ME 531 MACHINING MECHANICS AND

ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 4
TOOL LIFE AND
TOOL MATERIALS
 Tool Life - Definitions
A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to
have reached the end of its useful life.
• Criterion to mark the end point for the tool’s life is not
necessarily to correspond to a state that the tool is unable to
cut the workpiece, but that it is merely unsatisfactory for the
purpose.
• Such tools which have consumed their lives may be
▫ Resharpened (if applicable) and used again
▫ Used on less restrictive operations
▫ Disposed off

2
Tool Wear and failure
❑ Cutting tools are subjected to
❑ High forces,
❑ Elevated temperature,
❑ Sliding of the chip along the rake face, and
❑ Sliding of the tool along the freshly cut surface;
all these conditions induce wear.
❑ As a result of that, cutting tool wearing effects on the tool life, quality
of machined surface, dimentional accuracy, and economics of
machining operation.
Tool Wear
• Failure of the tool to perform a desired function may be
due to
▫ Catastrophic failure
 Fracture: when excessive cutting force leading to brittle fracture
 Temperature: when cutting temperature is too high
▫ Gradual (progressive) failure

4
 Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
▪ Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool
▪ Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool: Rake
▪ Crater wear – occurs on rake face Chip
▪ Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool) Crater
wear Tool
Flank
Workpiece
Flank
wear
 Types of tool wear
Flank wears: from rubbing
between newly work surface
and the Flank (land )face.
Tool-workpiece interface
Predominant at low speeds

Crater wears: concave

section, by the action of the
chip sliding against the surface.
Tool-chip interface
Predominant at high speeds

Chipping of the cutting edge

(catastrophic)
Nose wear
 Tool Wear
• Forms of wear: Loss of tool shape and cutting efficiency.
Resulting in Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
▫ Crater wear
Rake
▫ Flank wear Chip
Crater
wear Tool
Flank
Workpiece
Flank
wear

7
TOOL LIFE: WEAR AND FAILURE
Tool Wear Mechanisms

9
Tool Wear

10
Crater wears
❑The most significant factors affecting
crater wears are :
1. Temperature rise on the rake face
2. The degree of chemical affinity between the
tool and workpiece.
➢ The rake face is subjected to high levels of
stress and temperatures, as well as sliding
of the chip at relatively high speeds.
➢ The peak temperature can be on the order of
1373 K and the location of maximum depth
of crater wear generally coincides with the
location of maximum temperature at the
tool-chip interface.
• The effect of temperature on crater wear has been described in terms of
a diffusion mechanism [Diffusion is a thermal activated process] (that
is, the movement of atoms across the tool-chip interface).
• Diffusion depends on the tool-workpiece material combination and on
temperature, pressure and time. As these quantities increases, the diffusion
rate increases
Tool / Chip Interface / Crater wear
Flank wears
❑ Flank wear is generally attributed to:
1. Sliding of the tool along the machined surface, causing
adhesive and/or abrasive wear depending on the materials
involved (material of workpiece and tool).
2. Temperature rise, because of its adverse effects on the tool
material properties.
Rake
Chip
Crater
wear Tool
Flank
Workpiece
Flank
wear
Tool/work piece Interface / Flank wear
 Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear occurs when small particles of the tool adhere or weld
to the chip due to friction and are removed from the tool surface. It
occurs primarily on the rake face of the tool and contributes to the
formation of a wear crater. Adhesive wear rates are usually low, so that
this form of wear is not normally practically significant. However,
significant adhesive wear may accompany built-up edge (BUE)
formation, since the BUE is also caused by adhesion and can result in
chipping of the tool.
Adhesive Wear-BUE
Adhesive Wear-BUE

17
Abrasive Wear
Tool wear as a function time

• The region AB where

the sharp cutting edge is
quickly broken down and
a finite wear land is
established
• The region BC where
wear progresses at a
uniform rate
• The region CD where
wear occurs at a
gradually increasing rate

Clearly in practice, it is advisable to regrind or dispose of the tool before wear enters the
last region (region CD in Figure) where rapid breakdown occurs..
Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear
 Tool Life Criteria
Tool life is defined as the cutting time required to reach a tool-life
criterion.

A tool-life criterion is defined as a predetermined threshold value of a

tool-wear measure or the occurrence of a phenomenon.

• For HSS or Ceramic Tools

▫ Catastrophic failure, or
▫ VB = 0.3 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B) or
ISO
▫ VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank)
VB = 0.75 mm (HSS – finish)
VBmax = 1.5 mm (HSS – rough) Schey’s recommendation

21
Tool Life Criteria

• For Sintered Carbide Tools:

▫ VB = 0.3 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B), or
▫ VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank), or ISO
▫ KT = 0.06 + 0.3f mm (f : feed)
VB = 0.4 mm (uniformly worn flank in zone B), or
Schey’s
VBmax = 0.6 mm (irregularly worn flank)
recommendation

22
 Tool Life Criteria
A
KT Rake
Crater

KB re +
KM

Section A-A A
Zone Zone Zone Wear
KT is measured at the deepest point of the C B N
notch
crater (section A – A)
VC VN
VC is designated as the width of the flank
re VB b/4
max
wear land at the tool corner (zone C). b VB
At the opposite end of the active cutting edge In the central portion of the active cutting
(zone N) a groove or wear notch often forms, edge (zone B), the wear land is usually fairly
because in this region the work material uniform. However, to allow for variations
tends to work harden from the previous that may occur, the average wear-land width
processing operations. The width of the in this region is designated VB, and the
wear land at the notch is designated VN. maximum wear-land width is designated
VBmax. 23
Tool Life Criteria in Production
1. Visual inspection of wear by the machine
operator
2. Degradation of surface finish
3. Cumulative cutting time
Tool Life
Tool life is defined as the cutting time required to
reach a tool-life criterion.

Most important factor affecting tool life (for a given

work material-tool combination) is the cutting speed.

25
 Taylor’s Tool Life Model
vTn = C
▫ v : cutting speed [m/s]
▫ T: tool life [min]
▫ C: Constant [m/s] (cutting speed for 1 min. tool life)
n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut, work material,
tooling material, and the tool life criterion used
▫ n is the slope of the plot
▫ C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute tool life

Frederick W. Taylor
(1856-1915, US)

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Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life

• VTn = C

•Tool-life curve
–Log-log curve
–T = (C/V)1/n
C

–LogT = 1/n logC – 1/n logV

Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. the slope

of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations
and C is the cutting speed at T = 1 min.
Typical Values of n and C
Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
Extended Taylor’s Equation
To take into account feed rate and depth of cut effects on
wear, Taylor’s Eq. is modified:

C
T= 1 1 1 n  n1  n2
n1 n2
v f n
d

◼ For HSS: 0.1 < 0.17 < 0.25

Cutting speed is the most important process variable associated with tool
life followed by feed f and depth of cut d.

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Extended Taylor’s Equation
To take into account hardness effect on wear,
C
v = n n1 n2 n3
t f d ( BHN / 200)
To take into account cutting temperature effect on wear,

 •t = C
n4

BHN: Workpiece Brinell Hardness Value.

30
Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life
• VTn = C
▫ Given (V1, T1) & (V2, T2) from testing for carbide
▫ What are n and C?

• V1 T1n = C, V2 T2n = C
▫ V1 T1n = V2 T2n
▫ (T1 / T2 )n = V2 / V1
▫ Then n = log (V2 / V1) / log (T1 / T2)
▫ Or n =[ log (V2) – log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

• Once we get n, then C = V1 T1n

 n =[ log (V2) – log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

T2

T1

C
V2 V1
Example
•
Example: Tool life tests on a lathe have resulted in the following data: (1) at a cutting
speed of 375 ft/min, the tool life was 5.5 min; (2) at a cutting speed of 275 ft/min,
the tool life was 53 min. (a) Determine the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life
equation. (b) Based on the n and C values, what is the likely tool material used in this
operation? (c) Using your equation, compute the tool life that corresponds to a
cutting speed of 300 ft/min. (d) Compute the cutting speed that corresponds to a
tool life T = 10 min.
(a) VTn = C; Two equations: (1) 375(5.5)n = C and (2) 275(53)n = C
375(5.5)n = 275(53)n
375/275 = (53/5.5)n 1.364 = (9.636)n
ln 1.364 = n ln 9.636 0.3102 = 2.2655 n
n = 0.137

C = 375(5.5)0.137 = 375(1.2629) C = 474

(b) Comparing these values of n and C with those in Table, the likely tool material is high
speed steel.

(c) At v = 300 ft/min, T = (C/v)1/n = (474/300)1/0.137 = (1.579)7.305 = 28.1 min

(d) For T = 10 min, v = C/Tn = 474/100.137 = 474/1.371 = 346 ft/min

Effect of Rake Angle
Cutting Tool Materials

❑ The proper selection of cutting-tool materials is

among the most important considerations in
machining operation.
❑ In machining operation, the tool is subjected to:
1. High temperatures
2. High contact stresses
3. Rubbing on the work piece surface
4. And the effects of chip climbing up the rake face of the
tool
Cutting Tool Materials
▪ Tool failure modes identify the important properties that a tool
material should possess
❑A cutting tool must posses the following characteristics:
1. Hardness- particular at elevated temperatures (hot
hardness), so that the hardness and strength of cutting
tool material are maintained at the temperature
encountered in machining operation.
2. Toughness- so that impact forces on the cutting tool in
interrupted cutting operations such as milling or turning,
do not chip or fracture the tool.
3. Wear resistance- so that an acceptable tool life is
obtained before the tool is replaced [hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasive wear]
4. Chemical stability- so that any adverse reactions that
may contribute to tool wear are avoided or minimized
 Hot Hardness
• Typical hot hardness
relationships for
selected tool materials
• High speed steel is
much better than plain
C steel
• Cemented carbides
and ceramics are
significantly harder at
elevated temperatures.
Types of Cutting Tool Materials
 Alloy Tool Steels
They are steels with the following additions of alloying elements

Alloying Improves/increases Lowers

Element
Chromium (Cr) Hardness, strength, wear resistance, hot Strain
strength
Tungsten (W) Through hardening, hot strength, wear Over heating
resistance, fine grain, toughness, strength, heat sensitivity, strain
resistance
Nickel (Ni) Toughness, strength, electrical resistance, heat Over heating
resistance, through hardening sensitivity, strain
Molybdenum Through hardening, hot strength, wear Strain forgeability
(Mo) resistance, toughness, fatique resistance
Vanadium (V) Through hardening, fatique resistance, hot Overheating
strength, wear resistance, hardening sensitivity
temperature
Manganese Through hardening, strength, impact strength, Machinability.
(Mn) wear resistance, fatigue resistance, over heating Hardening
resistance temperature
 Carbon tool steels
❑Carbon steels are the oldest of tool
materials and have been used widely
for drilling since the 1880s, with
shorter tool life.
❑Carbon tool steels have some key
disadvantages by today’s cutting tool
standards. Nowadays, carbon tool
steels are often used to make
inexpensive drills, taps, and reamers.
 High-speed steels(HSS)
❑High-speed- steel (HSS) tools are so named because they were
developed to machine at high speeds than the carbon alloy
steels. (produced in 1900s).
❑Relatively High hardness compared to carbon steel, and wear
resistance.
❑Because of their high toughness and resistance to fracture,
HSS are suitable for:
1. For high rank angle tools (that is, small included angle)
2. For use on machine tools that are subjected to vibration and
chatters because of their low stiffness.
High Speed Steel (HSS)
❑There are two basic types of high-speed tools
1. Molybdenum (M series)- contains up to 10%
molybdenum, with chromium, vanadium,
tungsten, and cobalt as alloying elements.
2. Tungsten (T sereies)- contains 12 to 18%
tungsten, with chromium, vanadium and cobalt
as alloying elements
➢The M series generally has higher abrasion
resistance than the T series, undergoes less
distortion during heat treatment, and less
expensive.
High Speed Steel Composition
• Many HSS tools are also coated
with titanium nitride (TiN)
through a physical vapor
deposition (PVD) process. During
this process, small atoms of TiN
are turned into a vapor gas and
deposited on the tool surface. This
film is only 0.0002 in. thick
(0.0051 mm), which is less than
1/10 the thickness of a human
hair.
 Carbides
• The tool materials (carbon alloy
steels and HSS) have significant
limitations on characteristics such
as strength and hardness,
particularly hot hardness.
• Consequently, they cannot be used
as effectively where high cutting
speed, and hence high
temperatures, are involved, and
their tool life can be relatively
short.
• Carbides, also known as cemented
or sintered carbides, were
introduced to meet the challenge
of higher machining speeds
 Cemented-Carbides – General Properties
1. High hardness over a wide range of
temperature (90 to 95 HRA).
2. High elastic modulus - 600 x 103
Mpa
3. High thermal conductivity
4. Low thermal expansion
5. Good wear resistance
6. Toughness lower than high speed
steel, therefore, stuffiness of the
machine is important and chatter
can be detrimental.
❑The two basic groups of carbides
used for machining operations are
1. Tungsten carbide
2. Titanium carbides.
 Carbides
1. Tungsten carbide (WC) - is a composite material consisting of
tungsten-carbide particles bonded together in a cobalt matrix
(also known as cemented carbide).
• The a mount of cobalt significantly affects the properties of
tungsten carbide. As the cobalt content increases, strength,
hardness and wear resistance decreases.
• Tungsten-carbide tools are generally used for machining steels,
cast irons, and abrasive nonferrous materials, and have largely
replaced HSS tools

wear
 Carbides
2. Titanium carbide (TiC) - is a composite material
consisting of titanium-carbide particles bonded together
in a cobalt matrix.
❑Has higher wear resistance with a nickel-molybdenum
alloy as the matrix.
❑TiC is suitable for machining hard materials, mainly steels
and cast irons, and for machining at higher speeds than
those for tungsten carbides
 Coated tools
❑A variety of materials can be used as coating over :
1. High speed steel (HSS)
2. And carbide tools.
❑Because of their unique properties, coated tools can be used at high
cutting speeds, thus reducing the time required for machining, hence
costs.
• Coated tool can improve tool life by as much as 10 times of uncoated
tools
❑From the figure below, the machining time has been reduced by a
factor of more than 100 since 1900.
 Coated tools
❑Commonly used Coating materials include:
1. Titanium nitride (TiN)
2. Titanium carbide (TiC)
3. Titanium carbonitride (TiCN)
4. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
5. Ceramic coating
• Coating thickness range of 2 – 10 µm. Coatings are applied by two
methods
a. Chemical- vapor deposition (CVD): is the most commonly used
coating application method for carbide tools with multiple phases
and ceramic coating.
b. Physical-vapor deposition (PVD): used for carbide tools with
Titanium nitride (TiN) coatings. The coated carbides with TiN
coatings have higher cutting-edge strength, less friction, lower
tendency to form a built-up edge, and are smoother and more
uniform thickness (2-4 µm).
 Multiphase coating

Photomicrograph of cross section of multiple coatings on

cemented carbide tool (photo courtesy of Kennametal Inc.)
 Coated tools
❑The most recent technology for multiple coatings, is medium-
temperature chemical-vapor deposition (MTCVD), it provides
higher resistance to crack propagation than do CVD coatings.
❑Coatings should have the following characteristics:
1. High hardness at elevated temperature.
2. Chemical stability and inertness to workpiece material.
3. Low thermal conductivity
4. Good bonding to the substrate, to prevent flanking
5. Little or no porosity
Coated Carbides-Colors
 Alumina-base ceramics
• Alumina-base ceramics, consists
primarily of fine grained, high purity
aluminum oxide Al2O3.
• They are pressed into insert shapes
under high pressure and at room
temperature, then sintered at high
temperature with no binder.
❑Alumina-base ceramic tools have:
1. Very high hot hardness over a wide
range of temperature.
2. Very high abrasion resistance
3. Chemically, they are more stable than
HSS and carbides; thus they have less
of tendency to adhere to metals during
machining and hence lower tendency
to form built-up edge. consequently,
good surface finish is obtained
Alumina-base ceramics
▪ Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g. rough
milling) due to low toughness (ceramics lack toughness),
which can result in premature tool failure by chipping or
fracture.
❑The shape and setup of ceramic tools are also
important:
▪ Smaller rake angles, and hence larger include angles, are
generally preferred in order to avoid chipping.
▪ The occurrence of tool failure can be reduced by increasing
the stiffness and damping capacity of machine tools and
workholding devices, thus reducing vibration and chatter.
 Cubic Boron Nitride
❑Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is the hardest
material presently available.
❑The cBN cutting tools are made by bonding a 0.5 to 1mm
layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide
substrate by sintering under high pressure.
❑While carbide provide good toughness, the cBN layer
provides very high wear resistance and cutting-edge
strength.
❑At elevated temperature, cBN is chemically inert to iron
and nickel, and its resistance to oxidation. It is therefore
suitable for machining hardened ferrous and high-
temperature alloys.
❑Because cBN tools are brittle, stuffiness and damping
capacity of machine tool and fixturing device are
important to avoid vibration and chatter.
Cubic Boron Nitride
• Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is hardest
material known
• Fabrication into cutting tool inserts same as SPD:
coatings on WC-Co inserts
• Applications: machining steel and nickel-based alloys
• SPD and cBN tools are expensive
Diamond
❑The hardest substance of all known materials is
diamond.
❑Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon, and single
crystal.
❑As cutting tool, it has :
1. Low tool-chip friction
2. High wear resistance
3. And ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge.
4. Diamond tools can be used satisfactorily at almost any
speed but are suitable mostly for light, uninterrupted
cuts
❑It is used when very fine surface finish and dimensional
accuracy are required, particularly with abrasive
nonmetallic materials and soft nonferrous alloys.
Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated
by sintering very fine-grained diamond crystals
under high temperatures and pressures into
desired shape with little or no binder
• Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-
Co insert
• Applications: high speed machining of nonferrous
metals and abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass
reinforced polymer, graphite, and wood.
Synthetic Diamonds
• Synthetic having diamond matrix structure.
• Sintered under extremely high temperature and
pressure.
• High in uniform hardness and abrasive resistance in
all direction.
• Very high tool life compare to carbide tool (50 times).
• Shock resistance is more than natural diamond.
• Consistency in wear resistance.
• Available in large variety of shapes and sizes.
• Discs as large as 58 mm in diameter.
• Lower cost then natural diamond.
• Used for machining milling, turning, grooving, facing
and boring.
Synthetic Diamonds
• The biggest problem with diamond is its inability to
machine ferrous metals.
• Diamond is a special formation of carbon, and ferrous
metals contain carbon as well. If diamond is used on these
metals, it reverts to graphite at higher temperatures.
• Instead, CBN tools are best used on ferrous metals when
the hardest available tools are necessary.
• Diamond tools do have their uses. They can effectively
machine materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and various
aluminum and copper alloys.
Cermets (Ceramic+Metals)
• 70% aluminum oxide & 30 % titanium carbide
• Cermets contain molybdenum carbide, niobium
carbide and tantalum carbide.
• Applications: high speed finishing and
semifinishing of steels, stainless steels, and cast
irons
▫ Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting
cemented carbide grades
▫ Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for
grinding
Tool Production
Tool Prices
Tool Geometry
Two categories:
• Single point tools
▫ Used for turning, boring, shaping, and planing
• Multiple cutting edge tools
▫ Used for drilling, reaming, tapping, milling,
broaching, and sawing
Single-Point Tool Geometry
• (a) Seven elements
of single-point tool
geometry
• (b) Tool signature
convention that
defines the seven
elements
Holding and Presenting a Single-Point Tool

• (a) Solid shank tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed cemented

carbide insert; and (c) mechanically clamped insert, used for
cemented carbides, ceramics, and other very hard tool
materials
Common Insert Shapes
• (a) Round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with 80 point angles, (d)
hexagon with 80 point angles, (e) triangle, (f) rhombus with 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with 35 point angles
Twist Drill
• Most common cutting tools for hole-making
• Usually made of high speed steel (HSS)
• Shown below is standard twist drill geometry
Milling Cutters
• Principal types:
▫ Plain milling cutter
▫ Face milling cutter
▫ End milling cutter
Plain Milling Cutter
• Tool geometry
elements of an
18-tooth plain
milling cutter
Face Milling Cutter
• Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face
milling cutter: (a) side view and (b) bottom view
End Milling Cutter
• Looks like a drill bit but designed for primary
cutting with its peripheral teeth
• Applications:
▫ Face milling
▫ Profile milling and pocketing
▫ Cutting slots
▫ Engraving
▫ Surface contouring
▫ Die sinking
Machinability
Relative ease with which a material (usually a
metal) can be machined using appropriate tooling
and cutting conditions
• Depends not only on work material
▫ Type of machining operation, tooling, and cutting
conditions are also important factors
Machinability Criteria in Production
• Tool life – longer tool life for the given work
material means better machinability
• Forces and power – lower forces and power mean
better machinability
• Surface finish – better finish means better
machinability
• Ease of chip disposal – easier chip disposal means
better machinability
Material Properties
Affecting Machinability
• Ductility ◼ Abrassive particle
• Strain hardening ability content of workpiece
• Strength ◼ Existence of second-
• Bonding tendency
between tool and phase particles (lead,
workpiece sulphur, phosphorus,
• Thermal conductivity etc.) which are soft or
• Melting temperature softened at high
temperatures (favors
machinability!)

76
Mechanical Properties and Machinability
• Hardness
▫ High hardness means abrasive wear increases so tool
life is reduced
• Strength
▫ High strength means higher cutting forces, specific
energy, and cutting temperature
• Ductility
▫ High ductility means tearing of metal to form chip,
causing chip disposal problems and poor finish
Selection of Cutting Conditions
• One of the tasks in process planning
• For each operation, decisions must be made about
machine tool, cutting tool(s), and cutting
conditions
▫ Cutting conditions: depth of cut, feed, speed, and
cutting fluid
• These decisions must give due consideration to
workpart machinability, part geometry, surface
finish, and so forth
Selecting Depth of Cut
• Depth of cut is often predetermined by workpiece
geometry and operation sequence
▫ In roughing, depth is made as large as possible to
maximize material removal rate, subject to limitations
of horsepower, machine tool and setup rigidity, and
strength of cutting tool
▫ In finishing, depth is set to achieve final part
dimensions and surface finish
Determining Feed
• Select feed first, speed second
• Determining feed rate depends on:
▫ Tooling – harder tool materials require lower
feeds
▫ Roughing or finishing?
 In roughing, limits on feed are imposed by forces,
setup rigidity, and maybe horsepower
 In finishing, select feed to achieve desired finish
ME 531 MACHINING MECHANICS AND
ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 4
TOOL LIFE AND
TOOL MATERIALS