Dog

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"Pooch" redirects here. For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation) and Pooch
(disambiguation).

Dog

Temporal range: At least 14,200

years ago – present[1]

 Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: C. familiaris

Binomial name

Canis familiaris

Linnaeus, 1758[2]

Synonyms[3]

show

List

The dog or domestic dog (Canis familiaris[4][5] or Canis lupus familiaris[5]) is

a domesticated descendant of the wolf, and is characterized by an upturning tail. The dog
is derived from an ancient, extinct wolf,[6][7] and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living
relative.[8] The dog was the first species to be domesticated,[9][8] by hunter–gatherers over 15,000
years ago,[7] before the development of agriculture. [1] Due to their long association with humans,
dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals [10] and gained the ability to
thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.[11]
The dog has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities,
and physical attributes.[12] Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They perform many
roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and
the military, companionship, therapy, and aiding disabled people. Over the millennia, dogs
became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the human-canine bond has been a topic of
frequent study.[13] This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best
friend".[14]

Contents

 1Taxonomy
 2Evolution
o 2.1Domestication
o 2.2Breeds
 3Biology
o 3.1Anatomy
 3.1.1Skeleton
 3.1.2Senses
 3.1.3Coat
 3.1.4Tail
o 3.2Health
 3.2.1Lifespan
o 3.3Reproduction
 3.3.1Neutering
o 3.4Inbreeding depression
 4Behavior
o 4.1Intelligence
o 4.2Communication
 5Ecology
o 5.1Population
o 5.2Competitors and predators
o 5.3Diet
o 5.4Range
 6Roles with humans
o 6.1Pets
o 6.2Workers
o 6.3Athletes and models
o 6.4Food
o 6.5Health risks
o 6.6Health benefits
o 6.7Cultural importance
 7Terminology
 8See also
  9References
 10Bibliography
 11External links

Taxonomy
Further information: Canis lupus dingo §  Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo, and
New Guinea singing dog
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae,
the two-word naming of species (binomial nomenclature). Canis is the Latin word meaning
"dog",[15] and under this genus, he listed the domestic dog, the wolf, and the golden jackal. He
classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf
as Canis lupus.[2] Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because
of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata), which is not found in any other canid.[16]
In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have
originated from the grey wolf, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog breeds having
developed at a time when human communities were more isolated from each other. [17] In the
third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W.
Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild subspecies and proposed two
additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus
in 1758 and, dingo named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea
singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the
mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision. [3] Mammalogists have noted the
inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the "domestic dog" clade[18] with some debating
it.[19]
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist
Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris and
therefore did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[4]

Evolution
Main article: Evolution of the wolf

Location of a dog's carnassials; the inside of the 4th upper premolar aligns with the outside of the 1st
lower molar, working like scissor blades
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event occurred 65 million years ago and brought an end
to the dinosaurs and the appearance of the first carnivorans. [20] The name carnivoran is given to
a member of the order Carnivora. Carnivorans possess a common arrangement of teeth
called carnassials, in which the first lower molar and the last upper premolar possess blade-like
enamel crowns that act similar to a pair of shears for cutting meat. This dental arrangement
has been modified by adaptation over the past 60 million years for diets composed of meat, for
crushing vegetation, or for the loss of the carnassial function altogether as in seals, sea lions,
and walruses. Today, not all carnivorans are carnivores, such as the insect-eating Aardwolf.[5]
The carnivoran ancestors of the dog-like caniforms and the cat-like feliforms began their
separate evolutionary paths just after the end of the dinosaurs. The first members of the dog
family Canidae appeared 40 million years ago,[21] of which only its subfamily
the Caninae survives today in the form of the wolf-like and fox-like canines. Within the
Caninae, the first members of genus Canis appeared six million years ago,[15] the ancestors of
modern domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, and golden jackals.

Domestication
Main article: Origin of the domestic dog
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered
in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence
shows that this dog was not a local wolf.[22] The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was
found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with
red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine
distemper.[23] Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described
as Paleolithic dogs but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated[24] because
considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.[1]
This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated [9][8] in the time
of hunter–gatherers,[7] which predates agriculture.[1] DNA sequences show that all ancient and
modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf
population which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage.[6][7] Most dogs form a sister group to
the remains of a Late Pleistocene wolf found in the Kessleroch cave near Thayngen in the
canton of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, which dates to 14,500 years ago. The most recent
common ancestor of both is estimated to be from 32,100 years ago.[25] This indicates that an
extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of the dog, [8][1][26] with the modern wolf
being the dog's nearest living relative. [8]
The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway
into domestication.[24][27] The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have
taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades. [9] Genetic studies suggest a domestication
process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either
Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia.[10] In 2021, a literature review of the current
evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North
Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia. [22]

Breeds
Main article: Dog breed
Further information: Dog type
Dog breeds show a range of phenotypic variation

Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally recognized dog breeds.
[10]
 In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog breeds, which
resulted in a vast range of phenotypes.[8] Most breeds were derived from small numbers of
founders within the last 200 years,[8][10] and since then dogs have undergone
rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern breeds due to artificial
selection imposed by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between
breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire
order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include
body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour. [8] Their behavioural traits include
guarding, herding, and hunting, [8] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include
hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression, [10] which demonstrates the functional and
behavioral diversity of dogs.[8] As a result, present day dogs are the most abundant carnivore
species and are dispersed around the world. [10] The most striking example of this dispersal is
that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.[7]

Biology
Anatomy
Main article: Dog anatomy
Skeleton

A lateral view of a dog skeleton

All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal structure with the
exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation
between dogs of different types.[28][29] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running;
the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for powerful back muscles to connect to,
the long ribs provide plenty of room for the heart and lungs, and the shoulders are unattached
to the skeleton allowing great flexibility.[28][29]
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen
the dog's skeleton greatly enhanced in size for larger types as mastiffs and miniaturised for
smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively utilised for some types where
short legs are advantageous such as dachshunds and corgis.[29] Most dogs naturally have 26
vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as three.[28]
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant
divergence in terms of skull shape between types.[29][30] The three basic skull shapes are the
elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or
mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff
type skulls.[29][30]
Senses
Further information: Dog anatomy §  Senses
A dog's senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and sensitivity to Earth's magnetic
field. Another study has suggested that dogs can see Earth's magnetic field. [31]
Coat
Main article: Dog coat

Dogs display wide variation in coat type, density, length, color, and composition

The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs (as well as
wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair,
or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of
white fur on their chest or underside. [32] Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as
one year of age; this is associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise,
and fear of unfamiliar people or animals.[33]
Tail
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or corkscrew.
As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their
emotional state, which can be crucial in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs the tail
is traditionally docked to avoid injuries.

Health
Main article: Dog health
Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as elbow and hip
dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two severe
medical conditions significantly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all
breeds and ages, and Gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects larger breeds or deep-
chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also
susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms,
and heartworms, which is a roundworm species that lives in the hearts of dogs.
Several human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids,
causing theobromine poisoning, onions and garlic,
causing thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning, grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts,
and xylitol.[34] The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs. Signs of ingestion can
include copious vomiting (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other symptoms are
abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death. [35][page  needed]
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans,
including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.
[citation needed]

Lifespan
Further information: Aging in dogs
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most, the median longevity
(the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) ranges from 10
to 13 years.[36][37] The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is
one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. [36][37][38] For
dogs in England, increased body weight has been found to be negatively correlated with
longevity (i.e., the heavier the dog, the shorter its lifespan), and mixed-breed dogs live on
average 1.2 years longer than purebred dogs.[39]

Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction

A female dog nursing newborn puppies.

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both males and
females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds, and
is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience
subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the
peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation.
Because the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male
can sire the same litter.[12]
Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the
embryo attaches to the uterus and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable. [40]
[41]

Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[12][42] with an average of 63 days,

although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies.[43]
Neutering
Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removing the male's testicles or the
female's ovaries and uterus, to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because
of dogs' overpopulation in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as
the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not
intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies
that may later be euthanized.[44]
According to the Humane Society of the United States, three to four million dogs and cats
are euthanized each year.[45] Many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are
many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep
overpopulation down.[46]
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.[47] Spayed
female dogs are less likely to develop cancers affecting the mammary glands, ovaries, and
other reproductive organs.[48][page  needed] However, neutering increases the risk of urinary
incontinence in female dogs[49] and prostate cancer in
males[50] and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity,
and diabetes mellitus in either sex.[51]

Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g., between half
and full siblings).[52] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of
homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.[53] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals,
including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive
mutations in progeny.[54]
In a study of seven dog breeds (the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn
Terrier, Brittany, German Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was
found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival. [55] Another analysis of data on
42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size
decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding
depression.[56] In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age.
Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection
increased significantly with increases in inbreeding. [57]

Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog behavior §  Behavior compared with other canids
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog
(individuals or groups) to internal and external stimuli. [58] As the oldest domesticated species,
dogs' minds inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of
this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and
communicate with humans more than any other species and they are uniquely attuned to
human behaviors.[13] Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive
abilities in domestic dogs. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine
relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, but rather parallel to
children's social-cognitive skills.[59]
Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected
for their behaviors.[60][61] In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation
between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of
natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog
domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway,
with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response [61][62] (i.e., selection for
tameness) and emotional processing.[61] Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression
compared with wolves.[61][63] Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in
some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and later in breed
formation.[61] Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications
related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense
of problem-solving ability.[64]

Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
Dog intelligence is the dog's ability to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for
applying to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by inference and
have advanced memory skills. A study with Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the
labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning
and correctly retrieved those new items immediately and four weeks after the initial exposure.
A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented his learning and memory capabilities.
He had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. [65] Dogs
can read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing and
human voice commands.
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are no more exceptional
than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats.[66] One limited study of 18
household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory, and were more focussed on the "what"
of a task rather than the "where". [67]
Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.[68] An experimental study showed
compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social
problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-
solving abilities once they joined up with humans. [69] Another study revealed that after
undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version
of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. [70]

Communication
Main article: Dog communication

Dog sounds (0:14)
0:15

A dog making noises and

barking

Problems playing this file? See media

help.

Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from
humans and translate the information that dogs are transmitting. [71]: xii  Communication behaviors
of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements
of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Humans
communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture.

Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human
environment.[72][73] In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million [74] and
987 million.[75] About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries. [76] In the developing world,
dogs are more commonly feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon. Most of these
dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study
showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or
respond aggressively (11%).[77] Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed
countries that are feral, strays, or are in shelters because the great majority of modern
research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes. [78]

Competitors and predators

Although dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, feral
and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong
association with humans.[72] For example, a review of the studies in dogs' competitive effects
on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and
wolves.[79][80] Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs
in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog
groups.[79][81]
Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together. [82] In some instances, wolves have
displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs to
the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. [83] Although the numbers of dogs killed each
year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs
and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations. [79]
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. In particular, leopards are known
to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter
what their size.[84] Siberian tigers in the Amur River region have killed dogs in the middle of
villages. This indicates that the dogs were targeted. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as
competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way.
[85]
 Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.[86]

Diet
See also: Dog food

A Golden Retriever gnawing on a pig's foot

Dogs have been described as omnivores.[12][87][88] Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural

societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that
contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet. [11] Similar to humans, some dog
breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high starch diet.
[89]
 However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce bile
acid with taurine and they cannot produce vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh. Also,
more like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain its nitrogen balance. These nutritional
requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores. [90]

Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human
societies. Notable exceptions once included:

 The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival
of dingos on that continent
 The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the
land bridge to Myanmar
 The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, a different canid
species
 Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where dogs
died out after original settlement, notably the Mariana Islands,[91] Palau[92] and most
of the Caroline Islands with exceptions such as Fais Island and Nukuoro,
[93]
 the Marshall Islands,[94] the Gilbert Islands,[94] New Caledonia,[95] Vanuatu,[95]
[96]
 Tonga,[96] Marquesas,[96] Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French
Polynesia, Easter Island,[96] the Chatham Islands[97] and Pitcairn Island (settled by
the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing
ships).[98]
Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs, but were later outlawed by international
agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections. [99]

Roles with humans

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors,
which would have been pack hunters with a complex body language. These sophisticated
forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and
ability to fit into human households and social situations. These attributes have given dogs a
relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful animals
today.[100]
The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous
across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling
loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled
individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend"
in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[101][102]

Pets
Siberian Huskies are pack animals that still enjoy some human companionship

It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as
feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon. [103][page  needed]
"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs" [104] and
the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history. [14] Pet dog
populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.[14] In the 1950s
and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today [105](the expression "in
the doghouse" - recorded since 1932 [106] - to describe exclusion from the group implies a
distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a
guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes
in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their
human guardians.[107][page  needed] People and their dogs have become increasingly integrated and
implicated in each other's lives[108][page  needed] to the point where pet dogs actively shape how a
family and home are experienced. [109]
There have been two significant trends occurring within the second half of the 20th century in
pet dogs' changing status. The first has been "commodification", shaping it to conform to social
expectations of personality and behavior. [109] The second has been the broadening of the
family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.
[109]

A vast range of commodity forms aims to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion. [110] The
list of goods, services, and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture
and housing to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and
beaches and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries. [110] Dog training books, classes, and television
programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued. [111]
The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although
some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the
dog-human family as a pack.[109] Some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog
Whisperer, have promoted a dominance model of dog-human relationships. However, it has
been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions. [112] Pet
dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-human
families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking
through the dog; to mediate their interactions with each other. [113]
Increasingly, human family-members engage in activities centered on the dog's perceived
needs and interests, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog
yoga.[110]
According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in
the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United
States have pet dogs.[114] The same source shows that nearly 40% of American households
own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than
two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the
statistical data reveal an equal number of male and female pet dogs. Although several
programs promote pet adoption, less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters.[114]
A study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to compare humans and dogs showed that
dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do.
This gives dogs the ability to recognize human emotional sounds, making them friendly social
pets to humans.[115]

Workers
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion
animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs),[116][page  needed][12] hunting
(hounds, pointers)[117][page  needed] and rodent control (terriers).[12] Other types of working
dogs include search and rescue dogs,[118] detection dogs trained to detect illicit
drugs[119] or chemical weapons;[120] guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets;
and dogs that pull loads.[12] In 1957, the dog Laika became the first animal to be launched
into Earth orbit, aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight.[121][122]
Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing
dogs, mobility assistance dogs and psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities.
[123][124]
 Some dogs owned by people with epilepsy have been shown to alert their handler when
the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset,
allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care.[125]

Athletes and models

See also: Conformation show
People often enter their dogs in competitions, such as breed-conformation shows or sports,
including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In conformation shows, also referred to as
breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs
for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the
breed standard only deals with the dog's externally observable qualities (such as appearance,
movement and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part
of the judging in conformation shows.

Food
Main article: Dog meat
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea,[126][page  needed] China,
[101]
 Vietnam[102] and the Philippines,[127] which dates back to antiquity. [128] Based on limited data, it
is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. [129] In China,
debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat. [130] Following the Sui and
Tang dynasties of the first millennium, however, people living on northern China's plains began
to eschew eating dogs, which is likely due to Buddhism and Islam's spread, two religions that
forbade the consumption of certain animals, including the dog. As members of the upper
classes shunned dog meat, it gradually became a social taboo to eat it, even though the
general population continued to consume it for centuries afterward. [131] Dog meat is also
consumed in some parts of Switzerland. [132] Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-
Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. Dog fat is also reportedly
believed to be beneficial for the lungs in some parts of Poland [133][134] and Central Asia.[135]
[136]
 Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and
dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat. [137][138]
[139][140]

In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the Nureongi, differs from those breeds raised
for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.[141]
The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the
body's heat during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure
good health by balancing one's gi, or the body's vital energy. A 19th-century version of
bosintang explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili
powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still
prevalent in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef,
pork and chicken.[141]

Health risks
Further information: Dog bite, Canine vector-borne disease, and Dog bite prevention
In 2018, the WHO reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6% in Asia
and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most important vector.
[142]
 Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-
late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the
head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death
rate.[143] Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can
lead to serious infections.[144]
In the U.S., cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year. [145] It has been
estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic
accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was
difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved
two-wheeled vehicles.[146]
Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United
States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and
almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. [147] Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal
damage and decreased vision.[148] Dog feces can also contain hookworms that
cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[149][150]