi was reported by Pansombat
et al. (1997) and a similar relationship between soil microorganisms and total
nitrogen was also observed in this study. All countable soil microorganisms other than
Bacillus had negative relationships with total N (Table 1 and Table 2). Application of
NJ4-N at 3-times the normal rate significantly reduced the number of bacteria,
actinomycetes, fungi and fungal hyphae in the surface soil oftea bushes; on the other
hand, increasing soil pH and applying 3-times the amount of Ca doubled the numbers
of bacteria and actinomycetes (Nioh et al., 1993). The numbers of bacteria on the root
surfaces of the tea bushes were also reduced sharply with increasing tea bush age, the
8-year old tea bushes having a bacterial count 5.5 times that of the > 40 - year old
tea bushes (Huang and Wen, 1982). This reduction was attributed to the accumulation
of polyphenol compounds, products of the litter decomposition, which are toxic to

soil microorganisms.
3.3 Microbial Biomass
Soil microbial biomass was changed with the cultivation age of the tea bushes (Fig. 2).
Soil microbial biomass carbon (BC) was significantly less in the rooting layer of the
10-year old tea bushes compared with the 40- or 90-year old tea bushes. However,
there was no difference between the 40 and 90 years old tea bush soil.
aA aA
bB
O L-____ ~~L- ____ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ __ ~
10 40 ro
~ cI tea bush (yell")
Fig. 2 Soil nicrobial biomass carbon and ninhydrin-N

in the root-layer soils of tea bushes
This result indicates that the rooting layer of 40- and 90-year old tea bushes has a
richer microbial community than the to-year old tea bushes. However, the rooting
layer of the 40-year old tea bushes had the greatest ninhyrin reaction N (Nin-N),
another indicator of soil microbial biomass, followed by that of the 90-year old tea
340 SHEN YU et al.
bushes (Fig. 2). These results disagreed with the results of the microorganisms'
community measured by a plate-coWlt method, a disparity that may be attributed to
the limitations of the two methods. The plate-coWlt method is designed to measure
microbes forming colonies in enriched media, with only about 1-5% of total soil
microbes that are fast growing being cOWlted. On the other hand, the
fumigation-extraction method for soil microbial biomass determination measures all
microbial cells that are lysed by chloroform and the extra amoWlt of organic carbon or
nitrogen in extracts against non-fumigated sample is used as the basis for calculating
microbial biomass. This reverse trend suggests that in the acid tea soil most of the
existing microorganisms could not grow in the culture media and the structure of the
microbial commWlity was changed in the rooting layer Wlder the long-term stands of
tea bushes.
The amoWlt ofBC accoWlted for only about 1 percent oftotal soil organic carbon (OC)
and increased with tea bushes' age, but Nin-N had less than 1% of the total soil
nitrogen (TN) for all ages of tea bushes (Table 1). The ratio of BC over Nin-N
increased with the tea bush age (Table 1), suggesting that the microbial commWlity
shifted from a low CIN ratio to a high CIN ratio with increasing cultivation age.
Statistical analysis of Pearson product-moment correlation between soil pH and soil
microbial biomass showed that only soil microbial biomass carbon had a significant
correlation with soil acidification (Table 4). Soil microbes in the rooting layer of tea
bushes were well adapted to the acidic environment, and there were fewer colonies of
bacteria and actinomycetes in neutral media than in acid media (pH4.5), suggesting
that acidophilic or acid-tolerant microbes predominated in the tea soils (Nioh, 1993).
3.4 Soil respiration and metabolic quotient (qCOJJ under tea bushes
The potential of soil daily respiration had the same trend as soil microbial biomass
carbon (Table 3).
The respiration potential in the rooting layer soil of the 10-year old tea bushes was
significantly lower than that of the 40- or 90-year old tea bushes, but no difference
was observed between the 40- and 90-year old tea bushes. However, the reverse was
true for the metabolic quotient (qC02), which in lO-year old tea bush soils was more
than twice that of the 40- and 90-year old tea bush soils with no difference between
the latter two (Table 3). These results indicate that soil microbial commWlity became
more stable in the rooting layers of the 40- and 90-year old tea bushes than in that of
10-year old tea bushes. The result of Pearson product-moment correlation analysis
showed that both soil daily respiration potential (DRP) and qC02 were significantly
affected by soil pH, with DRP being negatively correlated and qC02 being positively
correlated to soil pH (p<0.05, Table 4).
Table 3. Soil basal respiration potential imd metabolic quotient (qCOz) in the
root-layer soil o/tea bushes
Daily COz-C flux from soil basal Daily metabolic

respiration quotient
Age of tea bushes (DFR) (DMQ)
mg COz-C kg'! 0.0. soil d'! d'!
36.23* 0.68
lOyr
(2.41)Bb (0. 22)a
59.19 0.32
40yr
(8.lO)aA (0.03)b
58.52 0.30
90yr
(2.30)aA (0.04)b
*Mean (SD), and capital letter means significant at p<O.O I level, and small letter significant at p<0.05 level
upon multiple comparisons by LSD. And ns means not being significant, the following labels are the same.
According to the physical definition of the quotient (entropy), a decreased entropy

tends to stabilize the system. Therefore, the structure of the microorganism
community in the rooting layer of tea bush soil more than 40 years old tended to be
relatively stable, as no significant difference in soil microorganisms and biomass was
observed between the 40- and 90-year old tea bushes.
3.5 Rhizosphere o/tea bushes
Activities of soil enzymes, especially those related to soil nutrient cycling, have been
used as indices of tea soil fertility (Ding et aI., 1982; Wang et aI, 1989; Wu and Lu,
1999) and also serve as bio-indicators of environmental stresses. With continuously
planted tea bushes, the rooting layer soil was intensively acidified and had
accumulated aluminum. Fig. 3 shows that the activities of three soil enzymes in the
root-layer soils varied with cultivation age of tea bushes. Activities of urease and
invertase decreased with increasing tea bush cultivation age, but only the activity of
invertase showed a significant difference between the lO-year old and the 40- or
90-year old tea bushes, with no difference between the 40- and the 90-year old tea
bushes. The activity of acid phosphomonoesterase significantly increased in the
root-layer soil of 40- or 90-year old tea bushes, almost doubling the activity for the
100year old tea bushes. The activity of acid phosphomonoesterase had a negative
correlation with soil pH (p<0.05, Table 4). The activity of urease was not affected
by soil acidification in the root-layer soils of tea bushes and similar results were
reported by Peng, et ai. (1993). Temporal changes of urease activity in four type soils
planted with tea bushes in Sichuan province, China indicate that activities were high
in July and August and low in Feb. and March. Soil urease activity was observed to
342 SHEN YU et al.
Table 4. Correlation coefficients (r) between soil pH and other soil ecological/actors
in the root-layer soil 0/ tea bushes by Pearson product-moment correlation analysis
EW EA EH TA
EA -0.782*
EH 0.743 -0.956***
TA -0.592 0.744* -0.514
AGE -0959*** 0.859** -0.815** 0.654
OC -0.740* 0.347 -0.215 0.522
TN -0.725* 0.365 -0.211 0.559
C/N -0.771 * 0.373 00.261 0.496
SP -0.819** 0.533 -0.400 0.645
EB 0.537 -0.145 0.009 -0.401
FU -0.02 0.240 -0.416 -0.246
AC 0.624 -0.583 0.419 -0.747*
TCFU 0.539 -01150 0.012 -0.410
BA 0.Q17 -0.195 0.438 0.424
OB 0.788* -0.380 0.237 -0.583
BC -0.749* 0.477 -0.333 0.641
N1N -0.009 -0.025 0.202 0.386
DRP -0.684* 0.361 -0.242 0.503
QC02 0.687* -0.498 0.364 -0.625
UA 0.147 -0.151 0.126 -0.153
IA 0.359 -0.013 -0.029 -0.105
APA -0.785* 0.466 -0.331 0.607
§pH: soil pH SP :Total Soluble Phenol NIN: Ninhydrin reaction-N
EA:Exchangeable Al3+ EB:Eutrophic Bacteria DRP: Daily respiration poten
EH: Exchangeable W FU: Fungi qC02: Daily metabolic quotient
TA: Total Exchangeable Acidity: UA: Urease Activity
AGE: age of tea bushes TCFU: Total CFU IA: Invertase Activity
OC: Organic carbon BA: Bacillus APA: Acid Phosphomomoesterase Activity
TN: Total Nitrogen OB: Oligotrophic bacteria AC: Actinomycetes
CN: ratio ofOC and TN BC: Soil microbial biomass C
*Correlation coefficient ® is significant at p<O.05, ** at p<O.Ol, *** at p<O.OOl
correlate with soil organic matter and total nitrogen (Wu and Lu, 1999), but no
obvious relationship was found in this investigation. An investigation of
phosphatase activities of 7 tea soils in six provinces of China indicated that the
activities of three phosphatases decreased in the order of acid phosphatase>neutral
phosphatase>alkaline phosphatase, and that the total activities of phosphatases
ranged from 134.3 to 261.9 mg polyphenol kg-! soil hr'!(Wang et aI., 1989).
The activity of three phosphatases reported by Ding et aI. ( 1982 ) was netural >
... 60
J::.
~ 50 T T
~'"
~ q 40
~? 30
! 1 L
.L
ell 0>
"'.>t:
g: Z 20
:; r Z
10
§: 0
10 40 90
aA
T"
.L
bAB bB
T"
.L
T
1.
10 40 90
aA aA
or T"
~
~
bB
T
1
10 40 90
Age of tea bush (year)
Fig.3 Activities of urease, invertase and acid

phosphomonoesterase in the root-layer soils of
tea bushes
alkaline>acid phosphatase in three tea soils from Jiangsu and Anhui Provinces.
Activities of phosphatases were positively correlated with all soil phosphate species
and fractions except the content of soil organic P, and were also related to the yield
and quality of green tea (Ding et ai., 1982; Wang et ai., 1989).
344 SHEN YU et al.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Soil acidification is apparent ooder continuous cultivation of tea bushes. Soil pH and
total exchangeable acidity decreased and the dominant component of soil
exchangeable acidity shifts from exchangeable H+ to exchangeable Al 3+ with
increasing cultivation age of tea bushes and soil acidification. Bacteria dominated the
microbial community in the rooting layer and numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes
for the 40- and 90-year old tea bushes were only half of that for the 100year old tea
bushes. Sizes of fungi were similar in the root-layer soils of 10- and 90-year old tea
bushes but only half of that for the 40-year old tea bushes. Soil microbial biomass
carbon increased for the 40- and 90-year old tea bushes as compared with the 10-year
old tea bushes. The size ofninhyrin-reaction nitrogen in the root-layer soils, an index
of soil microbial biomass nitrogen, decreased in the order of 40->90-> 1O-year old tea
bushes. Potentials of daily basal respiration had the same trend as soil microbial
biomass carbon. However, the metabolic quotient, the ratio of the potential of daily
basal respiration over the size of soil microbial biomass carbon, declined as the tea
bush cultivation age increased. Activities of urease and invertase in the root-layer
soils decreased with increasing tea bush age but the invertase activity decreased more.
On the contrary, the activity of acid phosphomonoesterase increased with tea growth
age. Contents of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and CIN ratio, and soil soluble
phenol were significantly negatively correlated with soil pH, reflecting organic matter
accumulation in the rooting layer soils of tea bushes, likely caused by soil
acidification. Oligotrophic bacteria were inhibited by soil pH, but soil microbial
biomass carbon and daily basal respiration tended to increase with decreasing soil pH.
The reverse was true for the metabolic quotient (qCOz). The decline of soil pH
seemed to enhance the activity of acid phosphomonoesterase, but urease and invertase
activities had a reverse trend.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully thank Prof. Xoo Wu, Dr. Liang Chen and Mr. Yuanzhi Shi of
the Institute of Tea Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences for their
assistance in soil sampling. This project is, in part, fmanced by the Outstanding
YOoog s had a reverse trend. Scientist Food from The Natural Science Fooodation of
China with approval grant No 40025104.
6. REFERENCES
Box J.0.1983 Investigation of the Folin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent for the determination of polyphonic
substances in natural waters. Water Research.17(5): 511-525.
Bremner J.M and Mulvaney C.S.1982 Nitrogen: total. In Page AI. et al. (ed) Methods o/Soil Analysis.
Part 2. (2nd ed)Agron. Monogr. 9. ASAand SSSA, Madison. WI. pp595-624.
Ding Ruixing, Li Qingkang and Song Mulan 1988 Soil fertility of tea gardens in uplands of the south of
Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces. Chinese J. Soil Sci. 19(5): 193-196.
Guo Rongfa and Liu Tenghui 1997 Exchangeable AI and Mn, and pH changes in tea garden soils in
South China. Chinese J. Soil Sci. 28(1): 39-40.
Huang Zufa and Wen Qiongying 1982 Primary investigation of microorganisms on root surface of tea plant.
Teas ofChina. 4(6): 9-1l.
Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (ISSAS)(ed.) 1985 Methods for Soil
Microbiology. Science Press of China, Beijing, China. pp 40-57.
Kandeler E. 1995 Urease activity by colorimetric technique. In Schinner F. et al., (eds.) Methods in Soil
Biology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany. pp 171-174 .
Lin Z., Wu X., Wang X.P. and Yu YM. 1991 Phosphorus nutrition in tea soil in red earth region of China.
Proceedings ofthe International Symposium on Tea Science Shi=uoka, August 26-291991, Japan. 1991,
722-726.
Liu Guangsong, Jiang Nenghui, Zhang Liandi and Liu Zhaoli (eds.) 1996. Methods of soil
physicochemical analysis and profile description. Chinese Standard Press, Beijing, China
Mersi Von W. and Schinner F. 1995 Invertase Activity. In Schinner F. et al., (eds.) Methods in Soil Biology.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany pp 197-198.
Nioh L, lsobe T., and Osada M 1993 Microbial biomass and some biochemical characteristics of a
strongly acid tea field soil. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 39(4): 617-626.
Oblinger R 1995a Ninhydrin-reactive N by fumigation-extraction technique. In Schinner F. et al., (eds.)
Methods in Soil Biology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany. pp 60-62.
Oblinger R 1995b Phosphomonoesterase activity with the substrate phenylphosphate. In Schinner F. et al.,
(eds.) Methods in Soil Biology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany. pp 210-212.
Ohlinger R 1995 Soil respiration by titration. In Schinner F. et al.,(eds.) Methods in Soil Biology.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany. pp 95-98.
Pandey A. and Palni L.M.S. 1996 The rhizosphere effect of tea on soil microbes in a Himalayan monsoonal
location. Bioi. Fert. Soils. 21(3): 131-137.
Pansombat K, Kanazawa S. and Horiguchi T. 1997 Microbial ecology in tea soils. II. Soil protease
activity. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 43(2): 431-438.
Pansombat K, Kanazawa S. and Horiguchi T. 1997 Microbial ecology in tea soils I. Soil properties and
microbial populations. Soil Sci. Nutr.Plant 43(2): 317-327.
Peng Fuyuan, Zhang Yalian, Zeng Yaohui and Luo Shuhua 1993 Distribution of soil enzyme activities in
depth in red tea soils. Teas ofFujian. 4:23-26.
Song Mulan and Liu Youlin 1990 Effect of biogeochemical cycle in tea garden on the soil acidification.
Chinese J. Tea Sci. 10(2): 19-26.
Tian Yonghui, Wei Guoxiong, Xia Shaomei and Lu Tianguo 1999 Community structure and its changes of
N-fixation microorganisms in tea rhizosphere. Teas ofChina. 21(2): 20-2l.
Tinsley 1. 1950. The determination of organic carbon in soils by dichromate mixtures. In Trans. 4th Int.
Congo Soil Sci., Amsterdam (24 July-1 Aug. 1950). ISSS. Amsterdam. Pp 161-164.
Wang Xiaoping, Wu Xun and Yu Yongming 1989 Study on activities of phophatases in red earth in tea field
Chinese J. Tea Sci. 9(2): 99-106.
Wu 1., Joergensen RG, Pommerening B., Chaussod R, Brookes P. C. 1990. Measurement of soil microbial
biomass C; an automatic procedure. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 22: 1167-1169.
Wu Quan and Lu JinShi 1999 Study on urease activity oftea garden soil in Sichuan Province. Soils and
Fertili=ers, Beijing. 1: 30-32.
Wu Xun 1991 Improving tea quality by ameliorating fertilization techniques in tea gardens. J. Tea Business
in China. 13(4): 8-12.
PartlY
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RED SOIL

UTILIZATION AND THE APPLICATION OF NEW
TECHNOLOGIES: SYNOPSIS AND OVERVIEW
M J WILSO~l), ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)
(I)The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK

(2) Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
It has been shown previously that several techniques and strategies have been
identified that are potentially useful in overcoming the inherently infertile nature of
Chinese red soils. It is a moot point, however, as to whether the Chinese farmer
would be keen to take up these techniques. This certainly depends to a great extent
upon socio-economic factors and in particular whether the farmer perceives the
uptake of such techniques to be clearly to his immediate benefit. The conclusion of
the socio-economic study of Kelang village in Yunnan Province by Cuddy et al is
that a novel, integrated management approach, scientifically demonstrated to
increase maize yield by - 40% and at the same time to reduce soil erosion, is
unlikely to be taken up by the local farmers. The reason for this is that maize
production contributes relatively little to total integrated income, 45% of which
comes from off-farm activities. The critical factor in this instance, therefore, is the
opportunity cost of labour. If more can be earned from off-farm activities than from
increased maize production then the new technology will not be readily taken up.
The question arises as to whether this analysis is of general applicability. Cuddyet
al suggest that it is and that Kelang village can be regarded as a microcosm of rural
China. It has been shown previously that the red soils studied in Yunnan Province
are not really typical of most of the red soils in southern China in that they have a
much higher fertility status and productive capacity. However, this merely reinforces
the conclusions of Cuddy et ai, as the higher inputs of lime, fertilizers, water and
organic matter required to improve output from the red soils in a sustainable way, in
addition to the increased labour involved, can only come at a higher cost. In
circumstances where, in all probability, the share of household income due to
agriculture is declining across China year by year, it seems highly unlikely that the
Chinese farmer will be keen to take up new techniques to farm the red soils,
however effective these are demonstrated to be by scientific experimentation. The
inescapable conclusion seems to be that the productive potential of the red soils of
China is unlikely to be realized without significant state intervention and fmancial
incentives to farmers. The implementation of a national "red soil policy" can,
347
348 M J WILSON et al.
however, be greatly assisted by the use of new information technologies, as

demonstrated in the two papers by Shi et al. In the ftrst paper, a red soils information
system is developed based upon remote sensing and a geographic information
system. The second paper then demonstrates that this information system can be
used for agricultural regionalization, meaning division of lands into uniform regions
of agricultural development, using the so-called optimum tree cluster approach.
Although the use of this soil information system is still at an early stage, it is clear
that it holds tremendous promise should a national red soils policy ever come to be
implemented.
A SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF KELANG
VILLAGE IN YUNNAN PROVINCE IN RELATION
TO UPTAKE BY FARMERS OF IMPROVED
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON RED SOILS IN
CHINA
MICHAEL P CUDDY, HONGMEI LID AND SCOTT STEELE
National University ofIreland, (Galway), Ireland
ABSTRACT
Ibis paper reports on the socio-economic outcome of a study of innovative, integrated, agricultural
management practices in a catchment near Kelang village in Ywman Province in south-west China. The
focus of these practices, which included biological and engineering measures, was enhanced productivity
in maize production and soil conservation on the Kelang uplands. Although these measures did enhance
productivity and reduced soil erosion, there is strong evidence that the farmers are unlikely to implement
these practices without significant support on the part of the authorities. In particular, investment
measures, which have a medium to long-term payback period, will not be implemented without
significant assistance from the public authorities. These outcomes follow from the fact that maize
production is relatively marginal to the total integrated earning activities of the farm household, where
45% of income comes from off-farm activities, while rice, and particularly tobacco, give a much higher
return per labour unit. The critical factor is the "opportunity cost" of labour. If significant off-farm
employment exists at a wage above what can be earned from maize production with the new management
practices, then the consequence will be that these new practices will not be embraced. The Kelang
catchment area is dominated by red soils and has many of the erosion problems associated with these
soils which occur extensively across southern China. However, because of their derivation from
limestone, the Kelang soils are inherently more fertile. Nevertheless, the results from Kelang have
implications concerning the utilization of Chinese red soils in general, particularly the likelihood of
uptake by the Chinese farmer of novel and integrated management approaches on these soils based on
scientific experimentation.
Keywords: red soils, integrated management practices, socio-economic outcome,

opportunity cost
1. INTRODUCTION
Chinese agriculture is based upon the efforts of the 214.5 million rural households,
90% of which are engaged in agriculture (National Bureau of Statistics of China,
2002a). These households, through a system of "household responsibility", farm
95% of the 130 million hectares of cultivated land, giving an average cultivated area
349
350 CUDDY et al.
per farm of 0.636 ha. The cultivated land per capita in China is 0.107 ha which is
less than half that of the mean value for the world. The level of mechanization is
extremely low, influenced to a great degree by the size of cultivation unit. Whereas
agriculture accounts for 50% of the total Chinese labour force, it produces only 15%
of GDP. These few statistics convey a number of critical messages:
(i) China's dependence on her own food production can only be

precarious;
(ii) Incomes in agriculture are less than 30% of the average across all
sectors
(iii) The contribution of agriculture to economic development will
depend on the rise in the landllabour ratio and increased
mechanization;
(iv) This in turn has implications for the surplus labour in agriculture-
it must be absorbed into value added creating activity off-farm.
The process of movement out of agriculture and into alternative employment has
been in train for some time. There are three main policy impacts on the absorption of
surplus agricultural labour (Cui, 1998):
(i) The relaxation of government control on labour movement through

the 1980's;
(ii) The support oftown and village enterprises (TVE) and private
enterprises through tax privileges and technical support which
developed through the 1980's; and
(iii) Foreign direct investment (FDI), primarily in the coastal zones
centered on large cities
The much stronger development of enterprises in the East and Middle regions
relative to the West (only 15% of total) and the inflow ofFDI in the coastal zones
have given rise to inter-regional labour movements of the surplus agricultural labour
(Table 1 ). It is clear that these movements are dominated by the pull from the East
where FDI is predominantly located and where TVEs are most active. Forty percent
of migration from the West is out of province, in contrast to about half this in the
East.
Table 1. Geographical patterns of movement of rural migrants, 1993(Cui,1998)
Region of Region of destination

Origin Same County Same Province Other Provinces
East 47.7 31.1 21.2
Middle 26.3 35.0 38.7
West 30.9 29.2 39.9
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF KELANG VILLAGE 351
Agriculture is not homogeneous across China. Some indicators of development

suggest that the East is more developed than the West or Middle. Although the
average land area per worker is smaller in the East than the West or Middle, it has a
much smaller share of the hill land, a much larger share of irrigated lands and a
considerably larger share of motorized machinery (Table 2).
Table 2. Indicators of relative development by region
Region Share of Share of Share of hill Share of Share of

agricultural cultivated land> 25% irrigated Motorized
work force land slope lands Machinery
East 35.1 28.4 6.4 41.2 51.4

Middle 36.6 43.2 17.1 35.7 37.7
West 28.3 28.4 76.5 23.1 10.9
Source: Derived from National Bureau of Statistics of China (2002,a and b)
In addition, as one moves form West to East there is a much lower dependence on
agriculture as a source of income (Table 3). Thus, 96% of rural households in the
West are dependent on agriculture compared with 85% in the East. In the West 70%
of agricultural households are ''pure'' agricultural households, while the rest are
either partly (26%) or mainly (4%) dependent on non-farm income; in contrast, in
the East, only 53% of "agricultural" households are ''pure'' agricultural households,
while the remainder are partly (43%) or mainly (5%) dependent on non-farm
income.
Table 3. Industrial structure of rural household operation in the east, middle and
west parts
Region Rural households Agricultural households

as 100 (%) as 100 (%)
Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion
ofAIIHs ofNAIIHs ofPAIIHs of of
lIHANAA HHNAAA
East 84.71 15.29 52.75 42.51 4.74
Middle 94.71 5.47 66.70 23.44 9.86
West 95.8 4.20 70.27 26.01 3.72
Source: Derived from National Bureau of Statistics of China (2002,c)

352 CUDDY et al.
Against the background of this national picture in agriculture, we have been

investigating the development level and adjustment process in the village of Kelang
in the West of China, Yunnan Province. The context is the collaboration with
colleagues in a multi-disciplinary team analysing and proposing catchment
management practices which enhance productivity and lead to more sustainable
agriculture through the reduction of soil erosion. More specifically we were charged
with carrying out a cost benefit analysis of the alternative practices proposed.
However, we took advantage of the project to widen the focus of our research and to
place the costlbenefit analysis against a broader canvas of economic development,
not only of Kelang village but also in relation to those extensive areas of southern
China where there are similar soils. The soils of the study catchment, the Wang Jia
catchment, which lies immediately adjacent to Kelang village, have been classified
as "red soils" under the Chinese system of soil taxonomy. Red soils are widely
distributed over southern China and are generally regarded as problem soils. They
are highly susceptible to soil erosion, their inherent fertility is usually low and they
are subject to a wide range of constraints on crop production. In this study, we
regard the utilization of the red soils of the upland Wang Jia catchment by the
Kelang village farmers as a microcosm of rural China involved in farming similar
soil types. This leads to implications concerning the potential utilization of Chinese
red soils in general, particularly the likelihood of uptake by the Chinese farmer of
novel and integrated management approaches on these soils based upon scientific
experimentation.
2. KELANG VILLAGE IN KEDU TOWNSHIP, YUNNAN

PROVINCE
Kelang village is located in Kedu Township in Yunnan Province, -67 km

north-east ofKunming and -12 km from Kedu Town. Kelang administrative village
area comprises eight natural villages, covering 8 km(Kelang Government, 1999) and
is at an altitude ranging from 1716-2163 m. According to the village statistics
i(Kelang Government, 1999), the population of the Kelang administrative village is
3,510, with 839 households (average 4.2 persons per household) in 1998.
Yunnan has a high proportion of upland (84%) and is particularly subject to

soil erosion, with consequent soil loss and crop yield reduction. Kelang has a total
arable land area of 2430 mu (162 ha), including paddy fields, 942 mu, and upland,
1488 mu. The average amount of arable land per household is 2.9 mu or 0.1933 ha.
The number of households in Kelang village with government land rental

contracts increased between 1983 and 1998 (Table 4). Consequently, there was a
decrease in the average farm size. Some land changed from being used as paddy
land in 1983, to upland in 1998, due primarily to a shortage of irrigation water. The
amount of upland increased, because some unallocated land cultivated by private
individuals was taken back into the collective and reallocated.
Table 4. Number of households in Kelang with registered contracts and type of land
rentedfrom government, 1983 and 1998
1983 1998
Number of households with land rental
contracts with the government 745 823
Area of Paddy field (mu) 950.86 942
Area of Upland (mu) 1364.65 1488
Source: (Kelang Government, 1983,1998).
The main crops are rice, tobacco and maize, with lesser amounts of wheat, beans,
soybean, vegetables and fruit. Cultivated lands in upland areas have major problems,
which include lack of water, poor water retention and soil erosion.
2.1 Employment
According to official Kelang village statistics (Kelang Government, 1999), 1,698

people are classified as working; 1620 work in Kelang and 78 work in other
locations. Of the 1620 people working, 65% are engaged for at least eight months of
the year in agriculture. About half of these work approximately 3-5 months of the
year in non-agricultural activity. The principal off-farm employment sectors are
transport, construction, commerce, other services and manufacturing (Table 5). The
average number of employees per enterprise is 2.3 and if construction is removed
then the average size falls to 1.4.
2.2 Income
The average household income is 5,895 Yuan (1 euro = 7.35 Yuan) per annum or
1.409Yuan per capita. This is 53% below the rural area average for all of China, but
1.57% and 40.34%above the average for Yunnan Province and Kedu Township
respectively. Having increased significantly between 1994 and 1997, agricultural
incomes declined sharply in 1998 and 1999, due primarily to a drop in tobacco and
non-tobacco crop incomes (Figure 1). Tobacco was the most important single
component of farm income prior to 1997. However, due to a government policy
aimed at curtailing tobacco production, it lost its previous status.
354 CUDDYetal.
Table 5. Off-farm activities in Kelang
The item of sideline The number of The number of employees

Non-farm entetprises
Processing 18 18
Woodwork 4 4
Petrol station 1 1
Commerce 50 89
Catering trade 4 8
Other services 16 37
Construction 12 203
Transportation 94 98
Total 199 458
Source: Kelang Government,1999
Agriculture is no longer the primary source of farm household income, with the
share having declined from over 70% in 1995 to less than 30% in 1999 (Figure 2).
This is partly due to the significant drop in agriculture incomes, but also to an
increase in off-farm incomes. The growth in off-farm income is led by transport and
manufacturing industry, followed by commercial services and construction, all of
which have grown significantly in absolute terms since 1996 (Figure 3).
2.3 Household characteristics (Survey results)
2.3.1 Sample
A sample of 100 households provided detailed information on a number of
parameters and attitudes of Kelang households. The sample comprised 65 farmers
from among those who had plots in the target catchment, and a further 35, selected
from the rest of the village in order to get a statistically representative sample, in
terms of household mix according to income level.
2.3.2 Household size

The average household size in the sample is 4.56 and most households (63%) have
either four or five members, with a further 26% having either three or six members
(Table 6).
Table 6. Household size
Household size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
% of sample 0 3 13 41 22 13 5 3
Source: Based on household sample survey, covering 100 households.
Figure LTotai Agri<Utlre IDoome aod CoqxlIIeats in Yuan
1<DXXD
!DIXD
IDDD
= -
,. ...... /
.A
\
IDDD / \ __ ~Qqz-Nlt......,
...... ToIlocco
/ \
!DIXD
«m:D / ... ~
VaI\ICdAOmol~($)
__ Volued"'-Y. fuMy. ....
J /
......... T.... ~
mm ~
/" ~
~
= ~
'-0:;.
---: ~ 7 .....
~.--
-
;,;
1CDXD
0
~
1993 1994 1985 19117 1998 1998
Figure 2: Agriculture Share in Household Income

0.80
0.70
.---........
0.80 ~
O.SO
\
\
----.
0.40
0.30
\
III!
0.20
0.10
0.00
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1996 1999 2000
Source:KeJang Government ,1992-2000

356 CUDDY et al.
Fipre 3: Noa-AgricaltarallDcome aad Compoaeats
ooooco
iI5aDl
JOCXXlO
2SOOOO
2OOCXIO
lliCOOO
100000
liCOOO
0
1l1li3 1_
Approximately three-flfths of households have two parents with two children. This
accords with the general profIle of families in rural China and reflects the two-child
policy that applies in rural areas where agriculture is the predominant means of
livelihood. There is a considerable amount of inter-generational co-residence, with
many families having either parents or grandchildren of the basic stem family living
together in one household.
2.3.3 Characteristics a/the head and second member a/the household

In most cases (92%), the head of the household is male. The average age of the head
is 41. 7 years. The level of education attained by almost half of the heads of
household (49%) was a few years of primary school and many of the heads were
unable to read or write, or had a limited ability to do so. A further 29% had
completed primary school, 17% had completed junior school, 3% had completed
senior school and only 1 had post-secondary education.
The second member of the household is usually female (90%) and 88% are listed as
the wife of the head. The education level is lower in the second member of
household, with 65% having received a few years of primary school only. A further
30% had completed primary school; 4% had completed senior school and again, 1%
had post-secondary education. This pattern of relatively lower education levels for
females reflects fmdings in the literature on education levels and gender in China.
2.4 Socio-economic status
2. 4.1 Household income source

The household sample was stratified according to three income levels, low, middle
and high, in proportion to their occurrence in the villageii • The average income of the
richest category was over seven times that of the poorest (Table 7). The results show
an inverse relationship between income level and reliance on agriculture. The
poorest category derived 67% of its income from agriculture, whereas the richest
category derived only 16%.
Table 7. Household income (Yuan per year)
Economic Average Household Income by source Agriculture

Status (Yuan) Share
Agriculture Non-agriculture Total .(%)
Low income 1617 811 2428 67
Middle income 3151 3903 7054 45
High Income 2824 15100 17924 16
Low income: Household income is less than 1000 Yuan per person per year (11 % of all households).
Middle income: 1,000-2000 Yuan per person, per year (80% of households).
High income: Over 2000 Yuan per person, per year (9% of households).
2.4.2 Perception of most importantfactorsfor economic well-being

When asked to rank the factors, which most influence their level of well-being,
respondents ranked training in non-agricultural activities highest, followed by the
provision of better health care, control over more agricultural land and better
agricultural machinery.
2.5 Time preference offarmers
An experiment carried out, as part of the household survey, to measure farmers time
preference (rate of return implied by foregoing a present given income in favour of a
larger future income), suggests that, whereas farmers, in general, have a high time
preference, poorer farmers have a much higher time preference than richer farmers.
Consequently, from a policy point of view, farmers and in particular poorer farmers
require a high level of inducement to undertake environmentally sustainable
agricultural practices which yield long-term benefits.
358 CUDDYet al.
2.6 Land Use and Agricultural Production
Results from the household survey indicate that the average size of paddy holdings
for each household is 1.25 mu (10% above the village average) and the average size
of upland area holdings is 2.11 mu (15% above the village average). However, the
latter includes unofficial land, which is brought into use by farmers. In addition,
there is an active unofficial rental market. Among the households surveyed, 11 %
rented on average an extra 1.3 mu of paddy land and 35% of households rented on
average an extra 2 mu of upland. Only 14% of upland is irrigated.
The average household income from farming is 2894 Yuan, 83% of which is
derived from crop production.
Approximately 90% of the total crop production value comes from summer
crops (rice, tobacco and maize). Four-ftfths of labour days are spent on summer
crops and 20% on autumn crops (wheat, peas, beans and barley). Tobacco is the
principal crop in terms of returns to labour. It accounts for 57% of the total value of
crops, uses 45% and 40% of fertilizer and other materials, respectively, and uses 46
of labour (Table 8). It provides 24% of the net return to labour. Rice is the second
most important crop in contributing to returns to labour, followed by broad beans
and barley.
Table 8. Distribution (%) ofthe value of output, inputs and returns by crop
Rice Wheat Maize Tobacco Peas Beans Barler

Output Value 18 4 13 57 3 2 3
Fertiliser 9 4 38 45 4
Other Material 18 7 13 40 12 5 5
Netretum 20 8 9 24 9 17 13
Labour 19 7 16 46 6 2 4
The average return to labour per manday is 20.57 Yuan; the highest return is from
tobacco, followed by rice and broad beans (Table 9). The lowest return is from
wheat.
Some conclusions can be drawn from these results. If the farmers can earn 20 Yuan
per day on off-farm employment, then only tobacco and rice are worth growing. If
the off-farm wage is 10 Yuan per day then only wheat and peas are not worth
producing. Probably the most striking conclusion is that there is a huge under-
employment in agriculture and the principal constraint is the lack of land. The
average annual utilization of labour for cropping is 116.2 man days, where the
average household size is 4.56 or a minimum of two adults, who have,
approximately, 600 man days available per annum. Thus crops take up less than
20% of available household labour.
Table 9. Value of output, costs, labour input and returns to labour by crop (for 100
households)
Rice Wheat Maize Tobacco Pea Bean Bar!. Tot.

Value of
Output 57258 11916 38824 174040 9499 5930 10479 307946
Fertiliser
cost 3789 1719 16254 19381 70 181 1847 43241
Other
material 4663 1911 3218 10310 3067 1286 1181 25635
Net
Returns 48806 8286 19352 144349 6362 4463 7451 239070
Labour
man days 2177 862 1901 5304 648 229 499 11620
Return!
man day 22.42 9.61 10.18 27.22 9.82 19.49 14.93 20.57
2.7 Attitudes toward ofJ-farm employment
A very strong preference was expressed for off-farm employment, where the choice
existed (Table 10). Only 42% preferred on-farm employment in Kelang, while 58%
preferred off-farm employment and 29% would prefer employment outside Kelang
village.
Table 10. Preferred type and location ofwork
Location of work Number %

On-farm in Kelang 92 42
Off-farm in Kelang 64 29
Off-farm in Kedu 8 4
Off-farm in Yunnan 48 22
Off-farm outside Yunnan 6 3
Total 218 100
In response to the question, "Do you anticipate that your children will be cultivating
the same plots you are in, in years to come?" a large majority of respondents (69%)
did not wish to see their children cultivate the plots (Table 11).
360 CUDDYet al.
Table 11 : Farmers' preferences regarding their children's future participation in

farming
Preference Unwilling No choice Willing

Percentage 69 16 15
Many respondents rank training in non-agricultural activities and the provision of

better health care as of more importance to the economic well-being of their family
than having more agricultural land and/or better agricultural machinery.
These results lend further support to the increasing importance of non-agricultural

activity in rural China, which has been highlighted in the literature.
3. NEW CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
3.1 Measures introduced
The Project team, in conjunction with Kelang villagers, devised an integrated plan of
measures for catchment management, which included both biological and
engineering elements. These measures were implemented in a catchment, of 40.1ha,
which included arable plots belonging to 163 households.
3.1.1 Biological measures

The broad objectives of the biological intervention were to curb environmental
degradation of the catchment and improve the income of the local farmers. The
specific objectives of the biological intervention were:
(i) Enhance soil fertility while curbing soil erosion on slopes < 25 degrees;
(ii) Reduce soil erosion on slopes> 25 degrees; and
(iii) Generate alternative output on the slopes> 25 degrees (sweet chestnuts,
fruits of prickly ash (for medicinal purposes) and pine (wood)
In the upper part of the catchment, pine trees were planted on the barren hills and in
gaps in the forest; Chinese prickly ash tree were planted on sloping arable land and
barren hills. In the middle and lower part of the catchment, sweet chestnut trees were
planted on barren hills and on cultivated land with slopes >25 degrees. Fields with a
slope <25 degrees will continue to be used for cultivation. Experimentation was
carried out on five different types of cultivation practices, in order to evaluate the
impact on productivity and soil conservation of each:
D Traditional cultivation with downslope planting, without mulch

C Traditional cultivation with contour planting, without mulch
C+P Traditional cultivation and contour planting, with polythene mulch
C+P+S Traditional cultivation of maize + contour planting, with wheat
straw and polythene mulch
C+P+IS Traditional cultivation of maize + contour planting, wide and
narrow row spacing, with polythene mulch and intercropping with
soybean in wide row spacing.
Grass strips have also been introduced in the catchment.
3.1.2 Engineering measures

Five water storage ponds and a water supply pipe system were constructed to
provide irrigation water for crops planted in the catchment, while three check dams
have been built close to the village at the lower part of the catchment. A division
ditch was built to divert runoff and prevent gully enlargement at the top of the newly
formed gully in the upper part of the catchment. A meteorological observatory was
established near the experimental plots to record rainfall, temperature, humidity,
wind velocity and direction and solar radiation
3.2 Impact evaluation
3.2.1 Method of evaluation

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is the conventional method of analysing the effects of
such projects. The Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (lRR) are
the discounting techniques used to evaluate costs and benefits over a given time
horizon. Sensitivity analysis is normally adopted to defme the change range of the
effect. CBA incorporates economic, ecological and social sustainability criteria at
the project level. The economic evaluation focuses on the direct value brought by
the project, such as the increased yield of crops and fruit trees; the social evaluation
measures farmers' willingness to accept (WTA) and willingness to pay (WTP) to
assess farmers' attitudes to the project. The WTA is estimated by asking farmers
whether they would be willing to adopt tillage practices which conserve soil. WTP is
measured directly by asking farmers how much they would be willing to pay for the
irrigation pond. The ecological evaluation uses shadow prices to evaluate the change
in soil nutrition after the adoption of new tillage practices. This requires information
on the different values of the nitrogen (N), potassium (K) and phosphorus (P)
content in the soil arising from the introduction of new tillage practices. Relative
market prices are used to measure the ecological impact. The framework used to
carryout a CBA of the Catchment Management measures is set out in Table 12.
362 CUDDY et al
3.2.2 Alternative cultivation methods

Scientific experimental plots were set up in the catchment to test the effect of the
different ''treatments'' or cultivation methods. In parallel with this 100 plots were
selected from the lands of 65 farmers who farm in the catchment. The farmers were
encouraged to cultivate these 100 plots ("experimentally") using one or other of the
suggested methods. Results are available for the scientific experimental and farmers
experimental plots for 1999 (Table 13) and 2000 (Table 14).
The "Contour and polythene" method is the superior method in terms of return per
labour unit in the scientific experimentation. However, it is clear that all agricultural
practices give a superior return to labour than can be earned off-farm, even "D" the
down slope traditional cultivation method. It is interesting to note that the return per
manday from cultivation method "D" is over twice the average obtained by the 100
households from maize production over all land types cultivated (see Table 11).
Table 12. Framework/or the Cost Benefit Analysis
Measure Costs Benefit

Capital Maintenance Opport- Direct Indirect
unity
Alternative Material and Off-farm Increased Soil conservation,
cultivation labour input employment output water retention
practices
Grass strip Material and Alternative Increased Soil conservation
labour input crop use crop yield Nutrition and
water retention
Cash tree Planting Management cost Alternative Fruit crop Soil conservation
planting cost crop use yield
Forestry Planting Management cost Alternative Value of Soil conservation,
cost crop use tree Environmental
Enhancement
Irrigation Building Maintenance Crop Increased Reduced run-off.
pond cultivation crop yield
Dam Building Maintenance Reduced Farm less
run vulnerable to
-off and flooding
soil
loss
The farmers in cultivating the 100 plots in the catchment showed a strong preference
to stay with the "down-slope" traditional method. Although 42 farmers did take on
the "contour" method in 1999, this declined to 27 in 2000. The sample sizes are too
small to place much confidence in the results of any of the alternative practices.
Table 13. Results from various practices in maize cultivation with experimentation
andfarmers plots (1999)
Cultivation
Method
EXl!erimentall!lots
D 5810.4 1417.3 4393.1 203 21.64
C 6462.4 1417.3 5045.1 225 22.42
C+P 8949.6 1953.3 6996.3 223 31.37
C+P+S 8641.6 1953.3 6688.3 229 29.21
C+P+IS 9092.8 1953.3 7139.5 229 31.18
Farmers Plots
No
Irrigation
D 34 4206.4 2820.44 1385.96 319 4.34 6.82
D+P 4 5880 3373.13 2506.87 306 8.19
C 42 4659.2 2604.03 2055.17 329 6.25 9.13
C+P 4 5169.6 3049.56 2120.04 429 4.94 9.51
Irrigation
D 4 5888.8 2798.93 3089.87 241 12.82
C 6 5188 3798.45 1389.55 455 3.05
D+P 3 5995.2 5330.84 664.36 267 2.49

(a) On the basis of actual labour declared
(b) On the basis of labour used in experiment
There is a clear discrepancy between what can be achieved in controlled scientific

experiments and what fanners can achieve, even on an experimental basis. It is clear
overall that there is a much higher use of labour per hectare on the fanners plots,
which is partly explained by the fact that the fanners counted in the travel time to
and from the fields. Also, the output obtained is much lower and material inputs
were considerably higher. So, all cultivation methods gave a very low average return
to labour. Even if the labour input used in scientific experiments is applied to the net
returns achieved from the fanners plots, the average return per labour unit is
364 CUDDYet al.
Table 14. Resultsfrom various practices in maize cultivation with experimentation

andfarmers plots (2000)
etum gina!
Cultivation 0
Method abour
EXl!!::rimental(!lots
D 6256 1417.3 4838.7 203 23.84
C 7051.2 1417.3 5633.9 225 25.04 36.15
C+P 7594.4 1953.3 5641.1 223 25.3 infinite
C+P+S 7760 1953.3 5806.7 229 25.36 27.67
C+P+IS 7417.6 1953.3 5464.3 229 23.86 ne!1iative
Farmers Plots
No Irri!1iation
D 46 4932.36 3072 1860.36 348 5.35 9.16
D+P 2988.51 3794 -805 497
C 27 4584.43 3277 1307.43 364 3.59 5.86 negative
C+P 4074.07 1146 2928.07 347 8.44 12.79
Irrigation
D 6 6644.52 3940 2704.52 444 6.09 9.05
C 4 4092.81 4431 -338.19 458 ne!1iative

(a) On the basis of actual labour declared
(a) On the basis oflabour used in scientific experiment
extremely low compared to the experimental results, but not too dissimilar from the
village average. However, the marginal return to the additional labour required for
the "contour" method over the "down slope" method is significantly higher than the
average return per labour unit.
A number of conclusions can be drawn from the foregoing results:
(i) The Contour cultivation method with polythene is the superior method,
on the basis of retums to labour (although scientists recommend the
addition of straw mulch for soil conservation);
(ii) Increase the know-how of farmers in order to close the gap between what can be
achieved in experimentation and what can be currently achieved in practice.
(iii) If farmers can get off-farm employment, at 10 Yuan per day or more, it is more
remunerative than working the marginal hill land. However, if a farmer must engage
in farming the hill land, then it is best to incur the extra labour cost to engage in the
more advanced but more environmentally friendly cultivation methods.
3.2.3 Irrigation
The cost of the irrigation pond consists of the capital cost, running cost and
opportunity cost of labour. Benefits come from the increased yields of crops and
fruit due to irrigation. The yield of crops is calculated to be 30% higher and fruit
yields -20% higher than cultivation without irrigation. Labour costs are -10%
higher with irrigation. For the first five years, the net present value from irrigation
(NPV) is negative, because the capital investment is very high but, after several
years, the capital investment will be repaid and the NPV will increase. If the
irrigation system is used in conjunction with new cultivation practices, the
investment will be repaid in at least five years.
3.2.4 Tree planting

The benefits of tree-planting will be realised in the long-run. During the first five
years, there is no benefit from trees in terms of cash crops e.g. sweet chestnut and
prickly ash. From the 6th year to the 10th year, there is little benefit from fruit. After
10 years, maximum yield of fruit will be obtained, leading to higher benefits. So,
tree-planting is a long-term project. According to calculations of the net present
value, in 10 years time, the investment will not have been repaid, but in the longer
term (after 15 years) the benefit from tree-planting will be high. Tree planting is
beneficial for the environment and to help conserve soil. However, actual
measurements were not made in this study.
3.3 Attitude offarmers to catchment management practices
3.3. I New cultivation practices

Just over 76% of respondents said they would be willing to adopt the new
techniques, while 24% were unwilling to do so. Nevertheless, although 63% of the
farmers plots were cultivated according to new methods in 1999, this dropped to
39% in 2000.
3.2.3 Tree planting

Less than half of those who had chestnut trees planted on their land thought the
effect would be positive, while one-third thought it would have no effect and less
366 CUDDY et al.
than one-fifth thought it would have a negative impact. Only seven farmers had
prickly ash trees on their land. Three of these thought the effect would be positive,
while the same number expected no effect and one expected a negative effect. All of
the 46 farmers who had pine trees on their land saw this as beneficial and cited
environmental reasons, such as "soil conservation" for their attitude.
3.2.4 Irrigation ponds

An evaluation of the overall effects of the irrigation scheme suggests that, while
benefits less costs are negative in the short run, they are positive in the long run. The
project needs to run for at least five years before the amount invested in the
irrigation scheme is recovered.
In the course of the household survey, willingness-to-pay for irrigation was tested.
The results show that 85 households would be willing to pay for an irrigation pond,
with only 15 refusing to pay (Table 15). However, the amounts that households
stated they would be willing to pay were relatively low.
Table I5. Willingness to pay for irrigation pond
Payment o 10 Yuan 50 100 150 Yuan 200 Yuan

Amount Yuan Yuan Yuan
No. of 15 32 30 17 4 2
Households
4. CONCLUSIONS
China has a very low level of arable land per capita so that self-sufficiency in
agriculture is at the least very challenging. However, allied to this is low
productivity in agriculture due to extremely small farm size and low level of
mechanization. There is also a very large surplus labour in agriculture. The process
of development is moving rapidly and with it increasing outflows from agriculture.
The process intensifies as you move from West to East. The absorption capacity into
alternative employment of the surplus from agriculture is greater as you move from
West to East. So there is labour migration from West to East.
Kelang is a microcosm of the national rural situation. The primary constraint is

arable land area, absorbing less than 20% of the available labour. The average return
to farm labour was considerably above that available from off-farm employment,
although this was heavily influenced by returns from tobacco growing. Although
living standards are well above the poverty level, generally, there is a close
relationship between poverty and dependence on agriculture or between income
levels and off-farm employment. For some families (11%) agriculture is the main
source of income. There is a keen awareness of the lack of opportunity on the land
and overwhelming preference is for off farm employment both for the present adults
themselves and their wishes for their children. If this means leaving Kelang, they are
willing to do so. Indeed, 25% expressed a wish to move out of the Kedu Township.
The level of education is extremely low. This is perceived as a disadvantage and in
terms of priorities, training in off-farm activity is ranked ahead of medical services,
increased land area and machinery in order of preference. However, the predominant
view was that they themselves had little or no influence on the decisions affecting
their lives.
The central focus of the Kelang project was to improve productivity and
sustainability of farming through improved catchment management. The essence of
this was improved cultivation methods, tree planting and irrigation. A framework for
assessing the costs and benefits shows a considerable requirement for information.
Much of this information can only be obtained from experimentation and over a
long period of time, particularly with respect to the impact of tree planting. The most
concrete information obtained has been from the alternative crop cultivation
methods. The views and preferences of the farmers were also obtained.
The alternative cultivation methods on the basis of scientific experiments show very
significant gains. These gains are less evident from the experience of farmers.
Whereas, the gains in 1999 were clearcut, the results in 2000 were ambiguous. Also,
the income obtained by farmers per manday on these hill plots was less than could
be obtained in off farm activity. Nevertheless, it was clear that the marginal return
(return to the additional labour required for the cultivation method) from the
alternative cultivation methods were high. So, if farmers were going to cultivate the
hill lands, then it was more fmancially rewarding to use the alternative methods. It is
clear form the project that greater precision in measurements and quantification is
required. Nevertheless, there is an enormous discrepancy between what can be
achieved through scientific experimentation and what can be achieved in practice by
the farmer, whatever the cultivation method.
Although there was a strong preference expressed in interview toward the new
cultivation methods, the reality was that over the period 1999 - 2000, there was a
significant reduction in the actual use of new methods, in favour of the traditional
one.
The scientific information on the tree planting shows clear long term benefits,
particularly with regard to the sustainability of the catchment farming. The irrigation
results were also very positive and profitable in the long term. However, it is clear
that, given the high time preference of farmers and the relatively long payback
period, that farmers would not undergo this investment of their own accord, despite
again expressing a willingness in interview to undergo such investments.
368 CUDDY et al.
Although the benefits of catchment management to the productivity and

sustainability of the catchment and thus to the short and long term benefits of the
farmers have been established, it is not clear that the farmers are willing or capable
of implementing such a system. Particularly, in the context of the integrated system
of farming and off-farm engagement, household behaviour does not focus on just
one element, like improved hill farming practice, but on the totality of the integrated
system and the impact that change in some elements of the system might have on its
overall wellbeing. Movement away from a well established historical orientation of
the integrated system is unlikely to arise in the absence of significant and obvious
benefit. Such significant benefits are more likely to come from more holistic
approaches to improve farm incomes, particularly those who see farming as their
main occupation, such as alternative high income crops and flexibility in the land
use legislation. It would appear that the state must make most of the capital
investment in regard to soil erosion prevention. However, the wider impact of
stabilising the catchment and preventing soil erosion on downstream flooding would
reinforce the social justification for such investment.
This study has made it clear that public policy toward rural regions will play a
critical part in its future development. It will include improved education and
training with regard to both on and off-farm activity, investment in erosion
prevention measures as well as the creation of off-farm activity to absorb the surplus
labour.
5. REFERENCES
Cui, WenjWl.(1998), The Economics of Rural-to-Urban Labor Migration in China in the Post-1978
Period, M.Econ.Sc Thesis in Economics Department of National University of Galway, Ireland.
Kelang Government.(1999) Kelang Statistics Year Book, Ke1ang, Yman, China.
Kelang Government (1983), Kelang Land Contract Record, Kelang, YWlan, China.
Kelang Government (1998), Kelang Land Contract Record, Kelang, YWlan, China.
Kelang Government (1992-2000), Kelang Annual Agricultural Statistics, Kelang, YWlan, China.
National Bureau of Statistics of China, (2002a). Agricultural Census Communique No.3
http://www.stats.gov.cn!was40/detail?record=4&channelid=9528&Presearchword=agricultural+census+c
ommunigue
National Bureau of Statistics of China, (2002b). Agricultural Census Communique No.5
http://www.stats.gov.cnlwas40/detail?record=6&channelid=9528&Presearchword=agricultural+census+c
ommunigue
National Bureau of Statistics of China, (2002c). Agricultural Census Communique No.2
http://www.stats.gov.cnlwas40/detail?record=3&channelid=9528&Presearchword=agricultural+census+c
ommunigue
ESTABLISHMENT AND APPLICATION OF AN
INTEGRATED SOIL RESOURCE INFORMATION
SYSTEM (ISIRS) FOR HILLY ULTISOLS IN CHINA
z sm(l) , R C WANG(I) , Y M mj2) AND LA YANG(3)

(I) Institute
ofRemote Sensing and Information System, Zhejiang University,
(2)College ofResources and Environment, South China Agricultural University,
Guangzhou 510642,China
(3)Department of Urbanology and Resources Science, Northwest University, Xian
710069, China
ABSTRACT
Red soils, broadly equivalent to Ultisols in the US taxonomy system, could be a very important soil
resource in southern China. However, due to extensive use and severe degradation, these soils require to
be carefully managed and utilised if they are to be put into production. An Integrated Soil Resource
Information System (lSRIS) based on remote sensing and A geographic information system (GIS) could
play an important role in the swvey, evaluation, utilization and management of the red soil resource. An
ISRIS of Zhejiang Province (1:500,000), Quzhou City (I :250,000), and Longyou COUIlty (1:50,000) was
compiled and integrated into a rwming system using ARCIINFO and Mapobject software. This paper
introduces the system design, database creation and system fimctions and it focuses particularly on the
development of applied models, such as red soil resource classification and mapping, suitability
evaluation, erosion risk evaluation, plant utilization zones etc. The problems of ISRIS study and its
developing strategy are also discussed
Key Words: Soil database, applied model, geographic information system, red soil
resource
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soil in China is broadly equivalent to the Ultisols in the US Soil Taxonomy.
It is a typical zonal soil in the tropical and subtropical monsoon areas in the south of
the country, where there is a highly productive potential due to good agricultural
conditions. But various types of land degradation, excessive deforestation and
improper utilization have led to increased ecological and environmental problems
there (Yu,1991; Wang,1993). To overcome these problems, new technologies and
appropriate methods should be developed, so that the red soil resource can be better
managed and monitored. The assessment, planning, and management of natural
resources are traditional applications of remote sensing and GIS (Merchant and
Ripple, 1996). Remote sensing (RS) offers an ideal tool to map and monitor the soil
369
370 SRI et al.
resource because of its ability to cover large areas repeatedly in a short time with low
cost. The Geographic information system (GIS) is a set of powerful tools for
managing and analyzing spatially referenced data. Therefore, the application of RS
and GIS technology to evaluation, planning and management of the red soil resource
could be of both theoretical and practical importance.
Recently, many international organizations and countries such as United States
(Reybold and TeSelle, 1986), Canada (Dumanski et al., 1975), and United Kingdom
(Brown et al., 1987) have set up soil databases at various scales and designed related
information systems. Research on soil information systems in China, which is still in
its initial stages, began in the mid-80's and included establishment of a soil and
database and its applications (Yu and Shi, 1993; Zhou, 1993). The Integrated Soil
Resource Information System (ISRIS) developed on the basis of integrating GIS and
RS. It could play an important role in the utilization and management of the red soil
resource and may be used as a reference for studying red soils in China in general.
2. GENERAL DESIGN OF ISRIS
2.1 Data and objectives

Data sources for studying ISRlS. The following data were collected for study of
ISRIS: 1) the second nationwide general detailed soil survey and the modified soil
mapping using the Thematic Mapper (TM) image; 2) general detailed land survey;
3) research results on red soil resources in the past years; 4) recent data on geology,
topography, and vegetation; and 5) related social and economic data etc.
System objectives. The main objectives of ISRIS were (a) to provide scientific data
and a means of decision-making means for survey, statistical measurement,
evaluation, utilization and management of red soils; (b) to support studies on the
sustainable management and operation of the red soil resource; (c) to facilitate
exchange of relevant experience and information essential for the optimal
management of red soils; and (d) to strengthen computer-aided technical services for
management of the red soil resource.
2.2 ISRlS series
ISRIS contained three levels of scales, i.e., small, medium and large scale (Table 1),
according to the principle of different management goals of red soils at various
levels. All ISRIS of different scales were developed under a uniform standard.
2.3 Study area

In accordance with ISRIS series and the objectives of the EU project, three different
scales of study areas were selected as follows (Figure 1)
Small scale ISRlS. Zhejiang Province located in the red soil region of southern
China.
INTEGRATED SOIL RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEM 371
Medium scale ISRlS. Quzhou located in western Jinqu Basin, Zhejiang Province.
This region with its complicated topographical features and extensive hills and
mountains is one of the important reference bases for the study of red soil resources
in southern China. The various types of red soil and its wide distribution, as well as
an abundance of existing data, provide a good opportunity for an ISRIS study.
Large scale ISRlS. Longyou County, a typical red soil area, is located to the east of
Quzhou City and as it is connected with Jinhua City forms a concentrated area of red
soil.
Table 1. ISRlS scales
Level Scale Scope Study area

Small :::;1: 500,000 Large basin or province Zhejiang Province
scale
Medium 1: 200,000 Middle basin or region QuzhouCity
scale - 1: 300,000
Large ~1:50,000 Small basin or county Longyou County
scale
3. ISRIS ESTABLISHMENT
3.1 Software and hardware configuration

A Compaq Server machine with output peripherals (color printer and scanner) was
adopted as the core of the hardware system. ARC INFO 8.0.2 (NT version),
developed by Environmental Systems Research Institute in USA, was used as a GIS
software platform due to its strong function and frequent updating (ESRI,2000). The
ISRIS was coded with MS Visual Basic, using the ESRI Map Objects component
library to manipulate and display spatial features. Several application models were
programmed by the authors. The system runs in Wmdows 98/2000/NT, on a Pentium
PC or Workstation, and can be installed from a CD.
3.2 Database establishment

The data were pre-processed, classified and coded before being digitized. Data
classification was conducted using generally accepted standards and considered of
practical applications. Data coding adopted two symbols of hierarchical code and
attribute code. ARCIINFO was used in digitizing, compiling and edge matching
maps with controlled accuracy.
372 SHI et al.
3.3 User Inteiface and demonstration.
User Inteiface design. A good and intuitive user interface should be convenient for
users at different levels. ISRIS's interface was coded with MS Visual Basic in a PC
computer and with ARC macro language (ESRI) in a workstation machine. The user
interface adopted a double-stage pull-down menu and a dialogue window. The first
stage menu provided options such as display, query, analysis, statistics, clears, and
help.
.'
.... ~: # / City
' -'
.' . v Boundary
'. II]]] Quzhou
City
o 50 S Longyou
County
Figure 1. The location of study areas to three scales
Demonstration system. To facilitate system's extensive practical use, it was necessary

to establish a demonstration system that is easy to use and convenient to operate. The
ISRIS 's demonstration system included system development, introduction, menu,
display maps, etc. A full help facility was included, as well as brief prompt links to
the command buttons.
3.4 Systemfunctions
System functions are closely related to the objectives of system design and directly
influence the value of the system. Based on the concept of modular-design, ISRIS
consists of five modules (Figure 2), comprising input, management, analysis, output,
and application.
Figure 2. Chart of the functions ofISIRS
4. DEVELOPING APPLIED MODELS

Both GIS and RS have become important tools in many research fields because
of their powerful functions of collecting, managing and analyzing spatial data.
According to different goals, users may choose related information from a database
and develop applied models. Thus the efficiency of the database is being promoted
and the spatial ability of models is being enhanced. The following six application
models have been developed based on the ISRIS database.
4.1 Red soil resource classification and mapping

Accurate classification of red soil resources is the basis and reference for their
survey, evaluation, development and zoning, and, furthermore, guides practical
production.
The different categories of landform type, soil type and land use type were
compounded into red soil resource types at different scales according to the principle
of different management goals at varied levels. Then, the landform map, soil map
and land use map were overlaid and all red soil resource types were obtained
logically. The problems of no-data polygons and very small polygons were
addressed and finally, a red soil resource map was compiled through cartographic
generalization.
374 sm et al.
4.2 Red soil resource suitability evaluation
Firstly, eight factors including landform, slope, soil depth, organic matter (Alayer),
soil texture (A layer), pH, and land use, and their weights were determined by using
the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. Secondly, an evaluation system and
indexes were established based on the FAO Framework for Land Evaluation. Finally,
the factor vector maps derived from the database were overlaid. The Index
Accumulation Method was used to evaluate red soil resource suitability and the
suitability map was created.
4.3 Red soil resource utilization zoning

The soil improvement and utilization regional planning map of Quzhou City and its
red soil resource suitability evaluation map, administration map, land utilization zone
map, plant regional planning map and comprehensive agriculture regional planning
map were overlaid. This resulted in a red soil resource development and utilization
zone, achieved through comprehensive analysis. Different development and
utilization directions were assigned to every zone.
4.4 Red soil resource erosion risk evaluation
It is difficult to evaluate the erosion risk in Quzhou City because no investigation

data were available. Therefore, an integrated method of GIS and the Delphi model
was used. Firstly, the above mentioned eight factors and their weights were
determined to make an evaluation table. Secondly, eight factor maps generated from
the database were overlaid. Finally, the evaluation map was obtained and displayed
on screen using different colors and different measures were given to different
erosion risk types.
4.5 Simulation oftemperature spatial distribution
Temperature is an important factor in plant zoning. Simulation of temperature spatial

distribution is necessary for research in regions with complicated landforms and few
weather stations. Here, GIS was adopted to solve this problem. Firstly, observation
data were collected for four factors including latitude, longitude, altitude and macro-
landform and a linear regression equation created. Secondly, the four factor grid
coverage was overlaid and temperature values in every grid cell were calculated.
Finally, temperature isograms were obtained through grid to vector transformation.
4.6 Agricultural plant utilization zoning
Plant utilization zoning plays an important role in macro-scale management of

agricultural production, but it is difficult to obtain precise target data. It can be
solved with help of GIS. Firstly, seven factors including organic matter (A layer),
pH, landform, temperature, irrigated area, rural annual income, and output value of
planting were selected and their unit data files were generated from the Longyou
County database. Then, the data files were put into an external dynamic clustering
program designed by the authors. Finally, the result was returned to ARCIINFO and
zone map was created.
5. DISCUSSION
With the robust basic functions and good potential for developing application models
supported by ARCIINFO and Mapobjects Active-X, ISRIS is an advanced system.
Using this system, a 11 types of soils in China could be studied. It not only provides a
reference for studies on the red soil resource, but also suggests new ideas and
technical methods, such as using the Delphi model to evaluate erosion risk, from
which has emerged an external model to ISRIS for agricultural zoning.
ISRIS's applications and developments, such as evaluation of utilization
potential, fertility evaluation and fertilization planning, were hampered because
general survey soil data an~ detailed survey land use data are out of date. Therefore,
ISRIS should be regarded as an experimental information system and at present it
should not be used directly and without modification for agricultural production.
ISRIS should be further strengthened in two ways:
(1) By further integrating the technology of RS and GIS research. For the full use
of ISRIS it is crucial to provide a quick and precise means of updating data and
checking its reality. It is possible to renew the database in a timely way by using
RS to monitor the dynamics of land use and to draw soil maps. Achievement of
integrating RS and GIS technology would enhance the practical application of
ISRIS.
(2) By developing an intelligent ISRlS research system. An important way of
promoting the automation and practicality of ISRIS is to integrate ISRIS and
artificial intelligence so as to develop an intelligent ISRIS system. The database,
model base and knowledge base could be generally used to make expert-
analogous judgments, so providing decision-making system and service for
leaders, managers and policy makers.
6. REFERENCES
Brown, K. W M., Gauld, J. H, Smith, B. F. L., Bain, D.C., Burridge, J.C. and Inkson, R. H E. 1987.
Design of a database for Scottish soils. J. ofSoil Sci. 38 (2):267-277.
Dumanski, J., Kloosterman, B. and Brandon, S. E. 1975. Concepts, objectives and structure or the Canada
Soil Information System. Can. J. Soil Sci. 55:181-187.
Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI). 1993. Understanding GIS. ESRI Company, CA, USA.
416pp.
Lord, E. I. and Anthony, S. G 2000. MAGPIE: A modeling framework for evaluating nitrate losses at
national and catchment scales. Soil Use and Management. 16:167-174.
Merchant, J.M and Ripple, W.J. 1996. Special issue: Geographic information system. Photogramm. Eng.
Remote Sens. 62:1243-1244.
Reybold, W U. and TeSelle, G W 1986. Soil geographic date bases. J. Soil and Water Cons. 44(10):
28-29.
Shi, Z. and Wang, R. C. 1997. Study on red soil resource information system at large scale. J. of Zhejiang
Agricultural University. 23: (6) 707-710.
376 SRI et al.
Wang, G Q. 1993. A discussion on agricultural ecology in the red and yellow soils areas of China.
Geography and Territorial Research (in Chinese). 9(1): 22-26.
Yu, D. S. and Shi, X.Z. 1993. Research progress of soil information system. Progress in Soil Science (in
Chinese), 21(6):26-31.
Yu, J. Y 1991. On red soil ecosystem. Chinese Journal ofSoil Science (in Chinese). 22(7):9-14.
Zhou, H. Z. 1993. Soil information system. Progress in Soil Science (in Chinese), 21(6): 32-36.
INTEGRATION OF A SOIL INFORMATION SYSTEM
AND OPTIMUM TREE CLUSTER FOR
AGRICULTURALREGIONALIZATION
z sm, AA MOHAMAD AND R C WANG
Institute ofAgricultural Remote Sensing and Information System, Zhejiang
Agricultural University, Hangzhou, 310029 China
ABSTRACT
Proper agricultural regionalization, that is the division of agricultural lands into uniform regions for
agriculture development, is of crucial importance to farmers, researchers, and decision-makers in the
context of utilizing and managing the red soil resource (Ultisols) of China. Ibis paper shows how a soil
information system (SIS) can be integrated using an optimal tree cluster approach so as to study
agricultural regionalization. Taking Longyou County, Zhejiang Province as a case study, an SIS created in
ARCIINFO was used to provide data acquisition, systematic model parameter assignment, and the visual
display of analytic results. The topography, temperature, soil component (e.g. organic matter, pH), and the
type of agricultural production were selected as parameters for the optimal tree cluster, in which Prim's
algorithm was adopted to calculate the minimal spanning tree. The effectiveness of this integration and
recommendations are discussed for future research.
Key words: Agricultural regionalization, optimal tree cluster, Ultisols, Soil

information
1. INTRODUCTION
Red soils are a very important soil resource in southern China, covering an area of
2.18x 106 km2 and accounting for 22% of the total land area of the country. These
soils often occur in gentle hilly areas, which stand up from the intensively cultivated
soils of the alluvial plains, and are conveniently described as 'hilly red soils' or 'red
soil'. The soils are generally classified as Ultisols under the US system of Soil
Taxonomy. The major factors that limit plant production in the red soil region
include soil erosion, acidity, compactness, low fertility, and seasonal drought .
Therefore, national and local agencies have been working together to improve and
exploit red soils over the past ten years. With time, effort and funds being committed
in such a way, the establishment of an appropriate agricultural regionalization in the
red soil regions is fundamental and has become increasingly important. Lack of such
work will lead to misdirected efforts, misspent funds, and most significantly,
continued irrational developments in red soil regions.
However, full research and the establishment of appropriate agricultural
regionalization requires large geographically referenced data sets because of the
existence of regional variations in the properties of soils, environmental conditions,
and the human activities. Therefore, conventional mathematical methods were
difficult to apply in this study. The GIS is a software-hardware system for input,
377
378 SHI et ai.
manipulation, query, and output of a large amount of spatial data. Once the spatial
database in a GIS is prepared, the integration between the GIS and a mathematical
model can be efficiently used for studying agricultural regionalization. Recently,
there have been several technical papers that discuss the integration between GIS and
the applied model (Han et aI., 1995; Chuveco, 1993; Tim and Jolly, 1994).
Regionalization is a way of dividing land into regions. The aim of regionalization is
to divide a set of areal units into regions in such a way that the units in anyone
region are more similar to one another than they are to units in the other regions.
Regionalization methods can be grouped into categories: (1) testing of a priori
divisions includes use of chi squared tests, analysis of variance, and discrimination
analysis, and (2) development of a division includes factor analysis and clustering
algorithms (Semple, 1984; Zhou, 1993). The typical clustering algorithms, such as
hierarchical cluster, dyadic cluster, PFS cluster and fuzzy cluster (Singn,1984; Yao
,1988; McGregor,1993; Ahmed,1997), use a measure of similarity to determine if
two areal units should be fused into one region, but lack spatial adjacency analysis.
Optimal tree cluster deals with both similarity and spatial connection between areal
units, so its outputs are more suitable to the performance of regionalization than
other clustering algorithms.
The objective of this study was to develop an integration between a soil information
system, which was created using ARC/INFO software (ESRI, 1993), and the method
of optimal tree cluster, which was coded in Visual-BASIC, to study agriculture
regionalization.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Optimal tree cluster
The principle of regionlization can be described mathematically as follows: Suppose

that U represents the regionlization area (Vi ~ V, i=I,2, ... ,n. Vi represents ith areal
unit, n denotes number of areal units). Regionalizaton is to obtain optimal division
sets {Ui, i=I,2,oo .,m}, m is number of regions. This division set should meet the
requirements: Vi ~ Vj, >- (Vi,Vj)=1 (Vi and Vj are connected); d(Vi,Vj) is defmed as
similarity, min{ d(Vi,Vj)I Vi,Vj ~ Vi} > R, R is a constant. (Vi and Vj are similar in
one region).
A graph is defmed as a collection of points or vertices, some pairs of which are
joined by lines or edges, G=( V, E), V and E represent collections of points and lines,
respectively. In regionalization, a connected weighted graph G =(V, E, D) is adopted,
V is collection of areal units, E is a set of connection of units, D is a weight
(similarity) matrix of units. The weight of a graph is the sum of the weight of the
edges in the graph, a minimal spanning tree is a spanning tree of minimal weight.
Optimal tree cluster fIrstly produces a minimal spanning tree for G, then this tree is
separated into several sub-trees, i.e. the study area is divided into several regions. In
this study, Prim's algorithm was used to produce a minimal spanning tree
(Temperley, 1981; Townsend, 1987):
OPTIMUM TREE CLUSTER FOR AGRICULTURAL REGIONALIZATION 379
Step 1: Pick any vertex V and set Tl=V'

Repeat step 2 as long as possible.
Step 2: Find an edge ek of minimal weight joining a vertex if Tk to a vertex not in Tk.
if there is more than one such edge, then choose one arbitrarily. Tk +l is a graph
obtained by adding this edge and vertex to Tk . where Tk is a sub-tree in the kth
interaction.
2.2 Study area
Longyou County located in middle of the Jinqu Basin, Zhejiang Province, China was
selected as the study area. This area is characterized by mid-tropical climate with an
annual average temperature of 17.3°C, and annual precipitation of 1631.7mm.
According to the second general detailed soil survey (Longyou County Agricultural
Bureau, 1984), the soil area covers 983.23 km2, and 63.3% of which is red soil (i.e.,
Ultisols). Longyou County is one of important agricultural production bases in
Zhejiang Province and a key study area of the red soil resource.
2.3 SIS database
A soil resource database of Longyou county was created using ARCIINFO software
(Shi,1997). ARCIINFO is suitable for the linkage because of the capabilities of its
internal programming language. The overlay, query, and map generation capabilities
of ARCIINFO are also major reasons for selecting this GIS system. All coverage,
such as soil type, soil sample map, terrain map, temperature map etc. were digitized,
cleaned, checked, and transformed. Several attribute tables were developed.
2.4 Research scenario
In the present study, ARCIINFO and optimal tree cluster were integrated for
agricultural regionalization. The procedures are described in the following steps and
their flow chart is shown in Figure 1.
Line Coverage
SIS Spatial adjacency analysis

Village bolUldary :i." Region-
Data Polygon coverage
lization
Base
results
[~~:~~~~~~~::::!
~------------~ ~~~--~--~
Factor map ~ Similarity analysis Optimal tree cluster L.......~.T
Figure 1. Flow chart oj agricultural regionalization using integration ojSIS and the
Optimum Tree Cluster method
Step one. Selecting the main factors affecting the agricultural production using the
Delphi method (Table 1). The spatial factors were extracted from the SIS database,
the non site-specific factors were input using the keyboard.
380 sm et a1.
Table 1. Input data requirements/or agricultural regionalization
Data type Factors Data source DescriEtion

Spatial Organic matter Soil sample O.M content include
Data (glkg) Layer five classes
pH Soil sample pH include five classes
Layer
Sloping area (%) Landform The percentage of total land
Layer
Temperature (0C) Weather Annual mean temperature
SUlveying isograph
Statistical Irrigated area (%) Statistical The percentage of total land
Data Annals
Rural revenue Statistical Rural annual revenue per capita
(Yuan) Annals
Planting output Statistical The percentage of gross output
value~%l Annals value of a~culturall2roduction
Boundary Arc attribute Adjacency matrix

coverage E
1 23456 •••
R POLY
o 0 I o 0 ...
G1. -..~ 3 I 0 I I ...
1 0 1 ...
~
....
2 5
o0 ...
1+-.
~ 2 6
3 6
~
Poygon
attribute file
POLY#
Village
2 ShiFu
········3 XiaZhai
a b c
Figure 2. Adjacency relationship 0/ARC/INFO Software: (a)Boundary coverage, (b)
Arc attribute file, (c) Adjacency matrix E
Step two. Building an adjacency matrix E through analyzing the topology

relationship of village boundary coverage using ARCIINFO software (shown in
Figure 2). E is a binary matrix, Where 1 represent connected, 0 represent
unconnected.
Step three. In a connected weight graph, weight value represents the distance
between two vertices. In regionalization, weight value represents the similarity
between areal units. A set of correlation coefficients (see equ 1) was adopted to build
weight matrix D:
Where: n denotes the numbers of areal units, m represents numbers of factors. X ki is

data of the k th factor in unit i.
Step four. To multiply weight matrix D by adjacency matrix E., i.e. G=DxE. Thus, in
the G matrix, the value of all unconnected units is O. Then Prim's algorithm was
adopted to calculate a minimal spanning tree for the connected weight graph G.
i,j = 1,2,.· ·,n (1)
st =L(x
m m
ki -XJ2 Sj2 =~::Cxlg _X)2
k=1 k=1
Finally the tree was clipped to m subtrees. The result of the regionalization was
displayed and plotted using ARCPLOT.
3. RESULTS
The minimal spanning tree of Longyou County is shown in Figure 3. The two
least weighted values, d (5,11)=0.256 and d (21,24)=0.368, were selected. Join lines
of vertex 5 to 11 and vertex 21 to 24 were then separated (denoted by a black arrow
in Figure 3 ).The tree was clipped into three sub-trees so that Longyou County was
divided into three regions for agricultural development.
Region I includes 13 villages: Shiyuan(code 9 in Figure 4, same as following),
Tuanshi(15), Ruotang(l1), Hutousan(12), Lantang(8), Hengshan(4), Mohuan(7),
Xiazhai(3), Zhitang(I), Tashi(6), Yacun(lO), Zesui(5) and Shifu(2);
Region II includes 9 villages: Longyou(17), Huzhen(13), Xiaku(16), Qidu(14),
Shihou(20), Zhanjia(18), Maye(19), Xiajin(22) and Shangyutou(21);
Region III includes 10 villages: Sheyang(23), Xikou(27), Lingshan(26),
Miaoxia(29), Muchen(30), Kengtou(31), Dajie(28), Wucun(32), Guantan(24) and
Luojia(25).
The main statistical data of the three agricultural regions are presented in Table 2 and
the distribution is shown in Figure 4.The area of the region I is 394.15 km2 • Just over
80% of the total area is occupied by slopes, most of which do not extend more than
300 meters. The annual mean temperature is 17.35·C and the accumulated
temperature above 10°C is 5400·C.
382 sm et al.
4 -- 1
I
3 -- 7
I
10--6--2
I
5
L1
11
I
15 -- 17 20 9 8
I
19 -- 21 -- 16 13
L1 L1
22 24 --26
I
23 -- 25
I
28 27
I I
31 --30 --29
I
32
Figure 3. Minimal spanning tree Figure 4. Agricultural regionalization

of Longyou County
Table 2. The statistical average data of seven factors in three agricultural

regions of Longyou County
Region O.M Slope pH Temp. Irrigated Rural Planting

symbol g/kg area (0C) area revenue output
(%) (%) (Yuan) value
(%)
I 0.231 81.0 6.14 17.35 88.1 1628 70.3
II 0.214 28.7 5.61 17.15 84.2 1777 61.4
III 0.346 99.2 5.44 16.57 53.4 1107 83.1
Region II has an area of 269.94 km2 , with a gentle topography and about 70%
plain cover . The annual mean temperature is 17.15°e and the accumulated
temperature above lOoe is 546ic. The main soil is paddy soil. The conditions of
agricultural production and economical level of this region are better than for other
regions. The county town also lies in this region. So the major effort should be
devoted to developing grain and cotton production and animal husbandry. In
addition, advanced processing plants for agriculture products should be set up.
Region III of 480.71 km2 area is almost covered with low hills and mountains,
and the highest mountain (1439m) of this county is located at the southern end of this
region. The annual mean temperature is 16.5ic and the accumulated temperature
above IODC is 5400D C. Major soils are red soils and yellow soils. The agricultural
infrastructure of this region is poor and the commercial forest and fruits, such as tea,
bamboo, and orange should be developed in this region.
4. DISCUSSION
At present, research into agricultural regionalization is still in its initial stages in

the red soil regions of China. However, rational regionalization will become more
and more important and essential in developing and utilizing red soils in the near
future. In this study, a method for integrating a Soil Information System with a
mathematical algorithm proved to be convenient and yielded feasible results as
compared with traditional methods.
There are two main types of GIS interfaces with applied models: applied models
embedded in a GIS, and applied model integrated with GIS. The proposed SIS and
Optimal tree cluster interface exemplifies the second type.
An applied model embedded in a GIS is an effective way of linkage. In this
arrangement there is no extemal data exchange between the GIS and the applied
model, and although such an interface is ideal it is difficult to implement. Currently
only simple applied models can be directly coded into a GIS. For complex
application models, the second approach is preferred. In this approach, the GIS
software and the applied model are developed by separate programmers, and it is
unnecessary for the user to probe into the kernel of GIS software. Therefore, the
second approach has been generally adopted in many research fields.
Building the database is the most critical and often the most time consuming part
of any project. The major benefit is that once a SIS database is created it can be used
for planning, management, development, and utilization in the case of red soil
resource. With the widespread adoption of SIS in local governments and research
institutes, this new technology can make significant contributions to solving
problems of red soil resource management.
5. REFERENCES
Ahmed, B. Y M. 1997. Climatic classification of Saudi Arabia: an application of factor - cluster analysis.
GeoJournal., 41(1): 69-84.
Belajova, A. 1995.Regiona1ization of agriculture from the point of view of spatial structure. Acta
Operativo Oeconomica.50: 173-176.
Chuvieco, E. 1993. Integration of linear programming and GIS for land-use modeling. Int. J.
Geographical Information System. 7 (1):71-83.
Enviromnental System Research Institute (ESRI). 1993. Understanding GIS. ESRI Company, California,
USA.
384 sm et al.
Han, S., Evans, R G, Hodges, T., and Rawlins, S. L. 1995. Linking a Geographical Information System
with a potato simulation model for site-specific crop management. J Environ. Qual. 24: 772-777.
Longyou County Agricultural Bureau. 1984. Soils of Longyou County. (unpublished).
McGregor, G R 1993. A multivariate approach to the evaluation of the climatic regions and climatic
resources of China. Geoforum. 24(4):357-380.
Semple, R K and MB.Green. 1984. Classification in Human Geography. pp55-80. In L.G Gary and 1. W.
Cort (ed.) Spatial Statistics and Models. D.Reidel Publishing Company, Holland.
Shi, Z. and Wang, R C. 1997. Study on red soil resource information system at large scale. J. of Zhejiang
Agricultural University. 23 (6):707-710.
Singh J. and S. S. Dhillon. 1984. Agricultural Geography. Tata Mcgraw_HlI Publishing Company
limited, New Delhi, India.
Temperley, H. N. U. 1981. Graph Theory and Applications. Ellis Horwood Ltd, West Sussex, England.
Tim, U. S. and Jolly, R 1994. Evaluating agricultural nonpoint-source pollution using integrated
geographical information systems and hydrologic/water quality model. JEnviron. Qual. 23:25-35.
Townsend, M. 1987. Discrete Mathematics: Applied Combinatorics and Graph Theory. The
Benjamin/Coumnings Publishing Company, Inc. California, USA.
Yao J. Q. 1988. The clustering analysis on the classification of areal types of agricultural. Scientia
Geographical Sinica. 8(2): 147-155.
Zhou L.S. 1993. Theoretical and practical view of agricultural regionali=ation in China. Publishing
House of University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.
Part V
CONCLUSIONS
M J WILSO~l) , ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)
(1) The Macaulay Land use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK

(2)Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
The main conclusions reached from the previous papers may be summarized as
follows:
1. Red soils occur widely in the tropical and sub-tropical zones of the WorId.
Under the US system of Soil Taxonomy, they are usually designated as Oxisols
and Ultisols, and occasionally as Alfisols, Mollisols and even Inceptisols. Red
soils are found extensively in South America, Africa, India and south east Asia.
Typically, they are highly weathered, acidic, nutrient deficient and poor in
organic matter. In addition to their inherent infertility, they may have a very
poor capacity for holding and supplying water and are prone to soil erosion.
Nevertheless, with careful management it has been found that satisfactory crop
yields can be obtained from these soils.
2. In China, red soils occupy over 102 million hectares in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions south of the Yangtze River. This accounts for about 22% of the
national land area. In the Chinese soil classification, red soils include four main
groups, namely Latosols, Lateritic Red Earths, Red Earths and Yellow Earths
(the latter by virtue of being genetically related to other red soils). For the most
part, these soils would be classed in the Ultisol order of Soil Taxonomy, with
Oxisols occurring much less frequently. However some red soils, particularly
where they are derived from base-rich parent material, would probably fall into
the Alfisol order. The majority of red soils in China are intensively weathered
and inherently infertile. In the past, attempts have been made to use these soils
for arable farming but often this was found to be unsustainable and led to
serious erosion.
3. Chinese red soils, as typified by those of Zhejiang Province, have a low cation
exchange capacity, high exchangeable acidity and low pH. About 60% of the
soils examined were deficient in N and P, on the basis of total N and Olsen-P,
and 32% were deficient in available K. Deficiencies in available B, Mo and Zn
were also common. Most of the soils had a low organic matter content, usually
less than 0.5%. Organic matter was found to playa key role in the formation of
soil aggregates resistant to dispersion by water, indicating that the red soils
would be susceptible to soil erosion. Amounts of organic matter were found to
vary considerably with elevation and land use.
385
386 M J WILSON, ZHENLI HE AND XIAOE YANG
4. The mineralogy of the clay fraction of Chinese red soils is often dominated by
kaolinitic minerals (both kaolinite and halloysite) with substantial amounts of
Al hydroxy-interlayered chlorite vermiculite and illite. The layer silicate
composition of the red soils was found to vary with latitude, elevation, parent
material and topographic position. Goethite and hematite were the only
crystalline iron oxide minerals identified in the red soils, both of which were
significantly AI-substituted over a wide range. This clay mineral composition
is typical of soils of variable charge, according to pH. Many of the soils were
found to possess a high phosphate adsorbing capacity, although this too varied
over a wide range.
5. Study of the Rare Earth Element (REE) geochemistry of Chinese red soils
shows that soluble REEs correlate positively with a chemical index of
alteration. Soluble REEs may, therefore, be a useful indicator of soil
development.
6. The most widespread chemical soil constraints to crop production on Chinese
red soils includes soil acidity, toxicity of AI, Mn and Fe and major nutrient
deficiencies, especially N and P. K deficiency is also common due to the
intensively weathered nature of the soils, low K-fertilizer inputs, as well as an in
increase in N and P applications. Magnesium deficiency is also widespread as is
deficiency in the minor elements B, Mo and Zn in soils developed on certain
parent materials. Deficiencies of S in sandy soils and Si in paddy soils may also
occur.
7. The major climatic constraint to crop production on the red soils in southern
China is well-known to be the late summer/autumn drought combined with high
summer evaporation. Other climatic factors may also be important. These
include variability in the onset of the summer monsoon as well as the damaging
effects of the monsoon itself.
8. The deleterious effects of drought are compounded by the poor water holding
and supplying capacities of the red soils. The formation of small aggregates,
cemented to a large extent by iron oxides and clays, means that the soils behave
in much the same way as sandy soils, have a high porosity and are excessively
freely drained. On the other hand, the water that is retained within the
aggregates is held tenaciously and is unavailable to plants. However, the plant-
available water in red soils is considerably affected by land use and was shown
to be greatly improved when converted from upland crops to rice paddy.
9. Due to their low soil organic matter content, the red soils of hilly areas are
particularly susceptible to soil erosion. Even slight soil erosion has a degrading
effect upon soil fertility through impacts on soil structure, soil organic matter,
nutrient content and microbial viability. Such degradation is closely related to
land use and becomes more severe in the following order; mixed forest <
deciduous forest < grassland < citrus orchards < tea gardens < sparse coniferous
forest. This highlights the control of vegetation coverage and plant
characteristics on soil erosion.
CONCLUSIONS 387
10. From a historical perspective, the utilization of red soils in China has passed
through a number of phases, including minimal use for agriculture, planting to
upland crops, conversion to paddy and integrated systems that take account of
environmental concerns. The last-named is the most promising from the
standpoint of sustainability. Before such systems can be utilized with success,
however, it is often the case that soil fertility needs to be restored. Reclamation
procedures include liming, fertilization, organic matter amendments, suitable
cultivation techniques, selection of appropriate crop species, etc.
11. A crucial element in the future utilization of red soils for crop production is to
select plant genotypes that tolerate deficiency and toxicity stresses. The
mechanisms that underpin this tolerance and enable selected crops to use soil
nutrients most efficiently are now being intensively researched. Complete
understanding of these mechanisms may go a long way in enabling sustainable
crop production to be achieved on acid soils and in establishing flexible and
efficient farming systems. An indication of what can be achieved in this respect
is shown by recent research on the growth of upland rice genotypes on highly
weathered acid red soils (Oxisols) in Brazil. These genotypes are tolerant to soil
acidity and their yield is significantly decreased under conditions of low soil
acidity and high base saturation.
12. For the growth of forage grasses on Chinese red soils, experiments suggest that
phosphate deficiency is the key factor limiting crop yields. It may be noted that
low available P contents of the soils will be exacerbated by the strong P-fixing
capacity of their mineral components. Experiments suggest that application of P
is a more important factor for improving ryegrass yield than liming.
13. Climatic constraints to crop production in the red soil region, particularly those
constraints related to drought, can only be overcome by efficient irrigation
regimes. Simulation research, using water balance and crop growth models
applied to red soils, illustrates the key water requirements of different crops at
various times of the year. The total water requirement for early and late rice,
for example, could be reduced by 60% and 80% respectively through
intermittent irrigation as opposed to conventional flooding. Yields of spring and
autumn corn, as well as soybean, are also closely related to optimal irrigation
conditions.
14. The effects of soil erosion can be mitigated by the use of cultivation practices
that reduce soil loss without reducing soil productivity. In Yunnan Province,
experiments show that the effect of contour cultivation plus straw mulch was
generally to significantly reduce soil loss over a range of slopes, when
compared to traditional downslope cultivation, without impairing crop
productivity.
15. A minority of Chinese red soils, particularly those influenced by carbonate
parent material, have a higher fertility status than typical red soils and do not
fall within the Ultisol order. These soils are not acid and do not suffer the
deficiency and toxicity constraints associated with acidic conditions.
Nevertheless, the soils are still susceptible to erosion and soil conservation
measures are essential if cropping systems are to be sustainable over the long
388 M J WILSON, ZHENLI HE AND XIAOE YANG
tenn. Experiments in Yunnan Province show that on sloping land the use of
contour cultivation, straw mulch and plastic mulch (the INCOPLAST system),
in addition to early irrigation, can simultaneously reduce soil loss and increase
maize productivity by up to 50% when compared with traditional cultivation
methods.
16. The use of red soils in Zhejiang Province for growing upland crops and citrus
fruits reduces soil acidity and increases the availability of major nutrients,
specifically K and P. On the other hand, there is a decrease in soil organic
matter compared with forested red soils as well as a decrease in the content of
water stable aggregates, suggesting that the soils become more susceptible to
erosion. This emphasizes the desirability of maintaining the organic matter
status of the soil.
17. Organic matter amendment of the red soils not only improves soil physical
properties but may also have a stimulating effect on the release of major plant
nutrients. Tracer experiments show that more N is released from applied
organic matter (milled rye grass straw) than from urea when they are added in
combination rather than singly. On the other hand, ryegrass organic matter
significantly enhanced the availability of P from inorganic sources. The fixation
and later release of P from the organic matter is probably related to changes in
the microbial biomass.
18. The microbial biomass of red soils under citrus production is significantly
affected by soil pH, particularly with respect to microbial biomass-C and -P.
These parameters declined when soil pH was shifted to either side of the initial
soil pH and abruptly declined at a critical pH value. Soil micro-organisms
growing in a near-neutral soil environment may have a greater tolerance to pH
shifts than those growing in more acid or alkaline conditions.
19. Microbial biomass -C and -N are strongly affected by the land use of red soils
and can be correlated with content of soil organic matter. This suggests that this
relationship is caused by inputs of organic matter and its subsequent
accumulation in the soil.
20. In the highly weathered, nutrient deficient red soils, microbial biomass may be
an important index ofN and P availability.
21. The land use history of red soils may also have an important impact on
microbial community structure, although no systematic change was found to be
associated with increased organic matter or microbial biomass. In a
chronosequence of tea bushes on red soil, however, defmite changes were
observed in microbiological characteristics, mainly related to increasing soil
acidification. Numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes in soils under 40 year and
90 year old tea bushes were only half those in soil under 10 year old tea bushes.
But soil biomass carbon was higher in the soils of the older tea bushes and the
potentials of daily respiration showed the same trend. Enzyme activity, which
has been related to nutrient cycling and tea soil fertility, showed some
conflicting trends in the tea soil chronosequence. Activities of urease and
especially invertase declined with increasing tea bush age but the activity of
phosphomonoestaerase increased.
CONCLUSIONS 389
22. A socio-economic study of Kelang village in Yunnan Province strongly

suggests that novel or modified cropping practices, shown by scientific
experimentation to increase maize yield by 40-50%, are unlikely to be taken up
by local farmers. The critical reason for this reluctance is thought to be the
opportunity cost of labour, whereby more income can be eamed from off-farm
activities than from increased maize production. Assuming that Kelang village
represents a microcosm of rural China, the implication is that the introduction of
higher cost technology aimed at overcoming the constraints to crop production
on the less fertile red soils will encounter similar farmer-resistance. A further
implication is that, in these circumstances, increased crop production from the
red soils of China is only likely to be achieved through state intervention and
the provision offmancial incentives to the farmer.
23. Plarmed utilization of the red soil resources of China will be greatly assisted by
an integrated red soil resource information system, based upon GIS and remote
sensing technologies. Such a system will enable the soils to be utilized in the
most judicious and effective way.
FINAL REMARKS
Although this study has to a large extent been confmed to research on red soils in
only two provinces of China (Zbejiang and Yunnan), a number of implications have
emerged that may be useful in national discussions about the future utilization of
this resource. Firstly, it is clear that strictly from a scientific point of view, all the
constraints to crop production on the infertile and degraded red soils can be
overcome in one way or another. This book has illustrated the utility of traditional
practices such as the application of fertilizers, lime and organic matter, as well as
optimal irrigation. The selection of appropriate crops tolerant of acidic and nutrient
deficient conditions is also a highly promising line of approach, as has been
illustrated in work in other countries. In addition, the use of modified and novel
cultivation techniques may enable crop production to be carried out in a sustainable
way, particularly if this is done in the context of an integrated land use system.
Many of the papers have shown that there is now a greater understanding of the
basis of the potential fertility of red soils, how this fertility evolves and interacts
with land use and how it can be maintained in the future.
Nevertheless, despite such progress in our scientific understanding, it is not at all
clear that the Chinese farmer would be able and willing to take advantage of these
advances. The evidence in this book rather suggests that he would not. In the current
circumstances in China, where the proportion of household income from agriculture
is declining and where there is a continuing population drift from the countryside to
the towns and cities (mainly to take advantage of higher earning opportunities), it
seems that the more productive utilization of red soils could be achieved only if
there was a clearly perceived and almost immediate economic benefit to the farmer.
An additional difficulty is that the average farmer would not have the capital
required to overcome the constraints to crop production described above. These
factors suggest that the productive use of the red soils through the initiative of the
390 M J WILSON. ZHENLI HE AND XIAOE YANG
individual farmer is unlikely to occur to occur without significant intervention by the

state authorities and especially without some form of fmancial incentive to the
farmer.
Before embarking on such a course of action, however, it might be prudent to re-
evaluate the question of whether the goal of national self-sufficiency in food
production is really necessary for present-day China. More and more of China's
wealth is being earned by industrial and trading activities and in these circumstances
it might be sensible to accept that substantial food imports will form part of the
overall economic picture for some time to come. In terms of agriculture, this would
shift the focus back to increasing productivity back to currently cultivated and
naturally fertile land, and perhaps to ways of conserving red soils as a resource that
might be used for agricultural production in the future. It is concluded from this
discussion that while national policy will determine the most appropriate future use
of the red soils of China, the range of options available for such use has been
considerably extended by scientific research like that described here.
SUBJECT INDEX
Acidification, 171-218,222-226,230-236,249-254,307-314,331-345
adaptation of crop plants to, 171-218
chemical properties, 230-236
microbial biomass,307-314
rice yield, 222-236
stresses to crop plants, 171-218
tea bushes, 331-345
tolerance of forage grasses to, 249-254
Acrisols, 12,14,173
element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Aggregates, 75-82
Agriculture, in China, 349-351
Agroclimate, 117-125
Alfisols, 8-10,11,13,14,15,16,65,138-139,173
Aluminium, 174-178,258-259
extractable, 258-259
genotype differences, 174
genetic basis of tolerance, 177-178
physiological basis of tolerance, 174-177
tolerance in plants, 174-178
Andisols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Assimilation, of nitrogen, 187
Argentina, red soils, 10-12
Bangladesh, red soils, 14

Basal respiration, in tea bush soils, 335, 340-341
Basalt, clay mineralogy of red soils, 44
Biolog system, 323-330
Biological properties, of red soils, 107-109, 155-157
Bole soils, water retention characteristics, 130, 132-134
Boron, in red soils, 72, 74, 103-104, 106, 192-201
efficiency of use in red soil, 192-201
genetic basis of use efficiency, 200-201
genotypic differences in use efficiency, 197-198
physiological basis of use efficiency, 198-201
Brazil, red soils, 10-12, 18-24
chemical properties of red soils, 10-12
Calcium, use efficiency, 228-229

Cation exchange capacity, of red soils, 65, 67, 105
Cerrado, 10-12
Chlorite, in red soil clays, 41, 42, 43, 44
391
392 SUBJECT INDEX
Charge characteristics, of red soils, 54-58

Citrus orchards, 151-158,315-322,325-328
effect on soil erosion, 151-158
microbial biomass, 315-322
microbial community structure, 325-328
Classification, of red soils, 8, 29-33, 35-36
Clay content, of red soils, 104
Clay mineralogy, of red soils, 39-46, 51-53
in soil profiles, 51
Climate, of red soil regions in China, 74, 110-127
circulation patterns,112-113,
humidity and evaporation, 116
precipitation, 113-116
temperature,116
Colour, of red soils, 39, 43, 48-50
Altitude, 43
iron oxides, 48-50
measurement, 39
Concretions, in red soils, 41
Coniferous forest, on red soils, 103-127
Constraints to crop production on red soils, 103-127
climatic constraints, 111-127
soil constraints, 103-11 0
Contour cultivation, 140-149
Copper, in red soils, 72, 75, 229-231, 316, 328-329
use efficiency, 229-231
effect on microbial communities, 316, 328-329
Com, irrigation on red soils, 243, 246-248
Crop production, on red soils, 10-11, 13, 16-18, 103-110, 137-150,
Argentina, 11
Brazil, 10-11
China, 16-18,
India, 13
soil constraints to, 103-110
Yunnan Province, 137-150
Crop rotation, on red soils, 23-24
Cultivation treatments, 139-141, 142-149
Deciduous forest, effect on soil erosion, 151-158

Degradation, of water stable aggregates, 281-282
Distribution of red soils, 10-12, 14-16, 16-18,65-66,163-164
Argentina, 10-12
Bangladesh, 14
Brazil, 10-12
China, 16-18, 163-164
India, 13
SUBJECT INDEX 393
Indonesia, 15-16
Kenya, 12
Malaysia, 15
Thailand, 14-15
Vietnam, 16
Zhejiang Province, 65-66
Downslope cultivation, of red soils, 140-149
Entisols, 10, 169, 173

Enzyme activities, in tea bush soils, 341-343
Erosion, of red soils, 22-23, l37-149, 151-155,315-322
fallow land and microbial biomass, 315-322
rates, 151-155
Exchangeable acidity, of tea bush soils, 335-337
Exudates, in tea bush soils, 326
Feldspars, in red soils, 43, 51-53

Ferralsols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Fertilization, of red soils, 10-l3, 19-21
Fertility, of red soils, 151-158
Fluvisols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Forage grasses, acid tolerance, 249-254, 255-260
Forest soils, 275-277, 278-282,325-328
physical properties, 278-282
Friable soils, 84-86
Fulvic acid, 69, 71
Genetics, 24, 171-218

crop plants on red soils, 171-2l8
variability, 24
Genotypes, of rice, 219-237
Gibbsite, in red soils, 40, 42, 43, 45, 54, 58-59
GIS, 369-384
red soils, 377-384
Ultisols, 369-376
Gleysols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Goethite, in red soils, 40, 41, 43, 46-50, 58-59
Al substitution, 47-48
colour, 47-50
content, 46-47
Grassland, 152-158,315-322
Erosion, 152-158
394 SUBJECT INDEX
Guidelines, for red soil use, 166

Gypsum, in red soils, 20-21
Halloysite, in red soils, 40, 41, 43,46

Hematite, in red soils, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46-50
Al substitution, 47-48
content, 46-47
colour, 47-49
Historical use, of red soils, 165-166
Humic acid, 69, 71
Humus, nitrogen, 287-283
Illite, in red soils, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,51,52,53
Ilmenite, in red soils, 40, 42
Integrated agriculture, on red soils, 168-170
Interstratified minerals, in red soils, 53
Inceptisols, 8-10,16,65,173,266-267
INCOPLAST,268-274
costibenefit, 360-364
India, red soils in, 13
Indonesia, red soils in, 15-16
Information system, 369-384
applied mode development, 373-376
design, 370-371
establishment, 371-373
red soils, 369-384
Iron, in soils, 72, 74
Iron oxide minerals, in red soils, 29, 37-38, 39-41, 46-50
Iron, use efficiency, 229-232
Irrigation, on red soils, 239-248, 365-366
ponds, 365-366
optimal,239-248
Kaolinite, in red soils, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,44,45,46,51-54,58-59,139

Kelang village, socio-economic study of, 349-368
agriculture, 352-353, 355, 368-369
employment, 353
household characteristics, 354-356
income, 353-354
off-farm employment, 359-360
socio-economic status, 357
Kenya, red soils in, 12-13
Land use, erosion, 151-158

red soils in Zhejiang province, 275-282
SUBJECT INDEX 395
Lateritic red earths, 29-33, 40, 54-55, 166

mineralogy, 40
Latosols, 29-32, 40, 54,103-107,166
mineralogy,40,54
nutrients, 103-107
Limestone, parent material of red soils, 139
Liming, of red soils, 18-19, 166-167,255-260
ryegrass yield, 255-274
Luvisols, 12, 13, 14
Maghemite, in red soils, 40, 42

Magnesium, in red soils, 104, 106
Magnesium, use efficiency in plants, 228-229
Magnesium, in forage grasses, 249-254
Magnetic analyses, 267
Magnetite, in red soils, 40, 42
Malaysia, red soils in, 15
Maize, 117-125, 146-148,269-271
climatic controls of, 117-125
productivity, 146-148
Manganese, in red soils, 41
Manganese tolerance in plants, 178-181
genotypic differences in, 178
genetic basis of, 180-181
physiological basis of, 178-179
Manganese, use efficiency in plants, 229-230
Microbial biomass, in red soils, 107-109, 155-157, 168,287-291,302-304,307-313,
315-321,323- 329, 337-340
carbon, 107-109,307-313,315-321,
nitrogen, 107-109,287-291,307-313,315-321
phosphorus, 107-109,302-304,307-313,315-321
tea bush soils, 337-339
Microbial community structure, 323-329, 337-339
tea bush soils, 337-339
Mineralogy, of red soils, 8-10,29-30,32-33,36-38,40,41,42,43,44-45, 266-267
altitude, 43
climate, 42
concretions, 41
identification, 36-38
lateritic red soils, 40
latosols, 40
parent material, 44-45
red sandstone soils, 40-41
red and white patches, 41,
topography, 43-44
Wang Jia soils, 266-267
396 SUBJECT INDEX
yellow soils, 40
Mollisols, 8-10, 63,173
Molybdenum, in red soils, 72, 74,103,104,106
Monitoring, 118-119
crop growth, 118-119
meteorology, 118
potential evapotranspiration, 118
soil drying, 119
soil moisture, 118
Munsell colour, of red soils, 8
Nitosols, 12, 14
Nitrogen, in red soils, 69-70, 103-105
Nitrogen use efficiency, in plants, 184-189, 196-197
genotypic differences in, 184
Nitrogen utilization, 283-291
Nutrients, in red soils, 7,69-70, 72-74,143-144,163-165,168-169
content, 7, 143-144,69-70,72-74,168-169
loss, 163-165
Nutrients, in plants, 143-144
Nutrient use efficiency in plants, 182-206
defmition, 182
external use, 182-183
fertilizer use, 183
internal use, 183-184
rice, 227-230
Optimum tree cluster, information system, 377-384

Organic acids, in plants, 190-191,202
phosphorus use efficiency and, 190-191
zinc use efficiency and, 202
Orchard soils, 275-282
chemical properties in, 275-277
physical properties in, 278-282
Organic matter, in red soils, 23, 67-69,104,167-168,283-291,295-304
amendment, 167-168,283-291,295-304
Oxide minerals, in red soils, 37-38, 39-42, 46-50
Oxisols, 8, 9,10,11,12,18-24,173,219-221
Paddy soils, 41,104-107,130,135-136,244-248,315-322,325-328

irrigation, 244-248
SUBJECT INDEX 397

mineralogy, 41
water retention characteristics, 130, 135-136
Phosphate, in red soils38, 53-59, 69, 73,103-105,249-254,255-259,295-305
adsorption, 38, 53-59
forage grasses, 249-254
minerals, 46
organic matter amendment, 295-305
ryegrass yield, 255-259
Phosphorus use efficiency, 189-192, 196-197,227-229
genetic basis of, 192
genetic differences in, 189
Physical characteristics, of red soils, 8-10, 39, 75-86,154-155,164-165,278-282
determination of, 39
land use, 278-282
soil erosion, 164-165
Physiology, of crop plants, 171-218
Planosols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Plant resistance, to toxicity stresses, 172-181
aluminium, 172-178
manganese, 178-181
Plot studies, 269-271
Plumbogummite minerals, in red soils, 46
Podzols, element deficiency/toxicity, 173
Potassium, in red soils, 69, 72, 73, 103-106,249-254
forage grasses, 249-254
Potassium use efficiency, in plants, 192-197,227-229
genotypic differences, 192
sodium substitution, 194-195
uptake, 193
Quality, of soil, 323-330

Quartz, in red soils, 42, 43,51-53
Quaternary red clay, 42, 45, 250-253, 256-260, 307-314, 315-322
forage grasses, 250-253, 256-260
microbial biomass, 307-314, 315-322
mineralogy, 42, 45
Rare earth elements, in red soils, 89-100

chemical forms, 96-99
distribution in soil profile, 90-91
lateritization, 95
soluble forms, 91-94
398 SUBJECT INDEX
Reclamation, of red soils, 166-167

Red earths, 29-33
Red sandstone soil, 50, 51, 250-260
forage grasses, 250-254, 255-260
Regionalization, of agriculture, 377-384
Rhizosphere, of tea bush soils, 341-343
Rice, on red soils, 219-239
genotypes, 219-239
growth parameters, 222-226
irrigation, 243-248
nutrient use efficiency, 227-230
Root morphology, of plants on red soils, 185-187, 192-193,201-202,205-206
boron use efficiency, 205-206
nitrogen use efficiency, 185-187
potassium use efficiency, 192-193
zinc use efficiency, 201-202, 206
Runoff, 142-143, 152-154
Rutile, in red soils, 40
Ryegrass, 250-254, 255-260, 283-292, 295-305
acid soils, 250-254, 255-260
inorganic phosphate uptake, 295-305
nitrogen uptake, 283-292
Sandstone soils, mineralogy, 40-41, 54

phosphate adsorption, 54
Sand fraction, mineralogy, 52-53
Silicon, in red soils, 104-106
Silt fraction, mineralogy, 51-52
Smectite, in red soils, 40, 41, 44, 45, 54
Socio-economics, red soils, 359-368
Sodium, substitution for potassium, 194-195
Soil characteristics 142-143
loss, 142-143
moisture, 143
temperature, 143
Soybeans, irrigation, 243, 246, 248
Soil chiselling, 167
Spodosols, element, deficiency/toxicity, 173
Straw mulch, used on red soils, 140, 142, 144-148,268-271
Sulphur, in red soils, 104, 106
Surface charge, of red soils, 36, 38-39, 54-56
Sustainable cropping, on red soils, 261-274
Tea bush soils, 152-157,276-277,278-282,315-322,323-328,331-345

acidification, 331-345
SUBJECT INDEX 399
erosion, 152-157
Texture, of red soils, 67
Thailand, red soils in, 14-15,272-23
Pangmapa plots, 272-273
Tracer techniques, 285-286
Transfonnation dynamics, 295-305
Translocation, of nutrients, 188, 193-194
nitrogen, 188
potassium, 193-194
Tree planting, cost/benefits, 365
Trench planting, 167
Ultisols, 8-10,14,15,16,65,138-139,152,169,173,369-375
infonnation system, 369-375
Upland crops, on red soils, 219-236, 276-282, 325-328
rice, 219-236
Urea, organic matter amendment, 287, 290-291
VA mycorrizha, 191-192,203
phosphorus use efficiency, 191-192
zinc use efficiency, 203
Variate analysis, 326-329
Vegetable soil, microbial biomass, 315-322
Vermiculite, in red soils, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45,51-53
Vetiver grass, 268, 271-272
Vietnam, red soils in, 16
Wang Jia catchment, 261-274

agricultural assessment, 264
cost benefit analysis, 361-366
geomorphology, 264-266
management practices, 268-272, 360-361
mineralogy, 266-267
Wasteland, on red soils, 275-281,
Water balance, 120-125,239-248
simulation research, 239-248
Water holding capacity, of red soils, 129-136
400 SUBJECT INDEX
land use, 130-136

Water supplying capacity, of red soils, 129-136
Water stable aggregates, in red soils, 75-87
iron oxides, 75-78, 83-85
land use, 279-282
organic matter, 75-80
parent materials, 80-82, 85-86
size classes, 81-84
Weathering profiles, of red soils, 90
Winter wheat, irrigation, 239-241
Woodland, microbial biomass, 315-322
X ray diffraction, 37-38

X ray fluorescence, 41
Yangtze river, 163

Yellow earths, 29-33, 40, 104-107, 166
mineralogy, 40
nutrients, 104-107
Yellow red soils, 50, 51
Yield, forage grasses on red soil, 251-254, 255-260
Yunnan Province, 137-150
crop productivity, 137-150
erosion rates, 137-150
socio-economic study, 349-368
sustainable cropping, 261-274
Zero point of charge, measurement, 38-39

Zhejiang Province, red soils in, 42, 44, 50, 63-87,129-136,239-248,275-282,307-
314,369-384
Distribution, 65
information system, 369-384
irrigation, 239-248
land use, 275-282
mineralogy, 42, 44, 50
soil loss, 163
soil properties, 63-87
water holding capacity, 129-136
water supplying capacity, 129-136
Zhujiang river, 163
Zinc, in red soils, 72, 74, 104, 106-107
Zinc use efficiency, of plants, 201-205, 229-231
genetic basis, 203-204
genotypic differences, 201
physiological basis, 201-203

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COLOUR PLATE X111

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1

PART I. THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DISTRIBUTION

NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF THE

DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RED SOILS

MINERALOGY OF RED SOILS IN SOUTHERN CHINA

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

RARE EARTH ELEMENT CREE) GEOCHEMISTRY DURING

PART ll. CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION

CHEMICAL SOIL CONSTRAINTS TO CROP

CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION

SOIL WATER HOLDING AND SUPPLYING CAPACITIES

EROSION RATES AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY ON A RED

SOIL FERTILITY DEGRADATION IN ERODED

PART Ill. MANAGEMENT, UTILIZATION AND

CHALLENGES IN THE MANAGEMENT AND

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC ASPECTS OF CROP

RESPONSE OF UPLAND RICE GENOTYPES TO SOIL

SIMULATION RESEARCH ON WATER BALANCE AND

ACID TOLERANCE OF SOME FORAGE GRASSES AND

EFFECT OF P FERTILIZER AND LIME APPLICATIONS

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE CROPPING

EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON THE CHEMICAL AND

EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT ON

EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER AMENDMENT ON

EFFECTS OF pH ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -C,

EFFECT OF LAND USE ON MICROBIAL BIOMASS -C,

DYNAMICS OF SUBSTRATE UTILIZATION PATTERN

SOIL ACIDIFICATION UNDER TEA BUSHES AND ITS

PART IV. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RED SOIL

A SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF KELANG VILLAGE

ESTABLISHMENT AND APPLICATION OF AN

INTEGRATION OF A SOIL INFORMATION SYSTEM

PART V. CONCLUSIONS 385

M J WILSO~l), ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)

(1) The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK

THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, DISTRIBUTION AND

M J WILSON!), ZHENLI HE(2) AND XIAOE YANG(2)

(J)The Macaulay Institute for Land Use Research, Aberdeen, UK

v C BALIGAR(I), N K FAGERIA(2), H ESWARAN3 ),

USDA-ARS-ACSL, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville,

2. PREDOMINANT RED SOILS OF THE WORLD

Order! Oxisols Ultisols Alfisols

Ultisols (Acrisols) and Oxisols (Ferralsols) have common nutrient management

3. NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF RED SOILS OF

3.1 Red Soils of Brazil and Argentina

Range H2O (%) mgdm- 3 Cmolckg-I mgdm-3

Soil Order Clay pH O.C Ca Mg K CEC AI

Alfisols 30 5.3 1.0 6.5 3.5 0.50 17.5 15

Source: Sanchez and Isbell, 1978