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Electricians Licence A Domestic Maltese Syllabus
Electricians Licence A Domestic Maltese Syllabus
Electricians Licence A Domestic Maltese Syllabus
(Domestic)
Licence (A)
General House Installation
(Lighting and Domestic Appliances)
Electrical Theory
1
Background Information on Units and Quantities
3
22 SI Special Derived Units (cont.)
4
Electrical units and standards
5
The volt (V) is the unit of potential difference and
of electromotive force. It is defined as the
potential difference between two points of a
conducting wire carrying a constant current of 1
ampere (A) when the power dissipated between
these points is equal to 1 watt (W). From the
ampere and the volt, the ohm (W) is derived by
Ohm's law, and the other derived quantities follow
in a similar manner by the application of known
physical laws.
[C = As] Q=I*t
[S = A/V] G = I/V
8
Tesla (T): The unit of magnetic flux density, equal
to 1 weber per square meter.
[T = Wb/m2] B = F/A
[Wb = Vs]
9
Prefix Symbol Magnitude
exa E 1018 DIMENSIONAL PREFIXES
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109 100 = 1
101 = 10
mega M 106 102 = 10 * 10 = 100
kilo k 103 103 = 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000
10-1 = 1 / 10 = 0.1
hecto h 102
10-2 = 1 / 10 / 10 = 0.01
deka da 101 10-3 = 1 / 10 / 10 / 10 = 0.001
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
Express 9.213 * 102 in decimal
milli m 10-3 number
micro m 10-6
nano n 10-9 Solve 5 * 102 + 3.2 * 103
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18 10
Ohm's law
11
RESISTANCE NETWORKS
Series Circuit
Total voltage is 9 + 1 + 16 + 4 = 30 V
Total resistance is 30 + 10 + 40 + 20 = 100 ohm
Using ohm's law, I = V / R, then we can find out
the total current. I = 30 / 100 = 0.3 A
13
Example problem 1
14
Parallel Circuit
IA = 30V/15W = 2 A,
IB = 30V/15W = 2 A,
IC = 30V/30W = 1 A .
17
Example problem 2
18
Series - Parallel Circuit
Example 1
22
When current flows through a wire, the wire gets
hot: i.e., power is dissipated. (This heat is why the
filament in a light bulb glows.)
This leads to the definition of potential difference:
when a current of one ampere flows through a
resistor, one watt of power is dissipated by the
resistor when a potential difference of one volt
appears across it.
In general the power, P, voltage and current are
related by: P = V * I
Example 2
If a current of 30A flows through a resistor to which
a voltage of 100V is applied, what power is
dissipated in the resistor?
From P = V I
P = 100V × 30A = 3, 000W (or 3 kW.) 23
Multiple choice:
If a current of 3 A flows along a wire with a
potential difference of 4 V between the ends, how
much power is dissipated along the wire?
(a) 0W; (b) 7W; (c) 12W; (d) 4/3 W
Multiple choice:
What is the power consumption of a 100W resistor if a
50mA current flows through it?
(a) 0.25W; (b) 2.5x106W; (c) 2.5x10-4W; (d) 5x1024
5W
From Ohm‘s law, there are three equivalent
expressions for the power dissipation in a circuit:
P = V I , P = V2/R, P = I2R
Exercise 1 I R
In a series circuit:
The same current flows through each resistor. Hence
in the diagram the power dissipated in them are
P1 = I2R1 , and P2 = I2R2 , respectively and the total
power dissipated is
PT = I2(R1 + R2)
Exercise 2
(a) If above R1 = 5W and R2 = 15W, how much
more power is used in the 15W resistor?
(b) If I = 0.8A, calculate the power dissipation in
each resistor.
(c) How much energy is dissipated over 30 minutes? 27
Example 4
28
Exercise 3
Consider a 10W and a 5W resistor connected in
parallel across a 2V source.
29
Example 5
The series circuit below represents a power source
with an internal resistor Rs. If a load resistor R is
connected across the terminals A and B, how does
the power to load, PL, depend upon R?
I R The current I is
given by
V = I(Rs + R)
A V Rs B I = V/(Rs + R)
PL
Open Circuit:
Multiple choice:
If a household electricity metre changes from 5732 to
5786 units, how much electrical energy has been
dissipated in the house?
(a) 2 × 108J (b) 2 × 1010J (c) 2 × 106J (d) 5.4×103J
34
Multiple choice:
If a current of 3A flows along a wire with a
potential difference of 4V for one hour, how much
energy is dissipated?
(a) 12 J; (b) 720 J; (c) 4,320 J; (d) 43,200 J
35
The cost of electricity, is expressed in terms of a
unit cost (€ cent per kWh) delivered to the
customer. This cost value, includes the capital cost
of the generating plant and equipment,
transmission and distribution system; the cost of
fuel burned and the cost of developing, operating
and maintaining the system in whole.
36
Enemalta tariffs
Residential kWh
1 2,000 0.1190
2 6,000 0.1340
3 10,000 0.1520
4 20,000 0.2090
5 60,000 0.2320
37
Domestic kWh
1 2,000 0.1610
2 6,000 0.1730
3 10,000 0.1890
4 20,000 0.2090
5 60,000 0.2320
38
Non-Residential kWh
39
Non-Residential kVAh
40
Exercise 1
41
Maximum demand rate
Consumers being billed against this tariff are charged as
follows:
•A periodical maximum demand rate. (Maximum demand
is the highest power demand measured in KW or KVA. It
is measured within a definite period of time)
•A per unit rate of either kWh or kVAh.
(W)
Exercise 2
46
Temperature resistance dependence
47
There are two types of temperature coefficient of
resistance: positive and negative.
Positive Negative
temperature temperature
coefficient coefficient 48
Some typical values of temperature coefficient of
resistance measured at 0°C are given below:
Copper 0.0043/°C
Aluminium 0.0038/°C
Nickel 0.0062/°C
Carbon -0.00048/°C
Eureka 0.000 01/°C
49
Definition of temperature coefficient of resistance
Exercise 4
A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1kΩ at 0°C.
Determine its resistance at 80°C. Assume that the
temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at
0°C is -0.0005/°C
51
Definite temperature at 200C
R2=R20[1+a20(t2-20)]
R2 is the resistance at t2
R20 resistance at 20oC
t2 final temperature
a20 temperature coefficient of
resistance at 20°C
52
Exercise 5
A copper cable at 20oC has a resistance of 90Ω. The
temperature is raised and the resistance measured
reads 104Ω. If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of copper at 20oC is 0.004/oC, calculate
the final temperature.
Exercise 6
An aluminum overhead cable has a resistance of
100Ω, when the effective daytime ambient
temperature is 68oC. During night, the effective
ambient temperature falls to 20oC. Calculate the
night time resistance if the temperature coefficient
of resistance of aluminum at 20oC is 0.0038/oC
53
Resistance at 0oC is not known
R1/R2 = (1+a0t1)/(1+a0t2)
R1 is resistance at temperature 1
R2 is resistance at temperature 2
t1 lower temperature
t2 upper temperature
a0 temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C
54
Exercise 7
A nickel conductor has a resistance of 250Ω when
its temperature is 25oC. If the temperature is
raised to 120oC, calculate the value of the final
resistance. Assume temperature co-efficient of
resistance of nickel at 0oC is 0.0062/oC.
Exercise 8
55
VOLTAGE DROP AND POWER LOSS IN CABLES
56
Whenever a voltage drop occurs in a cable, power
is being lost across that voltage drop. This power
must be paid for as well, so it is in the interest of
the consumer to minimize power loss in cables.
Exercise 2
A twin copper cable having a cross sectional area of
75mm2, supplies a 20kW load 1000m from source.
If the terminal voltage is 400V when the winter
ambient temperature is 20oC, calculate;
the resistance of the cable
the current absorbed by the circuit
the supply voltage
the percentage power loss in cable
continue on next page 58
During the summer period, the effective ambient
temperature of the cable is raised to 75oC and the
supply voltage is kept constant. Calculate;
the resistance of the cable
the current absorbed
the voltage across the load
the voltage drop across the cable
the percentage power loss in cable
59
INSULATION RESISTANCE IN CABLES
60
Testing insulation resistance
61
Required test voltages and minimum resistance
Nominal circuit voltage Test voltage Minimum insulation
(V) resistance (MW)
Extra-low voltage circuits
supplied from a safety 250 0.25
transformer
Up to 500 V except for
500 0.5
above
Above 500 V up to 1000 V 1000 1.0
The insulation resistance tester must be capable of maintaining
the required voltage when providing a steady state of current of
1mA.
62
Methods and equipment used for the insulation
resistance tests
63
64
The testing equipment must be capable of delivering a
current of 1 mA at the minimum allowable resistance level,
which is:
250 kW for the 250 V tester
500 kW for the 500 V tester
1 MW for the 1,000 V tester
Basic instrument accuracy required is +/-5%
It must have a facility to discharge capacitance up to 5 mF
which has become charged during the test or may be
combined with the low resistance ohmmeter
65
HEAT ENERGY AND MECHANICAL ENERGY
69
As a form of energy, the SI unit for heat is the joule
(J), though heat is frequently also measured in the
calorie (cal), which is defined as "the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one gram of
water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees
Celsius." Heat is also sometimes measured in "British
thermal units" or Btu.
Q = m x Cg x (Tf – Ti)
71
Specific Heat Capacities of Some Substances
[Cg (J K-1 kg-1 or J oC-1 kg-1)]
potassium hydroxide
mercury Cg = 139.5 Cg = 1180
solid
72
Example 1
Q = m x Cg x (Tf - Ti)
m = 0.25 kg
Cg = 4181.3 J oC-1 kg-1
Tf = 56oC
Ti = 20oC
Q = 0.25 x 4181.3 x (56 - 20)
Q = 0.25 x 4181.3 x 36
Q = 37 632 J = 37.6 kJ
73
Example 2
Q = m x Cg x (Tf - Ti)
Q = 216 J
Cg = 897 JoC-1kg-1
Ti = 15oC
Tf = 35oC
216 = m x 897 x (35 - 15)
216 = m x 897 x 20
216 = m x 17940
m = 216 ÷ 17940 = 0.012kg = 12g
74
Example 3
EK = (1/2)mv2
Example 4
How much kinetic energy does an object have if its
mass is 5.0 kg and it is moving at a speed of 4.0 m/s
77
Potential energy calculation
Eg = m g h (J)
m= mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
h = displacement (m)
78
Example 4
What is the gravitational potential energy for a 4 kg
object that is lifted 5 m?
Eg = m g h (J)
Eg = 4kg x 9.81m/s2 x 5m = 196.2 (J)
Example 5
79
Example 6
How many water would be raised from 40 m depth if
1.2 kW motor of water pump was running for 5 min?
Assume 97% efficiency of the motor and 70%
efficiency of the pump.
E = m g h (J)
m = E / (g h) = 24450 (J) / [9.81(m/s2) x 40(m)] =
= 62.31 (l)
80
CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY INTO
HEAT & MECHANICAL ENERGY
Heat
E = m Cg Dt
(Kg J Kg-1 0C-1 0C )
(J)
E=Pt=UIt
(VAs = Ws = J)
E=PFt
(Pa m3 s-1 s )
(N m-2 m3 =J)
Mechanical energy
81
ILLUMINATION, QUANTITY & UNITS, SYMBOLS
Luminous flux
Quantity of light
The quantity of light, or luminous energy, is a
product of the luminous flux emitted multiplied by
time; luminous energy is generally expressed in
klmh.
Q = F * t (lmh) 82
Luminous efficacy
F lm
h = =
P W
83
84
Luminous intensity
An ideal point-source lamp radiates luminous flux
uniformly into the space in all directions; its luminous
intensity is the same in all directions.
In practice, however, luminous flux is not distributed
uniformly. This results partly from the design of the
light source, and partly on the way the light is
intentionally directed.
It makes sense, therefore, to have a way of
presenting the spatial distribution of luminous flux,
i.e. the luminous intensity distribution of the light
source.
Luminous intensity I is
the luminous flux F
radiating in a given
direction per solid
angle W. 85
luminous luminous flux F lm
= ; I= = cd
intensity spatial angle W sr
87
A2
A1
I = 1 cd
r1
r2
F lm
E= = 2 = lx
A m
89
Luminance
Whereas illuminance indicates the amount of
luminous flux falling on a given surface, luminance
describes the brightness of an illuminated or
luminous surface. Luminance is defined as the ratio
of luminous intensity of a surface (cd) to the
projected area of this surface (m2).
nit lux
Average illuminance Em is
calculated from the
luminous flux F falling on
the given surface A.
E = F / A [ lm/m2 = lx ]
E = I * W / A = I * (A/r2) / A
E = I / r2 [ cd/m2 ]
r
h g
a Ev
E’ = F’/A Eh E
E = Ig /r2
E’ = F*cos a/A
Ev = E*cosg = (Ig /r2)*cosg
E‘ = E*cos a
a is the angle between Eh = E*sing = (Ig /r2)*sing
illuminated surface and n E
i
Mean value Em = S
the plane perpendicular i=1 n
to light 92
Light source Example:
I I = 20000 cd
r
H=8m
h g
350
300
y x
illumination (lx)
250
200
I 150
Ey =
h2
100
50
I * cos g 0
Ex = 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71
r2 angle
h
cos g =
r
h I * cos3 g
r= Ex =
cos g h2 93
Example 5
A lamp of 1200 cd is placed 3.5 m above a surface.
Find out the illumination at point ―X‖ 2 meters away
from the centre line.
g = tan-1 (2/3.5) = 29.750
I * cos3 g
Ex = = 1200 cos3 29.75/3.52 = 64.1 lx
h2
Exercise 1
Two lamps being fixed 6 m apart on the height of 3 m
above a surface. They are same with luminous
intensity of 1500cd. Find out the illumination on the
surface midway between the lamps and below each
lamp.
94
Exercise 2
95
PHOTOMETRY AND LIGHTMETERS
Photometry is the science of measuring visible light in
units that are weighted according to the sensitivity of
the human eye.
For the visible part of the spectrum (380nm -
780nm) a separate set of parameters is defined.
These photometric values derive from the
radiometric quantities by weighting them with the
spectral response function for intensity of the
human eye.
97
Measuring the lighting qualities of a lighting
installation can serve a number of purposes. In the
case of new installations measurements are taken to
check that the planned values have been obtained.
Measurements recorded on existing installations help
the planner to decide what maintenance or
renovation work is required.
Measurements can also be taken during the planning
process for the evaluation and comparison of lighting
concepts. The factors that are measured are initially
illuminance and luminance.
To ensure that results of measurements taken are
usable the measuring equipment must be of a
suitably high quality.
98
When measuring a lighting installation, a series of
parameters have to be taken into account and
documented in a report.
This initially involves the recording of specific
qualities of the environment, such as reflectance
factors and colours of room surfaces, the time of day,
the amount of daylight and the actual mains voltage.
Features of the lighting installation are then recorded:
the age of the installation, the lighting layout, the
types of luminaries, the type and condition of the
lamps and the overall condition of the installation.
The type of measuring equipment and the class of
accuracy of the measuring device has to be recorded.
99
To record illuminance for an entire space, a floor
plan is made of the space and has to include
furniture. The arrangement of luminaries and the
points at which measurements are to be taken are
then entered. The measuring points are the central
points on a 1-2 m grid, in the case of high rooms up
to a 5 m grid.
Measurements can also be taken at individual
workplaces, in which case an overall light measuring
grid is created for the area.
Horizontal illuminance is measured at the individual
measuring points at the height of the working plane
of 0.85 m
Cylindrical illuminance for determining the formation
of shadows on a 1.2 m plane of reference.
100
Measuring illuminance
on the working plane in
empty or open
furnished spaces is
made according to a
regular grid of 1 to 2
meters.
101
LUMEN METHOD CALCULATIONS
102
The deciding factor in this calculation is the
utilisation, which is derived from the geometry of
the space, the reflectance of the room surfaces and
the efficiency and the distribution characteristics of
the luminaries used.
103
The lumen method formula is easiest to understand in
the following form.
E = (n × N × F × UF × LLF)/A (lux)
104
Utilisation Factor
105
The Utilisation factor (UF) can be read off the table
from the column showing the corresponding room
index and line showing the appropriate combination
of reflectance factors of ceiling (rC), walls (rW) and
floor (rF) or for greater accuracy, calculated through
interpolation.
Room Reflectance
L*W
RI =
Hm * (L+W)
L = length of room
W = width of room
Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance
between the working plane and the luminaries. 107
Utilisation factor UF for typical interior luminaries
narrow-beam
luminaries
(A 60,DIN 5040)
108
wide-beam
luminaries
(A 40, DIN 5040)
109
indirect luminaries
(E 12, DIN 5040)
110
Light output ratio of luminary (LOR) takes into
account for the loss of light energy both inside
and by transmission through light fittings. It is
given by the following expression.
113
Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) is the proportion
of the initial light output from a luminaries after a set
time to the initial light output from a lamp after a set
time. It constitutes the greatest loss in light output
and is mainly due to the accumulation of atmospheric
dirt on luminaries. Three factors must be considered in
its determination:
(a) the type of luminaries,
(b) atmospheric conditions, and
(c) maintenance interval.
115
Example 1
Project data: Reflection factors:
Eavg = 350 lx ceiling 80%
F= 6700 lm (2x36W TL36W) walls 80%
room length L=8 m working surface 30%
room with W=4 m LLF = 0.8
mounting height Hm = 2.15 m
height of the working surface = 0.85 m
K 883 853 833 553 533 772 752 732 881 851 831 551 531 331
0.60 51 33 27 32 26 40 32 27 46 32 26 30 26 26
0.80 58 41 34 39 33 47 39 33 52 38 33 37 32 32
1.00 63 46 40 44 38 52 44 38 55 43 38 41 37 36
1.25 68 53 47 50 45 57 50 45 59 49 44 47 43 42
1.50 71 57 51 53 49 60 54 49 62 52 47 50 46 46
2.00 75 63 58 59 54 64 59 54 64 57 52 54 51 50
2.50 78 68 63 62 59 67 62 58 66 60 56 58 55 54
3.00 80 71 67 65 62 69 65 62 68 62 59 60 58 57
4.00 83 75 71 68 65 71 68 65 69 65 62 62 60 59
116
5.00 84 78 74 70 68 73 70 68 70 67 64 64 63 61
room index
LxW 8 x4
k= = = 1.24
Hm x (L+W) 2.15 x (8+4)
E = (n × N × F × UF × LLF)/A (lux)
350 x (8 x 4)
N= = 3.07 = 3
6700 x 0.68 x 0.8
117
Optimal positioning of the light fittings
For optimal distance between the fittings (d) is
given the following formula:
e d
d = Hm x
h
h Hm
e = 3.74 m
e
3.74
d = 2.15 x = 2.68 m
3.00
118
The illuminance at a point
Ep is calculated from the
luminous intensity I and
the distance ―a‖ between
the light source and the
given point.
Ep = I / a2
@ 00 170 cd / 1000 lm
120
The most common analogue instrument or meter is
the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it
is used for measuring a dc current or voltage of a
electric circuit.
121
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instruments (PMMC)
123
When a current is passed through the coil windings,
a torque is developed on the coil by the interaction
of the magnetic field and the field set up by the
current in the coil. The aluminium pointer attached
to rotating coil and the pointer moves around the
calibrated scale indicates the deflection of the coil. A
balance weight is also attached to the pointer to
counteract its weight.
F = B I l n (N)
124
In order to return the coil to its original position
when there is no current through the coil, a
hairsprings attached to each end of the coil. These
hairsprings are not only supplying a restoring torque
but also provide an electric connection to the
rotating coil. With the use of hairsprings, the coil will
return to its initial position when no current is
flowing though the coil. The springs will also resist
the movement of coil when there is current through
coil. When the developing force between the
magnetic fields (from permanent magnet and electro
magnet) is exactly equal to the force of the springs,
the coil rotation will stop.
125
The resulting torque in a coil or motion of a coil in a
magnetic field is due to the combined effect of
deflecting torque, controlling torque and damping
torque.
126
As the coil moves in the field of the permanent
magnet, eddy currents are set up in the metal core.
The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents
opposes the motion of the coil. The pointer will
therefore swing more slowly to its proper position
and come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.
This is a dumping torque.
127
A multi-range ammeters and voltmeters
128
Swamping resistance (manganin) which has a
temperature coefficient practically zero is connected
in series with the coil resistance in order to reduce
the error due to the variation of resistance
(temperature change) of the moving coil. The
swamping resistance is usually three times that of
coil thereby reducing a possible error of, say, 4% to
1%.
129
Example 1
100 * 0.0005
Rsh = = 0.01 W
5-0.0005
130
Multi-range voltmeters is constructed by a connecting
a resistor in series with a PMMC instrument. Unlike an
ammeter, a voltmeter should have a very high
resistance R and it is normally connected in parallel
with the circuit where the voltage is to be measured.
50 - 100 * 0.0001
R50 = = 0.4999 MW
0.0001
100 - 100 * 0.0001
R100 = = 0.9999 MW
0.0001
150 - 100 * 0.0001
R150 = = 1.4999 MW
0.0001
132
Moving-iron Instruments
There are two general types of moving-iron
instruments:
133
The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of
the current in the coil, making the instrument
reading is a true ‗RMS‘. Rotation is opposed by a
hairspring that produces the restoring torque.
Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and more dense in the lower range of
calibration.
134
In repulsion type moving–iron instrument consists of
two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed
current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to
the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying
with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic
field produced by the coil that consists of only few
turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many
turns if the instrument is
a voltmeter. Current in
the coil induces both
vanes to become
magnetized and repulsion
between the similarly
magnetized vanes
produces a proportional
rotation.
135
Attractive type instrument consists of a few soft iron
discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D), pivoted in
jewelled bearings. The spindle (D) also carries a
pointer (P), a balance weight (W1), a controlling
weight (W2) and a damping piston (E), which moves
in a curved fixed cylinder (F).
At equilibrium i.e. for
steady deflection,
Deflecting torque =
Controlling torque.
136
Shunts and multipliers for MI instruments
137
For moving-iron voltmeters: Voltmeter range may be
altered connecting a resistance in series with the
coil. Hence the same coil winding specification may
be employed for a number of ranges.
An ordinary
arrangement with a
non-inductive
resistance in series
with the fixed coil –
results in error that
increases as the
frequency increases.
The change of impedance of the instrument with
change of frequency introduces error in signal
measurements. In order to compensate the
frequency error, the multiplier may be easily
shunted by the capacitor. 138
INDUCTION WATTMETERS AND ENERGY METERS
It has two laminated electromagnets. One (series)
is excited by the current in the main circuit, other
(shunt) by current proportional to the voltage of
the circuit.
A thin aluminium disc
cuts the AC fluxes and
two eddy currents are
produced with
associated fluxes. The
deflection torque is
produced due to
interaction of these
eddy currents fluxes
and inducing fluxes Induction wattmeter
and is proportional to
RMS of current and voltage. 139
This instrument is spring controlled, which is fixed on
spindle of the moving system which carries a pointer.
The scale is uniform and extended over 3000
Normally it can handle around 100A current. In case
of greater current, it should be connected to current
transformer.
140
Main parts of the induction energy meter
142
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS
144
The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy
and to convert this chemical energy through the
chemical reaction into electrical energy when needed.
A voltaic cell develops a potential difference when
electrodes of two different metals are immersed in an
electrolyte. One electrode accumulates a positive
charge. The potential difference is due to the
difference in charge between the two electrodes.
145
Primary Cells
146
Leclanché Cell
147
The Leclanché Cell (carbon-zinc) cell is one of the
oldest and most widely used types of dry cells. The
carbon in the battery is in the form of a rod in the
centre of the cell which acts as the positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative
electrode. The electrolyte for this type of cell is a
chemical paste-like mixture which is housed between
the carbon electrode and the zinc case. The cell is
then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in the paste
from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is
durable and very inexpensive to produce. It has a
good shelf life.
Disadvantages are high internal resistance and
limitation of 1.5 volts.
148
Mercury Cell
149
New silver-oxide cell Silver-oxide cell
(zero-mercury, zero lead) (conventional)
150
Lead Acid Cells – secondary cell
153
Nickel Cadmium Cell - secondary cell
154
INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF, TERMINAL VOLTAGE
155
When current flows in the circuit (IL), the internal
voltage drop (IL * Ri) drops the terminal voltage
of the battery. Thus, internal resistance reduces
both the current and voltage available to the load.
VL = EMFB – IL * Ri
156
SERIES, PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL
COMBINATION
When several cells are connected in series, the total
voltage output of the battery is equal to the sum of the
individual cell voltages. In the example of
the battery where four 1.5V cells provide a total of
6 volts. When we connect cells in series, the positive
terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
terminal of the next cell. The current flow through a
battery connected in series is the same as for one cell.
Ri =Ri1+Ri2+Ri3+Ri4+Ri5 (W)
E =E1+E2+E3+E4+E5 (V)
157
Cells connected in parallel, give the battery a greater
current capacity. When cells are connected in parallel,
all the positive terminals are connected together, and
all the negative terminals are connected together. The
total voltage output of a battery connected in parallel
is the same as that of a single cell. Cells connected in
parallel have the same effect as increasing the size of
the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell.
E=E1=E2=E3 (V) Ri
Ri = (W)
Ri=Ri1=Ri2=Ri3 (W) 3
158
Serial parallel combination
Classification by application
Main power source Stand by power source
Constant Constant Two step Compensating
voltage voltage/ constant (trickle/floating )
Constant voltage charge
current
160
Constant Voltage: A constant voltage charger is
basically a DC power supply which in its simplest
form may consist of a step down transformer from
the mains with a rectifier to provide the DC voltage to
charge the battery. The lead-acid cells used for cars
and backup power systems typically use constant
voltage chargers. In addition, lithium-ion cells often
use constant voltage systems, although these usually
are more complex with added circuitry to protect both
the batteries and the user safety.
162
Constant voltage / constant current method
163
Method of charging lead-acid battery
ampere-hour efficiency =
output(discharge), Ah x 100%
=
input (charge), Ah
watt-hour efficiency =
average discharge, Wh x 100%
=
average charge, Wh
10 x 8 x 12 x100%
watt-hour efficiency = =53.3%
10 x 12 x 15
167
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
169
In the absence of an external magnetic field the
magnetic dipoles of the atoms of most materials
(except permanent magnets) have random
orientations, resulting in no net magnetic moment.
The application of an external magnetic field cause
both an alignment of magnetic moments of the
spinning electrons and an induced magnetic moment
due to a charge in orbital motion of electrons.
170
A fundamental law of magnetism state that unlike
poles attract each other and like poles repel each
other.
171
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux is given symbol F, and is measure of
the magnetic field: its unit is the weber [Wb]
Characteristics of lines of magnetic flux are:
The direction of a line of magnetic flux at any point in
a non magnetic medium, such as air, is that of the
north seeking pole of a compass needle placed at that
point.
Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop.
Lines of magnetic flux never intersect
Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic cords,
always trying to shorten themselves.
Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the
same direction repel one other and vise versa. 172
172
Magnetic Field
Currents produce magnetic fields, a phenomenon
described mathematically by the Biot-Savart Law and
Ampère's Law. The magnetic field generated by a
current travels in a circular path around the current in
a plane perpendicular to the flow of charge i.e.
current.
(T)
F = N x I (Ampere-turn)
175
Magnetic field intensity (strength)
F Nx I A
l H = = [ ]
l l m
F =H x l [A ]
N x I=H x l [A ]
I
176
Magnetic flux density
F Wb
B= [ =T ]
A m2
177
Permeability
Permeability symbol (m) is the specific measure of a
material's acceptance of magnetic flux, analogous to
the specific resistance of a conductive material (ρ),
except inverse (greater permeability means easier
passage of magnetic flux, whereas greater specific
resistance means more difficult passage of electric
current).
Permeability of free space or vacuum and non
magnetic materials, symbol m0 is defined as
B H
m0 = = 4p 10-7 [ ]
H m
178
For ferromagnetic material permeability increases by
factor mr, called relative permeability, where mr > 1
(up to 7000 and even more).
cast iron
0 0
0 10000 0 10000
H(A/m) H(A/m)
Absolute permeability
B
m= = mr X m0 B = mr m0 H
H 179
Example 1
A coils of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a
wooden ring having a mean circumference of 600 mm
and a uniform cross sectional area of 500 mm2. If the
current through the coil is 4 A, calculate:
(a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density, and
(c) the total flux
Nx I 200 x 4
H = = = 1333 A/m
l 0.6
B = mr m0 H = 1 x 4p10-7 x 1333 = 1.675 mT
F=F*S E=I*R
Reluctance S F H*l 1 l
S= = = *
F=H* l[A/m*m=A] F B*A m A
1 l A ]
[
F = B * A [ T * m2 = Wb ] =
mr* mo
*
A Wb
Answer: 0.16 T
182
Electromagnetic induction
183
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:
dF
E = -N [V]
dt
E is the electromotive force (emf) in volts
N is number of turns
F is the magnetic flux in weber
dF
is rate of change of flux linkages
dt
1. Self induction
df(t)
e (t) = - N
dt
185
2. Induction by motion
df
e= - = B l v
dt
186
2. Induction by motion (rotation)
A’ = A cos a
df d
e (t ) = - N = -N ( B A cos w t )
dt dt
e (t ) = N B A w sin w t
187
3. Mutual induction
d f (t )
N e 2 (t ) = - N 2
2 dt
188
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, there is an interaction between the
magnetic field produced by the current and the
permanent field, which leads to a force being
experienced by the conductor.
F = B l I (N)
189
Force between parallel current-carrying conductors
I1 I2
F = m0 l [N ]
2p d
190
AC and DC
191
An alternating current is thus one which rises in one
direction to a maximum value, before falling to zero
and repeating in the opposite direction. Instead of
drifting steadily in one direction, the electrons
forming the current move backwards and forwards
in the conductor.
The time taken for
an alternating
quantity to complete
its pattern (to flow in
both directions and
then return to zero)
is called the periodic
time (symbol T) for
the system, which is
said to complete one
cycle in this time. 192
The number of complete cycles traced out in a given
time is called the frequency (symbol f ), usually
expressed in hertz (Hz), which are cycles per second
(c/s). If there are f cycles in one second, each cycle
takes 1/f seconds, so that
1 1
T = ( s) f = ( Hz)
f T
A frequency of 50 Hz is the standard for the supply
system in many parts of the world, including the
Malta, but 60 Hz systems are also common for mains
supplies.
1 1
T= = = 0.02( s)
f 50
193
Advantages of AC systems
195
Peak, average and rms values of sinusoidal waves
197
The average value of voltage will be the average
length of lines (expressed in volts). To find this, we
add the voltage represented by each line and divide
by the number of lines.
0 45 72 91 104 118 142 185 240 278 295 300 280 248 195 85 0
Uav = = 157(V )
17
198
199
Sinusoidal waveforms
Loop
connected to
slip rings
Fleming‘s
rotates in
right hand
magnetic
rule
field
external
prime mover
200
Induced EMF
202
average value =2 × maximum value/p
=0.637 × maximum value
Eavg = (2/p )Emax =0.637 x Emax
203
Example 1
Find the maximum and average values for a 230 V
supply.
or
204
Concept of capacitance
205
When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a
capacitor, a concentrated field flux is created
between them, allowing a significant difference of
free electrons (a charge) to develop between the two
plates.
208
Material Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
Vacuum ------------------------- 1.0000
Air ---------------------------- 1.0006
PTFE, FEP ("Teflon") ----------- 2.0
Polypropylene ------------------ 2.20 to 2.28
ABS resin ---------------------- 2.4 to 3.2
Polystyrene -------------------- 2.45 to 4.0
Waxed paper -------------------- 2.5
Transformer oil ---------------- 2.5 to 4
Hard Rubber -------------------- 2.5 to 4.80
Wood (Oak) --------------------- 3.3
Silicones ---------------------- 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite ----------------------- 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused ------------------ 3.8
Wood (Maple) ------------------- 4.4
Glass -------------------------- 4.9 to 7.5
209
"Ohm‘s Law" for a capacitor
C = capacitance in Farads
210
The capacitor acts as a LOAD
212
213
214
Series and parallel capacitors
When capacitors are When capacitors are
connected in series, the connected in parallel, the
total capacitance is less total capacitance is the
than any one of the series sum of the individual
capacitors‘ individual capacitors‘ capacitances.
capacitances.
C1 x C 2
CT =
C1 + C 2
1
CT = CT = C 1 + C 2
1 1 1
+ +…..
C1 C1 Cn 215
Capacitors, like all electrical components, have
limitations which must be respected for the sake of
reliability and proper circuit operation.
Working voltage: Since capacitors are nothing more
than two conductors separated by an insulator (the
dielectric), one has to pay attention to the maximum
voltage allowed across it. If too much voltage is
applied, the ‖breakdown‖ rating of the dielectric
material may be exceeded, resulting in the capacitor
internally short-circuiting.
Polarity: Some capacitors are manufactured so they
can only tolerate applied voltage in one polarity but
not the other. This is due to their construction: the
dielectric is a microscopically thin layer of insulation
deposited on one of the plates by a DC voltage during
manufacture. These are called electrolytic capacitors,
and their polarity is clearly marked. 216
Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance in AC circuits
Resistance in AC circuit
Average power
P = Urms x Irms (W)
Average power = 0
221
This opposition to alternating current is similar to
resistance, but different in that it always results in a
phase shift between current and voltage, and it
dissipates zero power.
Because of the differences, it has a different name:
reactance. Reactance to AC is expressed in ohms, just
like resistance is, except that its mathematical symbol
is X instead of R. To be specific, reactance associate
with an inductor is usually symbolized by the capital
letter X with a letter L as a subscript, like this: XL.
XL = 2pf L (W)
222
Capacitance in AC circuits
Average power = 0
224
Since capacitors ―conduct‖ current in proportion to
the rate of voltage change, they will pass more
current for faster-changing voltages (as they charge
and discharge to the same voltage peaks in less
time), and less current for slower-changing voltages.
What this means is that reactance in ohms for any
capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency of
the alternating current.
1
XC = (W)
2pf C
226
Concept of reactance and impendence
227
Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of
electrons. It is present anywhere electric or
magnetic fields are developed in proportion to
applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When
alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90o out of phase
with the current. Reactance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter ―X‖ and is measured in the
unit of ohms (W).
228
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and
all forms of opposition to electron flow, including both
resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits,
and in all components.
When alternating current goes through an
impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is
somewhere between 0o and 90o out of phase with the
current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by
the letter ―Z‖ and is measured in the unit of ohms
(W), in complex form.
IR IL IC
U U
IR = IL = -j IC = jUwC
R wL
229
AC series circuits
EL = I x XL = 1.695 x 3.142 Q = I2 XL
Q = 9.03 VAr
EL = 5.33 V
Apparent power
ER = I x R = 1.695 x 5 = 8.48 V S= P2 + Q2
S = 16.97 VA 231
Power triangle Power factor
Q = P x tan (j) P
cos j =
S
EL = I x XL = 1.195 x 31.42 S= P2 + Q2
= 37.55 V S = 11.95 VA 237
Effect of frequency on inductive reactance
XL = 2pf L (W)
238
Effect of frequency on capacitive reactance
XC = 1/2pfC (W)
239
Resonance in series circuits
f = 159.155 Hz
240
This series-resonant effect, with inductive and
capacitive reactances equal and opposite, may be
brought about in a number of ways:
1. Change in inductance, give a proportional change
in inductive reactance (note that XL = 2πf L, so XL ∝
L if f is constant).
2. Change in capacitance, giving an inversely
proportional change in capacitive reactance (note
that XC = 1/2πf C so XC ∝ 1/C if f is constant).
3. Change in frequency. If L and C are constant, XL ∝
f and XC ∝ 1/f , so an increase in frequency will
increase inductive reactance and decrease capacitive
reactance.
1
At some frequency these two values fr =
2π√LC
(inductive and capacitive reactance) would
be equal and series resonance would occur. 241
Variation of resistance,
reactance and impedance
with frequency in a R-L-C
series circuit
p = vi
244
Voltage, current and power waves for resistive
AC circuit
Example 1
A 3 kW immersion
heater is connected
to a 230 V AC supply.
Calculate the current.
P 3000
I= = = 13( A)
V 230
245
Power in the capacitive AC circuit
246
During its first and third quarter-cycles, the voltage
is increasing and the supply provides energy to
charge the capacitor. During the second and fourth
quarter-cycles of voltage, the reducing PD across
the capacitor allows it to discharge, returning its
energy to the supply.
The positive pulses represent energy supplied to the
capacitor, while the negative pulses represent
energy supplied by the capacitor as it discharges.
247
The interchange of energy dissipates no average
power in a pure capacitor, so no heating occurs.
Since we have voltage and current, but no average
power, the expression P = VI is no longer true. The
product of voltage and current in this case is called
reactive power and is measured in reactive
voltamperes (VAr). The current to a capacitor which
does not contain resistance does not dissipate
energy, and is called reactive current.
248
Example 1
1 1
Xc = = = 318(W)
2pfC 2p 50 x10 -6
V 230
I= = = 0.723( A)
Xc 318
249
Power in the inductive AC circuit
250
During its first and third quarter-cycles, the current
is increasing and the supply provides energy to
magnetic field of the inductor. During the second
and fourth quarter-cycles of voltage, the reducing
current across the inductor allows it to discharge,
returning its energy to the supply.
The positive pulses represent energy supplied to the
inductor, while the negative pulses represent energy
supplied by the inductor as it discharges.
251
Power in resistive and capacitive AC circuits
252
The ratio of resistance to reactance in the circuit
must have some bearing on the power dissipated,
because power is expended in a resistive circuit, but
not in a reactive circuit.
Example 2
A circuit connected to a 230 V AC supply consists of
a resistance of 28.8 (W) in series with a capacitor of
reactance 38.4(W). Calculate (a) the circuit current,
(b) the circuit phase angle, and (c) the power
dissipated.
Z = R 2 Xc 2 = 28.82 38.42 = 48W
V 230 VR IR R 28.8
I= = = 4.79 A cos f = = = = = 0.6
Z 48 V IZ Z 48
P = VI cos f = 230 x4.79 x0.6 = 661(W )
P = I 2 R = 4.792 x28.8 = 661(W ) 253
Example 3
A 10 W resistor and a capacitor are connected in
series to a 120 V, 60 Hz supply. If the power lost in
the circuit is 360 W, calculate the capacitance.
P P
P = I R......I = .......I =
2 2
R R
P 380
I= = = 36 = 6( A)
R 10
V 120
Z= = = 20(W)
I 6
Xc = Z 2 - R 2 = 20 2 - 10 2 = 17.3(W)
1 1 1
Xc = .....C = = = 153mF
2pfC 2pfXc 2p 60 x17.3 254
Power in resistive and inductive AC circuits
Z = R 2 Xc 2 = 4 2 32 = 5W
V 200
I= = = 40 A
Z 5
VR IR R 4
cos f = = = = = 0.8..........f = 36.90
V IZ Z 5
P = VI cos f = 200 x 40 x0.8 = 6400(W )
P = I 2 R = 40 2 x 4 = 6400(W )
256
Example 5
A choke connected to a 130 V, 50 Hz supply has a
resistance of 5 W and dissipates 500 W. Calculate its
inductance.
P 500
P=I RI =
2
= = 10( A)
R 5
V 130
Z= = = 13W
I 10
X L = Z 2 - R 2 = 132 - 52 = 12W
XL 12
X L = 2pfL L = = = 0.0382( H ) = 38.2(mH )
2pf 2p 50
257
Power in general
The dissipated power can then be calculated by any
one of the three methods:
2
V
P = VI cos f ..............P = I R..............P = R
2
R
Where:
P = power dissipated (W);
V = supply voltage (V);
I = circuit current (A);
φ = circuit phase angle;
R = circuit resistance (W);
VR = PD across the resistive component (V).
258
Concept of power factor and its effect
260
Example 1
An AC single-phase motor takes 5 A at 0.7 power
factor lagging when connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the power input to the motor. If the
motor efficiency is 80% calculate the output.
261
Example 2
Instruments connected to
a single-phase AC motor give
the following readings:
wattmeter, 1800 W,
voltmeter, 230 V,
ammeter, 10 A. Calculate the operating power factor
of the motor.
262
Components of power
Power diagram for Power diagram for
resistive and resistive and
inductive AC circuit capacitive AC circuit
P
P(W ) = VI cos jh I =
V cos jh
3730
Ia = = 19.95( A)
220 x1x0.85
3730
Ib = = 23.47( A)
220 x0.85 x0.85
3730
Ic = = 33.24( A)
220 x0.6 x0.85
265
All the disadvantages of a low power factor are due
to the fact that a given load takes more current at a
low power factor than it does at a high power factor.
The most important disadvantages of operating a
load at a low power factor are as follows.
(1) Larger cables, switchgear and transformers may be necessary both
within an installation and in the supply mains feeding it.
(2) Low-power-factor working causes operating difficulties on high-
voltage transmission lines.
(3) Because of the effects of items (1) and (2), electricity companies
usually penalise the consumer whose load is at a poor power factor by
charging more for the electrical energy used.
(4) Larger cables may be needed within an installation to carry the
extra current at low power factor. Alternatively, extra load can be
connected to a cable if the power factor of the existing load it carries
is improved.
(5) Higher currents give rise to higher copper losses in cables and
transformers.
(6) Higher currents give larger voltage drop in cables, and a change in
load gives a larger change in voltage drop if the power factor is low.
This is called ‗poor voltage regulation‘. 266
Measurement of resistance by substitution
47.9 - 45.3
R = 14 = 14.76W
47.9 - 44.5
268
Measurement of resistance by direct methods
Exercise 1
273
Measurement of insulation and conductor resistance
of cables in series and parallel
275
Meggers are equipped with three connection
terminals, labeled Line, Earth, and Guard.
To measure insulation resistance from a conductor to
the outside of the cable, we need to connect the
"Line" lead of the megger to one of the conductors
and connect the "Earth" lead of the megger to a wire
wrapped around the sheath of the cable:
Resistance is
measured
between the
Line and Earth
terminals,
where current
will travel
through coil 1.
276
The "Guard" terminal is provided for special testing
situations where one resistance must be isolated
from another, for instance where the insulation
resistance is to be tested in a two-wire cable:
278
Connecting the "Guard" terminal to the first
conductor places the two conductors at almost equal
potential. With little or no voltage between them,
the insulation resistance is nearly infinite, and thus
there will be no current between the two conductors.
Consequently, the megger's resistance indication will
be based exclusively on the current through the
second conductor's insulation, through the cable
sheath, and to the wire wrapped around, not the
current leaking through the first conductor's
insulation.
279
Double wound and auto-transformers, principle of
operation, application, precautions, advantages and
disadvantages
step-down step-up
autotransformer autotransformer 283
The major advantage of the autotransformer which
will be smaller, lighter and cheaper than its double-
wound counterpart. The disadvantages of the
autotransformer are as follows:
1 There is a direct metallic connection between the
input and the output, whereas the coupling in a
double-wound transformer is magnetic only, giving
electrical isolation of the two windings.
2 In the event of an open-circuit fault in the common
part of the winding, the input voltage of a step-down
autotransformer would appear on the output
terminals. Because of this danger, the IEE Wiring
Regulations limit the use of autotransformers.
However, they are used in high-voltage transmission
systems, as starters for induction and synchronous
motors, and for voltage control in some types of
discharge lamp. 284
To indicate the danger of input voltage appearing at
output terminals of a step-down autotransformer in
the event of an open circuit in the common winding
285
Construction details. Simple calculations
286
Core materials
Since it is always be subjected to alternating
magnetisation, the core material and construction
must be chosen to reduce iron losses to a minimum,
or the transformer will not be efficient.
Most transformer cores are made from laminated
silicon steel, the laminations reducing eddy currents
and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a
minimum. Laminations must be arranged so as to
reduce the air gaps in the magnetic circuit.
The laminations must be tightly held together by
clamping or by taping, or they are likely to vibrate
and produce excessive noise. Some small high-
frequency communications transformers have cores
cast of solid ferroxcube, the eddy-current loss thus
being kept to a reasonable level.
287
packs of laminations being laid up to form
shaped core
288
Core arrangements
290
Sandwich or disc-type windings, where the two
windings are split into alternately mounted sections,
are used generally on shell-type circuits, except for
very high voltage transformers which use the
cylindrical type of winding.
291
A transformer with an output voltage greater than its
input is called a step-up transformer, whereas a step-
down transformer has a lower output voltage than its
input. If a voltage or turns ratio is quoted for a
transformer, this is always put in the order
input : output, which is primary : secondary.
primary volts V1
primary volts per turn = =
primary turns N1
secondary volts V2
secondary volts per turn = =
secondary turns N2
V1 V2 V1 N1
= =
N1 N2 V2 N2
292
Example 1
A transformer with 1000 primary turns and 250
secondary turns is fed from a 230 V AC supply.
Calculate the secondary voltage and the volts per
turn.
V1/V2 =N1/N2 so V2 = V1 × N2/N1
V1 x I1 = V2 x I2 V1/V2 = I2/I1
Neither of the assumptions made is strictly true
but, since the error involved is small, the resulting
expression is a useful one.
Example 3
A 50 kVA transformer has a voltage ratio of
3300:400 V. Calculate the primary and secondary
currents.
S =V1 x I1 so I1 = S / V1 = 50000/3300 = 15.2 A
S =V2 x I2 so I2 = S / V2 = 50000/400 = 125 A
294
Exercise 1
The single-phase transformer feeding a soil-
warming system is supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz, and
must provide a 20 V output. The full-load secondary
current is 180 A, and the secondary has 45 turns.
Calculate
(a) the output kVA of the unit
(b) the number of primary turns
(c) the full load primary current
(d) the volts per turn.
295
Exercise 2
A 75 kVA transformer has step-down ratio of 12:1,
2400 primary turns and a primary voltage of 3.3 kV.
Calculate
(a) the number of secondary turns
(b) the secondary voltage
(c) the volts per turn
(d) the full load primary and secondary currents.
296
Transformer losses, efficiency and regulation
loss
on half load will have only one
quarter of the copper loss it
has when providing full load.
load 298
Efficiency
As well as providing for the output power, the input
to a transformer must supply the transformer losses.
output power
efficiency = × 100%
output power + power losses
299
Example 4
302
Regulation
Example 5
Exercise 3