GIS ANALYSIS

WHAT IS GIS ANALYSIS?

▪ process of extracting or creating new information about a
set of geographical features

▪ process of deriving information from one or more layers of

spatial data

▪ useful for evaluating suitability and capability for

estimating and predicting, and for interpreting and
understanding

▪ Can involve multiple steps and processes

▪ most important capability of a GIS
 TYPES OF GIS ANALYSIS
▪ VECTOR-BASED ANALYSIS
▪ MAP MANIPULATION
▪ Feature Manipulation
▪ Feature Identification and Selection
▪ Feature Classification
▪ PROXIMITY ANALYSIS (BUFFER, NEAR AND
POINT DISTANCE TOOLS)
▪ OVERLAY ANALYSIS
▪ PATTERN ANALYSIS
▪ RASTER-BASED ANALYSIS
▪ NETWORK ANALYSIS
▪ Vector-based Network Analysis
▪ Raster-based Network Analysis (path
analysis)
▪ SURFACE OR 3D ANALYSIS
MULTIPLE LAYER OPERATIONS

Hujan
Faktor R

Peta Jenis Faktor K

Tanah

Peta
Peta
Cerun Faktor LS
USLE
Topo Peta
Aspek
Imej
Satelit Peta SOIL EROSION
Gunatanah Faktor CP RISK MAP
Foto
Udara
 SINGLE LAYER OPERATIONS (MULTIPLE STEPS)

Kontor
TIN

Aspect map Hill shade Slope map

Perspective View
Flood simulation Height range map
ANALYSIS MODULES (ARCGIS)

Spatial Analyst -provides a rich set of tools to

perform cell-based (raster) analysis. Of the three main types of
GIS data (raster, vector, and tin), the raster data structure
provides the most comprehensive modeling environment for
spatial analysis

3D Analyst - tools for three-dimensional (3D)

visualization, analysis, and surface generation

Geostatistical Analyst - advanced surface

modeling using deterministic and geostatistical methods

Geoprocessing Tools (Standard)

TWO GENERAL GIS SOFTWARE APPROACHES:

Provide “basic tools” for use

by most users

Provide specialised tools e.g.

▪ HYDROLOGIC MODELLING TOOLS
▪ GROUNDWATER MODELLING TOOLS
HYDROLOGIC MODULE
VECTOR-BASED ANALYSIS
FEATURE MANIPULATION
▪ feature manipulation
▪ feature identification and selection
▪ feature classification

PROXIMITY ANALYSIS

OVERLAY ANALYSIS

PATTERN ANALYSIS
 FEATURE MANIPULATION

Feature manipulation tools are considered as basic tools in GIS

which allows user to perform data preprocessing and data
analysis.

ArcGIS has several feature tools such as CLIP, SELECT, SPLIT,

ERASE, UPDATE, APPEND, DISSOLVE AND ELIMINATE

These tools are located in different toolsets. CLIP, SELECT,

SPLIT tools are located in Analysis/Extract toolset

ERASE and UPDATA in the Analysis/Overlay toolset

The APPEND tool is in Data management Tools/General toolset

DISSOLVE and ELIMINATE tools are in the Data management

Tools/Generalization toolset.
Feature manipulation tools in ArcToolBox
 CLIP

CLIP tool creates a new

layer, which includes only
those features of the input
layer that fall within the
area extent of the clip layer.
The new layer is a subset of
the original layer. The CLIP
tool is similar to INTERSECT
tools, however it does not
transfer attributes from the
clip layer into the output
layer. This tool is used
when only a portion of the
original layer is to be
employed for analysis.
SELECT
SELECT tool extract features in an input
feature class and creates a new feature
class or layer based on an SQL expression.

SPLIT
SPLIT tool subdivides the input layer into
two or more layers. This tool is useful
when large database must be
geographically subdivided.
ERASE

Erase tool removes features from the input layer

that fall within the area extent of the erase layer.
This tool is the opposite of CLIP tool. In the
output layer, all features originally located within
the specified boundaries are removed. Figure 4.4
illustrates that features within the specified
boundary are erased from the input layer.
UPDATE
UPDATE tool replaces spatial data in the input layer
with new or updated features. The input feature
or layer must be a point, line or polygon feature
while the output feature must be a polygon
feature. This tool is an effective tool for editing
small portion of a large database.
APPEND
The APPEND tool merges adjacent layers into a single layer. This tool is the
reverse of SPLIT tool. The input features must be of the same type (either
all points or all lines or all polygons).
DISSOLVE
The DISSOLVE tool merges
adjacent features (arcs or
polygons) based on
specified attribute(s). This
tool merges adjacent arcs
(by dissolving the node)
with the same attribute. For
a polygon features, the line
segment that separate
polygons of the same type
will be removed.

For example, you could take a

feature class containing sales
data collected on a county-by-
county basis and use dissolve
to create a layer containing
contiguous sales regions based
on the name of the sales
person in each county.
Dissolve creates the sales
regions by removing the
boundaries between counties
represented by the same sales
person.
ELIMINATE
The ELIMINATE tool merges selected polygons
with neighboring polygons that shared the
same border (either largest shared boundary
or with the largest area). This tool is
commonly used to eliminate sliver polygons
created during map overlay operation.
 SUMMARY

APPEND- Creates a new layer by piecing together two

or more layers
CLIP – Creates a new layer, which includes only those
features of the input layer that fall within the area
extent of the clip layer
DISSOLVE – Removes boundaries between polygons,
which have the same attribute value(s)
SPLIT – Divides the input layer into two or more layers
UPDATE – replaces the input layer by the update and its
features
ERASE – Removes from the input layer those features
that fall within the area extent of the erase layer
ELIMINATE - merges selected polygons with
neighboring polygons that shared the same border
FEATURE IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION

Selection by attribute or by location

MAP MANIPULATION AND

OVERLAY ANALYSIS TOOLS
IN ArcGIS
FEATURE CLASSIFICATION
 PROXIMITY ANALYSIS

Proximity analysis is used to determine the

proximity of spatial features (i.e. points,
lines or polygons) within a feature class or
between two feature classes.

Analysis involving the determination of

proximity of spatial features in a feature
class in also known as single layer
operations. Examples Buffer operation and
Thiessen polygons or proximal polygons

Proximity analysis can also involve multiple

layer operations. Examples of such
operations are the distance analysis. NEAR
and POINT DISTANCE are the most tools
 THIESSEN POLYGONS
(ARCINFO ONLY)
■ The Thiessen tool can proportionally divide and
distribute a point coverage into regions known
as Thiessen or Voronoi polygons.
■ The Thiessen polygons are constructed as
follows:

▪ All points are triangulated into a Triangular Irregular

Network (TIN) that meets the Delaunay criterion.
▪ The perpendicular bisectors for each triangle edge are
generated, forming the edges of the Thiessen polygons.
The locations at which the bisectors intersect determine
the locations of the Thiessen polygon vertices.
▪ The Thiessen polygons are built to generate polygon
topology. The locations of the points are used as the label
points for the Thiessen polygons.
 BUFFER
• Buffer operation is used to
identify a zone of interest
around point, line or polygon
Point Buffer
feature or features. A point
buffer creates circular buffer
zones. Line buffer creates a
series of elongated buffer
zones and polygon buffer
creates zones expanding
outward from a polygon Line Buffer
features.

• Buffer distance can vary

according to the specified
field. For example, the width
of buffer can vary depending
on the different types of road
(100 m from highway, 70 m
from main roads and 50 m
from minor roads). Polygon Buffer
APPLICATIONS OF BUFFER
■ Example

■ A city ordinance
may stipulate that
no liquor stores
shall be within 1000
feet from a school

■ Government
reguations may set
2-mile buffer zones
along a stream to
minimise
sedimentation from
logging operations
PROXIMITY ANALYSIS
■ Refers to measuring straight line distance between features
■ Measurement can be made between points in a layer to point in another
layer
■ ArcGIS has two tools:
▪ NEAR
▪ POINTDISTANCE
PROXIMITY ANALYSIS - NEAR
PROXIMITY ANALYSIS – POINT DISTANCE
OVERLAY ANALYSIS
An overlay combines the geometries and attributes
of two feature layers to create output

Three types of overlay:-

1. Uses two polygon layers– polygon-on-polygon
overlay
2. Uses polygon layer and another line layer - line-
in-polygon
3. Uses polygon layer and another line point layer
- point-in-polygon
POINT-IN-
POLYGON

LINE-IN-
POLYGON

POLYGON-
ON-
POLYGON
 POINT-IN-POLYGON

∙ In a point-in polygon overlay operation, the same point

features in the input layer are included in the output but
each point is assigned with the attributes of the
polygon within which it falls.
 LINE-IN-POLYGON

∙ In the line-in-polygon overlay operation, the output contaions he same line

features as in the input layer but each line features is dissected by the
polygon boundaries in the overlay layer
POLYGON-ON-POLYGON

Most common
operation is
polygon-on-
polygon,
involving two
polygon layer

The output
combines the
polygon
boundaries from
the input and
output layer to
create a new set
of polygons
 OVERLAY METHODS

∙ In ArcGIS there are

different tools that can be
used to perform overlay
operations:
∙ UNION,
∙ INTERSECT
∙ IDENTITY
∙ SYMMETRICAL
DIFFERENCE

∙ These overlay tools are

located either in the
Analysis/Overlay or
Coverage/Analysis/Overlay
toolsets.
UNION
∙ Union preserves all features from the inputs.
∙ The area extent of the output combines the
area extents of both input layers
∙ Both layers must be polygon layers
IDENTITY
■ Preserves features only features that fall within the area
extent of the layer defined as the input layer
■ The input layer may contain points, line or polygon and
identity layer must be a polygon layer
INTERSECT
▪ Intersect preserves only those features that fall
within the area extent common to the inputs
▪ The input layers may contain different feature
types although in most cases, one of them (the input
layer) is a point, line or polygon layer and the other
(the overlay layer) is polygon layer
▪ Intersect is often the most preferred method of
overlay because any feature on its output has the
attribute data from both of its input
▪
 Symmetrical Difference
Symmetrical Difference
preserves features that fall
within the area that is
common to only one of the
input.

Symmetrical Difference is the

opposite of Intersect in
terms of the output’s area
extent.

Symmetrical Difference
requires that both input
layers be polygon layers
PATTERN ANALYSIS
Pattern analysis refers to
the use of quantitative
methods for describing
analysing the
distribution pattern of
spatial features
At general level, a pattern
analysis can reveal if a
distribution pattern is
random, dispersed or
clustered
At local level, a pattern
analysis can detect of a
dispersion pattern
contains local cluster of
high or low values.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE ANALYZING
PATTERNS TOOLSET
The Analyzing Patterns tools calculate statistics that quantify geographic
patterns. The following table lists the tools available and provides a
brief description of each.

ToolDescription

Average Nearest Neighbor Distance

▪ The average nearest neighbor distance tool calculates the average nearest
neighbor distance based on feature centroids. Available with any ArcGIS license.

High/Low Concentration
▪ Measures concentrations of high or low values for a study area. Available with any
ArcGIS license.

Spatial Autocorrelation
▪ Measures spatial autocorrelation based on feature locations and attribute values.
Available with any ArcGIS license.
NEAREST NEIGHBOR ANALYSIS
Nearest Neighbor analysis uses the distance
between each points an its closest
neighboring point in a layer in determining if
the point pattern is random, regular or
cluster

▪ R = dobs/ dexp

▪ Where R – nearest neighbor index

▪ dobs – observed average distance between nearest
neighbor
▪ dexp – expected average for a hypothetical random
distribution

The nearest neighbor index is expressed as the ratio

of the observed distance divided by the expected
distance (hypothetical random distribution). Hence if
the index is less than 1, the pattern exhibits
clustering; if the index is greater than 1, the trend is
toward dispersion/competition. A point pattern showing deer locations
HIGH/LOW CONCENTRATION: GETIS-
ORD GENERAL G
■ The High/Low Variation tool measures concentrations of
high or low values for an entire study area.

■ You might use this statistic, as one example, to compare

the pattern of different types of crimes within a city to
see which ones tend to occur in hotspots and which are
more dispersed (this may provide clues regarding crime
prevention).

■ A high index value indicates that high values are

clustered within the study area; a low index value
indicates that low values tend to cluster.
■ A Z Score (standard deviations) is calculated so you can
determine if the HighLow index value is statistically
significant.
 HIGH/LOW CONCENTRATION:
GETIS-ORD GENERAL G
The High/Low Variation tool measures
concentrations of high or low values for
an entire study area.

Potential applications
Comparing the pattern of different types
of crimes within a city to see which ones
tend to occur in hotspots and which
ones are more dispersed (this may
provide clues regarding crime
prevention).

Summarizing the level to which spatial

phenomena cluster for comparison
purposes, either over time or among
different places. We know, for example,
that cities and their populations cluster.
Using High/Low Clustering analysis we
can compare the level of clustering for
Western versus. Eastern cities (urban
morphology), or the level of population
clustering within a single city over time
(analysis of urban growth and density).
 SPATIAL AUTOCORRELATION:
MORAN'S I
This tool measures
spatial
autocorrelation
(feature similarity)
based not only on •Potential Applications

feature locations
alone or on attribute
values alone, but on
both feature locations
and feature values
simultaneously.
 RASTER–BASED ANALYSIS

■ Major differences between raster and vector modeling are

dependent on the nature of the data models themselves.
▪ Raster-based analysis is based raster data model which uses a
regular grid to cover the space and the value in each grid cell to
represent the characteristics at the cell location.
▪ Vector-based analysis is based on vector data model which uses
the geometric objects of point, line and polygon.

■ Which analysis to use? largely depends on the data sources and

applications.

■ Many GIS applications are well suited for raster data model as
compared to the vector data model. These applications include
environmental modeling, natural resources management and
urban and regional planning.
 RASTER- BASED ANALYSIS
Tool in ArcGIS –
Spatial Analyst -
tools to perform
cell-based (raster)
analysis.

the most
comprehensive
modeling
environment for
spatial analysis.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RASTER-
BASED ANALYSIS
Raster-based analysis can be divided into four main types:
▪ Local operations that work on single cell
▪ Focal or neighbourhood operations that work on cells
within specified neighbourhood
▪ Zonal operations that work on groups of cells within
zones of identical values
▪ Global operations that work on all cells within the
entire raster
LOCAL OPERATIONS WITH
SINGLE RASTER
For single raster local operation, a typical
example is changing the values of each cell
by applying mathematical functions
(arithmetic, logarithmic, trigonometric and
power functions).
 EXAMPLES

Raster Calculator in Spatial Analyst tools

A local operation can convert a slope raster from

percent (a) to degrees (b).
[slope_d] = 57.296 x arctan ([slope_p]/100)

3 3 1 1 2 15 15 5 5 10 A simple local
2 4 4 2 x 5 = 10 20 20 10 functions multiplies
2 2 1 2 10 10 5 10
every cell by a constant
of 5. Blank cells
2 2 1 1 1 10 10 5 5 5
represent NODATA
4 4 3 3 1 20 20 15 15 5
cells.
LOCAL OPERATIONS WITH
MULTIPLE RASTER
Local operations can also be performed on multiple
These operations are also known as compositing,
overlaying and superimposing maps.
A local operation with multiple rasters is also
commonly known as map algebra.
Example of local operations that work on multiple
rasters are operations minimum, maximum,
range, sum, mean, standard deviation, variety,
majority, minority and median value for all values
of the input rasters at each cell location.
Local Operations with Multiple Raster

The cell value in (d) is the

majority statistic derived from
three input rasters (a, b, and
c) in a local operation. The
shaded cells have no data.

Input raster1 Input raster 2 Output raster

3 3 1 5 3 1 5 3 1
2 4 4 4 2 = 4 4
2 2 1 1 1 2 2

Local maximum of the two input rasters

 Slope Slope-code
0-20% 1
20-40% 2
⮚40% 3

Aspect Aspect-code
North 1
East 2
South 3
West 4

Some local operations do not involve statistics or computation. A local

operation called Combine assigns a unique output value to each unique
combination of the input values.

Each cell value in (c) represents a unique combination of cell values in (a)
and (b). The combination codes and their representations are shown in (d).
 RECLASSIFICATION
Reclassification is another type
of local operations

Reclassification also referred –

recoding or transformation

Two classification method:

1. One-to-one change – a cell Reclassify slope into four categories
value in the input raster is
assigned a new value e.g.
agricultural area is assigned a
value 1
2. A new value is to a range of cell
values in the input raster.
Example, reclassify slope (in
degree) into four main
categories: 0-10o, 10-20o, 20-
30o and above 30o.
 FOCAL OR NEIGHBOURHOOD
OPERATIONS

■ Focal or neighborhood
operations create an
output raster based on the
focal cell and the values of
neighboring cells

■ Shape of neighborhood
could be a rectangle of any
size, circles, annulus (area
between two circles) and
wedge (portion of circle).
 Statistic options:-
• Mean
• Majority
Neighborhood Operations in ArcGIS • Maximum
• Minimum
• Median
• Minimum
• Majority
• Range
• STD
• Sum

The cell values in (b) are the neighborhood means

of the shaded cells in (a) using a 3 x 3
neighborhood. For example, 1.56 in the output
raster is calculated from (1 +2 + 2 +1 +2 + 2 +1 +2
+1) / 9.
The cell values in (b) are
the neighborhood range
statistics of the shaded
cells in (a) using a 3 x 3
neighborhood. For
example, the upper-left
cell in the output raster
has a cell value of 100,
which is calculated from
(200 – 100).
Focal or neighborhood
operations are widely used
in digital image processing
such as image filtering
(high pass and low pass),
convolution or moving
window operations

High pass filter exaggerates

or enhances local details
while low pass filters
smooth out or reduces local
details

Other applications of this

operation are terrain
analysis for example to
generate slope and aspect.
 ZONAL OPERATIONS
■ A zonal operation works with groups of cells of same
values or like features. These groups are called
zones. Zones may be contiguous or noncontiguous.

■ A zonal operation may work with a single raster or

two rasters.

■ Given a single input raster, zonal operations measure

the geometry of each zone in the raster, such as
area, perimeter, thickness, and centroid.

■ Given two rasters in a zonal operation, one input

raster and one zonal raster, a zonal operation
produces an output raster, which summarizes the
cell values in the input raster for each zone in the
zonal raster.
Thickness and centroid for two large watersheds (zones). Area is
measured in square kilometers, and perimeter and thickness are
measured in kilometers. The centroid of each zone is marked with an x.
 Summary statistics and measures
include:-
• Area
• Minimum
• Maximum
• Sum
• Range
• Mean
• Standard deviation
• Median
• Majority
• Minority
• variety

The cell values in (c) are the zonal means derived from an input raster (a) and a
zonal raster (b). For example, 2.17 is the mean of {1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 3} for zone 1.
An example on the use of zonal operation is to determine the
mean elevation for each vegetation zones or the different
types of vegetation in each elevation zone. Variety statistics
function is used. Figure 5.>> shows the use of zonal
operation to determine the number of vegetation types
within different zones of elevation.
GLOBAL OPERATIONS
In global operation the output value of each cell is a
function all the cells in the input raster datasets The
two types of global operations are:

▪ Straight line Distance or Euclidean distance, and

▪ Cost-weighted Distance.
 DISTANCE MEASURE OPERATIONS IN
ARCGIS
Both Spatial Analyst
and ArcToolbox in
ArcGIS offer
distance measure
operations

Continuous distance measures

Continuous distance Continuous distance
measures from a stream measures from point from road network
network
 ALLOCATION AND DIRECTION
• Allocation produces a raster in which the cell value corresponds to
the closest source cell for the cell.
• Direction produces a raster in which the cell value corresponds to the
direction in degrees that the cell is from the closest source cell.

Straight Line Direction Function Straight Line Allocation Function

Based on the source cells denoted as 1 and 2, (a) shows the physical
distance measures in cell units from each cell to the closest source cell; (b)
shows the allocation of each cell to the closest source cell; and (c) shows
the direction in degrees from each cell to the closest source cell. The cell in
a dark shade (row 3, column 3) has the same distance to both source cells.
Therefore, the cell can be allocated to either source cell. The direction of
2430 is to the source cell 1.
 SUMMARY

Raster-based analysis can be divided into four main types:

▪ Local operations that work on single cell
▪ Focal or neighbourhood operations that work on cells within specified
neighbourhood
▪ Zonal operations that work on groups of cells within zones of identical
values
▪ Global operations that work on all cells within the entire raster
NETWORK ANALYSIS
 DEFINITION
Network Analysis
• Vector-based Network Analysis
• Raster-based Network Analysis (path analysis)

• Network (Vector-based) analysis requires a network that is vector

based and topologically connected. Most common application is
shortest path analysis – which is used , for example, in in-vehicle
navigation systems to help drivers finding shortest route between an
origin and a destination.

• Path analysis is a raster-based and has a narrower focus (application).

Path analysis is useful as a planning tool for locating a new road or a
new pipeline that is least costly in terms of construction costs as well
as the potential cost of environment impact
 VECTOR-BASED NETWORK
ANALYSIS
• usually used by organizations/agencies that manage or use networked
facilities, such as utility, communication and transportation systems.
• Utilities use network models to monitor and analyze their distribution
systems and meter-reading routes.
• Municipal public works departments use networks to analyze bus and trash
routes, and businesses use them to find the optimal routes for the delivery
of goods and services.
• Retail stores use network analysis to analyze driving times so as to
determine retail store trade areas.

Network applications
⮚Shortest Path Analysis
⮚Closest Facilities
⮚Allocation
⮚Location-allocation
 SHORTEST PATH ANALYSIS

Shortest path analysis can help

• a van driver set up a schedule for dozens of deliveries
• An emergency services connect a dispatch station,
accident location and hospital
• With an in vehicle navigation system, shortest path analysis
can also help a driver plan routine trips
CLOSEST FACILITY

• Closest facility finds the closest facility, such

as a hospital, fire station, or ATM, to any
location on a network.

•
• Closest facility analysis is applicable to
location-based services (LBS)
Shortest path from
• An LBS user can use a web-enable mobile a street address to
phone to be located and to access, through its closest fire
mobile location services, information that is station, shown by
relevant to the user’s location the square symbol.
• Example – if user wants to find the
closest ATM, the LBS provider can run
a closest facility analysis and send the
information to the user
 ALLOCATION

• Example – as given in the following

figures.

• If residents of the city demand that

the response time is 2 min or less,
then the option to relocate the fire
stations or build new fire station
Service areas of two Service areas of
• A new fire station should be located fire stations within
a 2-minute two fire stations
to cover largest portion of the city response time.
within a 5-
unreachable in 2 minutes by the Large portion of the minute
existing fire stations – THE city is outside the 2-
min response time.
response time
PROBLEM BECOME A
LOCATION AND ALLOCATION
PROBLEM
Three candidates selected by the
maximum covering model and the
demand points served by the candidates.

Three candidates selected by the minimum

distance model and the demand points
served by the candidates.

One fixed and two selected candidates

using the minimum distance model
with the maximum distance constraint
of 10 miles. The fixed candidate is the
one to the west.
Education
Generate school bus routes honoring curb approach and no
U-turn rules.
Health Care
Determine routes for home nurses,
honoring time window commitments.
Public Safety
■ Route emergency response crews to incidents.
■ Calculate drive time for first responder planning.
Retail
■ Find the closest store based on a customer's
location including the ability to return the closest
ranked by distance.
Transportation
■ Calculate accessibility for mass transit systems by
using a complex network dataset.
 GEOCODING

• Geocoding refers to the process of assigning spatial locations to data

that are in tabular format but have fields that describe their locations.
• Address geocoding is the most common type of geocoding, which
plots street addresses as point features on a map.
• Address geocoding requires two sets of data. The first data set
contains individual street addresses in a table, one record per
address. The second is a reference database that consists of a street
map and attributes for each street segment such as the street name,
address ranges, and ZIP codes.
• Address geocoding interpolates the location of a street address by
comparing it with data in the reference database.
 Linear interpolation for address geocoding.

Address geocoding plots street addresses as points on a map.

 APPLICATIONS OF GEOCODING

Geocoding is perhaps the most commercialized GIS-related

operation. Geocoding plays an important role in Internet mapping
and location-based services

• Location-based services
• Business applications
• Wireless emergency services
• Crime mapping and analysis – geocode crime locations
• Public health
 DYNAMIC SEGMENTATION

• Dynamic segmentation is a special type of

linear analysis. Arcs are segmented
dynamically and temporarily for analysis.
• Dynamic segmentation refers to the process
of computing the location of events along a
route.
• A route is a linear feature with a linear
measurement system stored with its
geometry.
• Events are linearly referenced data that occur
along routes. Common events include speed
limits and traffic accidents along highway
routes and fishery habitat conditions along
streams
SURFACE OR 3D ANALYSIS
 SURFACE ANALYSIS?

Surface analysis or 3D analysis involves analyzing

the distribution of a variable which can be
represented in the third dimension (i.e. x, y and z
coordinates).

The z component can varies from a physical

attribute to socioeconomic variable.

Examples of physical variables are elevation, rainfall

precipitation and temperature.

Population, household income, number of HIV cases

and land values are examples of socioeconomic
variables.
 DATA MODEL - TIN
■ Surface analysis can be
carried out either using
TIN or raster data models
(DEM).
■ Triangular Irregular
Network (TIN) generates a
series of triangles based on
the input data points.
■ TINs consists of nodes that
stores height information
(z-values), connected by
edges to form contiguous, Main components of a TIN : Triangle, edge and node

nonoverlapping trianglar
facets.
■ A TIN consists of triangles,
nodes and edges
 DATA MODEL - RASTER
A raster surface or raster-
based Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) is represented
by a regular array of height
points that form a grid.
Examples of raster-based DEM
are United States Geological
Survey (USGS) DEM and
LIDAR data. Different types of tessellation
Effective processing of surface methods: squares, hexagons and
information in a GIS triangles
software requires the
translation of any surface
into smaller areas of
relatively homogenous
characteristics

The process of translating a

surface into small polygons
is known an tessellation.
The most common
tessellation methods are
based on squares, hexagons Low resolution raster High resolution raster
and triangles.
 KRIGING

Kriging is the optimal method of spatial linear interpolation

that assumes that the distance or direction between
sample points reflects a spatial correlation that can be used
to explain the variation in the surface.
Kriging fits a mathematical function to a specified number of
points, or all points within as specified radius. The main
application of this interpolation techniques is in
environmental modeling and soil science.
In ArcGIS, there are two types of interpolation methods i.e.
ordinary and universal kriging. Ordinary kriging is the
general and most widely used interpolation method.
SPLINE INTERPOLATION
Spline interpolation method fits minimum-curvature
surface through the input sample points.
Conceptually, this is like bending a sheet of rubber to
pass through the points while minimizing the total
curvature of the surface.
This method is suitable for gradually varying surface
such as elevations, water table depth and population
concentrations.
PRODUCTS OF SURFACE AND
3D ANALYSIS
Among the products of surface analysis modules
are:
▪ Slope Map
▪ Aspect Map
▪ Hillshade Map
▪ Contour
▪ Perspective View
▪ Vertical Profile
▪ Cut and fill
▪ Area and Volume

OTHER TYPES OF ANALYSIS

▪ Visibility analysis
▪ Watershed Analysis
 SLOPE MAP

Figure 7.>> express slope

in terms of degree and
percentage. For example,
a rise 50 metres over a
distance of 100 metres
describes a 50% slope with
an angle of 26.5o

Figure 7.>>> Elevation map and slope map

generated from a TIN of an area
ASPECT MAP
Examples on the
use of aspect
command are
to identify all
east-facing
slope of an area
and to identify
flat areas for
emergency
flight landing.
 HILL SHADE MAP

Hillshade an azimuth of 315o Hillshade with 85o azimuth and 30o

and 45o altitude altitude
 CONTOUR

The example below shows an input elevation dataset and the

output contour dataset. The areas where the contours are closer
together indicate the steeper locations
PERSPECTIVE VIEW

Perspective view of elevation map

Satellite image draped onto TIN surface

VERTICAL PROFILE Cut and Fill
OTHER TYPES OF ANALYSIS

■ Visibility analysis and Watershed analysis

■ Visibility analysis - involves identification of lines

(line of sight) or region (viewshed) that can be seen
from a particular point on the terrain surface. This
analysis can be used for a variety of applications.
LINE OF SIGHT
 Observation Station

Visible areas (in orange) from

a power transmission line
The difference in the visible areas between (a) and (b) is due
to the search radius: infinity in (a) and 8000 meters from the
viewpoint in (b).
WATERSHED ANALYSIS

■ Watershed is an area that drains surface water to

a common outlet as concentrated drainage.
■ Watershed analysis involves the process of
delineating watershed boundaries and deriving
the stream networks from a raster surface.
■ In the early days, watershed boundaries
delineation was mainly performed by hand
delineation.
■ The introduction of hydrology module in GIS
(especially ArcGIS version 9) allows delineation of
watershed boundary to be carried automatically
or semi-automatically.
WATERSHED ANALYSIS
Watershed delineation in GIS
largely depends on DEMs

Watersheds can be delineated from

a DEM by computing the flow
direction using the Watershed
function in the Hydrology
Module in the ArcGIS software

Within the Hydrology module there

are a number of functions.
The methodology of STEPS INVOLVED TO
delineating
watershed involve a PERFORM WATERSHED
number steps (refer ANALYSIS
to Figure) The steps
involved are as Existing LiDAR Photogrammetry
follows:
Contour

▪ Generation of
DEM
FLOW ACCUMULATION

depressionless DEM Stream Order

▪ Calculate flow direction

SINK
Stream Line

▪ Calculate flow accumulation Are there any sink?

No
DEPRESSIONLESS
DEM
Stream Link

▪ Calculate flow length Yes

▪ Delineate Watershed FILL

FLOW DIRECTION

FLOW LENGTH

SNAP POUR
WATERSHED
STUDY AREA AND DATASETS

STUDY AREA • Part of Klang

River Basin

• The area covers

approximately
464 sq km (22 x
21 km).

• Covers Klang
Gate Dam and
Batu Dam

Klang River Basin

AVAILABLE DATASETS – DIGITAL
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP (SELANGOR AND KL)

20 m contour
interval

Batu Dam

5 m contour
Klang Gate Dam interval
• acquired for the
Department of Survey
and Mapping Malaysia
(JUPEM).

Contour Map of Study Area

LANDSAT 7 IMAGE OF STUDY AREA

PAHANG

SELANGOR
LANDSAT 7 IMAGE (FALSE COLOUR) OF STUDY
AREA

Landuse map generated from Landsat image

Contour

DEM
DEM WITH DEPRESSION
• Filled DEM or elevation raster is void of depression.
A depression is a cell or cells in an elevation raster that are surrounded by
higher-elevation values.
Some depression are real many are imperfections in DEM.
Depression must be removed from elevation raster.
 1

64
Flow Direction – shows the direction water will 32 128
flow out of each cell of a filled elevation raster. 16 1
2
8
4
Perspective view -
Generated watershed of
study area overlaid on
Landsat image