Q1-With a neat diagram, explain the sensor network architure?

Sensor Network Architecture is used in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It can be

used in various places like schools, hospitals, buildings, roads, etc for various
applications like disaster management, security management, crisis management, etc.
There are 2 types of architecture used in WSN: Layered Network Architecture, and
Clustered Architecture.
These are explained as following below.
1. Layered Network Architecture:
Layered Network Architecture makes use of a few hundred sensor nodes and a single
powerful base station. Network nodes are organized into concentric Layers.
It consists of 5 layers and three cross layers.
The 5 layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Layer
The cross layers consist of the following:
● Power Management Plane
● Mobility Management Plane
● Task Management Plane

The advantage of using Layered Network Architecture is that each node participates

only in short-distance, low power transmissions to nodes of the neighbouing nodes
because of which power consumption is less as compared to other Sensor Network
Architecture. It is scalable and has a higher fault tolerance.
2. Clustered Network Architecture:
In Clustered Network Architecture, Sensor Nodes autonomously clubs into groups
called clusters. It is based on the Leach Protocol which makes use of clusters. Leach
Protocol stands for Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy.
Properties of Leach Protocol:
● It is a 2-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.
● It is a distributed algorithm for organizing the sensor nodes into groups called
clusters.
● The cluster head nodes in each of the autonomously formed clusters create the
Time-division multiple access (TDMA) schedules.
● It makes use of the concept called Data Fusion which makes it energy efficient.

Here:

Clustered Network Architecture is a very useful sensor network because of the

property of Data Fusion. Inside each cluster, each node communicate with the cluster
head to gather the information. All the clusters which are formed share their gathered
information to the base station. The cluster formation and selection of cluster head
inside each cluster is an independent and autonomous distributed process.
Q2- Difference between Cellular and Ad hoc network?
1. Ad hoc Network :
An ad hoc network is a network that is composed of individual devices
communicating with each other directly. The term implies spontaneous or impromptu
construction because these networks often bypass the gatekeeping
hardware or central access point such as a router. Many ad hoc networks are local area
networks where computers or other devices are enabled to send data directly to one
another rather than going through a centralized access point.
2. Cellular Network :
A Cellular network or Mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas
called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site
or base station. At present sent cell remote systems, for example,
GSM/CDMA/HSPA/LTE are foundation type. Cell organize comprises of focal
element known as base station and cell phones as Mobile Subscribers(MS). In the
event that MS-A needs to speak with MS-B, correspondence happens by means of
base station(BTS) as appeared in the figure. It follows hexagonal pattern.

Let’s see that the difference between Cellular Network and Ad hoc Network :

S.N
O Cellular Network Ad hoc Network

The network routing of cellular The network routing of adhoc network

network are centralized, all the traffic are distributed, no centralized system
1. goes through the base station. such as base station needed.

2. Circuit Switching are used. Packet Switching are used.

3. It has single hop type. It has multiple hopes

4. Star topology are used. Mesh topology are used.

It takes Higher cost and takes more It takes lower cost and does not take more
5. time for deployment. time for deployment.

It is used in Designed and developed It is used in Designed to meet best effort

6. for voice traffic. data traffic requirements.

Here Low call drops during mobility

due to seamless connectivity across Here higher breaks in the path during
7. region. mobility.

It requires periodic maintenance so it is Here nodes are self-organizing and hence

8. costly. it is less costly.
 S.N
O Cellular Network Ad hoc Network

The allocation of bandwidth is based on

The allocation bandwidth is guaranteed shared channel using complex MAC
9. and easy. algorithms.

IS-95, IS-136, GSM, Mobile WiMAX,

10. CDMA, LTE technologies are used. WLAN 802.11e technology are used.

Q3- Discuss the major issues and challenges that need to be considered when an
ad hoc wireless system is to be designed?

Issues and Challenges of MANET

Limited Bandwidth
The wireless networks have a limited bandwidth in comparison to the wired networks.
Wireless link has lower capacity as compare to infrastructure networks. The effect of
fading, multiple accesses, interference condition is very low in ADHOC networks in
comparison to maximum radio transmission rate.

Dynamic topology
Due to dynamic topology the nodes has less truest between them. I some settlement
are found between the nodes then it also make trust level questionable.

High Routing
In ADHOC networks due to dynamic topology some nodes changes their position
which affects the routing table.

Problem of Hidden terminal

The Collision of the packets are held due to the transmission of packets by those node
which are not in the direct transmission range of sender side but are in range of
receiver side.

Transmission error and packet loss

By increasing in collisions , hidden terminals, interference, uni-directional links and
by the mobility of nodes frequent path breaks a higher packet loss has been faced by
ADHOC networks.

Mobility
Due to the dynamic behavior and changes in the network topology by the movement
of the nodes .ADHOC networks faces path breaks and it also changes in the route
frequently.
Security threats
New security challenges bring by Adhoc networks due to its wireless nature. In Adhoc
networks or wireless networks the trust management between the nodes leads to the
numerous security attacks.

Problems :
There are several problems that Ad Hoc network faces –
● Limited wireless range
● Packet losses
● Energy conservation because of limited batteries.
● Low-quality communications.
● Hidden-node problem creates collision if two device try to communicate with
same receiver.

● Exposed-node problem.

Q4- What are the main issues that need to be addresses while designing a MAC
protocol wireless sensor network?

Responsibilities of MAC Protocol : 

● Network overhead should be low. 
● Efficiently allocate the bandwidth. 
● Distributed MAC operation. 
● Power control mechanism should be present. 
● Maximum utilization of channel. 
● Hidden and Exposed problem should be removed. 
● Nodes should be sync with time. 
 
Design issues of MAC Protocol : 
 
● Bandwidth Efficiency – 
The shortage of data transfer capacity assets in these networks requires its
proficient use. To evaluate this, we could state that 
bandwidth capacity is the proportion of the bandwidth used for data transmission
to the complete accessible bandwidth capacity. 
 
● Quality of Service Support – 
Quality of service support is difficult due to the mobility of the nodes. Once a node
moves out of reach, the reservation in it is lost. In these networks, QoS is
extremely important because if it is being used in military environments, the
service support needed time to time. 
 
● Synchronization – 
Some instruments must be found so as to give synchronization among the nodes.
Synchronization is significant for directing the bandwidth reservation. 
 
● Hidden Terminal Problem – 
When there are two nodes, both are outside of each other’s range and try to
communicate with same node within their range at the same time, then there must
be packet collision. 
 
● Exposed Terminal Problem – 
Uncovered nodes might be denied channel access pointlessly, which implies under
usage of the bandwidth resources. 

Q5.- Discuss basic mechanisms of location discovery in sensor network?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=jui_qWaqKnw&ab_channel=UnacademyComputerScience
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FG-
vjvvI4KI&ab_channel=EasyEngineeringClasses

Q6.- What is data dissemination and data diffusion?

https://www.slideshare.net/habibur01/directed-diffusion-for-wireless-sensor-
networking

Dissemination
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=PTsqcFbcONE&ab_channel=EasyEngineeringClasses