Topic 3 Algebra

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 3: ALGEBRA
3.1 TRANSPOSITION OF FORMULA
3.1.1 Construction of Formula
An equation is simply a statement that two quantities are the same.
Example: 4 + 5 = 9
LHS( left hand side ) = RHS ( right hand side )
Think of an equation as a pair of perfectly balanced old-fashioned scales
If we place nine bolts on the RHS, the scale will tilt to the right. If we add four bolts to the LHS, they
will still tilt to the right; but adding five more to the LHS will make the scales balance.
So : 4 + 5 = 9
Now if we add another three bolts to the RHS, we will also have to add three bolts to the LHS to
maintain the balance. It doesn’t matter how many bolts you add, as long as you add the same
number of bolts to both sides.
One of the oldest applications of algebra is solving word problems.
Example: What number when decrease by 5 equal 15?
We can find the number if we can translate the sentence into an equation.
To solve word problems:
i. Read the problem carefully

ii. Re-read the problem carefully
iii. If possible , draw a diagram to assist in interpreting the given information
iv. Translate the English phrases into mathematical phrases and choose a variable for the
unknown quantity.
v. Write the equation using all of the above information.
vi. Solve the equation.
vii. Check the solution to determine whether it satisfies the original problem.
1
CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS FROM VERBAL DATA
Mathematical translations of common English phrases are listed below
ENGLISH PHRASE MATHEMATICAL PHRASE
ADDITION
4 more than a number x+4

A number increased by 5 y+5
The sum of x and y x+y
A number added to 3 3+n
x plus y x+y
SUBTRACTION
A number decreased by 5 y–5

5 less than a number n–5
The difference between x and y x– y
x minus y x–y
MULTIPLICATION
The product of a and b a. b

x multiplied by a a.x
Twice a number 2.n
½ of y ½.y
32 percent of z ( 0.32 ) . z
x times y x.y
DIVISION
The quotient of x and y x/y

The quotient of y and x y/x
The ratio of x and y x/y
x divided by y x/y
English sentences translated into mathematical sentences.
ENGLISH PHRASE MATHEMATICAL PHRASE
A number increased by 2 is 6 x+2=6

The product of a number and 3 is 18 3y = 18
The difference between a number and 3 is 10 n – 3 = 10
Two less than four times a number is 34 4z – 2 = 34
One-half of a number and 6 more is 14 ½ n + 6 = 14
Three more than twice a number is 9 2x + 3 = 9
If a number is increased by 4 , twice the sum is 50 2 ( y + 4 ) = 50
2
Examples
We need to be able to interpret data given in words and write it as a simple equation before we can
solve the problems.
Write an equation to illustrate Solution
1. “ the sum of what number and twice that Let n equal the unknown. Twice a number can be
number equals 9 ? “ expressed as 2n.
Therefore we have: n + 2n = 9
2. “ Two less than four times what number is Let x be the unknown. Four times a number : 4x
34 ? “
Then : 4x – 2 = 34
4x = 36
x=9
3.1.2 Properties of Equations
1. An equation is unchanged by adding or subtracting the same number on both sides
2. An equation is unchanged if we multiply or divide both sides by the same number
3. An equation can be written with the quantities reversed
4. Equations can be added together or can be subtracted from each other
5. If A = B and B = C then A = C
6. If A = B and A = C then B = C
3.1.3 Solving Linear Equation with One Variable
EQUATIONS INVOLVING ADDITIONS AND SUBTRACTION
Examples: Solve
1. x–3=5 2. x+9=2
Solution: Solution:
x −3= 5
x = 5+3 3. 9–x=2
x =8
Solution:
3
EQUATIONS WHERE THE UNKNOWN IS PART OF A PRODUCT
Examples: Solve
1. 5x = 35 2. 4x = 7
Solution: Solution:
5x = 35
35 3. 9x = 3
x=
5
x =7 Solution:
4. 8 = 4y
Solution:
EQUATIONS WHERE THE UNKNOWN IS PART OF A QUOTIENT
Examples: Solve
x x 5
1. =3 2. =
7 3 6
Solution: Solution:
x
=3
7 2x
3. =4
x = 3× 7 3
x = 21
Solution:
3
4. =7
x
Solution
MIXING MULTIPLICATIONS, ADDITIONS AND SUBTRACTIONS
1. 2x + 7 = 13 2. 7 = 4 – 3y
Solution: Solution:
2x = 13 − 7
2x = 6 y
3. +2 = 5
6 2
x=
2
Solution:
x =3
4. 5x – 7 = 3x + 4
Solution
4
EQUATIONS INVOLVING BRACKETS
1. 3 (x – 15) = 9 2. 2 (x – 5) = 9
Solution: Solution:
3x − 15 = 9
3x = 9 + 15 3. 3(x – 7) = 2(x + 4)
3x = 24
Solution:
x =8
4. 3(y + 2) – 7(y + 1) = 2(y + 1) + 6
Solution
EQUATIONS INVOLVING DENOMINATORS
x x 2x 3x x
1. = +7 2. + = +4
2 3 5 7 10
Solution: Solution:
x x
= +7
2 3 x + 3 3x − 5
3. − =7
x x 2 3
− =7
2 3
3x − 2x Solution:
=7
6
x = 42 3 2
4. =
( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
Solution
SOLUTION BY CROSS MULTIPLYING AND BY INVERTING
5x 3 x−5 x+5
1. = 2. =
2 5 2 7
Solution: Solution:
5x 3
=
2 5
25x = 6
6
x=
25
5
3.2 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION

3.2.1 Equation of Linear Equation
A linear function is a first degree equation in x and y (with two variables). That is, there are no
exponents greater than one or negative exponents in a linear equation. A first degree equation,
when solved for y, expresses y as a linear function of x:
y=mx+b
Where, m is the slope (measure of the steepness of the line) and the constant b is the y-intercept
(value of y where the line crosses the y-axis)
Problems involving electrical networks and other technical applications lead to linear equations
containing two or more unknowns. These equations are called linear systems and must be solved
simultaneously (at the same time). There are several methods of solution that can be used:
1. Graphical Method
2. Algebraic Method
a. Method of Substitution
b. Method of Elimination
Linear systems become more difficult to solve when the coefficients are decimals that are not simple
numbers or when there are three or more equations in three or more variables. Matrices provide
direct methods for all linear systems. Methods of solution involving matrices are such as:
1. Cramer’s rule
2. Gauss-elimination method
3. Inverse matrix
3.2.2 Graph of Linear Equation
The graph of a linear function is a straight line.
6
3.2.3 Solving Systems of Two Linear Equation
GRAPHICALLY
The problem of solving a system of two linear equations with two variables can be viewed as a
geometry problem. The graph of each equation is a line, thus, a system of two equations containing
two variables represents a pair of lines. The lines intersect, are parallel or are coincident.
1. If the lines intersect, then the system of equations has one solution, given by the point of
intersection. The system is consistent and the equations are independent.
Intersecting lines, system has one solution
2. If the lines are parallel, then the system of equations has no solution, because the lines
never intersect. The system is inconsistent.
Parallel lines, system has no solution
3. If the lines are coincident, then the system of equations has infinitely many solutions,
represented by the totality of points on the line. The system is consistent and the equations
are dependent.
Coincident lines, system has infinitely many solutions
7
Examples:
1. System of equations with one solution
Solve : 3x–2y=4 → equaEon 1

6 x + y = 13 → equaEon 2
by using graphical method ( intercept method )
Equation 1 Equation 2
Y – intercept x=0,y=-2 x = 0 , y = 13
X – intercept x = 34 , y = 0 x = 613, y = 0
The two lines intersect, the system has one solution which is given by the point of
intersection; (2,1)
8
2. System of equations with no solution
Solve : 4x+2y=8 → equaEon 1

2x+ y=5 → equaEon 2
Y – intercept x=0,y=4 x=0 ,y=5

5
X – intercept x=2,y=0 x= ,y=0
2
The two lines are parallel , the system has no solution
9
3. System of equations with infinite number of solution
Solve : 2x+ y=4 → equaEon 1

-6 x - 3 y = -12 → equaEon 2
Y – intercept x=0,y=4 x=0 ,y=4
X – intercept x=2,y=0 x =2 , y = 0
The two lines coincide; the system has infinite number of solution
10
ALGEBRAICALLY
To obtain exact solutions when solving a system of linear equations, we use algebraic method;
method of substitution or method of elimination.
1. Method of Substitution
STEPS FOR SOLVING BY SUBSTITUTION
STEP 1 : Pick one of the equations and solve for one of the variables in terms of the
remaining variables .
STEP 2 : Substitute the result in the remaining equations .
STEP 3 : If one equation in one variable results , solve this equation . Otherwise,
repeat step 1 until a single equation with one variable remains.
STEP 4 : Find the values of the remaining variables by back-substitution .
STEP 5 : Check the solution found .
Examples:
Solve : x + 2y = 8 → equaEon (1)

3y – 4x = 1 → equaEon (2)
From equation (1), solve the equation for x
x = 8 – 2y
Substitute x in equation (2)
3y – 4 ( 8 – 2y ) = 1
The result is an equation containing just the variable y
3y – 32 + 8y = 1
11 y = 33
y=3
Substitute y in one of the previous equation in order to find x
x + 2y = 8
x+2(3)=8
x+6=8
x=2
Check (1) x + 2y = ( 2 ) + 2 ( 3 ) = 8
(2) 3y – 4x = 3 ( 3 ) – 4 ( 2 ) = 1
11

From equation (1), solve the equation for x
y = 4 – 2x
2 x + ( 4 – 2x ) = 5
2x+4–2x=5
4=5
The statement is not true. This system has no solution and therefore inconsistent

-6 x - 3 y = -12 → equaEon 2
From equation (1) , solve the equation for x
y = 4 – 2x
-6 x – 3 ( 4 – 2x ) = -12
-6 x –12 + 6 x = -12
0=0
The statement is true. This system has infinite number of solution and therefore consistent
2. Method of Elimination
STEPS FOR SOLVING BY ELIMINATION
STEP 1 : Write x’s , y’s and numbers in the same order in both equations .
STEP 2 : Compare x’s and y’s in the two equations and decide which unknown is
easier to eliminate . Make sure the number of this unknown is the same in
both equations.
STEP 3 : Eliminate the equal terms by adding or subtracting the two equations .
STEP 4 : Solve the resulting equation and substitute in the simpler original equation
in order to find the value of the other unknown .
STEP 5 : Check the solution found .
12
Examples:
Solve : 7y = 6 – 4x → equaEon (1)

3x = 2y + 19 → equaEon (2)
Rearrange the equation
4x + 7y = 6 → equaEon (1)
3x – 2y = 19 → equaEon (2)
To eliminate the unknown ‘x’ , multiply equation (1) by 3 and multiply equation (2) by 4
12x + 21y = 18 → equaEon (1) ……..x 3

12x – 8y = 76 → equaEon (2) ……..x 4
The numbers of the unknown ‘x’ are equal , we subtract the two equations
29 y = -58
y = -2
Substitute y in one of the previous equation in order to find x
7y = 6 – 4x
7 ( -2 ) = 6 – 4x
4x = 6 + 14
x=5
check
(1) 4x + 7y = 4 ( 5 ) + 7 ( -2 ) (2) 3x – 2y = 3 ( 5 ) – 2 ( -2 )
= 6 = 19

4x+2y=8 → equaEon (1)

2x+ y=5 → equaEon (2)
To eliminate the unknown ‘x’ , multiply equation (2) by 2
4x+2y=8 → equaEon (1)

4 x + 2 y = 10 → equaEon (2) ………..x 2
The numbers of the unknown ‘x’ are equal , we subtract the two equations
0 = -2
The statement is not true. This system has no solution and therefore inconsistent
13

-6 x - 3 y = -12 → equaEon 2
2x+ y=4 → equaEon (1)

-6 x - 3 y = -12 → equaEon (2)
To eliminate the unknown ‘y’ , multiply equation (1) by 3
6 x + 3 y = 12 → equaEon (1) ...........x 3

-6 x - 3 y = -12 → equaEon (2)
The numbers of the unknown ‘x’ are equal , we add the two equations
0=0
The statement is true. This system has infinite number of solution and therefore consistent
3.3 SECOND DEGREE EQUATION

3.3.1 Introduction
In common with polynomials, the degree of an equation is defined as the degree of the term of
highest degree in it. Thus, if an equation contains the square of the unknown quantity and no higher
degree, it is an equation of the second degree or a quadratic equation.
PURE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
A quadratic equation that contains terms of the second degree only of the unknown is called a pure
quadratic equation. The general expression is given by
AFFECTED / COMPLETE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
A quadratic equation that contains terms of both the first and the second degree of the unknown is
called an affected or a complete quadratic equation. The general expression is given by
where a , b , c are real numbers and a ≠ 0 .
14
3.3.2 Graphing Second Degree Function
PLOTTING VALUES OF y FOR GIVEN VALUES OF x
Drawing a graph requires two variables, an independent variable; x and a dependant variable; y.
Make a table of the values of y corresponding to assigned values of x. Then plot the corresponding
values of x and y as pairs of coordinates and draws a smooth curve through the points.
Example: Graph the function y = x2 – 10x + 16 by completing the table of values.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 16 7 0 -5 -8 -9 -8 -5 0 7 16
Graph of the function:
FINDING THE VERTEX BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE
When a quadratic function is in the standard form, the graph is easily sketched. If the quadratic
function is in the BASIC FORM we have to transform it into the STANDARD FORM
BASIC FORM STANDARD FORM

2
y = ax 2 + bx + c ⇒ y = a ( x − h) + k
The following steps will place any quadratic function in standard form.
STEP 1: Place the quadratic function in the standard form and isolate the x-terms on one
side of the equation, ie rewrite the equation as
y = ax 2 + bx + c
y − c = ax 2 + bx
15
STEP 2: Make the leading coefficient (coefficient of x2) equal to one by dividing both
sides by a
y c a 2 b
− = x + x
a a a a
y c 2 b
− =x + x
a a a
2
1 b b
STEP 3: Add LHS and RHS with  ×  where   is the coefficient of x
2 a a
2 2
y c 1 b b 1 b
− +  ×  = x2 + x +  × 
a a 2 a a 2 a
2
1 b
STEP 4: Simplify the LHS and factorise the RHS by taking the factor of x2 and  × 
2 a
2
y c b2 b 1 b
− + 2 = x2 + x +  × 
a
a
4a
a 2 a

SIMPLIFY FACTORISE
( 2
y b − 4ac 
+
b 
= x + 
)
2
a 4a2  2a 
STEP 5: Solve for y
 b 
2
y = ( a)  x +  − ( a)
b2 − 4ac ( )
 2a  4a2
Examples:
1. Transform y = 2x2 + 8x + 5 into the standard form , form a table of values and graph the
function
Isolate the x terms

y = 2x2 + 8x + 5
y − 5 = 2x2 + 8x
Make the leading coefficient equal to one
y 5 2 2 8
− = x + x
2 2 2 2
y 5 2
− = x + 4x
2 2
16
Add both sides with half of the coefficient x

2 2
y 5 1  1 
− +  × 4  = x 2 + 4x +  × 4 
2 2 2  2 
y 5 2 2
− + ( 2 ) = x 2 + 4x + ( 2 )
2 2
Factorise the RHS and add the number on the LHS
y 5 2 2
− + ( 2 ) = x2 + 4x + ( 2 )
2
2
FACTORISE
SOLVE
y 3 2
+ = ( x + 2)
2 2
Solve for y
y 2 3
= ( x + 2) −
2 2
2
y = 2 (x + 2) − 3
2
Compare with STANDARD FORM y = a ( x − h) + k
Vertex : (h,k )
Therefore; Vertex : ( −2, −3 )
Table of values:
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
y 15 5 -1 -3 -1 5 15
Graph of y = 2x2 + 8x + 5
vertex
17
2. Transform y = - 2x2 – x – 1 into the standard form , form a table of values and graph the
function
Isolate the x terms

y = −2x2 − x − 1
y + 1 = −2x2 − x
Make the leading coefficient equal to one
y 1 −2 2 1
+ = x − x
−2 −2 −2 −2
y 1 2 1
− =x + x
−2 2 2
Add both sides with half of the coefficient x

2 2
y 1 1 1 1 1 1
− +  ×  = x2 + x +  × 
−2 2  2 2  2 2 2
2 2
y 1 1 1 1
− + = x2 + x +  
−2 2  4  2 4
Factorise the RHS and add the number on the LHS
2 2
y 1 1 1 1
− +   = x2 + x +  
−2 2  4  2 4
2
y 7  1
− = x + 
−2 16  4
Solve for y
2
y  1 7
= x +  +
−2  4  16
2
 1 7
y = −2  x +  −
 4 8
2
Compare with STANDARD FORM y = a ( x − h) + k
Vertex : (h,k )
 1 7
Therefore; Vertex :  − , − 
 4 8
Table of values:
x -4/4 -3/4 -2/4 -1/4 0 1/4 2/4

y -2 -11/8 -1 -7/8 -1 -11/8 -2
18
Graph of y = - 2x2 – x – 1
From the two examples, we can conclude that:
Given a quadratic function in the form:

2
y = a ( x − h) + k a≠0
1. The graph of the quadratic equation is a parabola
2. If a > 0, the parabola is open upward ( ∪ shaped )
3. If a < 0, the parabola is open downward ( ∩ shaped )
4. The coordinates of the vertex are ( h , k )
5. The parabola is symmetric with respect to its axis , x = h
RULES
The general equation: y = ax2 + bx + c offers many possibilities.
RULE 1: The effect of a on the graph of the quadratic equation
The value of a in the quadratic equation governs the steepness of the parabola.
When a is large, the parabola is very steep, approaching a needle like shape.
When a is small, the parabola is shallow, approaching a dished shape.
RULE 2: The effect of a on the appearance of the parabola
The algebraic sign of a will determine the opening of the parabola.

a > 0 causes the curve to open upward and the vertex ( turning point ) is the
minimum value .
a < 0 causes the curve to open downward and the vertex ( turning point ) is the
maximum value .
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RULE 3: The effect of c on the appearance of the parabola
The constant c in the quadratic equation determines the y-intercept and therefore
the amount of vertical shift of the parabola.
When c > 0, the curve is raised to cut the y-axis above the x-axis.
When c < 0, the curve cuts the y-axis below the x-axis.
RULE 4: The effect of b on the appearance of the parabola
The factor b in the quadratic equation determines the rotational shift of the turning
point of the graph .
If b > 0, the turning point shifts in a positive (ccw) direction about its “original”
position.
If b < 0, the turning point shifts in a negative (cw) direction about its “original”
position.
Figure (a) Figure (b) Figure (c)

Figure a: quadratic graph may open upward or downward
Figure b: quadratic graphs may be symmetrical about the y-axis or about a line parallel with
the y-axis
Figure c: They may cut the x-axis in two places, cut it in one place or not touch the x-axis at all
20
3.3.3 Solving Quadratic Equation
When a quadratic equation is solved, values of the unknown that will satisfy the conditions of the
equation are found. A value of the unknown that will satisfy the equation is called a solution or a
root of the equation.
PURE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
All quadratic equations have two roots. In pure quadratic equation, the absolute values of the roots
are equal but of opposite sign.
1. Extraction Of Root Theorem
Examples:
1. Solve the equation : x2 – 16 = 0
x2 − 16 = 0
x2 = 16
x = ± 16
x = ±4
2. Solve the equation : 5R2 – 89 = 0
5R2 − 89 = 0
5R2 = 89
89
R2 =
5
89
R=±
5
3. Solve the equation : 5m2 – 125 = 0
5m2 − 125 = 0
5m2 = 125
125
m2 =
5
2
m = 25
m = ± 25
m = ±5
21
4. Solve the equation : 4y2 – 25 = 0
4y2 − 25 = 0
4y2 = 25
25
y2 =
4
25
y=±
4
5
y=±
2
5. Solve the equation : x2 + 36 = 0
x2 + 36 = 0
x2 = −36
x = ± −36
x = ± −1 36 where −1 = i ( imaginary unit )
x = ±6i
W + 4 W − 4 10
6. Solve the equation : + =
W−4 W+4 3
W + 4 W − 4 10
+ =
W−4 W+4 3
( W + 4 )( W + 4 ) + ( W − 4 )( W − 4 ) = 10
( W − 4 )( W + 4 ) 3
W2 + 8W + 16 + W2 − 8W + 16 10
=
W2 − 16 3
( ) (
3 2W2 + 32 = 10 W2 − 16 )
2 2
6W + 64 = 10W − 160
−4W2 = −224
W2 = 56
W = ± 56
22
AFFECTED / COMPLETE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
We have three methods of solving complete quadratic equation; by factorization, by completing the
square and by using quadratic formula.
1. Factorization
Consider xy = 0 . It is impossible to find the value of either unless the value of the other is known.
But, if xy = 0, either x = 0 or y = 0.
( For the product of two numbers to be zero , one of the number must be zero )
Examples:
1. Solve the equation : x (5x – 2) = 0
either ( 5x − 2) = 0 or x = 0
5x = 2
2
x=
5
2. Solve the equation : (x – 5) (x + 3) = 0
either ( x − 5) = 0 or ( x + 3 ) = 0
x=5 x = −3
3. Solve the equation : x2 – x – 6 = 0
x2 − x − 6 = 0
( x − 3)( x + 2) = 0
either ( x − 3) = 0 or ( x + 2 ) = 0
x =3 x = −2
REMARK: The roots of a complete quadratic equation may be of unequal absolute value and
may or may not have the same signs.
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2. Completing The Square
Some quadratic equation are not readily solved by factoring, but can be solved by another method
known as completing the square. Completing the square is a process of finding a missing term in
order to form a perfect trinomial square .
How to complete the square:
STEP 1: Isolate the x-terms on one side of the equation, ie rewrite the equation as
ax2 + bx + c = 0
ax2 + bx = −c
STEP 2: Make the leading coefficient (coefficient of x2) equal to one by dividing both
sides by a
a 2 b c
x + x=−
a a a
2 b c
x + x=−
a a
2
1 b b
STEP 3: Add LHS and RHS with  ×  where   is the coefficient of x
2 a a
2 2
2b 1 b c 1 b
x + x+ ×  = − + × 
a 2 a a 2 a
2
1 b 2
STEP 4: Simplify the LHS and factorise the RHS by taking the factor of x and  × 
2 a
2
2 b b  c b2
x + x+  =− + 2
a  2a 
a
4a

FACTORISE SIMPLIFY
 b 
2 b2 − 4ac ( )
x +  =
 2a  4a2
STEP 5: Apply extraction of root theorem and solve for x
b
x+ =±
(b 2
− 4ac )
2
2a 4a
b
x=− ±
(b 2
− 4ac )
2
2a 4a
x=
−b ± (b 2
− 4ac )
2a
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Examples:
1. Solve 9x2 + 3x – 2 = 0 by completing the square
9x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 1 9
x+ =±
2
9x + 3x = 2 6 36
9 2 3 2 1 1
x + x= x=− ±
9 9 9 6 4
1 2 1 1 4
x2 + x = x=− − =− 
3 9 6 2 6
2 2

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 
x2 + x +  ×  = +  ×  =−
3 
3 2 3 9 2 3 
2 or  two real solution
1 1 9
x2 + x +   = 1 1 2 
3  6  36 x=− + = 
2
6 2 6 
 1 9 1 
x +  = = 
 6  36 3 
2. Solve -x2 + 4x – 2 = 0 by completing the square
2
−x2 + 4x − 2 = 0 x2 − 4x + ( −2 ) = 2
−x2 + 4x = 2 ( x − 2)2 = 2
−1 2 4 2
x + x= x −2 = ± 2
−1 −1 −1
2
x − 4x = −2 x =2± 2
2 2 x =2− 2 
1  1  
x2 − 4x +  × −4  = −2 +  × −4 
2  2 
or  two real solution

x =2− 2 
3. Solve x2 – 2x + 37 = 0 by completing the square
x2 − 2x + 37 = 0 x − 1 = ± −36
x2 − 2x = −37 x = 1 ± −36
2 2
1  1  x = 1 ± −1 36
x2 − 2x +  × −2  = −37 +  × −2 
2  2  x = 1 − 6i 
2 
x − 2x + ( −1) = −36
2
or  two imaginary solution
x = 1 + 6i 
( x − 1)2 = −36 
25
3. Quadratic Formula
If the quadratic equation is in the form of: ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are real numbers with
a ≠ 0 then the solution/s of the equation is/are:
x=
−b ± (b 2
− 4ac )
2a
This equation is known as the quadratic formula
Example:
1. Solve 5x2 +2x – 3 = 0 the equation by using quadratic formula
a = 5,b = 2,c = −3
x=
−b ± (b
2
− 4ac ) = −2 ± (2 2
− 4 ( 5)( −3) )
2a 2 ( 5)
−2 ± 64 −2 ± 8
= =
10 10
3
x= or x = −1 ⇒ two real solutions
5
3
2. Solve = 2R the equation by using quadratic formula
5 −R
3
= 2R
5 −R
3 = 2R ( 5 − R )
3 = 10R − 2R2
2R2 − 10R + 3 = 0
a = 2,b = −10,c = 3
x=
− ( −10 ) ± (( −10) − 4 (2)(3))
2
2 (2)
10 ± 76 10 76
= = ±
4 4 4
x = 4.68 or x = 0.32 ⇒ two real solutions
26
TESTING SOLUTIONS
Now that we can obtain solution to quadratic equation by means of the quadratic formula, there will
be two answers that are possible so long as b2 – 4ac ≠ 0
The two answers are :
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
α= and β=
2a 2a
We can achieve two useful relationships :
−b c
α +β = α .β =
a a
The sum of two roots The product of two roots
Whenever you obtain answers to quadratic equation by means of formula or any other means , you
may test them for accuracy .
THE DISCRIMINANT AND THE ROOTS
The quantity b2 – 4ac under the radical in the quadratic formula is called the discriminant of the
quadratic equation.
∆ = b2 – 4ac
The following rules show how the discriminant characterizes the solution of the quadratic equation.
1. If ∆ = 0 ⇒ there is one rational solution
2. If ∆ > 0 ⇒ there are two rational solutions ( positive and perfect square )
3. If ∆ > 0 ⇒ there are two irrational solutions ( positive , not perfect square )
4. If ∆ < 0 ⇒ there are two imaginary solutions
27
RELATION BETWEEN THE ROOTS ,THE DISCRIMINANT AND THE GRAPH OF QUADRATIC EQUATION
CASE 1: DISCRIMINANT POSITIVE , ∆ > 0
The graph of quadratic function intersects the x-axis at two points. The quadratic equation has two
rational / irrational, unequal roots.
CASE 2: DISCRIMINANT EQUALS TO ZERO , ∆ = 0
The graph of quadratic function touches the x-axis at one point. The quadratic equation has one
root (two equal roots).
CASE 3: DISCRIMINANT NEGATIVE , ∆ < 0
The graph of quadratic function does not intersect or touch the x-axis at all. The quadratic equation
has two imaginary roots.
28
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
In the general quadratic equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
b
The relation x = − gives the value of the independent variable x at which the dependant variable
2a
y will be maximum or minimum .
b
If a > 0, x = − will be minimum because the parabola is open upward .
2a
b
If a < 0, x = − will be maximum because the parabola is open downward.
2a
29
APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
Example 1:
The circuit below contains a resistance R in series with a capacitance C (series RC circuit). The
relationship between R, the capacitive reactance XC, and the total impedance ZT is given by the
Pythagorean relation.
Z2T = R2 + X2C
This is shown by the phasor diagram . If ZT = 6.0 kΩ and the capacitive reactance is twice the
resistance , find R and XC.
Solution
Given : Z2T = R2 + X2C and XC = 2R ( capacitive reactance is twice the resistance )
2
then Z2T = R2 + (2R ) ……. Equation (1)
substituting ZT = 6.0 kΩ into equation (1)
( 6.0 )2 = R2 + (2R )2
36 = R2 + 4R2
5R2 = 36
36
R2 =
5
36
R=±
5
R = ±2.68kΩ
Then to find XC substitute the value of R (where R must be positive)
XC = 2R = 2 ( 2.68 )
XC = 5.36kΩ
30
Example 2 :
The total resistance RT of two parallel resistances R1 and R2 is to be 20Ω , as shown in the figure
below . If R2 is to be 20Ω more than R1 , what should be the values of R1 and R2 to two significant
digits ?
Solution
The total resistance of two resistances in parallel is given by
1 1 1
= +
R T R1 R2
RR
RT = 1 2
R2 + R1
Substitute RT =20Ω and R2 = R1 + 20Ω ( R2 is to be 20Ω more than R1 )

R (R + 20 )
20 = 1 1
(R1 + 20 ) + R1
20 ( 2R1 + 20 ) = R12 + 20R1
R12 − 20R1 − 400 = 0
Apply the quadratic formula
a = 1,b = −20,c = −400
− ( −20 ) ± ( −20 )2 − 4 (1)( −400 )

R1 =
2 (1 )
20 ± 2000
R1
2
Then the solutions are

20 ± 2000
R1 =
2
R1 = 32.36Ω @ R1 = −12.36
Since R1 must be positive , the acceptable answer ( 2 significant digits ) is
R1 = 32.36Ω
∴R1 = 32Ω
31
Example 3 :
Pak Zaini wants to build a rectangular cage with two equal parts. See figure below. He has 180 ft of
fencing. What dimensions will produce the largest cage?
(HINT: let x = the width of the cage and,

(180 − 3x ) = 90 − 3 x = the length of the cage)
2 2
Solution
Largest cage = largest area
Area of the rectangle :
Area = length × width

 3 
Area =  90 − x  ( x )
 2 
3 2
A ( x ) = − x + 90x
2
2
− A ( x ) = x2 − 60x
3
2
− A ( x ) + 900 = x2 − 60x + 900
3
2 2
− A ( x ) = ( x − 30 ) − 900
3
3
A (x) = − ( x − 30 )2 + 1350
2
Form a table of values:
x 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A(x) 0 750 1200 1350 1200 750 0
From the graph ,

• the width is , x = 30 feet
3 3
• the length is 90 − x = 90 − ( 30 ) = 45 feet
2 2
32
Example 4:
Dzamir and Zamri have a rectangular swimming pool that is 10 ft wide and 16 ft long. They are going
to build a tile border of uniform width around three sides of the pool, as shown in the figure below.
They have 90 sq ft of tile. How wide should the border be?
Solution
Let the width of the border be x
Total area of tiles area of

area of
and swimming = swimming +
tiles
pool ( LW ) pool
(16 + 2x )(10 + x ) = 160 + 90

160 + 36x + 2x2 = 250
2x2 + 36x − 90 = 0
Applying quadratic formula :
a = 2,b = 36,c = −90
− ( 36 ) ± 362 − 4 ( 2 )( −90 )
x=
2 (2)
−36 ± 2016
x=
4
x = 2.22 @ x = −20.22
Since the border must be a positive value, then the acceptable answer is x = 2.22 feet
33
3.4 POLYNOMIAL
3.4.1 Polynomial Expression
A polynomial function of degree n in the variable x is a function defined by :
where
ai = the constant coefficient of x in the polynomial
an = the leading coefficient in the polynomial and a n ≠ 0
an xn = the leading term in the polynomial
Polynomial functions of degree 1, 2, 3 and 4 occur so often that we give them special names, as
shown in the chart below.
Example Degree Special Name

P(x) = 4x – 7 1 Linear
P(x) = 2x2 + 4x – 16 2 Quadratic
P(x) = - 3x3 + 5x 3 Cubic
P(x) = x4 – 4x + 3 4 Quartic
3.4.2 Notation of Polynomial
Polynomials are frequently represented by symbols such as : P(x) , D(y) , Q(z)
P(x) = 2x3 – 3x + 2
D(y) = y6 – 2y2 + 3y – 2
Q(z) = 8z4 + 3z3 – 2z2 + z – 1
3.4.4 Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract two or more polynomials, first remove the parentheses and then combine like or
similar terms. The resulting expression is written in order of decreasing degree from left to right.
This is called the standard form of a polynomial.
Example:
1. (4x2 + 2x + 6) + (2x2 – 5) 2. (- 2x2 + 4xy + 3y2) – (2x2y + 3xy – 3x2)

= 4x2 + 2x2 + 2x + 6 – 5 = - 2x2 + 3x2 – 2x2y+4xy – 3xy + 3y2
= 6x2 + 2x + 1 = x2 – 2x2y + xy + 3y2
3. (x2 – 3x + 1) – (x2 – 3x + 4) 4. (x2 – 2x + 4) – (2x2 – 2)

= x2 – x2 – 3x + 3x + 1 – 4 = x2 – 2x2 – 2x + 4 + 2
= -3 = - x2 – x + 6
34
REMARK: If we have a polynomial that contains nested grouping symbols, we simplify the
expression within the innermost grouping symbols first and work outward
5. Express the given polynomial in the standard form

x – [2x – (3x – 1)] = x – [2x – 3x + 1]
= x – [- x + 1]
=x+x–1
= 2x – 1
6. Express the given polynomial in the standard form

3x – 2[2 – x – 2(x + 5)] = 3x – 2[2 – x – 2x – 10]
= 3x – 2 [ - 3x – 8]
= 3x + 6x + 16
= 9x + 16
7. Let P(x) = x2 - 2x - 3 and Q(x) = 2x2 - x + 1
Write each polynomial in the standard form
a. P(x) + Q(x) b. P(x) - Q(x)

= (x2 – 2x – 3) + (2x2 – x + 1) = (x2 – 2x – 3) – (2x2 – x + 1)
= x2 + 2x2 – 2x – x – 3 + 1 = x2 – 2x2 – 2x + x – 3 – 1
= 3x2 – 3x – 2 = - x2 – x – 4
REMARK: The notation P(x) can be used to denote values of the polynomial for a specific value
of x.
Example: P(a) denotes the value of the polynomial P(x) when x = a
8. Let P(x) = x 3 + 6x – 14
a. Find P(1) b. Find P(-3)
= (1)3 + 6(1) – 14 = ( - 3)3 + 6 (-3) – 14
= 1 + 6 – 14 = - 27 – 18 – 14
=-7 = - 59
3.4.5 Multiplication and Division of Polynomial
MULTIPLICATION
1. Law of Exponents
When polynomials are multiplied, each term of one polynomial is multiplied by each term of the
other. The resulting polynomial is then simplified and expressed in standard form. In most cases, the
laws of exponents are very useful in simplifying multiplication and division of polynomials.
35
If m and n are positive integers and x and y are any real numbers , then
m
1. xm .xn = xm+n 2. ( xy )n = xn yn 3. n
x m
=xn
2
xm 2  1
4.
x n
= x m −n 5. x =10 6. ( x) =  x2  = x
 
 
1
n 8. x1 = x 1 1 −
7. (x ) m
=x mn 9.
x
= 1 =x 2
x2
n 1 1
1 1 −n 1
x x 2 x2
10.   = n =x 11. x = x2 12. =  =
x x y y 1
y2
n
 x  xn 1 1 1 1
13.   = n 14. n
x = xn 15. xy = ( xy ) 2 = x2 y2
y y
Example:
1. Simplify the given expressions using the laws of exponents
a. x 2 x 3 = x5 b. ( y 3 ) 4 = y12 c. ( x y ) 5 = x5y5
2. Simplify the product
c.
( −4xy ) 
1 2 1
y  = −4. .x.y.y2 n 2n+1
a. 2  2 (2x ) ( xy )
2 3
= 2n.x2n .x2n+1 .y ( )
3 2n+1
= −2xy 3
= 2n x 4n+1 y 6n+3
b.
( 3a ) ( ab)
n n+ 3
= 3.an .an+ 3 .bn+ 3
= 3a2n+ 3bn+ 3
36
2. Products of Polynomials
The distributive law can be used to simplify the product of a polynomial and a monomial.
Example
1. Simplify each product

a. 5 ( x + 2y - 3z ) = 5x + 10y - 15z
b. 4x ( x2 + 2x + 1 ) = 4x3 + 8x2 + 4x
c. 3xy ( x2 + y + z2 ) = 3x3y + 3xy2 + 3xyz2
REMARK: If both factors in a product are binomials, we can use the FOIL method to simplify
the product.
2. Simplify each product
= 3x2 - 3xy + 2xy - 2y2

= 3x2 - xy - 2y2
3. Use FOIL method to simplify the product
(2x – 3y) (x + 4y)

= ( 2x2 ) + ( 8xy ) + ( -3xy ) + ( -12y2 )
= 2x2 + 8xy - 3xy - 12y2
= 2x2 + 5xy - 12y2
4. Simplify the product ( start from the innermost terms )
(x = 2) [(2x – 1)2 – ( - 4x + 5)] = (x + 2)[(2x – 1)(2x – 1) – (-4x + 5)]

= (x + 2)[4x2 – 4x + 1 + 4x – 5]
= (x + 2) [4x2 – 4]
= 4x3 – 4x + 8x2 – 8
= 4x3 + 8x2 – 4x – 8
5. Simplify the product
a. ( x - 1 ) ( x + 5 ) = x2 + 5x - x - 5 = x2 + 4x - 5
b. ( x - 2 ) 2 = x2 - 2x - 2x + 4 = x2 - 4x + 4
c. ( x + 2 ) ( x - 2 ) = x2 - 2x + 2x - 4 = x2 - 4
d. ( 2x + 1 ) ( 3x + 2 ) = 6x2 + 4x + 3x + 2 = 6x2 + 7x + 2
37
REMARK: If Q(a) is an algebraic expression and P(x) is a polynomial, then the expression
P[Q(a)] is simplified by substituting Q(a) for x in P(x) and simplifying the resulting
expression .
6. Given P(x) = x2 + 2x + 3 , simplify the following expression
a. P(a3) = (a3)2 + 2(a3) + 3 = a6 + 2a3 + 3
b. P(a+1) = (a+1)2 + 2(a+1) + 3 = a2 + 4a + 6
c. P(a+h) = (a+h)2 + 2(a+h) + 3 = a2 + 2ah + 2a + h2 + 2h + 3
DIVISION
To divide one polynomial by another polynomial, we will use the long division method.
Case i :
Case ii :
1. Long Division
STEPS TO PERFORM LONG DIVISION.
STEP 1 : Write the terms on both polynomials IN ORDER . Leave gaps for ‘missing’ terms.
STEP 2 : Divide the first term in the DIVIDEND by the first term in the DIVISOR.
STEP 3 : Write the result in the correct ‘column’ over the division line that is in the
QUOTIENT.
STEP 4 : Multiply all the terms in the DIVISOR by this result and subtract the answer from the
DIVIDEND.
STEP 5 : A ‘new dividend’ is now left . Repeat this process until the dividend that is left is of
a lower degree than the divisor.
38
Example:
1. Divide ( x3 - x2 - 5x + 2 ) by ( x + 2 )
x2 − 3x + 1
x +2 x 3 − x2 − 5x + 2
( −) x 3 + 2x2
− 3x2 − 5x
( −) − 3x2 − 6x
x +2
( −) x +2
0 0
x 4 − 2x 2 + 3x − 6
2. Find the quotient and the remainder for
x2 − 4x + 3
x2 + 4x + 11
x2 − 4x + 3 x 4 + 0x 3 − 2x2 + 3x − 6
( −) x 4 − 4x 3 + 3x2
4x 3 − 5x 2 + 3x
( −) 4x2 − 16x 2 + 12x
11x2 − 9x − 6
( −) 11x2 − 44x + 33
35x − 39
x 4 − 2x2 + 3x − 6 35x − 39
∴ 2
x − 4x + 3
(
= x2 + 4x + 11 + 2 )
x − 4x + 3
3. (
Perform the indicated division by long division 3x 3 − 10x2 + 2x + 7 ÷ ( x − 2 ) )
3x 2 − 4x − 6
x −2 3x 3 − 10x2 + 2x + 7
( −) 3x 3 − 6x2
− 4x2 + 2x
( −) − 4x2 + 8x
− 6x + 7
( −) − 6x + 12
−5
3x 3 − 10x2 + 2x + 7 5
∴
x −2
(
= 3x2 − 4x − 6 −
x −2
)
39
2. Synthetic Division
This technique enables us to perform some division problems quicker and with fewer errors.
CAUTION: This method can be used only when the divisor polynomial is written in the form
x – r , where r is any real number .
Example:
Perform the indicated division by synthetic division
(3x 3
)
− 10x2 + 2x + 7 ÷ ( x − 2 )
2 3 -10 2 7
+ 6 -8 -12
3 -4 -6 -5
( 3x 3
− 10x2 + 2x + 7 ) = 3x 2
− 4x − 6 −
5
( x − 2) x −2
3.4.6 Factor Theorem and Remainder Theorem
FACTOR THEOREM
If ( x - a ) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) , then f (a) = 0.
Conversely, if, for a given polynomial function f(x), f(a) = 0, then x - a is a factor of f(x).
Note: The Factor Theorem is very useful when factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2.
Example:
1. The function f is given by f(x) = 2x3 - x2 - 18x + 9. Show that (x - 3) is a factor of f(x).
Let x = 3
f(3) = 2(3)3 - (3)2 - 18(3) + 9
= 54 - 9 - 54 + 9
= 0
Since f(3) = 0 then it is shown that ( x - 3 ) is a factor of f(x).
2. The expression x3 + 8x2 + kx + 10 has a factor ( x + 2 ). Find the value of k.
Let x = -2
Since (x + 2) is a factor, then f(-2) = 0
Thus, (-2)3 + 8(-2)2 + k(-2) + 10 = 0
-8 + 32 - 2k + 10 = 0
-2k = -34
k = 17
40
3. Show that ( x + 3 ) is a factor of x3 + 2x2 + x + 12.
Let x = -3
Suppose f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x + 12
f(-3) = (-3)3 + 2(-3)2 + (-3) + 12
= -27 + 18 - 3 + 12
= 0
Since f(-3) = 0 then it is shown that ( x + 3 ) is a factor of f(x).
REMAINDER THEOREM
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by ( x - a ) , then the remainder is f (a).
Note : f (a) is the value of f (x) when x = a
THE FACTOR THEOREM IS A SPECIAL CASE OF THE REMAINDER THEOREM IN WHICH f(a)=0 ,
ie ; THERE IS NO REMAINDER AND (x-a) IS A FACTOR OF f(x)
The remainder of a polynomial when divided by a linear function can be obtained from
a. Long division
b. The Remainder Theorem.
HOWEVER, THE REMAINDER THEOREM GIVES A (SIMPLE) METHOD FOR EVALUATING THE
REMAINDER ONLY. IF THE QUOTIENT IS REQUIRED IN A QUESTION, LONG DIVISION MUST BE USED.
Example:
1. Find the remainder when 3x5 - x2 + 1 is divided by ( x + 2 ).
Let x = -2
f(-2) = 3(-2)5 - (-2)2 + 1
= -96 - 4 + 1
= -99 The remainder is -99
2. The expression 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 is exactly divisible by ( x + 2 ). The same expression leaves a
remainder of 12 on division by ( x - 2 ). Calculate the values of a and b.
Let f(x) = 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 2
f(-2) = 0
2(-2)3 + a(-2)2 + b(-2) + 2 = 0
-16 + 4a - 2b + 2 = 0
4a - 2b = 14
2a - b = 7 ---------------------------(1)
f(2) = 12
2(2)3 + a(2)2 + b(2) + 2 = 12
16 + 4a + 2b + 2 = 12
4a + 2b = -6
2a + b = -3 ---------------------------(2)
41
(1) - (2) -2b = 10
b = -5
Substitute b = -5 in (1),
2a - (-5) = 7
2a = 2
a = 1
Thus, f(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 5x + 2
3. When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x - 1) the remainder is 7 and when divided by
(x - 3) the remainder is 13. By writing P(x) = ( x - 1 )( x - 3 )Q(x) + ax + b, find the remainder
when P(x) is divided by ( x - 1 )( x - 3 ). If P(x) is a cubic in which the coefficient of x3 is unity
and P(2) = 6 , determine Q(x)
P(x) = ( x - 1 )( x - 3 )Q(x) + ax + b
P(1) = 7 ( 1 - 1 )( 1 - 3 )Q(1) + a(1) + b = 7

a + b = 7 -------------(1)
P(3) = 13 ( 3 - 1 )( 3 - 3 )Q(3) + a(3) + b = 13

3a + b = 13 ------------(2)
(1) – (2) -2a = -6

a = 3
Substitute a = 3 in (1) 3 + b = 7
b = 4
Thus, P(x) = ( x - 1 )( x - 3 )Q(x) + 3x + 4
When P(x) is divided by ( x - 1 )( x - 3 ), we will get
The remainder is 3x + 4
P(x) is a cubic with the coefficient of x3 is unity. This implies that Q(x) is linear and the
coefficient of x is also a unity. i.e Q(x) = x + A.
P(x) = ( x - 1 )( x - 3 )( x + A ) + 3x + 4
P(2) = 6 ( 2 - 1 )( 2 - 3 )( 2 + A ) + 3(2) + 4 = 6
-2 - A = -4
-A = -2
A = 2
∴ Q(x) = x + 2
42
3.4.7 Factoring Polynomials
Polynomials can be written in a simpler form. They can be factorized. This form is called a FACTORED
FORM.
MONOMIAL FACTORS
3
1 1  1 
1. 2 x + 6x 2 = 2 x (1 + 3x ) 4. 2
=  
2x + 4x 2x  x + 2 
2. x −1 − 2 + x = x −1 1 − 2x + x 2 ( ) 5. 3x 4 + 4x 3 = x 3 ( 3x + 4 )
x x
3. − 6x2 = (1 − 12x )
2 2
BINOMIAL FACTORS
1. ( x − 1)2 ( x ) − ( x − 1) 2. 2
( )( ) ( )
3 x2 + 4 x2 + 1 + 6 x2 + 4
= ( x − 1) ( x − 1) x − 1
= 3 ( x + 4 ) ( x + 1 ) + 2 ( x + 4 ) 
2 2 2
 
= ( x − 1) ( x2 − x − 1)
= 3 ( x + 4 )( 3x + 9 )
2 2
3. x2 4. ( x − 3)3 ( x + 2)2 − 2 ( x − 3)2 ( x + 2 )

x2 + 1 −
x2 + 1 2
= ( x − 3) ( x + 2 ) ( x − 3)( x + 2 ) − 2
1
=
2
(x 2
+ 1 − x2 ) 2
= ( x − 3) ( x + 2 )  x2 − x − 6 − 2
x +1
=
1
2
(
= ( x − 3) ( x + 2 ) x2 − x − 8 )
2
x +1
5. 3 1 5
−
1
(2x + 1) 2 ( x ) 2 + ( 2x + 1 ) 2 ( x ) 2
3 1
−
= ( 2x + 1 ) 2 ( x ) 2  x + ( 2x + 1 ) 
3 1
−
= ( 2x + 1 ) 2 ( x ) 2 ( 3x + 1 )
QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS
1. x2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 2) (x – 1) 4. x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
2. x2 – 9 = (x – 3) (x + 3) 5. 2x2 + 5x – 3 = (2x – 1)(x + 3)
3. x2 + 5x – 6 = (x – 1) (x + 6) 6. x4 – 7x2 + 12 = (x2 – 3)(x2 – 4)

= (x2 – 3)(x – 2) (x + 2)
43
FACTORING CUBIC EXPRESSIONS
SPECIAL FORMS
Consider 2 special forms involving polynomials of degree 3. View these relationships when factoring
polynomials of degree 3.
x3 - a3 = ( x - a )[ x2 + ax + a2 ]
x3 + a3 = ( x + a )[ x2 - ax + a2 ]
Example: Factorize
1. 27 x3 – 1 = ( 3x - 1 )( 9x2 + 3x + 1 ) 3. 8a3 + b3 = ( 2a + b )( 4a2 - 2ab + b2 )
2. 125 - 8x3 = ( 5 – 2x )( 25 + 10x + 4x2 ) 4. 64x3 + 27 = ( 4x + 3 )( 16x2 - 12x + 9)
The method to factorize a cubic expression is not as obvious as factoring a quadratic expression. A
cubic expression requires the method of trial and error to get at least one factor for the expression.
NOTE : a. ( x - a ) is a factor if f(a) = 0.

b. The values that you choose for trial and error must belong to the set of the
factors of the constant in the given cubic expression.
The remaining factors ( if any ) can be found either by
a. long division or
b. repeat the process of trial and error or
c. compare coefficients
Example:
1. Factorize the cubic function f(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 completely.
Step 1 : List down the factors of -12
∴ The set of values is a = { ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 3 , ± 4 , ± 6 , ± 12 }
Step 2 : Substitute each value from the set into the function until you get a factor.
i.e. f(a) = 0
f(1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 - 4(1) - 12 f(-3) = (-3)3 + 3(-3)2 - 4(-3) - 12

= -12 ≠ 0 = -27 + 27 + 12 - 12 = 0
( x - 1 ) is not a factor of f(x). ( x + 3 ) is a factor of f(x)
Step 3 : Find the remaining factors (if any) either by trial and error (form Step 1) or
long division or by comparing coefficients.
x2 - 4
x + 3 x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12
(-) x3 + 3x2
- 4x - 12
(-) - 4x - 12
0 0
The factorized form of f(x) is (x + 3) (x2 - 4). Its complete factorization is (x + 3)(x - 2)(x + 2).
44
2. f(t) = 4t3 - 4t2 - 11t + 6.
Factors of 6 : a = {±1,±2,±3,±6}
Trial and error : f(-1) = 4(-1)3 - 4(-1)2 - 11(-1) + 6

= - 4 - 4 + 11 + 6
= 9 ( t + 1) is not a factor of f(t).
f(2) = 4(2)3 - 4(2)2 - 11(2) + 6

= 32 - 16 - 22 + 6
= 0 ( t - 2) is a factor of f(t).
Using long division :
4t2 + 4t - 3
3 2
t – 2 4t - 4t - 11x + 6
(-) 4t3 - 8t2
4t2 - 11t
(-) 4t2 - 8t
- 3t + 6
(-) - 3t + 6
0 0
The complete factorization of f(t) is ( t - 2 )( 2t - 1 )( 2t + 3 )
NOTE: In certain cases, the coefficient of x3 has to be equal to one before you list down
the factors of the constant.
FACTORING POLYNOMIALS OF DEGREE 4
The same method (trial and error) can also be applied if you wish to factorize quartic expressions.
Example:
Factorize f(x) = x4 - 3x3 + 4x2 - 8 as far as possible.
Factors of –8 : a = {±1,±2,±4,±8}
Trial and error : f( -1) = (-1)4 - 3(-1)3 + 4(-1)2 - 8

= 1 + 3 + 4 - 8
= 0 ( x + 1) is a factor of f(x).
Trial and error : f( 2) = (2)4 - 3(2)3 + 4(2)2 - 8

= 16 - 24 + 16 - 8
= 0 ( x - 2) is a factor of f(x).
45
Using long division :
x2 - 2x + 4
2 4 3
x – x – 2 x - 3x + 4x2 + 0x - 8
(-) x4 - x3 - 2x2
- 2x3 + 6x2
(-) - 2x3 + 2x2 + 4x
4x2 - 4x - 8
(-) 4x2 - 4x - 8
0 0 0
The factorization of f(x) = (x + 1)(x - 2 )(x2 - 2x + 4)
FACTORING BY GROUPING
Another factoring technique is called factoring by grouping. Here is how it works.
Step 1 : Group the first two terms together and remove their common factor. In addition,
group the last two terms together and remove their common factor.
Step 2 : Determine or not whether a common binomial factor has been generated. If it has,
remove that common factor.
Step 3 : If a common binomial has not been generated, interchange the second and third
terms ( reorder the polynomial ) and repeat the process.
Example: Factorize
1. 3x2y + 2y + 3xy2 + 2x = ( 3x2y + 3xy2 ) + ( 2y + 2x )

= 3xy( x + y) + 2( y + x )
= ( 3xy + 2)( x + y )
2. x2 - y2 - 2x + 1 = ( x2 - 2x + 1) - y2
= ( x - 1 )2 - y 2
= ( x - 1 - y )( x - 1 + y )
3. 2x4 + 2yx3 - 2x2y2 - 2xy3 = ( 2x4 + 2yx3 ) - ( 2x2y2 + 2xy3 )

= 2x3( x + y ) - 2xy2( x + y )
= ( 2x3 - 2xy2 )( x + y )
= 2x( x2 - y2 )( x + y )
= 2x( x - y )( x + y )( x + y )
= 2x( x - y )( x + y )2
4. 18x2y - 3xy2 - 18xy + 3y2 = ( 18x2y - 3xy2 ) - ( 18xy - 3y2 )

= 3xy( 6x - y ) - 3y( 6x - y )
= ( 3xy - 3y )( 6x - y )
= 3y( x - 1 )( 6x - y )
46
3.4.8 Partial Fraction
3x 2 − 7
A fractional function of the form where both the numerator and denominator are
x3 + 1
polynomial is referred to as a proper fraction if the degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator. However if the degree of the numerator is greater than , or equal to the
degree of the denominator the fraction is referred to as ‘improper’.
An improper numerical fraction such as

9
may be written as
(7 + 2) = 1 + 2
7 7 7
Similarly an improper algebraic fraction such as given below may be written as:
x2 + 1 − 2 x2 + 1 2 2
2
= 2 − 2 =1− 2
x +1 x +1 x +1 x +1
2 x
Consider a function f(x) = + 2 ; f(x) can be expressed as a single fraction with common
x +1 x +1
denominator thus :
2 x
f (x ) = + 2
x +1 x +1
=
( )
2 x 2 + 1 + x ( x + 1)
( x + 1) ( x2 + 1)
3x 2 + x + 2
=
( x + 1 ) ( x 2 + 1)
The process of decomposing a function
3x2 + x + 2 2 x
i.e. f(x) = = + 2 is called PARTIAL FRACTION.
( x + 1) ( x 2
+1 ) x +1 x +1
If the original fraction is proper then the partial fraction will also be proper.
x+3 A B
Thus can be expressed as +
( )( )
x − 2 x + 4 ( ) ( 4)
x − 2 x +
x +3 A Bx + C
And can be expressed as + 2 where A , B , C are constants to be
( x − 2) ( x 2
+4 ) (
( x − 2) x + 4 )
determined. The method for evaluating these constants depends to some extent on the factors in
the denominator.
47
PROPER FRACTION WITH LINEAR FACTORS
x+3
Decompose into partial fractions.
( x − 2 )( x + 4 )
This example is a proper fraction with linear (of degree one) factors only and so its partial fractions
are also proper. As these partial fractions have linear denominators their numerators contain only
one constant.
x+3 A B
= +
( x − 2 )( x + 4 ) ( x − 2 ) ( x + 4 )
x+3 A ( x + 4 ) + B ( x − 2)
=
( x − 2 )( x + 4 ) ( x − 2 )( x + 4 )
Compare numerators : x + 3 = A ( x + 4 ) + B ( x − 2)
To eliminate B, substitute x = 2,
2 + 3 = A (2 + 4 ) + B (2 − 2 )
5 = 6A
5
A=
6
To eliminate A, substitute x = -4,
−4 + 3 = A ( −4 + 4 ) + B ( −4 − 2 )
−1 = −6B
1
B=
6
Thus, the partial fractions are
5 1
x+3 5 1
= 6 + 6 = +
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( + 4 )
x − 2 x + 4 x − 2 x + 4 6 x − 2 6 x
48
PROPER FRACTIONS WITH QUADRATIC FACTORS
x2 − 3
Express in partial fractions
( x − 1) ( x2 + 1 )
This example contains a quadratic factor in the denominator, therefore
x2 − 3 A Bx + C
= + 2
( x − 1) ( x 2
+1 ) ( x − 1) x + 1 ( )
=
( )
A x2 + 1 ( Bx + C )( x − 1 )
( x − 1) ( x2 + 1)
( )
x2 − 3 = A x2 + 1 (Bx + C )( x − 1)
Compare numerators : ( )
x2 − 3 = A x2 + 1 (Bx + C )( x − 1)
To eliminate B and C, substitute x = 1,
( )
12 − 3 = A 12 + 1 ( B (1) + C ) (1 − 1)
−2 = 2A
A = −1
To solve for B and C, these methods can be used substitution, elimination and compare coefficients
To solve for C, substitute x = 0,
−3 = −1 (1)( C )( −1)
−3 = −1 − C
C=2
To solve for B, substitute x = 2,
4 − 3 = −1 ( 4 + 1 ) (B ( 2 ) + 2 ) ( 2 − 1)
1 = −5 + 2B + 2
2B = 4
B=2
x2 − 3 −1 2x + 2
Thus, the partial fractions are = + 2
( x − 1) ( x 2
+1 ) ( x − 1) x + 1( )
49
PROPER FRACTIONS WITH REPEATED FACTORS
x −1
Express 2
in partial fractions
( x + 1 )( x − 2 )
As (x-2)2 = (x - 2)(x - 2), it is called a repeated factor, but it is also quadratic so we may initially think
of
x −1 A B C
as + +
2
( x + 1 )( x − 2 ) ( x + 1) ( x − 2 ) ( x − 2 )2
NOTE :
In general any repeated factor of the form (ax + b)2 in a denominator will give rise to two partial
A B
fractions of the form and
( ax + b ) ( ax + b )
2
A B
Similarly a repeated factor (ax + b)3 gives rise to three partial fractions of form ,
( ax + b ) ( ax + b )2
C
and 3
( ax + b )
x −1 A B C
= + +
( x + 1)( x − 2)2
( x + 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 2)2
2
A ( x − 2 ) + B ( x + 1)( x − 2 ) + C ( x + 1)
=
( x + 1)( x − 2 )2
Compare numerators :
2
x − 1 = A ( x − 2 ) + B ( x + 1 )( x − 2 ) + C ( x + 1 )
To eliminate A and B, substitute x = 2,
2
2 − 1 = A ( 2 − 2 ) + B ( 2 + 1)( 2 − 2 ) + C ( 2 + 1 )
1 = 3C
1
C=
3
To eliminate B and C, substitute x = -1
2
−1 − 1 = A ( −1 − 2 ) + B ( −1 + 1)( −1 − 2 ) + C ( −1 + 1)
−2 = 9A
2
A=−
9
50
To solve for B, substitute x = 0
2 1
0 −1 = − ( 0 − 2)2 + B ( 0 + 1)( 0 − 2 ) + ( 0 + 1)
9 3
8 1
−1 = − − 2B +
9 3
4
2B =
9
2
B=
9
The partial fractions are
2 2 1
−
x −1 9 + 9 + 3 =− 2 2 1
= + +
( x + 1)( x − 2)2 ( ) ( ) ( x − 2)
x + 1 x − 2 2
9 ( ) ( ) 3 ( x − 2)2
x + 1 9 x − 2
IMPROPER FRACTION
x3
Express in partial fractions
( x + 1)( x − 3)
This function is an improper fraction and it is necessary first to divide the denominator into the
numerator to obtain a mixed fraction (by long division)
x + 2
x2 – 2x – 3 x3
(-) x3 - 2x2 - 3x
2x2 + 3x
(-) 2x2 - 4x - 6
7x + 6
x3 7x + 6
Thus = ( x + 2) +
( x + 1)( x − 3) ( x + 1)( x − 3)
7x + 6
Only the fraction will be expressed in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 3)
7x + 6 A B A ( x − 3 ) + B ( x + 1)
= + =
( x + 1)( x − 3) x + 1 x − 3 ( x + 1)( x − 3)
Compare numerators :
7x + 6 = A ( x − 3) + B ( x + 1)
51
To eliminate B, substitute x = -1,
7 ( −1 ) + 6 = A ( −1 − 3 ) + B ( −1 + 1)
−1 = −4A
1
A=
4
To eliminate A, substitute x = 3,
7 ( 3 ) + 6 = A ( 3 − 3) + B ( 3 + 1)
27 = 4A
27
A=
4
The partial fractions are
1 27
x3 1 27
= ( x + 2) + 4 + 4 = +
( x + 1)( x − 3) ( x + 1 ) ( x − 3 ) 4 ( x + 1) 4 ( x − 3)
CONCLUSION:
Partial fraction is important because it will help simplify the function before integration.
Example :
x3 1 27
∫ ( x + 1)( x − 3) dx = ∫ x + 2 + 4 ( x + 1) + 4 ( x − 3) dx
x2 1 27
= + 2x + ln x + 1 + ln x − 3 + c
2 4 4
52
EXERCISE / ASSIGNMENT:
TRANSPOSITION OF FORMULA
1. A rectangle and a square have the same area. If the rectangle is 4 cm longer and 3 cm
narrower than the square, find the lengths of the sides of the rectangle.
2. Two rectangles of equal area have widths of 10 cm and 12 cm. The difference in their lengths
is 3 cm. Find their areas.
3. A box contains an unknown number of screws. Five screws are removed from the box .The
screws remaining in the box are counted and it is found that there are 12. Write an equation
to illustrate this information. Solve the equation to find how many screws were originally in
the box.
4. For a hydraulic lift , the ratio of the applied force F1 to the resulting force F2 is equal to the
ratio of the squares of the diameters of the pistons :
What applied force is necessary to lift a 1440

kg automobile if D1 = 10 cm and D2 = 80 cm?
5. Three more than a certain number is 10. Find the number.
6. Four more than twice a certain number is 8. Find the number.
7. Sarah is 4 years older than Hakim and the sum of their ages is 46. How old is each?
8. The sum of one-half of a number and 6 is 14. Find the number.
9. The width of a rectangle is 3 meters less than its length. If the perimeter of the rectangle is
50 meters, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
10. One number is 20 more than another. If the greater number is increased by 4, the result is
five times the smaller. Find the two numbers.
11. A square and an equilateral triangle have the same perimeter. Each side of the triangle is 8
meters. Find the length of each side of the square.
12. Seventy-seven mathematics students are separated into two groups. The first group is 4 less
than twice the second group. How many students are in each group
13. Solve each equation.

a. −4y + 10 = −2 ( 3y + 1) b. −2 ( 3x − 4 ) = 2x c. 5 ( 2x − 1) − 2 ( 3x ) = 1
d. 8 − 2 ( a − 1) = 7 + a e. −2y − 10 = 5y + 18 3 1
f. x − =1
4 2
x x h. 0.06 − 0.01 ( x + 1) = −0.02 ( 2 − x )
g. −1 = + 2
2 5
2 ( x + 1) j. 0.50x + 0.15 ( 70 ) = 0.25 (142)
i. = 3x − 2
4
53
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION
Solve the following system of linear equations by using:

a. the graphical method
b. the substitution or elimination method
1. x+y =8 8. 2 15. 2x − 3y = −1
2x + 4y =
x−y =4 3 10x + y = 11
3x − 5y = −10
2. x + 2y = 5 9. 2x + y = 1 16. 3x − 2y = 0
x+y =3 4x + 2y = 3 5x + 10y = 4
3. 5x − y = 13 10. x−y=5 17. 2x + 3y = 6

2x + 3y = 12 −3x + 3y = 2 1 2
x − y = −1
4 3
4. x + 3y = 5 11. 2x − y = 0 18. 1
x + y = −2
2x − 3y = −8 3x + 2y = 7 2
x−y=8
5. 3x = 24 12. 3x + 3y = −1 19. 1 1
x+ y=3
x + 2y = 0 8 2 3
4x + y =
3 1 2
x − y = −1
4 3
6. 4x + 5y = −3 13. x + 2y = 5 20. 1 3
x − y = −5
−2y = −4 2x + 4y = 8 3 2
3 1
x + y = 11
4 3
7. 3x − 6y = 2 14. 3x − y = 7
5x + 4y = 1 9x − 3y = 21
54
SECOND DEGREE FUNCTION
1
1. Sketch on the same set : y = x2 ,y = x2 ,y = 2x2
2
2. Sketch on the same set : y = x 2 ,y = 2x2 ,y = −2x2
3. Sketch on the same set : y = x2 ,y = x2 + 5,y = x2 − 5
2 2
4. Sketch on the same set : y = x 2 , y = ( x + 2 ) , y = ( x − 2 )
5. Transform the following functions into the standard form and draw the graph.
a. y = - x2 - 2x - 8 5
d. y = x2 + x +2
2
b. y = 2 x2 - 16x + 32
11
c. y = -2 x2 + 12x - 23 e. y = -3 x2 + 3x -
4
6. Graph the following quadratic function
a. y = - 5 x2 – 4 1
c. y = − ( x + 2 )2
3
1
b. y = ( x + 2 )2
4 d. y = ( x – 4 )2 + 1
e. y = - (x – 1 )2 + 3
7. Determine whether the following equations are quadratic equations.
a. x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 b. 6x2 + x = 0
c. 2x3 – 3 = 0 d. x2 – 2xy + y2 = 0
e. 3x + 3 = 0 1 10
f. x+ =
x 3
8. Write the following quadratic equations in the general expression and determine the values
of a, b and c.
a. (x + 3)(3x – 4) = 0 d. s + 4 = s(s – 2)
b. 4(n + 3)2 = 11 e. r(r – 2) = 2r(3 – 2r)
c. 3x(x – 2) = 5 – 6x f. (3p – 2)2 = 8
55
9. Solve the following :
a. φ 2 − 0.0004 = 0.0012 28 R+3 R−3

d. 2
= −1+
R −9 R −3 R+3
9
b. λ2 − =0
121 4θ 2 − 9θ − 90 18 − 3θ
e. =−
3θ 6
1
c. 5µ 2 = 3
5
10. Solve by factoring
a. 55 + 6ε − ε 2 = 0 d. ϕ + 35 +
18
= 18 −
24
ϕ ϕ
2Q − 13 7Q − 5
b. =
Q −5 5Q − 7 2F − 6 2
e. =1−
17 − F F−2
8 2
c. +κ +2 = −3
κ κ
11. Solve by completing the square
a. Ω2 + 5Ω + 6 = 0 c. 171τ − 42 = τ 2 + 2τ − 16
b. η 2 − 6η + 5 = 0 d. G+
91
= 20
G
12. Solve the following equations by using the quadratic formula and apply the test for
solutions.
a. 5R(R + 2) = 2R(R – 1) 2 3
d. = −1
λ +3 λ −2
1 1
b. 6 − = 2
x x 7 1 β −2
e. − =
β −3 2 β −4
2 3 1
c. + = − 14
τ τ τ2
13. Determine the types of discriminant and the roots of the following quadratic equations
a. 2x2 – 7x + 5 b. x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 c. x2 = 4x -
14. Find the interval of p if the quadratic equation has two unequal roots
2px2 + 4x – 1 = 0
15. Find the interval of p if the quadratic equation does not have any roots
(2p – 1)x2 + 8x = 2
56
16. Find the value/s of k if the quadratic equation has two equal roots
x2 – 4x = 1 = 2k(x – 5)
17. Construct a quadratic equation having the following roots
a. – 2, 5 1 4
b. ,
2 5
18. If α and β are the roots of the equation : x2 – 2x – 3 = 0, where α > β , construct a
quadratic equation having roots ,
a. 2α, 2β b. α2 , β2
19. The figure shows a generator with internal resistance ri connected to a variable load RV . The
power P
P = VG I – I2ri
Where I = current in the circuit and VG = voltage of the generator. If VG = 12V, ri = 2.0Ω and
P = 16W, findnthe two possible values of the current.
20. In a DC circuit , when a resistance R , an inductance L , and a capacitance C are connected in

series , the following equation must be solved to determine the instantaneous value of the
current :
m2 + [ R/L ]m + [ 1/LC ] = 0
where R is in ohms , L is in Henry’s and C is in farads . Find the value of m when R = 200Ω, L
= 1.0 H and C = 500 µF. Round off the answers to three significant digits.
21. When King Kong was 800 m up the side of the Empire State Building, a fighter plane got too
close to him and was plucked out of the air by the irate primate. He smashed it and hurled it
downward with a speed of 368 m/sec. The equation that gives the plane’s height above
ground level is h = - 16t2 - 368t + 800 . When will the plane hit the ground?
22. The length of a rectangle is twice the width. If the width is increased by 4 m and the length is
increased by 2 m, then this larger rectangle would have an area of 140 m2. What are the
dimensions of the original rectangle?
57
POLYNOMIAL
1. Simplify each expression and write each polynomial in standard form
a. ( x2 + 4x + 2 ) + ( x2 – 3x + 5 ) c. ( x2 – 2x + 3 ) – ( x2 + x – 1 )
b. ( x3 – 2x2 + 3x ) + ( 2x3 + 5x – 2x ) d. ( x5 – x3 + 1 ) – ( x5 + 2x3 + 4 )
e. ( 2x2y + xy2 + y3 ) – ( x3 + xy2 – 3x2y ) – ( y3 – x3 )
f. ( x2yz + xy2z ) – ( 2x3y + 3x2yz ) + ( x3y + xy2z )
g. ( x2y + x2z ) – ( xyz + 2x2z + 3xz2 ) – ( x2y – xyz + xz2 )
h. ( 2xy + x2 – y2 ) + ( xy – x2 ) – ( y2 – 3xy )
i. ( 3x ) + ( 3x – { - 2x + [ - 3x + 4 ] } )
j. – { - [ ( x2 – 2x ) + ( x3 – x2 ) ] + 3x } – { - ( x – 2 ) + ( x2 – 4 ) – 3 }
2. Let : P(x) = x 2 - 3x + 4 Q(x) = -3x 2 + 4x – 2

R(x) = x 3 - 2x 2 + 6x – 7 S(x) = -2x 3 + 5x 2 + x
Find the following :
a. P(x) + Q(x) b. P(x) + [ Q(x) - R(x) ] c. P(x) - R(x)
d. R(x) + S(x) e. (P(x)-Q(x)) - (Q(x)-P(x) f. P(-1)
g. Q(0) h. Q(x) - S(x) i. R(4)
j. S(5)
3. Simplify each product.
a. ( - xy )( 2x2y4 ) b. ( x4y2 )( 3x2y ) c. ( 2x2y )( -3x4y 4)( xy3 )
d. ( -2x2 )( x4y3 )( -3xy2 ) e. ( 2xy )3( -xy2 )( 3x2y ) f. ( -3x2y )3( x2y )( x4y2 )
g. ( xn+2 )( 3xn+4 ) h. ( 2x2 )( 4x2n )( xn-1 ) i. ( -xnyn+1 )( 2x2+nyn )
j. ( 3x2yn+1 )( -3x2nyn+2 ) k. ( x2y )n( -xy2 )2n l. ( -xy4 )n+1( -x2y3 )n
m. 5 ( 2x+3 ) n. 2 ( x2 – 4 ) o. x ( 2x + 6 )
p. 2x ( x2 – 4 ) q. x2 ( x3 – x2 – x r. x2 ( x2 – x – 1 )
s. x3 ( x2 – x + 1 ) t. - x3 ( x4 + x2 + 2 )
58
4. Write each product as a polynomial in standard form.
a. ( x – 2 )( x+ 3 ) j. - ( 4x + 3 )( 3x – 1 )
b. ( x + 1 )( x + 5 ) k. ( x + 2 )( 2x2 + x + 3 )
c. ( 3x – 1 )( x + 2 ) l. ( x + 5 )( x2 + 2x + 4 )
d. ( x + 3 )( 2x – 1 ) m. ( 2x + 1 )( x2 – 2x + 1 )
e. 3 ( 2x + 1 )( x – 2 ) n. ( 2x + 1 )( 2x2 – 3x + 1 )
f. 5 ( x – 1 )( 3x + 1 ) o. x ( x + 1 )( x2 + x + 1 )
g. - ( x – 1 )( x + 1 ) p. x ( x – 2 )( x2 – 2 )
h. - ( x – 1 )( x – 2 ) q. ( x2 + x + 1 )( x2 – x + 2 )
i. - ( 2x – 1 )( 2x + 3 ) r. ( x2 + x )( x2 – 2x + 3 )
5. Simplify the product ( start from the innermost terms ).
a. ( x + 1 ) [ ( x2 – 1 ) + ( 2x + 1 ) ] d. ( x – 1 ) [ ( x – 1 )2 – 4 ]
b. ( x - 2 ) [ ( 2x + 1 ) – ( x2 + x ) ] e. ( x + 1 ) [ ( x + 1 )2 – ( 2x – 1 ) ]
c. ( x + 2 ) [ ( x – 1 )2 + 3 ] f. ( x – 3 ) [ ( 2x + 1 )2 – ( x2 – x – 1 ) ]
g. ( 2x – 3 ) [ ( 2x + 1 ) – ( x2 + x ) ] ( x2 – 4 )
h. ( x2 – x + 4 )[ ( x2 + x + 4 ) – ( x2 + x – 4 ) ] ( x – 1 )
i. ( x2 + x – 4 )[ ( x2 – 2x + 1 ) – ( x2 + x – 1 ) ] ( x + 2 )
j. ( x2 – 2x + 2 ) [ ( 2x2 – x + 1 ) – ( x2 – x + 1 ) ] ( 2x – 1 )
6. Simplify the resulting expressions.

a. P(x) = 2x – 3
i. P(c4) iii. P(c+h)
ii. P(c+2) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
b. P(x) = -3x + ½
ii. P(c+2) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
c. P(x) = 2x2 + x + 2
ii. P(c+1) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
59
d. P(x) = x2 + 2x + 3
ii. P(c+1) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
e. P(x) = x3 – 1
ii. P(c-1) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
f. P(x) = x3 + x
ii. P(c-1) iv. P(c+h) – P(c)
7. Use long division to find the missing factors in each statement.
a. x5 + x4 + 3x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 8 = ( x2 - x + 2 )( ………….. )
b. 6x5 + x4 - x3 - 15x + 5 = ( 3x - 1 )( ………….. )
c. x6 + 2x5 - 3x3 + 12x = ( x2 + 2x )( ………….. )
d. 8 + 10x5 - 16x2 - x8 - x3 = ( 8 - x3 )( ………….. )
8. Use synthetic division to factor as indicated.
a. x3 - 4x2 + 2x + 1 = ( x - 1 )( ………….. )
b. 2x3 + 5x + 7 = ( x + 1 )( ………….. )
c. x4 - 3x3 + x2 + x + 2 = ( x - 2 )( ………….. )
d. 4x4 + 3x2 - 1 = ( 2x - 1 )( ………….. )
9. Find the quotient and remainder for each division.
a. ( x4 - 3x2 + 7 ) ÷ ( x + 3 ) b. ( 3x5 - 5x4 + x2 + 1 ) ÷ ( x3 + 1 )
10. Express these as a quotient and a fraction.
x3 − x2 − 4 2 x 5 − 3x 2 + 1
a. b.
x2 − 1 x 2 + 2x
11. Show that ( x - 2 ) is a factor of x3 - 9x2 + 26x - 24.
12. Show that ( x + 2 ) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) given by f(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 - 11x + 6.
13. The function f is given by f(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 6. Use the Factor Theorem to show that
( x - 3 ) is a factor of f(x).
14. Given that f(x) = 3 - 7x + 5x2 - x3, show that ( 3 - x ) is a factor of f(x).
15. Three of the factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + x + c are x, ( x + 1 ) and ( x - 1 ). Find a, b and c.
60
16. Given that ( 2x - 1 ) is a factor of 8x3 + 4x2 + kx + 15, find the value of k.
17. Given that ( x + 1 ) and ( x - 2 ) are factors of 6x4 - x3 + ax2 - 6x + b, find a and b.
18. Find the remainders when
a. x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 2 is divided by x - 1.
b. x3 - 2x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by x - 2.
c. x5 + x - 9 is divided by x + 1.
d. x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2.
e. 4x3 - 5x + 4 is divided by 2x - 1.
f. 4x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 2 is divided by 2x + 3.
19. Find the values of a in the expressions below when the following conditions are satisfied.
a. x3 + ax2 + 3x - 5 has remainder -3 when divided by x - 2.
b. x3 + x2 + ax + 8 is divisible by x - 1.
c. x3 + x2 - 2ax + a2 has remainder 8 when divided by x - 3.
d. x4 - 3x2 + 2x + a is divisible by x + 1.
e. x3 - 3x2 + ax + 5 has remainder 17 when divided by x - 3.
f. x5 + 4x4 - 6x2 + ax + 2 has remainder 6 when divided by x + 2.
20. Find the values of a and b if ax4 + bx3 - 8x2 + 6 has remainder 2x + 1 when divided by
x2 - 1.
21. The expression px4 + qx3 + 3x2 - 2x + 3 has remainder x + 1 when divided by x2 - 3x + 2.
Find the values of p and q.
22. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by x - 1, has remainder 2 when divided by x + 1

and has remainder 8 when divided by x - 2. Find the values of a, b and c.
23. x - 1 and x + 1 are factors of the expression x3 + ax2 + bx + c and leaves a remainder of
12 when divided by x - 2. Find the values of a, b and c.
24. Factorize the following expressions as far as possible.

i. a. x2 + 4x + 3 b. x2 + 6x + 8 c. x2 - 6x + 5
2
d. x - 8x + 12 e. x2 + 4x - 5 f. x2 + x - 12
g. x2 - 2x - 8 h. x2 - x - 6
ii. a. x2 + 2x + 1 b. x2 + 14x + 49 c. x2 - 4x + 1
d. x2 - 10x + 25 e. 9x2 - 42x + 49 f. 4x2 + 20x + 25
61
iii. a. x2 - 1 b. x2 - 4 c. 4x2 - 9
d. 25x2 - 81 e. 9 - 16x2 f. 16 - 49x2
iv. a. 2x2 + 11x + 12 b. 3x2 + 17x + 10 c. 3x2 - 7x + 2

d. 2x2 - 5x + 3 e. 5x2 + 23x - 10 f. 2x2 + 5x - 12
g. 14x2 + 31x - 10 h. 15x2 + 13x - 6 i. 8x2 + 14x - 15
j. 6x2 - 11x + 3
v. a. 7x5 + 14x3 b. 3x4 - x3 c. x2y2z2 - 4x2z2

d. 4x4 - 3x2 e. 3x2y4 - 27x2 f. 24x6 - 16x3
vi. a. x3 - 64 b. x3 - 125 c. 8x3 - 1

d. 125x3 - 1 e. 27 - 8x3 f. 64 - 27x3
g. x3 + 8 h. x3 + 216 i. 27x3 + 1
j. 8x3 + 1 k. 125x3 + 27 l. 8x3 + 27
vii. a. x3 - 2x2 - 5x + 6 b. x3 - 4x2 + x + 6

c. 2x3 + x2 - 8x - 4 d. 2x3 + 5x2 + x - 2
e. 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6 f. 2x3 - x2 + 2x - 1
g. x3 + 2x2 - x - 2 h. x 3 - x2 - x - 2
i. x3 + 4x2 - 17x - 60 j. x3 - 6x2 + 14x - 12
k. 2x3 - 13x2 + 27x - 18 l. 2x3 - 17x2 + 9x - 8
m. 3x3 - x2 - 22x + 24 n. x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12
o. x3 + 2x2 - 9x - 18 p. x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
q. x3 + 4x2 - 2x - 8 r. x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 6
viii. a. x4 + x3 - 3x2 - 4x - 4 b. 9x4 - 3x3 + 7x2 - 3x - 2

c. 4x4 - 7x2 - 5x - 1 d. x4 - 8x3 + 24x2 - 32x + 16
ix. a. 4y3x2 - 24y3x + 36y3 b. a2b2 + 5ab2 - 14b2

c. 3x2y - 12xy + 12y d. x2yz + 10xyz + 25x
e. 2x3y2 - 16x2y3 + 32x2y2 f. ab2 + 5ab - 14a
x. a. x2 - xy - 5x + 5y b. y2 + xy + 6y + 6x
c. x2y + 2x2 - y - 2 d. y2x - y2 - 9x + 9
e. 2xy + 6x - 4y - 12 f. xy2 - 2y2 + 2xy - 4y
g. x3 - 2xy - x2y2 + 2y3 h. 2x3 - x2y - 2xy + y2
i. x2 + 10x + 25 - 4y3 j. 4x2 - 4x + 1 - 9z2
k. 9x2 - 4y2 + 6x + 1 l. 16y2 - 25x2 - 24y + 9
m. x3 + 3x2 + yx + 3y n. 2xy2 + 2x2 + y2 + x
xi. a. ( x - 1 )3 - 1 b. ( 2x + 1 )3 - 27x3
xii. a. x4 + 11x2 + 30 b. x4 + 6x2 + 8

c. x4 - 2x2 - 8 d. 4x4 - 5x2 - 9
62
xiii. Each of the following exercises is a worked problem that has one or more errors. Find
the step(s) in which the error(s) occur, identify and correct the error(s).
a. x2 + 4 = x2 + 22 b. x3 + 64 = x3 + 43
= ( x + 2 )( x - 2 ) = ( x + 4 )3
c. 2x2 - 4 = 2( x2 - 4 ) d. x4 - 1 = ( x2 - 1 )( x2 + 1 )
= 2( x - 2 )( x + 2 ) = (x - 1)(x + 1)( x + 1)2
25. Find the partial fractions
3 x x −1
a. b. c.
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x − 4 )( x − 1) ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
2 x +3 2x − 1
d. e. f.
(2x − 1)( x − 2) x ( x + 1) ( x + 1)( 3x + 2)
3x x 2 − 2x + 4 2x − 1
g. h. i.
( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3) (2x )( x − 3)( x + 1) ( 3x − 1)( 2x + 1)
5x − x 2 1 − 3x x ( x + 1)
j. k. l.
x ( x − 1)( 2 x + 1 ) (2x − 1)( x + 2) ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
x2 − 4 6 3x − 1
m. n. o.
x ( x + 1 )( x + 3) ( x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 4 )
2
(x 2
)(
− 9 x2 − 1 )
p.
( x − 2)(2x + 3) q.
2
r.
x −3
( x − 1) ( x 2 − 9 ) ( x − 1) ( x 2
+1 ) ( x + 4 ) ( x 2 − 2)
x2 + 3 2x2 + x + 1 x3 − 1
s. t. u.
(
x x2 + 2 ) ( x − 3) (2x 2 + 1) ( x + 2 )(2x + 1) ( x 2 + 1)
x2 + 1 x x2 − 1
v. w. x.
(
x 2 x 2 − 1 ( x − 1) ) ( x − 1)( x − 2)
2
x 2 (2 x + 1)
3 x2 + x + 1 x2
y. z. aa.
x ( 3x − 1 )
2
(x 2
)(
− 1 x2 + 1 ) ( x − 1)( x + 1)
x2 − 2 x3 + 3
bb. cc.
( x + 3)( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
63

Topic 3 Algebra

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UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

An equation is simply a statement that two quantities are the same.

Think of an equation as a pair of perfectly balanced old-fashioned scales

One of the oldest applications of algebra is solving word problems.

Example: What number when decrease by 5 equal 15?

To solve word problems:

i. Read the problem carefully

Mathematical translations of common English phrases are listed below

ENGLISH PHRASE MATHEMATICAL PHRASE

4 more than a number x+4

A number decreased by 5 y–5

The product of a and b a. b

The quotient of x and y x/y

English sentences translated into mathematical sentences.

ENGLISH PHRASE MATHEMATICAL PHRASE

A number increased by 2 is 6 x+2=6

Write an equation to illustrate Solution

3.1.2 Properties of Equations

1. An equation is unchanged by adding or subtracting the same number on both sides

2. An equation is unchanged if we multiply or divide both sides by the same number

3. An equation can be written with the quantities reversed

4. Equations can be added together or can be subtracted from each other

3.1.3 Solving Linear Equation with One Variable

EQUATIONS INVOLVING ADDITIONS AND SUBTRACTION

EQUATIONS WHERE THE UNKNOWN IS PART OF A QUOTIENT

MIXING MULTIPLICATIONS, ADDITIONS AND SUBTRACTIONS

EQUATIONS INVOLVING DENOMINATORS

SOLUTION BY CROSS MULTIPLYING AND BY INVERTING

3.2 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION

3.2.2 Graph of Linear Equation

The graph of a linear function is a straight line.

Intersecting lines, system has one solution

Parallel lines, system has no solution

Coincident lines, system has infinitely many solutions

1. System of equations with one solution

Solve : 3x–2y=4 → equaEon 1

by using graphical method ( intercept method )

Solve : 4x+2y=8 → equaEon 1

Y – intercept x=0,y=4 x=0 ,y=5

The two lines are parallel , the system has no solution

Solve : 2x+ y=4 → equaEon 1

by using graphical method ( intercept method )

Y – intercept x=0,y=4 x=0 ,y=4

STEPS FOR SOLVING BY SUBSTITUTION

STEP 2 : Substitute the result in the remaining equations .

STEP 4 : Find the values of the remaining variables by back-substitution .

STEP 5 : Check the solution found .

1. System of equations with one solution

Solve : x + 2y = 8 → equaEon (1)

Substitute x in equation (2)

The result is an equation containing just the variable y

Substitute y in one of the previous equation in order to find x

Solve : 4x+2y=8 → equaEon 1

From equation (1), solve the equation for x

Substitute x in equation (2)

3. System of equations with infinite number of solution

Solve : 2x+ y=4 → equaEon 1

From equation (1) , solve the equation for x

STEPS FOR SOLVING BY ELIMINATION

STEP 5 : Check the solution found .

1. System of equations with one solution