QLamb tinge

''

I TED
PR N BY 0 . J . CL AY , M A
. .

AT TH E I
U N VE R S IT Y P RE SS .
 A TR E ATI S E

O N TH E

MATH E M ATI C AL TH E O R Y

TH E MOTI ON OF FL UI DS

H O R AC E L AM B M A , . .

FO R M E R L Y FE L L O W AN D A SS I S TAN T T U T O R O F T R IN IT Y C O L L E G E C AM B RID G E ;
,

P R O FE SSO R O F M AT H E MAT I C S I N T H E U N I VE R S I T Y O F ADE L A I DE .

Q ba mb r ih ge
AT T H E U N I V ER S I T Y P RE S S .

flo n b o u CAMBR I DGE WAR EHO U S E 1 7 , ,

PATE R N O S T—
E H RO W .

Qtamhr fflg e : DEI G H T O N B E LL AND , ,

CO .

1m m } : F A B R O C K HA U S
. . .

1 87 9

[ Al l R i g h ts v e se r v e d j
 P R E FA C E .

att e m pt to t forth in a syst m atic d con

TH E fo l lo wi n g se e an

n ec te d form th e p r e s nt stat e f th th ory o f th Motion f e o e e e o

Fl i d h d its
u i gi
s, in a cours e f l ctur s d liv r d T i i ty
a or n o e e e e e r n

C oll g C a m bri dg in 1 8 7 4 w h n th n d f
e e ,
a tr atis on th
e , ,
e e ee or e e e

subj ct w strongly i m pr ss d m y m ind V rious circu m st nc s

e as e e on . a a e

have r e tard d th com pl tion f th w rk in a form fit f th

e e e o e o or e

p r e ss ; but as th d l y has nabl d m to incor p orat

e th r sults
e a e e e e e e

of s v ral i m p ort nt r c nt inv stigations

e e d al tog th r t r n d r
a e e e ,
an e e o e e

th volu m
e l ss inad quat to its pu pos than it would oth rwi s
e e e e r e e e

have b e n this is hardly m att r f r gr t

e ,
e or e e .

I hav n de vour d throughout th book to att ibut to th ir

e e a e , e ,
r e e

ro
p p r authors
e th various st e p s in th d v lo pm e nt f th subj c t e e e e o e e .

Th list f M m oirs
e d Tr e atis s at th e e d f th book has
o e an e n o e n o

p re t e nsions to co m p l t e n ss a n d as it is to a gr e at e te nt beas e d o e ,
x n
 PR E FACE .

MS not e s which I hav e

.
p r e s nt m e ans f v e ri fying
n o so m e f e o ,
o

th r e f r e nc e s m y p ossibly b e in e act
e e a I trust howe ve r that th x . e

list m y in spit f th s e drawb cks b f s rvic e t th e stu de nt

a ,
e o e a ,
e o e o

wh o w ish s to consult th original authoriti s

e e e .

I un d r gr at obligations to m y fri n ds M H M Taylor

am e e e r . .

an d M W D N iv n r f Trinity C oll g f
. . th e ir kin dn ss in
e o e e or e

corr cting th pr f-sh ts d in g n e rally su p rvising th

e e oo ee an e e e

p assag o f th ew ork through th per ss e e .

H O R AC E L AMB .

AD L AI D
E E,

M a y 1 6, 1 87 9 .
 C O N TE N TS .

CH APTER I .

TH E EQ U A T I O N S O F MO TI O N .

Fu nda m e nta l a s su m p io t ns
Two fo m r s of th e e qu a i o t ns
Th e E ul e ri an fo rm ti o ns D ynam i ca l e q u a ti o n s e qu iv
o f th e e qu a .
,

ti o n o f co ntinu i ty s ur fa c e co ndi ti o n s,

S e co nd m e th o d Fl o w o f m a tte r m o m e ntu m e n e r gy
.
, ,

I m p u l s i v e g e ne ra ti o n o f m o ti o n
Th e L a g a n gi a n fo rm o f th e e qu a tio ns
r Dy nam i ca l e q u a ti o n s .
,

e qu a ti o n o f c o nti nu i ty

1 8 -2 1 . We b e r s Tr ans fo rm a ti o n
’
.

Co m par i so n o f th e E l e ri an an d L agrangi an m e th o ds
u .

CHAPTE R II .

I NT E GR A T I O N O F TH E E Q U AT I O N S IN E AL
SP C I A E
C S S .

2 2— 27 . Ve l o ci ty -P o te nti a l L a gr ang e s Th e o r e m E qui -po te nti a l

.
’
.

fa ce s Ph y s i cal inte rpre ta ti o n o f v e l o city po te nti a l

.

Ste a dy M o ti o n
E x a m p l e s : E fflu x o f l i qu i d s a n d ga se s Th e Ve na C o n tr ac ts . .

R o ta ti n g fl u i d

CH AP TE R III .

I RR O T A T I O N A L MO TI O N .

An l y i f th
a s s o e mo ti o n o f a flu id e le m en t
Ci c l ti n
r u a o
’

-
.

4 1 , 42 . I t ti n l
rro a o a m o iot ni n s im pl ycon n e cte d space s
P ti c l c
ar u ar a se o f a l i qu i d . Pro pe rti e s o f th e v e l o ci ty po te nti a l
5 3 —5 9 . u c n
M l ti pl y - on t d s pa ce s
ec e

I t ti n l
rr o a o a m o ti o n i n s u ch s pa ce s .
viii C O NT E NTS .

P ar ti cu l ar c a s e of a li qu i d
Gr e e n s Th e o r e m
’

Ki ne ti c e ne r gy o f a fl u i d .

6 6, 67 Th o m s o n s e xte ns i o n o f G r e e n s Th e o re m
’ ’
.

CH AP TER IV .

MO TI O N OF A L IQ UI D IN TW O DI M ENS I O NS .

Th e St r e am Fu n cti o n
-
Irro ta ti o na l m o ti n Ki ne ti c e ne r gy o .

R e l a ti o n s b e twe e n th e e l o c i ty p o te nti a l a n d th e stre a m -

fun cti o v n

D i g e s i o n o th e th e y o f fu n cti o ns o f a co m pl e x v a ri a b l e
r s n or .

L o g i th m i c f ncti n
ar u o .

E a m pl s S p e ci a l c se s o f m o ti o n
x e . a

G e ne l fo r m u l as fo th e v e l ci ty po te nti a l a d th e stre a m fu ncti o n

ra r o n

M o ti n f a ci r c u l a r cy li nde r m a li qu i d
o o .

M ti n o f tra n l a ti o n o f a s o li d th ro u gh a l i qu i d
o o s

E x a m me s .

M o ti o n o f r t ti n
o a o o f a s o l id in a l i qu i d
E x am pl e s .

9 0 —9 3 . I n v e r s e o m pl e x fu c ncti n o s

Ki r ch h o fl s m e h o d
’
t .

E xa m pl e s .

9 4 — 98 . Di sco nt i n u o u s Mo i o t n s

H e lm h ol t ’
z s an d Ki r ch h o fi
’
s s ol ti u on s .

Th e Vn C e a on tr a cta .

I m pa t c o f a s tre a m on a l am i n a.

CHAP TE R V .

MO TI O N O F S OL I DS TH R O U G H A L IQ UID .

9 9 — 1 04 . Ki n em a ti cal i n v es ti g a ti o ns
E xa m p l e s .

D yn a m i al i c n v es ti g a ti on s

Di r ect m e th d Appl i ca ti o . o nt o a sp h e r e .

1 06 — 1 08 . In di r e ct m e th o d
l ’
I m pu s e .

t n o f m o ti o n
E qu a i o s
Ki ne ti c e ne gy M m e nta r . o

C a e s o f ste a dy m o ti o n
s

M ti o
o f a s o l i d s tr u ck b y a n m p l s i e c o p l e
n o 1 u v u

E p e io s f
x r ss th e ki n ti c e gy i ce rta in ca e s
or n e n er n s .

M ti o of aon li d o f e v o l ti n i a p a rti cu l ar c a s
so r u o n e .

S ta b i li ty o f a b dy m o v i g p a r a ll e l t a a xi s o f sym m e t y
,

o n o n r

C o st ai nt ne ce s sa r y to p o du ce a y spe ci fi e d m o ti o n
n r r n
 C O NT E N TS . ix

AR T
C r Cycli ti o n
.

a se o f a pe fo r a te d so li d . c mo .

1 22 , 1 2 3 . M o ti o n of a i g rn
124 . C a se o f two or m o r e s o l id s

1 25 . C a se o f two s ph e r e s

CH APTER VI .

VO RT EX MO TI O N .

D e fi n i ti o ns Stre ngth o f a v o rte

.
’
x

D e te m ina ti o n o f m o ti o n i n te rm s f e xp a n s m n
r o

I nte rpre ta ti o n E le ctr o m a gne ti c ana l o gy

. .

Vo rte -Sh e e t x

Ve l o ci ty -Po te ntia l du e to a vo r te x

Dy a m i ca l th e o re m s
n

Ki ne ti c Ene rgy
R e ctil i ne a r v o rti ce s
E plxa m es .

Ci c l rti c
r u ar v o es

C ndi ti n f
o o s t
o r s e a dy m o ti o n

CH APTE R VI I .

WAV ES IN L I Q U I DS .

1 46 — 1 5 2 . W f
av e s ol l v rti c l di p l
sm a m nt e a s a ce e

W i cnl
av e s n a a s .

1 5 3 —1 55 . S ll di t b ing f rc
m a s ur o es

C n l th y f th ti d
a a eor o e es .

W i d pw t
av e s n ee a er

W - p r p g ti n i tw di
av e o an i n E pl
a o n o m e s o s . xa m es

Fr ci ll ti n i
ee os c n f ni f r d pth
a o s n an o ea o u o m e .

CH APTER VI I I .

W A VES IN AIR .

Pl na e wa v e s
S ph e r ica l wa v e s
1 69, 1 7 0 . Ge ne a l e qu a ti o ns o f s o un d wa v e s I nte gr a ti o n
r .

S o l ti o ns o f th e e a ct e qu a ti o ns o f m o ti o n o f plan e
u x wa v e s
Me th o d o f E a n sh a w a d Ri e m a nn
s r n .

Ch ange o f typ e .

C o ndi ti o f pe r m ane ncy o f type

n or
x C O NTE N T S

CH AP TER IX .

I
V S CO S ITY .

1 74 , 1 7 5 . c ca ti o n o f th e state o f s tre s s a t a n y po int o f a v i sc o u s fl u i d

Sp e i fi
E qu a ti o ns o f m o ti o n .

17 6 , 1 7 7 . F o rm u l a) o f t a ns fo rm a ti o n
r

R e l a ti o ns b e twe e n th e s tre s s e s a cr o ss di ffe re nt p l a ne s .

Str e s s e s i te rm s o f r a te s o f st a i n
n r

C o e ffici e nt o f v i sco si ty .

D i s si p a ti o n -
fu ncti o n
E qu a ti o ns o f m o ti o n
B o u n d a ry - co ndi ti o ns .

1 8 2— 1 8 5 . E xa m p l e s : F l u x th r o u gh a str ai g h t tu b e
E ffe ct o f v i c si ty o m o ti o n o f s o un d
s o n .

Uni fo rm m o ti o n f a s ph e re o .

N O TE S .

E stab li sh m e nt o f th e
n fu da m nt l q ti n th m l c l h yp
e a e ua o s on e o e u ar o th e s i s
M l ti pl y -
u c nn ct d r g i n
o e e e o s . D fi ni ti n l f-
e c n i t nt B r i
o s se o s s e . a r er s

F rm l f c p n nt m
o u as or om o e o m nte f lid i m r d i
a o a so li q id m e se n a u

V rt -
o m ti n
ex o o

O th r i t c
n e f fl id
e s s an e o u s

L I ST OF M EMO I R S AN D T R E A TI S E S
E XE R CI S E S
 TH E E Q UATI ONS OF M O TIO N .

1 ollowing inv stigations proc d

. TH E f th assu m ption e ee on e

that th fluids with which w d al m y b tr at d as practically

e e e a e e e

continuous d ho m og n ous in structur ; i s w assu m that th

an e e e . e e e

r
p p rti
o s f t
eh s m all st p ortions into w hich w can conc iv
e o e e e e e

th m to b divi d d
e th s m as thos f th substanc i
e e ar e e a e e o e e n

bulk It is sh wn in not ( A) at th
. d f th book t hat th
e e ,
e en o e ,
e

f n d m ntal qu tions arriv d t on this su pp osition with p ro p r

u a e e a e a , e

m o difications f th m e anings f th sy m b ls s t ill hol d wh n w

o e o e o ,
e e

t ak account f th e h t r g n ous
e m ol cu l r structur which is
o e e o e e or e a e

m ost robably oss ss d by ll or dinary m att r

p p e e a e .

2 un dam tal p rop e rty f a fl uid i that it c nn ot

. Th e f en o s a

be i quilibriu m i a state f str s s such that th m u t ual

n e n o e e

actio b e t w e n tw adj c nt p arts i obli q u to th co m m on

n e o a e s e e

surfac e This p rop rty is th basis f Hy drostatics d is v ri

. e e o ,
an e

fi d by th co m pl t
e gr m e nt f th d ductions f that sci nc
e e e a ee o e e o e e

with p ri m nt Vex
e ry slight observation is noug eh ho w v . r t e e ,
e e , o

convinc us that obliqu s t r ss s m y ist in flui ds i m ti

e e e e a e x n o on .

L t us su pp os f
e instance t h t a v ss l in th for m o f a c i rcular
e or a e e e

cylin d r containi g w at r ( or oth r liquid) is m a d to rota te

e ,
n e e ,
e

about its a is w hich is v rtical I f th m otion f th v ss l b

x , e . e o e e e e

uniform th flui d is soon foun d t b e rotating with th v ss l

,
e o e e e as

on e soli d bo dy I f th v ss l b now brough t to r st th m otion

. e e e e e ,
e

of th flui d c tinu s f
e so m ti m bu t gr d lly sub i d s d
on e or e e ,
a ua s e , an

I
2 TH E EQUATI ONS OF M O TI ON .
[C H A R I .

at l e gth ce as s altog th e r ; d it is found that duri g thi p

n e e an n s ro

c ss th p ortions f flui d which

e e furth r fro m th a is l g o ar e e e x a

b hin d thos which

e ar e r d hav th ir m otion m or
e ar e n e , an e e e

rapi dly ch ck d Th s e ph no m na p oint to th e i t

i

f
’

e e . e e e e x s e n ce o

m utual actions b tw contiguous l m e nts which p artly e een e e ar e

ta g ntial to th com m on surfac F or i f th m utual action w r

n e e e . e e e

e v ry w h r
e w holly norm al it is obvious that th
e e m o m nt f ,
e e o

m o m ntu m about th e a is f th v e ss l f any p ortion f flui d

e ,
x o e e ,
o o

boun d d by a surfac f r e volution about this a is woul d b e

e e o x ,

constant W i f r m or ov r that th s tang ntial str ss s

. e n e , e e ,
e e e e e are

not call d into play so long as th flui d m ov s as a solid bo dy but

e e e ,

only whilst a chang f S hap f so m p ortion f th m s is e o e o e o e as

going on d that th e ir te n de ncy i s to opp os e this chang o f

,
an e

S hape .

It is usual how e v r
3 . th first instanc to n gl e ct th , e ,
In e e , e e

tang ntial str ss s altog th r Th ir ff ct is in m any p r ctic l

e e e e e . e e e a a

cas e s s m all but in d p n d ntly f this it is conv ni nt to divi d th

, ,
e e e o , e e e e

not inc nsi de rabl di fficulti s f our subj ct by inv stigating fir t

o e e o e e s

th ff cts o f p ur ly nor m al str e ss

e e e Th furth r consi d r tion e . e e e a

of th e laws f ta g ntial str ss is accor dingly d f rr e d till

o n e e e e

C hap t r I X e .

I f th str ss rt d across any s m all pl n ar a situat d at a

e e e xe e a e e e

p oint P f th flui d b w hollyonor m al its int nsity

e (p uni t ar a ) e , e er e

is th sa m e f l l asp cts f th e plan Th follo wing p roof f

e or a e o e . e o

this th or m is giv n h r f p urp os e s f r f r nc e Through P

e e e e e or o e e e .

d ra w thr e str ig h t lin e s P A P B P C m utually at right angl s

e a , ,
e ,

an d l t a p lan w hos d ir ctio -

e cosin s r lativ ly to th s lin s
e e e n e e e e e e

ar e l m pa ssi,g infi it
, ly clos
n to
, P m t th e m in A B C n n e e ,
ee , , .
2 F U N DA M ENTAL ASS UM PTI O NS . 3

L e t p p “ p g p a de e th e int nsi t i s o f th e tr s
e cro th e not e s es e s
‘a ss
, ,

ac s
f e A B C P B C, P CA, P AB
’
r s p ctiv ly o f th te t rah d ron
, , e e e , e e

P AB U I f A b e th ar e a f th e fi t- . m n t ion e d fa th re s e o rs e ce ,
e a a

o f th oth e rs in or d r e lA m A A H nce i f w form th e are , ,

n . e e e

e quation f m otion f th e t e trah dron paral l e l to PA we hav

o o e e

lA p l A ,

w h r w hav o m i tt e d th t r m s which pr ss th rate f

e e e e e e ex e e o

ch ng f m o m ntu m
a e d th co m pon e nt f th
o te rnal i m e ,
an e o e ex

p r ss de forc s b e caus
e e th y ulti m at e ly ro
p p eo t ional
, t th e are r o e .

m ass f th t tr h dron d th r fore f th third ord r f s m all

o e e a e , an e e o e e o

qu n t iti s whilst th t rm s re tain d in th qu tion f m tion

a e , e e e e e a o o

are f th s con d W hav th e n ulti m a t ly p

o e e
p d S i m ilarly . e e , e , ,,
an

p p p which p rov
,
e s th th e or m , ,
e e .

quations f m otio f a fluid hav b n obtain d i

4 . Th e e o n o e ee e n

tw d i ff r nt for m s corr s p on di g to th
o e tw w ays in which th
e ,
e n e o e

p robl m f d t r m iningeth m o t io o f a flui

o d m ass ac t d on e e e n , e

by giv n forc s d subj ct to giv con di t ions m y b e vi w d

e e an e en ,
a e e .

W m y ith e r r gar d as th obj ct f

e a inv stigations a kno w
e e e e o our e

l dg f th v e lo ity, th pr ssure d th d nsity at ll poin ts f

e e o e c e e , an e e , a o

s pac occu p i d by th e fl ui d f all instants ;

e w m y s k to
e ,
or or e a ee

d t r m in th history f ach in divi dual p ar t icl

e e e Th qua t io s
e o e e . e e n

obtain d o th s tw plans e conv ni ntly d signate d

n by e e o ar e e e e , as

G rm a m ath e m aticians E ul rian Lagrangian

‘ ’
th d th
’
e n ,
e e an e

form s o f th hydrokin e tic qua t ions although both forms e in e ,

ar e

r ality d e to E ul r
e u e

Th e E u l e r i a n Fo r m s f
o th e E qu a ti o n s .

5 co m pon ts par l l l to
L et u, v 70 b e th e en ,
a e th e co -
ordinat e
.
,

a s f th v locity t th p oint ( y ) at th ti m t Th e s
xe ,
o e e a e x, ,
z e e . e

q u ntiti s a th n functions f th ind p nd nt v ri bl s y t

e are e o e e e e a a e x, ,
z, .

F or any p articular valu f t th y p r ss th m otion at t hat e o e e x e e

R ck n d p i ti wh n pr e n g ti wh n t n i n O di ry fl i d
o e os v e e e s su r e s , e a v e e e s o s . r n a u s

ar e h w , i nc p b l f opp rt i ng r th
ev ern ,
c di ng l y l ig
a h t d g r a f e o su o m o e a an ex ee s e ee o

t n i n th t p i n l y l w y p i ti
e s o ,
so a s e ar a a s o s v e .

P i ci p g é né d r n nt d fl i d H i t d l A d d B l i
es r au x u m ou v em e es u e s. s . c
’
ca . c er n ,

1 7 55 .

De p r i n c i pu s m o tu s flu i do r u m . N o v i C o m m Aca d . . P e tr o p . t . 14 , p 1 , 1759 . .

L a gr a n ge t rts i
s a n th e M é c a n i qu e An a l y ti qu e wi h th e se t c
o d fo mn o f th e r
ti o tt n f t nc E n
’
e qu a n s, bu ra s orm s he m at o e to th e ule r ia fo r m .
4 TH E EQUATI ONS OF M O TI ON .
[ C H A R I .

instant at all points Of sp a c e occu pi d by th e e fl ui d ;

whilst f or

p articular valu s f a} e o , y ,
z th y giv th history
e e e o f what go e s at on

a p articular p lac e .

any function f w y t d l e t us calculate th

N o w le t F b e o , ,
z, ,
an e

rate t which F vari s f a m oving particl This w shall d ot

a e or e . e en e

53
by 8— 5 th e sy m bol 9 b e i g us d to e pr e ss a di ffe r e ntiation
82
, n e x

foll owin gth e m otion f th fl ui d At th ti m t + dt th p articl o e . e e e e

which at th e ti m t was in th p osition ( y )e is in th p ositi n e x, ,

z e o

(as d t y v d
u t w dt
,) d th r for e th e,
corr s p
z on di g valu , an e e e n e

o f F is

dF dF dF
F i- di —
t —Ud t l
‘

Ex a?
r '

Ea

inc e th e
S n e w valu e o f F fo r th e m oving p a rticl is also e ex

BF
p r e ss e d by F
5?
d c, we hav e

v
at dt dx dy dz

6 . r ss r p th d nsity X Y Z th co m pon
L e t p b e th e p e u e ,
e e , , ,
e

e nts t rnal i r ss d forc s p unit m a s t th e p int

o f th e e x e mp e e e er s , a o

( y )
x, at th,
ti m z t L t us take a r c tangular lem nt having
. e e e e e e

its c n tre at ( y ) a d its dg s d dy d parall l to th

e x, ,
z ,
n e e o) , ,
z e e co

ordi at e a s Th rate at which th -co m pon nt f th m o m n

n xe . e e x e o e e

gt
i L
t m o f thi s l m nt is incr e as ing is p d dy d
u e e -
e; d this m ust x z an

b e e qual to th -co m pon nt f th f rc s acti g th l m nt O f

e cry e o e o e n on e e e e .

th s th e t rnal im pr ss d forc s giv p d dy d X Th pr s

e e ex e e e e e a
'
z . e e

sur th e y -
e fac which is n ar st th origin will b ulti m at ly
on z e e e e e e

dy d t h at th opp osit 1
3 z, on e e .

i r nce f th s giv s a r sultant

Th e d ffe e o e e e e
i; f
d x dy dz in th e di

r ction f w-p ositiv Th p re ssur e s

e o e . e on th e r e m aI n I n
g f ac s e are

r
p p ee n d icular to W hav th x . e e en

Cu d
dx d dz dx d dz X _ p dx dy dz
p y W p y dx
.
5 EU L E R IA N EQUATI ONS . 5

£3
S ubstituting th e valu e of
?
8
fro m ( 1 ) we obtai n

da da da du

an d, in lik e m ann r e ,

7 . We hav th s
quations conn e cting th e fiv e u k own
e u th r e e e n n

q uan t iti s v w p p eW r quir th e r for tw addi tional

u , , , , . e e e e e o

eq u tions Oa f th s is fur ish d by a r lation b t w n

. n e o
p
e e n e e e ee

an d p th f r m f w hich d p n ds
,
e th o
p hysical consti t tio
o e e on e u n

of th p articular flui d which is th subj ct f inv stigation

e F e e o e . or

th cas e f a gas k e p t at a uni for m t m p e ratur w hav Boyl e s '

e o e e e e

L aw

I f wehave a gas in m otion f such a nat r e that we m o u a

y n e gle ct
th loss e gain f h at by an l m e nt d to conductio
or o e e e ue n an d ra d i
ation th e r latio is
, e n

w h r y
e e : 1 4 1 fo r air . In th e cas e o f an
‘
inco m p r ssibl e e
'
fl id u ,

or li q uid , we have

r e m aining e quat ion is a kin m atical r e latio be twe e

8 . Th e e n n

u v, w p obt i n d as follows
, ,
I f V d not e th volum f a
a e . e e e o

m oving le m nt f fl uid we have o n account f th e co s ta cy

e e o , , o n n

of m ass ,

rat f incr as f volu m f a m ovi g r gion i i d

N o w th e e o e e o e o n e s e v

ntly r ss d by th su f c -
int gral f t h no
e m al v loci ty e r a e e o e r e
e p e x e

o ut wards tak n ll ov r th b nd ry I f th r gi n in qu stion

,
e a e e o u a . e e o e

h that occu pi d by th e m at te r whic h at ti m t fill s th r c tangul r

e e e e e a
 6 TH E EQUATI ONS OF M O TI ON .
[C H A R I .

e l nt
em e of Ar t 6 .
,
th e p arts o f this surfac -
int gral d e e ue to th e t wo

y z f c s
- a e ar e

( u
33 ) 4
5
— dd? dy dz , an d
( to day
)
w hich giv e t g th ro
52 e e dx dy dz . C a lcul a ti n g in th e s am e

th p arts d
e ue to th e oth r fac s e e ,
w e fin d
an
a a
at da: dy
S inc e we hav a s e
l
o V = d x dy dz , ( )
6 bc e o me s
dc
is
)
( !

dx dz

or as i t m
,
a
y b e w ritt en ,

dp d pu . d pv . d pw _ .

+ 0
dt dx dy dz
T h is is call d th qu t i n f continui ty e e e a o o .
’

I f th flui d b i co m pr ssibl though

e t n c s rily f uni f r m
e n e e n o e e s a o o

de nsity th valu f p do s not al t r as w f llow y l m n t

, e e o e e e o an e e e ,

at
so that ( 7 ) b co m s e e

du dv dw

Th e e x
p r ssioen

M
d x
AI A
dy
R

dz
”
’

w hich w hav s n m sur s th rat f incr as f v lu m f

,
as e e ee ,
ea e e e o e e o o e o

th flui d t th p int ( y ) is v ry co v ni n t ly t rm d th
e a e o a) , ,
z , e n e e e e e
‘
ex
p ansion at t hat p in t o .

9 Th r . c rt in r strictio s as to th valu s f th e
e e are e a e n e e o

d p n d nt vari bl s in th for g ing quations

e e e a e e e o e .

Thus w p p u, v -
ss nti lly singl v lu d fu ctions
, , ,
ar e e e a e a e n .

Th quantiti s v 711 m
e t b fi it d in g n r l continuous
e u, ,
us e n e ,
an e e a ,

though w m y h v is l t d surf c s t w hich th l tt r r striction

e a a e o a e a e a e a e e

do s e t hol d I f th flui d m ov
n o lways to form continuous
. e e so a s a a

m ss a c rtain co n dition giv n in A t 1 0 m ust b

a ,
e satisfi d at i h ,
e r .
,
e e S Ic

a surf c a e .

Th q ua tity p is n c ssarily continuous

e n d finit It i also e e ,
an e . s
8 S U R F ACE C ON DI TI O NS . 7

ess ntially p ositiv at ll v nts in th e cas e f ordi ary fluid

e e , a e e o n s,

w hich c nnot sust i m ore t h n an infi i te si m al m ount f te s i o n

a a n a n a o n

wi thout ru ptur H nc i f in y f inv stig t ions

e w .b e l d e e an o our e a e e

to n g tiv valu s f p th st t f m otion giv n by th e form ul

e a e e o ,
e a e o e a

is an i m possibl At th m o m nt wh n accord ing t th fo m

e on e . e e e , o e r

ul p w oul d cha g fro m positiv through r t n gativ

ae ,
n e e ze o o e e ,

ei th r th fluid parts asund r

e ea surf c f d iscontinui ty is e ,
or a e o

f rm d
o that th conditions f th probl m
e ,
so n tir ly change d e o e e are e e .

S e e Ar t 9 4 . .

Th e quantity p is finit e an d p ositiv but not n c ssari ly c

e , e e on

ti n uous .

10 q . which hav b
Th e n obtain d f er late u a tI O n s ,
t e ee e so ar , e o

th int rior
e f th flui de B si d s th s w hav in g n ral t
o e . e e e e e e , e e , o

satis fy c rtai boun dary con ditions th nature f which vari e s

e n , e o

according to th circu m stanc s f th cas e e o e e .

L et F (x y , ,
z, t) 0 ( )
1 0
b e th e quation to a surf c boun ding th fluid Th v l city
e a e e . e e o

r lativ to this surfac f p ti l lying in it m ust b wholly

e e e o a . ar c e e

t ng ntial ( ls ro ) f o t h r wis w shoul d h v a finit fl w

a e or e e ze ,
or e e e a e e o

o f li q ui d across th surf c which contr dicts th assu m ption th t e a e ,

a e a

th latt r is a boun dary

e e Th inst ntan us rat f v ri tion f F . e a eo e o a a o

f a
or sur fac -
p articl m ust th r f r b ro 7
e e w h v e e e o e e ze , . . e a e

CF
O
at
This m ust hold at e ve ry point of th e surf c r pr s nta e e e e e d by
At afi xe d boun dary w hav e e 0 , so that ( )
1 1 be co m s e

dF f
u _ + v i:
dzv dz
or, if I, m ,
n b e th e d ir ction -cosin s
e e of th e norm al to th sur fac e e ,

lu + mv + n w= 0
qu tion f a surf c f di scontinui ty i s
I f F = 0 b e th e e a o a e o , . a

surf c such th t th v lu s f
a e w ch ng abru p tly as w pass a e a e o u ,
v ,
a e e

fro m S i d to th oth r w h v
on e e e e ,
e a e

dF dF dF dF
'

"

dt ?
d 1
d? 1
E
lla
?

dF dF dF dF
dt 2
5 27?
8 TH E EQUATI ONS OF M O TI O N . I .

wh ere th e su ffi s us d t disti guish

xe are e o n th e tw o si d s e of th e
surfac e . By subt c t ion w fi d ra e n

l ( a
, + 777. ( v
l
6
2 ) n ( 1
w

sam r e lati n h l ds at th C m m on surf c f tw diff r nt

Th e e o o e o a e o o e e

fluids in contact ; d also S inc in th pr o f f ( 1 1 ) no assu m ption an , e e o o

i m ad
s to th natur f th m diu m f which ( 1 0) is a boundary
e as e e o e e o ,

a t th co m m on sur fac
e f a flui d d a m m g soli d e o an ov .

Th truth f e f which ( 1 2 ) is a particul r cas is oth r

o o a e ,
e

wis obvious fro m th

e consi d ration th t th v l ci ty norm l to e e a e e o a

th surf c m ust b in ch f th cas s m ntion d th sam on

e a e e , e a o e e e e ,
e e

both sid s e .

11 Th e quation ( 1 1 ) p re ss s th condition that i f th

.
“

e ex e e e

m otion b e continuous th p ar ticl s w hich at any instant li in t h e e e e

bou di g surf c li in it al ways F ( 1 1 ) pr ss s th t no flui d

n n a e e . or ex e e a

cross s th surf c e F 0 ; d th e sam e thing n c ssarily holds f

e e a an e e o

e v ry su f ce which m ov s so as to consist l w ys f th sam s ri s

e r a e a a o e e e e

o f p r t icl s I f th n w d r w
a e surf p rall l d infinit ly cl s
. e e a a ac e a e an e o e

to F O d su ppos it t m ov with th particl s f which it is

, an e o e e e o

c m pos d th e stratu m f flui d w hich is inclu d d b tw n this d

o e ,
o e e ee an

F 0 x d which in virt
,
an f th continuity f th m oti n r m ains ue o e o e o e

alwa ys infi ite ly thin m ust al ways consist f th e sam m att r ;

n ,
o e e

wh nc th truth f th abov stat m nt

e e e o e e e e .

It has be n sugg ste d th t ( 1 1 ) w ould b e satis fi d i f th p art

e e a e e

i l
c e s o f flui d w r t m ov r lativ ly t th sur fac F = 0 in p ths e e o e e e o e e a

t uching i t ch at
o
p oint only T h b
ea v co si d ratio s sh w
on e . e a o e n e n e

t h at this is t p ssibl f syst m f m t ri l p rticl s m ovi g

n o o e or a e o a e a a e n

in continuous m ann r ; alth ugh it would b

a f m r g e o e so or e e e o

m trical p ints w hich m ight coinci d

e o wi t h a d p ss through e n a on e

a noth r It i in d d di fficult t un d rst n d h w in th c s

e
*
. s, ee ,
o e a o ,
e a e

su pp os e d th particl s w hich ,
r c ding fro m th surfac
e to e are e e e e are

k p cl ar f tho e which
ee e approaching ito s ar e .

1 2 In th ab v m tho d f st b l ishing th f n d m ntal qua

. e o e e o e a e u a e e

ti ns w c lculat th rat f chang f th p rop rti s f d fi nit

o e a e e e o e o e e e o a e e

Th t d nt y t k
e il l
s u t ti n th e ti n f m a i f p i nt a e as an us ra o e m o o o a se r e s o o s

g i n b y th f r
v e l e o m u ae
u z i x, v = c , w = 0,

th e u pp e r i gn i s n it bei g n ta ke n f r o po i nt r c ding fr
s e e om th e fi xe d b o un da ry s ,

th e l o we r fo r p o i n t s a p pr o a ch i g i t n .
 —
10 12 ] F LO W or M O M E NTU M .

p orti n f m att roas it m ov solo g In an th r m tho d we hich e a n . o e e ,

is ind d m r c nsist nt wi t h th E ul ri n no t at i n we fi our

ee o e o e e e a o , x

a tt nti n a c rt in r gi n f sp c
e o on d inv e s t ig te th chang
e a e o o a e , an a e e

in i t p r p rti s pro d uc d as w ll by th fl w f m at t r in w rds

s o e e e e e o o e a

an d out wards across th boun dary as by th action f e te rnal e e o x

f rc s on th e inclu d d
o e e

L t Q d not th m asur e
e sti m at d p unit vol m o f any
e e e e ,
e e er u e ,

q uantity c nn ct d wi th th p r p rti s f a flui d

o d l t us
e l e e o e e o ,
an e ca

c l t th r t f incr s f Q in a r ctang lar spac e d dy d

u a e e a e o ea e o e u x z

h vi g its c tr at ( y ) This is e pr ss d by
a n en e as, ,
z . x e e

M dx dy dz ( )
1 4

N o w th eam ount o f Q which nt rs p unit ti m th e S pe cifi d r gi n e e er e e e o

across th e y -
fac n ar st th origin is —} d Q u
z dy d ed e e e 1 z, a n

th a m ount which l av s th r gion in th sa m e ti m by th Oppos

e e e e e e e e

i t fac e
d Q u
e Q +} d d dy Th e two fac e s toge th e r gi v e a
u 1 x az
’
.

d Q u dx d dz e r
g ina Of
.

dw y p u it ti m e C lcula ti g in th e sa m
n . a n e

w a y th e ct f th e ffe o e fl w across th r m aining fac s w hav f

o e e e ,
e e or

th e t tal gain f Q d
o o ue to th fl ow cr ss th bound ry th form ula
e a o e a e

d Qv
dx dy dz
.

dy

F irst us consid r th cha g f m ass 3 e w p t Q = p th

,
le t e e n e o , 7 . . e u , e

m ass unit volu m er S inc th quantity f m att r in r egion e o e

p y . e an e

ca n v ry only cons q u nc f th fl ow across th boundary th

a In e e e o e e , e

e x
p r ssions e( 1 4 ) d ( )
1 5 m ust in this cas b qual
an ; t hi s giv s e e e e

th quation f continuity in th e form

e e o

N t l t us tak th c h ang
ex
‘ f m o m ntu m m aki g Q e e e o e n u,
,
e p ,

th m o m ntu m p rall l to
e e p unit m ass T h m o m n t u m con
a e a: e r . e e

t i d in th e s p ac d dy d is aff ct d
a n e t only by th p assag e fx z e e n o e e o
'
m att r carrying its m m
e t m wi th it across th bou d ry b t o en u e n a ,
u

also by th f rc s acti g th
e i nclu d d m tt r i
o e th p r ssur n on e e a e ,
v z . e e e

t rnal i m pr ss d f rc ff c t f t h s r solv d
i

T
an d th e ex e
0
p e e o es . e e e o e e e e

S M w ll O th Dyn
ee i c l Th
ax y f
e C ,
P h i l Tn 1 8 6 7 p
e 7 1 am a eor o ase s , . r a ns . . . .

Al G nh i ll S l i a f C b i fdg P b l f 1 8 7 5 p 1 7 8
so , ree , o ut o n n a m
‘
f
e ro e ms or , . .
10 TH E E QUATI ONS O F M O TI ON .
[ C H A R 1 .

p arall l t e o a: is f un d as in A t
o r . 6 , to b e

dwdy dz

He nc ( 1 4 ) is
e ,
n o w e qual to ( )
1 5 an d ( )
1 6 co m bin e d, w hich
giv s e

d pu . d pu
.
g
d Pn . v d pu w _
.
‘

dt dx
Pe f r or m ing th diff r ntiatio s d si m pli fyi g by m ans f
e e e n ,
an n e o th e
e quation f continui ty w l d ag in to th first f qu t ions
o ,
e ar e e a e o e a

an d in lik e m ann r th s con d d third e quati ns m y b e e e an o a e ob

ta i n e d .

13 . Anoth e r inte r sting application

e o f th e m e tho d o f Ar t .

12 is to
ak V + E ) p th
m n rgy pe
e m ass ,
e e e r nit u .

He r 9 d not
e s th r e sultant v locity
e VO e + w ) V et h e
2
4 v
i 2
, e

p ot nti le e rgy p unit am ass w ith rn ef r nc to t h e e t

er
e r l i m e e e e x n a

dV
p r e ss d forc s e hav e X e d E t h intri sic e an e n

e n rgy In a liqui d w hav E = 0 I f th syst m f t r al

e . e e
'

. e e o ex e n

forc s d not chang e with th ti m

e o th alt ration in th n rgy e e e e e e e

cont i d within th s pac d dy d is d to th fl w f m at te r

a n e e e x z ue e o o

c rrying its n rgy with it d to th work d e

a e e th , an e on on e co n

t i d m at t r by th
a n e
p r ssur f th e esurroun d ing fl ui d Th e
e e e o .

total rat at which this pr ssur works is

e e e

Th e v rification
e of th e f orm ula obt in d by quati g ( 14 ) to a e e n th e
su m o f ( 1 5) an d ( 1 8) is l ft as an rcis f th stu d nt
e e xe e or e e .

To obt i by th sam m e tho d a p ro f f th e surfac

14 . a n e e o o e

condition ( 1 1 ) f A t 1 0 l t in Fig 1 ( A t 3) P d not a pointo r .

,
e . r . e e

of th flui d infinit ly clos to th sur fac F = 0 ;

e d l t A B C e e e e an e , ,
’

b th e p oints in w hich th is surfac e is m t by thr

e str ight lin s e ee a e

d r w n through P p ar ll l to
a th s f c -
ordinat s Th n i f a e e a xe o o e . e

PA PB P C ,
r
B 7 p s ctiv ly
,
w hav a, ,
e e e ,
e e

a —F 0
35 ,
&c .
,

w h r E d not s th valu
e e ,
e e e e o f th e fu nction F at P ( y ) Th as, ,
z . e

rat f fl w f m att r int

e o o o e o th e spac inclu d d b tw n th thr
e e e ee e ee
1 2— 1 I M P U LS I V E M OT ION .

p la s n e m ee ting in P, an d th e sur f c a e F O ,
is ulti m at ly e

i pt u fiv + v 7 +
a

an d th e rate o f incr as
ss includ d in this spa is ulti m e e o f th e m a e ce

i
at ly dt e E q u ting th s p r ssi ns s bsti t uting f a e e e x e o ,
u o r

a,B 7 th ir,v lu e s d o m itti g i

e fi i t i m l fa high r r d r ,
an n n n es a s o e o e

th n th s con d w r adily fi d
a e e , e e n

dF dF dF dF
_
+ +w
dx Ty
( dz dt
which agre s with e

I m p u ls i v e Ge n er a ti on f
o M o ti o n .

15 at any instant i m pulsiv forc s act th m ass f th

. If e e on e o e

fluid i f th
, boundary con ditions s dd l y cha g a sudd n
or e u en n e , e

a lt ration in th m otion m y tak pl c

e Th l t t r cas m y
e a e a e . e a e e a

aris f inst c wh e n a soli d i m m rs d in th flui d is su dd nly

e ,
or an e , e e e e

Set m ti n
In o o .

L t p b th d sity
e v w th c om pon nt v lociti s i m m di
e e en ,
u , ,
e e e e e

at ly b for
e f t hos i m m di t ly a ft r th i m p uls X Y
e e ,
u
'

, v
'

, i e e a e e e e ,
'

,
'

Z th c m pon nts f th t rnal i m p ulsiv f rc s p unit m ass

’
e o e o e ex e e o e er ,

w th i m pulsiv p r ssur at th p i t ( y ) Th ch g f
e e e e ,
e o n at, ,
z . e an e o

m m ntu m
o e rall l to f th l m nt d fin d in A t 6 is th n e e e r e
p a e as o e e e .

p d dy dx
( ) ; th w -
zco m p u n nt f
’
t h t rnal
u i m p ulsiv forc s e o e o e ex e e e

is p d dy d x d th r sultant i m p ulsiv p r ssur in th sam

'

, an e e e e e e e

dir ction is
e dy d S inc an m puls is to b e r gard d as z . e I e e e

an infinit ly gr at forc acti g f e infinit lyshort ti m ( say)

e e n or an e e 7 , ,

th e fl t ef all finit forc s d uring this int rval

ec s o n gl c t d e e e ar e e e e .

H nc e e ,

'
d
'
x d dz u dm dy d
p y ( u
) p

1 ( le t
u —u —X
d z:

1 do ”

S i m l l a r ly Y
' ’
v v
d
p y

1 d
w
'
-w = Z — ’
5r
1 3 TH E EQUATI ONS O F M O TI ON .
[C H A R I .

Th s e e quations m ight also have b n d duc d fro m

e by m ulti ee e e

p lying th e latt r by d t int grating b t w n th li m

e its 0 d ,
e e ee e an r ,

p utting X t
’
d th n m aking vanish , an e ; .

In a gas an infinit e p r ssur e would involve n infinit e d nsity ; e a e

w h r as no chang
e e f d e nsi ty occur d uring th infinit ly sh rt e o ca n e e o

ti m f th i m p ls
e 7 o H nc in app lying e to th e cas f a u e . e e , e o

g a s w e m ust p t O wh nc u a: ,
e e

u
’
f
U
'
w
'
—w = Z '

In a li q ui d on th o t h r han d an in t nt n ous ch ng o f
,
e e , s a a e a e

m otion can b p ro d uc d by th action f i m p ulsiv

e
p r ssur s only e e o e e e ,

ev n wh n
e i m pulsiv forc s act bo dily
e n o th m ass In this e e on e .

"
cas we hav e A Y Z ach 0 that
e ,
e ,
so

I da:

da r
v
_ _ l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

p
I da:
w _ w
,
'

p d z

I f we d ffe i r ntiat e th s e quations with r e spe ct to y

e e e x, ,
z, r e

s p e c ti v e ly , an d dd d i f w e furth e r su pp os th d nsity to
a ,
an e e e be
uni form ,
we fi d by ( 9 ) th t
n a

”
dx dy dz
i ”

Th e p robl m th e n in any giv n cas is to d t rm in e a valu

e ,
e e ,
e e e

o f as a f s tis ying this qu tion d th pr p r boun d ry conditions e a an e o e a

*

th e instantan ous chang f m oti n is th n giv n by

e e o o e e

Th e L a g r a n gi a n Fo r m s o
f th e E qu a ti o n s .

16 . L etinitial a , b any particl f

, c b e th e -
c o or d inat e s o f e o

fl id y its -ordin t s at ti m t W h r consi d r y as

u ,
a
‘
, , z co a e e . e e e e as, , z

f nc t ions f th in d p n d nt variabl s
u o b c t ; t h ir valu s
e e e e e a, , , e e In

t rm s f th s quantiti s giv th whol history f ev ry p rticl

e o e e e e e e o e a e

f th flui d Th v lociti s arall l to th a s f - or d inat s f e e xe o co e o

o e p . e e e

I t wi l l p p i C h pt II I th t (
a t
e ar d di ti c n t nt ) th i nly
n a er . a sav e as o a v e o s a s ere s o

o n e v al u e o f a c
wh i h d o e s th i s .
15 L AG R AN GIA N EQUATI ONS . 13

dw dy dz
th e p articl e ( a b, c ) at ti m e t are an d th e c m o pon e n t
d ?
[i t
,
dt
d a:
’
d y d
’ ’
a
acc e l rat ons e i 1n th e sa m e d I r e c tI O n s are i ’“ " Let p
dt dt
’
dt
an d p b e th e p r ssur
nsity in th n ighbourho d f t his pa ticl e e an d de e e o o r e

at ti m t ; X Y Z th co m pon nts f th xte rnal i m pre ss d force s

e , ,
e e o e e e

p unit
er m ass acting th r C nsi d ring t h m otion f t h m ass e e . o e e o e

of fl ui d which at ti m t occu p i e s th d i ff r nti l l m e n t f volu m e e e e a e e o e

d dy d we fi d by t h e sa m r asoni g as in A t 6
x z, n e e n r

“
.
,

d
i
sc l dp
d
z ’
di p x

dy
a
l dp
= Y ’
de d
p y
d
i z
z
l dp
'

di p d z

Th s e e quations contai diff r ntial co ffici n t s wi th r sp ct

e n e e e e e e

to w y wh e r as
,
in d p n d nt vari abl s
,
z, b c t To e our e e e e are a, , , .

e li m inat th s diff r nti l co ffici e nts w m ultiply th bov

e e e e e a e ,
‘

e e a e

d dy d oc z
e quations by
da
r e sp ctiv ly d dd ; a s con d ti m e e ,
an a e e
d da
’ ’ ’
a

by if 32 d? Z
Zif
C
, ,
an d a dd ; an again a third ti m e by
d ’ ,

an d a dd . We thus g e t th e thr quationsee e

$5
1
j i
g
Z 3
{
o, ( )
2 2

i
73
3 if
i
(
—
Z 0
dt
’
i .

Th s e e ar e th e L agrangian form s of th e d ynam ic l e quations a .

17 b for two additional quations

. As er qu i r d W e ,
e ar e e e . e

hav fi rst a r lat ion b t w n p d p f th f rm

e , ,
e or e ee an o e o

as th cas m y b e To fi d th form which th q uati n f

e a e . n e e e o o

c ntinuity assum s i t rm s f
o p r s nt variabl s w con e i d r n e o ou r e e e , e s e

th l m
e nt f
e e fl i d w hich rigin
e lly occu p i doa r ct n gul u r p ar l o a e e a a a

l l pi p d
e e h ving th ecorn r n ar st tha origin at t h p in t ( l
e e e e e e o a , c ,

an d it d g s d s db d p r ll
e l t th e a e s A t t h ti m
c, t t h ,
c a a e o xe . e e e
14 ,
TH E EQUATI ONS OF M O TI ON .
[C H A R 1 .

sam e e pl r ll
em el ppi nt form s an obliqu
d Th corn r e a a e e e . e e co r

re s
P d i g t (
on b ) h f its n- or d in
'

t s o y ; d th a, , c as or co a e cc, ,
z an e
'

co-ordinat s r lativ to this p m t f th oth r e tre m iti s f th

e e e o o e e x e o e

d dy d a: z
thr dg s m ti g in i t
ee e r sp ctiv ly d
e d — dee n ar e e e e a a a
°

da da da

32 % g; db gg 2c 5
;
3 (
gd
db db ; do volu m
'

db , c, Th e e of th e p ar
i
’ , .

a ll e l e i
p pe d is th r for e e e
*

dz: dy
’
a a da

da db dc ,

dc

o r , as it is o ft n writt n e e ,

d y z
) da db dc
’
.

He nc sinc e e ,
th e m ass of th e l
e em e nt is unchang e d ,
we hav e

d ( ax,
y ,
z)
p d (a b, p0
, 0)

wh r e p is th initial d nsity at ( b c)
e 0
e e a , , .

In th c s e o f an inco m pre ssibl e flui d

e a
p p o,
so that ( 2 3)
b com s
e e
d (x,
y ,
z
) 1
d ( a ,
b, c)

We be r Tr a n sf o r m a ti o n
’

s .

18 orc s X Y Z hav a p t ntial i e if th y

. I f th e f b e , , e o e , . . e ca n e

e x
p r ss d the
p rtial d ieff r ntial co
as ffici nts with r sep ct to a e e e e e e

y
e x, f a singl
,
f
z ounction w hich w d n t b y V ( that
e V is e e o e so

th p ot nti l n rgy d
e to thos forc s f unit m a s pl c e d in th e
e a e e , ue e e , o s a

p ositio ( y t h quant ions ( )

2 2
x, m y b ,
writt n e e a e e

d
i
sc da: dy dy
i
dj z dz dV 1 dp
2
d
2
dt d a
’
alt da dt d a da
2
p a

&c .
,
&c .

S alm o n ,
G e o m e tr y f
o Th r e e D i m e n s i o n s.
17 S EQUATI ONS
’
WE B E R . 15

L e us int grat th s qu tions with r s pe ct

t e e e e e a e to t be t w n ee th e
li m its 0 d t W r m rk that an . e e a

i
d et dx
dt
” '

0
a a

dt d a

w h r e e n o
is th e initial v lu f th e -
co m pon nt a e o x e o f v loci ty
e o f th e
p ticl
ar e ( a ,
b, H nc e i f w writ
e e e

x V

we have
da: d c dy dy dz dz
+ +
dt da dt d a dt da
dtv d a d z/ d z/ '
d z dz
an d, si m ilarly + +
dt d b
,
d t db di db
da: dx d i/ dy d z dz
+ +
d t dc d t dc dt dc

Th s e thre
e e e
q uations tog th r with ,
e e

dt

an quation f continuity
d th e e th p arti l d i ff r nti
o l qua ,
are e a e e a e

ti ns to b satisfi d by th fi unkno wn q uanti ti s w y p x ;

o e e e v e e , ,
z, ,

p b inge su pp os d alr e a dy e li m inat d by m ans e f o f t h e r e l a e e o n e o

tions f A t 7 o r . .

In th case f a liquid p occ rs in ( 2 7 ) o ly so that ( 2 6 ) d

e o ,
u n , an

( )
2 4 m y b m paloy e d to fi d e
y ea d x w hil p m y b e foun d n x, ,
z, n , e a

afte rwards from

Th e initi l con ditions to b satisfi d a w= y b c
x O e e ar e a ,
:
, z ,
: .

Th boun dary con di t io n s vary with th e particular probl e m un de r

e

inv stigation
e .

19 quations ( 2 6 ) d ( 2 7 ) m y b e app li e d to fi d th
. Th e e an a n e

equations f i m p lsiv m otion f a liquid L e t th e im p ls act

o u e o . u e

fro m t = O to t = wh r is infini t ly s m all a d l e t b e th '

r, e e 7 e ,
n 7 e

H . W e b e r , C r e l le , t . 68 .
 TH E E Q UATI O NS O F M OT I O N . 1 .

u
ppr li m it f i n t gration in
e o e We fin d X w he r e CI
p
is th e i m p ulsiv pr ssur d e e e an V
'
th e pot nti l f th e a o e ex te rn l a

i m pulsiv f rc s at th p int ( e o e e o a ,
b, S inc e w = a 5 y = I ) ,
z = c,

w hav e by e ,

d} : dV 1 da y
'

&c &c .

d
.
’ , ,
dt da p a

w hich agr ee w i th th e e q u a tions o f Ar t . 15 .

In th m tho d f A t 1 6 th quantiti s b n d t
20 . e e o r . e e a , , 0 ee n o

b r stric t d to m an th initial
e e -rdin t s f a p r t icl ; t h y
e e e co o a e o a e e

m y b a consi d r d t b e any thr quan t i ti s wh ich s rv t

e e e o ee e e e o

id nti fy a particl
e d which vary continuously fr m p articl t
e ,
an o on e e o

anoth r I f we thus g n rali th m anings f b c th f rm f

e . e e ze e e o a , , ,
e o o

e q uations ( 2 2 ) is t alt r d ; t fi d th for m which ( 2 3) assu m s n o e e o n e e ,

l t e d w d note th
o , initial -or din a t s f th particl t
z
0
n o e e co e o e e o

w h i ch b 0 r f r Th initial volu m
a, f th p rall l pi p d thr
, e e . e e o e a e e e ,
ee

o f wh s e dg s odra wn fro m th e p articl (

e b c) to th p articl s
e ar e e a , , e e

( a d b ) ( b d b
a,
( b ,d ) r cs p ctiv
, ly is a , ,
a , ,
c c ,
e e e ,

d ( s
yo da d b d c ,
o , ,

d( a , b, C )
so that inst a d e of
( )
2 3 w hav
e e

d( x , y , Z
) yo ’ Zn
)
p p0
d fa ,
b, 0) d (a , b , c )
an d fo r inco m p r ssibl flui ds e e

d ( ggf ) 2 3 d( 37
0: yo »
2
0 )
d ( a , b , C ) d ( a ,
b , C )
21 co m p th tw form s f th f n dam ntal q u tions
. I f we ar e e o o e u e e a

to which w h v b n l d w notic th t th E ul rian q u tions

e a e ee e ,
e e a e e e a

o f m otion lin ar d f th first ord r whilst th L gra gi n

ar e e an o e e ,
e a n a

e q ations u f th s e con d ord r d lso c ntain pro duc t s f

ar e o e e ,
an a o o

d i ff r ntial co ffici nts In W b r s trans form ti n th l tt r ’

e e e e . e e a o e a e are

r plac d by a syst m f quations f th first ord r d f th

e e e o e o e e , an o e

s con d d gr
e Th E ul rian quati n f continuity is also m uch
e ee . e e e o o

si m p l r than th L agrangian sp cially in th cas f liqui ds In

e e ,
e e e e o .
’

t h s r sp cts th r f r th E ul rian form s f th

e e e e q u tions
, e e o e ,
e e o e e a

p ss ss
o gr at a devant g s v r t h L gr gian
e A gai th f r m i a e o e e a an . n , e o n
1 9— 2 1 ] C OM PA R I SON O F TH E Two M ET H O DS . 17

w hich th solution f th E ul rian qua t ions ppe ar co re s p nd

e o e e e a s r o s ,

in m any cas s m or n arly to wh t w wish t know t th

e , e e a e o as o e

m tion o f flui d obj ct b i g in g n ra l to gain a kno wle dg

o a , our e e n , e e , e

of th s tat e f m otion f th flui d m ass at

e o
y instant rath r t han o e an , e

t tra
o th car e r f in d i i d u l p articl s
ce e e o v a e .

O th oth r h nd wh n v r th e fluid is boun d d by a

n e e a ,
e e e e

m ovi g sur f n th L gr ngian m tho d p oss ss e s c e t i n th

ac e , tie a a e e r a e o re

ca l ad vantag s In th E ul rian m tho d th function

e . v w e e e e s u, ,

hav no ist nc b yon d this surfac

e ex d h nc th r nge
e e f e e , an e e e a o

valu s f y f which th s functio s e ist vari s in

e o x, , z se or e e n x e co n

q f
u e n ce ot h m otion which w hav to inv
e stigat I th oth r e e e e . n e e

m tho d on th
e contrary th e rang f valu s f th in d pe nd n t
,
e ,
e o e o e e e

v riabl e s b c is gi n onc f l l by th initial con ditions

a a , ,
ve e or a e .

Th d i fficulty ho w v r
e f int grating th Lagrangian qua ,
e e ,
o e e e

tions h hith rto pr v nt d th ir app lication e c pt in c rtain

as e e e e e x e e

v ry sp cial cas s Accordingly in this tr atis we d l l m os t

e e e . e e ea a

ex clusiv ly wi t h th E l ria quations Th int gration d

e e u e n e . e e an

sim plification f th s i c rtain cas s form th e subj ct f tho e e n e e e o e

follo wing chap t r e .

H W b r C ll t 6 8 . e e , re e, . .
 C H AP TE R II .

I N TEG RATI ON O F TH E EQUATI ONS IN SP ECIA L CAS E S .

ost c s f inte r st
22 . IN m as e o e th e ex e t r al i m pr ss
n e e d f orc s e

hav a pot ntial ; i w hav

e e v z . e e

dV dV
d c: dg/

a large a n d i m p ort nt cl ss f cas s th e com pon nt v loci

In a a . o e e e

ti e s v to can b si m il arly pr ss d th partial diff r ntial

u, , e e x e e as e e e

co ffici nts o f a function b so that

e e ( ,

d cb d c}; d]? c
w 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

dz
0

dx dy

S ucha function is call d a v locity-pote nti l fro m its ‘ ’

e e a ,

a alogy to th p ot ntial function w hich occurs in th th e ori s f

n e e e e o

Attr ctions E l ctrostatics &

a , Th g n ral th ory f th v locity
e ,
c . e e e e o e e

p ot ntial is r s rv d f th n t ch pt r ; but we giv at onc a

e e e e or e ex a e e e

p roo f f t h fol
ol o w ing i m p ortant
e th or m e e

23 I f a v locity -
.
p ot ntial ist at any e instant f any e ex ,
on e ,
or

finit p ortion f a p r f ct flui d in m otion un de r th action f

e o e e e o

forc s which hav e a p ot nti l th n p rovi d d th e d nsity f th e

e e a ,
e ,
e e o

fluid b ith e r constant or a functio f th p r ssur e only a

e e n o e e ,

e -
v locity p ot ntial ists f th sam p ortion f th e flui d at all
e ex or e e o

subs e qu nt insta ts e n .

I th n quations f A t 1 8 l t th instant at which th

e e o r .
, e e e

v locity-p ot ntial p ists b tak n as th e origin f ti m ; w

e e ( ,
ex e e o e e

hav th e en

n
o
d a v o
db wade d cbo ,

throughout th e
p ortion of th e m ass in qu stion e . M ul ti plying th e
22 V E LO CITY -
P OT E N TI AL . 9

thr ee e quations ( )
2 6 Ar t . 18 in rd r by o e da , db ,
do , an d ad ding ,

we g e t

d“? d dz
dt
dx
. gg i
da
3,
dz ( u
.
da n i b wode ) ax ,

o r, w i th our pre s nt notation e ,

u dz d d = d =d
+ y + w ¢
f
v v sa
z , y;
w hich p r v s th e th r m o e eo e .

It is t b particul rly notic d that this continue d iste nce f

o e a e ex o

a v locity -p ot ntial is pr dicat d no t f r gi ns f space but o f

e e e e ,
o e o o ,

p ortions f m tt r A p ortion o f m att r f which

a a v e l city
e . o e or o

p ot ntial e ists m ov s about d carri s th is p ro p rty with it but

e x e an e e ,

th p ortion f s p c w hich it originally occu p i d m y i th cours

e o a e e a ,
n e e

of th m otion eco m to b occu pi d by m att r which di d not , e e e e

originall y p oss ss t h is prop rty d which th r for ca not hav e e ,

an e e e n e

acquir d it e .

Th abov th or e m stat e d i an i m p r f ct for m by L ag ang

e e e ,
n e e r e

in S ction XI f th e M e ca i q e A ly ti qu e was first plac d i its

e . o
’

n u n a ,
e n

ro
p p r light by
e C auchy O th e r p roo fs to b r p ro d uc d f u r th r .
, e e e e

on hav sinc be n give by S tok s H l m holt

, e e d Thom so
e n e e z, an n .

A c r e ful criticis m f L agrang s d oth e r p roo fs has b e n g iv

’
a o e an e en

by S tok s e

24 class f cas e s in which v locity-

. Th e p ot nti l i s ts o a e e a ex

includ s all thos e wh e r th m otion h originat d fro m r st

e e e as e e

un d r th action o f f rc s f th kind h r suppos d ; f th n w

e e o e o e e e e or e e

have initially , ,

u dx v dy wdz 0,

const 95 .

Again i f th m otion b ,slow that th squar s d p rod ucts

e e SO e e an

f d th ir first di ff r ntial o fli i t m y b n gl ct d
’
o v w
u, , an e e e c e c en s a e e e e ,

th e quations ( 2 ) b com e
e e

da dV l dp
&c &c
dt dx
’ ,
.

dx

du dw
so t hat -
dzc l dy + -dz
——
dt dt

Ca m b . P hi l . Tr a n s . Vo l . VI II .
p 3 05 . e t se q .
20 I N TEGR ATI ON O F TH E EQUAT I ONS IN SP ECIA L CA S E S [C H AR . II .

is an ex act di ff r e ntial e . He nc int grating

e ,
e , we se e th at
u da: v dy wdz

consists f two parts f which is an

o act di ff r n ti l whilst ,
on e o ex e e a ,

th oth r do s t cont in at In so m cas s f

e e e m pl wh
n o a . e e ,
or e xa e ,
e n

th m otion is w h lly p rio dic w can s rt th t th latt r p rt is

e o e ,
e a se a e e a

ze ro d th r for that a v locity—p ot nti al ists

, an e e e ,
e e ex .

25 . U n de r th e
circu m st nc s stat d i A t 2 3 th quations a e e n r .
, e e

o fAt 6 rat onc int grabl th r ugh ut th t p orti n f th m ss

. ar e e e e o o a o o e a

f w
orhic h a v locity -
p t ntial i sts F in virtu e f th r l o e e x . or, e o e e a

d dw dw d vd d a u v
tions t— w hich e i m ph d ( 2 ) th ar e 1n e
l dy d iz d dy 3 x z
’
33
, ,

e quations in qu stion m y b w i tt n e a e r e

d cb du 1 dp
g
dv dw dV
+ u — + v _
+w &0 & 0
dx d a: dd
'
’
dm d t da: doe p

Th s e hav th e co m m on int gral

e e e

1?
0

dt

He r e g de not e s th e r sultant v locity ( 4- d F ( t) is e e 16

2
12
2
an

an arbitrary function f t which m y ho w v e r b su ppos d i o , a e e e n

dd )
l d d
e u e S inc by ln th valu s f w , n t th e r by
e , e e o a , v ,
are o e

aff ct d e e .

F inco m p r ssibl flui ds th e e quation ( 3 ) b co m s

or e e e e

w hilst th e quation e of continuity of Ar t 8 ) . assu m s th form e e

2
61
2 2
4+ d ¢ d l
<>
" +
dx dy
2 2
dz

In any probl e m to which th s quations apply d wh r th e e e , an e e e

boun d ry-con ditions a

p r ly kin m tic l th p roc e ss f solution ar e u e e a a ,
e o

is follows W m ust first fi d a function p satis fyi g ( 5 ) d

as . e n ( n an

th giv n b un d ary -
e con ditions ; th n substituti g in ( 4 ) w g t th
e o e n e e e

valu f p S inc th l tt r qu tion contains an arbitr ry func

e o . e e a e e a a

tion f t th co m p l t d t rm inati n f p r quir s a knowl e dg o f

o ,
e e e e e o o e e e

its valu at som e p oint f th flui d f all valu s o f t

e o e or e .
24 EQUI P O T E NT IA L S U R FAC ES .

26 . qu t ons ( 2 wi th th qu t ions f A t 1 5
A c o m pa r i s o n ofe a i e e a o r .

give s a si m pl physical int rp r t tion f th e v loci ty-pot ntial

e e e a o e e .

A y actual statn f m otion f liquid f which a v locity e o o a ,

or e

p ot nti l
e ists coulad b e p ro d c
ex d instantan ,usly fro m r st by th e u e eo e

a
pp lic tion f a ro
p p
a rly chos n syst om f i m p ulsiv p r ssur e s
e Thi s e e o e e .

is vi d nt fro m qua ti ns ( 2 1 ) A t 1 5 which sh w m ore ove r that

e e e o r .
, e , ,

d
g const ; so that C pd giv s th r .quisit e syst m In 67 e e e e .

th s m e w y a
pd 0e giv s t h asyst e m a f i m p ulsiv e r ssur s e e o
p e e

which w ould co m pl t ly stop th m otion Th occ rr nc f an e e e . e u e e o

a rbitrary constant in th s p r ssions sh ws w hat is oth r wis e e e ex e e , e

e vi d nt th t a p r ssur uniform throughout a liqui d m ass p rod uc s

e ,
a e e e

no ff ct i t m otion
e e on s .

In th cas f a g d is th p ote nti l f th e t e r al i m

e e o a s, e a o e x n

p ulsiv forc s by
e which th actual e m otion t any i stant coul d e a n

b p ro d c d instantan ously fro m r t

e u e e es .

A stat f m otion f w hich a v l city -e o

p te nti l d s not i s t or e o o a oe ex

can ot b g e n rat d or d stroy d fly th action f i m p ulsiv pr s

n e e e e e e o e e

sur s e f ,
t rnal i m pulsiv f s having a p ot nti l
or o ex e e orc s e a .

iste nc f a v loci ty-p t ntial in dicat s b sid s

27 . Th e ex e o e o e e , e e ,

c rtain ki e m ti l prop rti s f th m t ion

e n a ca e e o e o .

A lin
‘
f m otion is d fin d to b lin dra w n fr m p oin t ’
e o e e e a e o

to p oint so th t its dir ction is v ryw h r that f th m otion f

,
a e e e e e o e o

th fluid Th diff r nti l quations f th syst m f such lin s

e . e e e a e o e e o e

are

dx _
dy dz
’
u U to

r lations ( 2 ) sh w that wh n a v loci ty-

Th e e p ot n t i l ists th e e e e a e x e

lin s f m otion
e ov ry wh r p rp n dicular to s ri s f surfac s ar e e e e e e e a e e o e ,

v i th surfac s d
z . const T h s
e c ll d th surfac s f qual
e . e e ar e a e e e o e

v locity-p ot n ti l m or Sh ortly th qui pot nti l surf c s

e e a ,
or e ,
e e e a a e .

Again i f fr m th p oint ( y ) w e dra w a lin r l m n t d

,
o e ac, ,
z ea e e e c

in th dir ction ( l m ) th v locity r solv d in thi s dir ction is

e e , ,
n ,
e e e e e

dd d d d d—
y d d d d d a; z
l + m 7) + w or
u + + Wt h
n
_ Th l i n

e v e oc
d d d/ d d d de
,
z e z 3 z s

ity in any dir ction is th r for e qual to th rat e o f incr as e f d

'

e e e e e e o

in that di r ction e .
22 I NT EGR AT I ON OF TH E EQUATI ONS IN SP E C IA L C A S E S [C HA R . II .

Taking d in th dir ction f th norm a l to th surfac d const

s e e o e e e .

w e th t i f a s ri s f such surf c s b drawn so that th diff r

se e a e e o a e e e e

e nc e b tw n th v lu s f d f tw cons cutiv surfac s is con

e e e e a e o or o e e e

stant d infinit ly s m ll th v locity t any p oint will b inv rs ly

an e a ,
e e a e e e

r
p p orot ional t th d ist nc b t w e n tw cons e cutiv
o sur fac s in e a e e e o e e

th e n igh b urh o d f th at p oint

e o o o .

H nc i f ey qui p ot nti
e l sur
,
f c int rs ct its
an l f th e v locity
e e a a e e e e ,
e

is ro at v ry p oint f th int rs ction

ze e e o e e e .

Th int rs ction f tw distinct q ui p t nti l surfac s woul d

e e e o o e o e a e

i m ply an infi i te v locity at all p oints f th i t rs e cti n

n e o e n e o .

S te a dy M o ti o n .

28 . Wh e n at v ry point th v e locity at that point is const nt

e e e a

in m a gnitu de an d dir ction i 6 wh n e ,

. . e

da dv
,

fig
(
O
212
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

dt
O

dt
e v rywh r th m ti n is s i d t b S t ady
e e e ,
e o o a o e
‘
e .
’

In st ady m otion th lin s f m otion coinci d with th p ths

e e e o e e a

f th p articl s d in t his c call d str am -lin s F l t ’

o e e an are a se e e e . or e

P Q b tw cons cutiv p oint

,
e a lin f m otion A particl
o e e s on e o . e

wh ich is t any inst nt t P is m ving in th dir ction f th

a a a o e e o
'

t ang nt t P e d w ill th r for

a aft r an infinit ly short tim
,
an , e e e ,
e e e

arriv t Q Th m oti n b ing ste ady th lin s f m otion r m in

e a . e o e ,
e e o e a

t h sam e H e nc th d ir ction f m oti n t Q is along t h t g nt

e . e e e o o a e an e

to th sam lin f m otion i e th p rticl c ntinu s to d scrib

e e e o , . . e a e o e e e

th lin e f m otion e o .

In s t ady m otion th e quatio ( 3) be com s

e e n e

V 11
7 4
2
constant
quations f m otion m y how v r in this c s b in t
Th e e o a e e a e e e

grat d to a c rtain t nt without assu m ing th

e ist nc f a
e ex e e ex e e o

v locity pot ntial F if d d not an l nt a str

e - m e f m -lin . or s e e e e e o ea e ,

w hav
e gg g & S ubstituti
e ug in th quations f m oti n c . n e e o o

we hav e r e m e m b ring , e

di t

q
27 S T R EAM -
LI N ES . 23

w i th t wo si m il r a e q u a tions . M ulti plying th s e e

da d” dw dV
M
u
d8
+v
d8
+w
dS
“ de

o r, in t grating long th str

e a e e am -
lin e ,

V v
hf 0

This is f th sam for m as but is m or g n r l in th t i t

o e e e e e a a

do s e t involv
n o th ssu m pti n f th ist nc f a v loci ty
e e a o o e e x e e o e

p ot nti l eIt m ust ho w

a v r b
. c r fully n tic d th t th ‘
con tant e e e a e o e a e s
’

f quation ( 8 ) d th ‘
f qua t ion ( 9 ) h v v ry di ff r nt
’
o e 0 an e o e a e e e e

m nings th for m r b i g absol t const n t wh i l th latt r

ea ,
e e e n an u e a ,
e e e

i const n t along
s y p rticul
a r str m -lin but m y vary w an
e a a e a e , a as

ass fro m str m -lin to no t h r

on e ea e a e
p .

rm ula ( 9 ) m y b d duc d fro m th p ri ncipl f

29 . Th e fo a e e e e e o

e n rgy witho t m ploying th q uations f m otion at ll T king

e u e e e o a . a

first th p articular cas f a li qui d l t us consid r th po rtion f

e e o ,
e e e o

an i nfinit ly narrow tub whos w lls e for m d f str am - lin s e ,

e a are e o e e ,

includ d b tw n tw cr ss s ctions A d B th dir ction f

e e e e o o e an ,
e e o

m tion b ing fro m A to B

o L t p b
e th p r ssur q th . e e e e e ,
e

v l city V th p t nti l f th
e o ,
t rnal forc s th r
e o f the a o e ex e e ,
a
"
e a e a o e

cross s ction t A d l t th v lu s f th s m q uantiti s at B

e a ,
an e e a e o e a e e

b disti guis h d by acc nts

e n In ch unit f tim a m ass p q
e e . e a o e a

a t A nt rs th p orti
e n f th etub consi d r d w h ilst
e an q ual o o e e e e ,
e

m ass l av s it nc A gain ork ' '

B H h
' '
t e q q e te w a e 0
‘
cr e
pq a . .
,

m ass nte ring at A is p g p uni t tim whilst th

/

d on e th on e e o er e ,
e

loss f work at B o Th for m r m s brings w ith it th Is e e as e

e n rgy pg ( 5 9 + V ) wh ilst th l t t r carri s ff n rgy to th

e o
'
2
,
e a e e o e e e
" otion b ing st a y orti n
m ount p q Th d h f
'

(g g t
’
a m a .
p e e e ,
e o o

th tub consi d r d n ith r gains

e e los s n rgy th whol e e e e n or e e e on e e ,

so that
(W V)
' '

(i s
’

pe a
”

+ pqrf V) pq o

Divi ding by pg h v
”
a
pq a ) , we a e

1 V= V
'

+ t
5
.
24 I N TEGRATI ON OF TH E EQUATI ONS IN SP ECIA L CA S E S [C H AR . II .

or using, C ’
in th e sam e s e ns as b fore e e ,

which is what th quation ( 9 ) b com s wh n p is t it e e e e e co n s a i .

To prov th corr sp onding form ula f com pr e ssibl fluids w

e e e or e ,
e

r m ark that th e flui d nt e ring at A w brings with it in addition

e e n o ,

to its e n rgi s f m otion d p osition th intrinsic n rgy

e e o an , e e e

p unit m ass Th a dd ition f th s er . e O e e

t e rm s co n ve rts th quation ( 1 0) into th quation e e e e

I m ost cas s
n f m otion f gas s th r lation ( 4 ) f A t 7 e o o e ,
e e o r .

holds d ( 9 ) th n b co m s
, an e e e

P
'
Y
A
’
V g 0
v 1 p

30 quations ( 1 0) d ( 1 1 ) sh w th t in st ady m ti n f
. E an e a ,
e o o or

oints along any str a m -lin l th p r ssur is on e t i p i b e e

' ‘
e e e c ce e r s ar as,
p , ,

gr at st wh r th v locity is l ast d v i ce e
e e e e This st t m nt
e e e ,
an v r sa . a e e ,

though opp os d to p opular notions is bvious i f w r fl ct that

e ,
o e e e a

p articl p assing fro

e m a p l ac f high r t f lo w r p r ssur e o e o on e o e e e

m ust hav its m otion acc l rat d e d i e e S o m int r sting e e e ,

an v c v r sa . e e e

p ractical illustrations d a pp lications f th p rinci p l giv n anby o e e ar e e

M F rou d in N t e V l XIII 1 8 7 5
r e a ur ,
o . . .

It follows that in any cas to which th af r sai d qu t ions e e o e e a

a
pp ly t h r is a li m it w hich
e eth v l city cannot c d i f th e e o e x e e e

m otion b continuous F instanc l t us su pp os that w h v

e . or e , e e e a e

a liqui d flowing from a r e s rvoir wh r th m ti n is s nsibly e e e e o o e

ze ro d th p r ssur qual to P d that w m y n gl ct th

, an e e e e ,
an e a e e e

1
ex et rn l i m pr ss e d f rc s W have th e n in ( 1 0) C
a e o e e
’

5
.
,

t h e r for e e

2P
‘

He nc f q e ce d e I
19 b co m s g t xw h r asew know that e e n e a 1v e e e e
P
,

actual flui ds e unabl to su pport m or than a v ry slight i f any

ar e e e , ,

T i t Th dy i A t 1 7 4 ( fi t di ti n)
a
’
s er m o n a m cs , r . rs e o .

Th i r tri cti n i b y nn c y wh
s es l ci ty -
p t nti l
o i t s, u e e s s ar en a v e o o e a ex s s .
29 F L OW F RO M A RE S E RV O I R . 25

de gr
t nsi n without ru pt ur Th li m i ting v loci ty is by
ee o f e o , e . e e ,

appro i m at ly that with which th fluid would sc pe fr m

x e e e a o

th r s rvoir into
e v cuu m In th cas e f wat r at th a t m o
e e a a . e o e e

s ph ric p r ssure this v locity is th t d to th h ight f th

e e , e a ue e e o e

wa t r-baro m t r or ro ghly about 4 5 f t p s cond

e e e ,
u , ee er e .

Th qu stion as to wh a t tak s plac wh e n th lim i ting v e loci ty

e e e e e

is r ach d will b consi d r d in A t 9 4

e e e e e r . .

31 . We
conclu d this chapt r with a f w si m pl applica t io s e e e e n

o f th qu tio n s e e a .

E m p le 1 S t ady m otion un d r th action f g ravity

xa A . e e e o .

v ss l is k pt fill d p to a constant l v l with liqui d which

e e e e u e e

e scap s fro m a s m all orific

e its w ll e In a s

Th origin b i g t k n in th u pp r surfac l t th a is f
e e n a e e e e , e e x o 2

b v rtic l
e d its p sitiv dir ction d w w ar ds so that V
e a ,
an
g o e e o n ,
: z .

I f w su pp os th are f th u pp r sur f c larg co m p ar d w i t h

e e e a o e e a e e e

th t f th orific th v locity at th f rm r m y b n gl ct d
a o e e ,
e e e o e a e e e e .

H nc d t rm ining th const nt in ( 1 0) so t h at p = P ( th at m o
e e , e e e a e

s ph ric pr ssur ) wh n
e 0 w hav e e ,
e z ,
e e

p P
—+ z— 2
e is
p p
At th e surfac e of th e issuing j t w hav e e e
p P ,
an d th r fore e e

i
'

. e . th e v locity is th t d
e a ue to th e de p th b lo w e th e u pp r surfac e e .

This is To r r i ce l li
’
s Th e o r e m .

cannot how v r at onc apply this r sult to c lcula t th

We e e e e a e e

rat f ffl f th fluid f two r asons In th firs t p lac th

e o e ux o e ,
or e . e e , e

issuing fluid m ust b r e gard d as m ad p f gr t nu m b r f e e e u o a ea e o

l m nt ry str am s conv rging fro m all si de s towards th orific

e e e a e e e e .

Its m otion is t th r for e through out th ar a f th orific n o ,

e e ,
e e o e e ,

e v rywh r p rp ndicular to th is ar but b co m s m or d m or

e e e e e e a, e e e an e

obliqu as w p ss fro m th c ntr f th orific t th sid s

e e a e e e o e e o e e .

Again th c nv rgi g m otion f th l m ntary s t r am s m ust

,
e o e n o e e e e e

m ak th p r ssure at t h orific so
e m w h t gr t r ein th int rior e e e e a ea e e e

Of th j t than at i t s sur f c w h r it is qual t th

e e t m osph ric a e ,
e e e o e a e

p r ssur Th
e v locity ther f r . in th inte rior f th je t wi l l b e e ,
e e o e ,
e o e e

som wh t l ss than that giv n by

e a e e
26 I N TEGR ATI ON OF TH E EQUAT I ONS IN SP ECIA L CA S E S [ C H AR . II .

ri m nt sh ws h w v r that th c nv rgi g m oti n abov

E xpe e e o e e e o e n o e

sp k n f c as s at a sh rt distanc b yon d th orific

o e o e d t ha t
e o e e e e ,
an

th j t th n b co m s pp ro i m t ly cylin d rical
e e e e e a x a e .

Th ratio f th ar a f th s ction 5 f th j t t this p oin t

”
e o e e o e e o e e a

( c lal d the
‘
na contracta ) t th ar
e a S f th
Veorific is call d
’
o e e o e e e

th
‘
ffi i t f contraction rific b si m ply a h l in ’
e co e I f thc en o . e o e e o e

a thin wall th is c ffici nt is fo nd t b bout 6 2 I f a short

,
oe e u o e a
‘
.

cylin dric l tub b attach d t rnally th v lu f th c ffici nt

a e e e ex e ,
e a e o e oe e

is consi d rably incr s d ; if e th oth r h nd th r b attach d ea e ,

on e e a , e e e e

a Sh ort tub p roj cting i w d th co ffici nt is b ut 5

e e n ar s, e e e a o
'

Th p ths f th p rticl s at th
e a v na c ntr ct b ing n arly
o e a e e e o a a e e

str ight th r is littl

a no v ri ti n f p r ssur
,
e w p ss fro m
e e or a a o o e e as e a

th a is to th
e x sur f c f th j t W m y th r f r a su m th
e a e o e e . e a e e o e s e e

v l city th r to b uni f rm d t hav th valu giv n by

e o e e e o ,
an o e e e e

wh r e w d not s th
e z d p t h f th v na contracta b l w th
n o e e e e o e e e o e

surf c f th liquid in th v ss l Th rat f ffi is th r for

a e o e e e e . e e o e ux e e e

32 calcula t ion f th f rm f th issui g j t pr s nts

. Th e o e o o e n e e e

gr t di fficulti s d has onl y b n ff ct d in

ea tw si m p l
e ,
an ee e e e on e or o e

c s s ( S A ts 9 6 9 7 b low ) It is h w v r asy t sh w
a e . ee r .
, ,
e .
,
o e e , e o e

that th e fli i t f c ntraction cannot ( in th

co e bs nc f fric c e n o o e a e e o

tion) fall b lo w th valu i F or th p r ssur f th fluid at th

e e e n e e e o e e

w alls f th v ss l is pp ro i m t ly q al to th statical p r ssur

o e e e a x a e e u e e e

P + gp c pt n r th rific wh r
z, e x account f th v loci ty 9
e ea e o e ,
e e on o e e

b c m i g s nsibl it i by
e o n s m what l ss A su m ing it f
e e ,
s, o e e . s or

th m o m nt t
e b qual to th s t atical p r ssur w
e that th
o e e e e e ,
e se e e

tot l hori ont l pr ssur

a rt d th flui d by th v ss l is
z a e e e xe e on e e e e

P S + g p ff z dS

w h r th int gration t n ds ov r th ar a S f th rific Th

e e e e e x e e e e o e o e . e

h ori ont l p r ssur rt d by any l m nt f th v ss l s ’

z a e e e xe e on e e e e o e e e

w lls is in f ct b lanc d by that d to an o pposit l m nt

a a a e ue e e e e , ex

c pt in th c s f thos l m nts which

e e opposit t th orific
a e o e e e e ar e e o e e .

Th first t r m f ( 1 5 ) is bal nc d by th p r ssur P

e e f th at m o
o a e e e e o e

s ph r e th p rtion f flui d
e on t rn l t th v ss l ; e th t th o o ex e a o e e e so a e

tot l hori ontal f rc acting

a th flui d i g p ff d S or n S i f E
z o e on e s z , ,

b th d p th f th c ntr
e e f in rtia f th orific
e It is this forc
o e e e o e o e e . e

which pro duc e s th m om e ntu m with which th fluid l av s th e e e e e

31 V E N A C ONT RA CTA . 27

v ss l Th m ass f -fl i d wh ich in unit t i m pass s th v a

e e . e o u e e e e n

c ntract is pqS d th m o m ntu m which this ca ri s a w y wi th

o a
'

,
an e e r e a

it is pq S He nc substituting th v lu f g fr m
’ ’
. w h v e , e a e o o e a e

S
'

n 2g pz S
o r, sinc e z, Ea r e n arly qual
e e

S S
’
1 2,
a
pp ro i m at ly xS inc ho w v r th p r es ur e t
.h e w all is n e a r e ,
e e , e e s on ,

th orific s nsibly l ss than th st tic l p r ssur P yp th e

e e , e e e a a e e e ,

total hori ntal forc act i ng th

zo fluid so m wh t c ds th e e on e e a ex ee

valu e Th l ft - hand si d f ( 1 6 ) is th e r for to s m ll d e e e o e e o a ,

an

th r tio S S is r lly gr at r than

'
e a ea e e

Th abov t h ory is tak n fro m a pap r by M G O H anlon

e e e e e r . .
,

in th 3 d volu m f th P o e e di g f th L d M the m ti ca l
e
'

r e o e r c n s o e on on a a

S i e ty
oc d fro m a not ap p n d d th r to by P ro f ssor M a w ll
,
an e e e e e e x e .

In p rticular cas
on e i w h r a short
a cy l in d ric l tub p e ,
v z . e e a e ,
ro

j ti
ec g in wn r d s is attach d to th orific a th assu m p tion
,
on w hich e e e ,
e

( )
1 6 was obtain d is s nsibly act ; d th valu 5 ef th e ex an e e o e co

effi i t f contraction th n gr s with

c e n o
p ri m nt C o m p r e a ee e x e e . a e

Ar t 9 7 . .

33 . flows through a s m l l ori fic fro m a

E x a m p le 2 . A ga s a e

r c iv r in which th pr ssur is p d th d nsity p into an

e e e ,
e e e
1
an e e
l ,

op n sp ac wh r th pr ssur is p
e
" e e e e e e .
z

W assu m th at th m oti n h b co m s te dy In th
e e e o as e e a . e re

i
ce v e r t a d ist nc fr m th orific w h v p
,
a
p q 0 s nsibly a e o e e ,
e a e
, , ,
e .

T h is d t rm in s th v lu f 0 in quation
e e N gl c t ing th e e a e o e e e e

t rn l forc s w fi d f th v locity f ffl
ex e a e ,
e n or e e o e ux

w hrp e is th e d nsity f th
,
issuing gas at th v na contract
e I f e o e e e a .

v locity f soun d in th g f th r c iv r w h v
'

c b th e e e o e as o e e e e ,
e a e

yp
th r or taking account
'

( C ha p t r V III ) e ; d f f
.
A t 7 0
2 ,
an e e e ,
o r .
,

Se e J o ule an d Th o m so n , O n th e Th e r m al E ff e cts o f Fl u i d s i n Mo io t nP , roc .

R S Ma y , 1 85 6
. . .

A n n
l s o R a ki e , App l i e d M e h a n i c s , c At r s . 63 7 , 6 3 7 A .
28 I N TEG R ATI ON OF TH E EQUATI ONS IN SP ECIA L C AS E S [C HA R . II .

Th e m a i m um v locity f ffi occurs wh e n p
x e o e ux
,
0 i ,
. e . wh n e th e

g as e scap s into a v c u m ; it is
e a u

x v locity
e o f soun d ,

or, fo ratm osph e ric air a t 32 F

°
.
,
about 2 4 1 3 f t p s con d ee er e .

Th rat e f sca p e o e e o f m as s how v r d p n d s on th

e valu e
e e e e of

9 0
1 2 ,or

w hich do s t continuall y i ncr e as

e n o e as
p, d i m inish s but attains a e ,

m a i m u m wh n
x e

Th e v locity
e o f e ffiu x is t h n by e ,

2
'
1
x v locitye of soun d ,

or, atm osph ric i at 3 2 F about 9 9 7 f t p s cond

fo r e a r
°
.
, ee e r e .

Th ‘
r duc d v locity i th v locity f a curr nt f th
e e e e ,
’
. e . e e o e o e

d nsity p f th gas in th r c iv e r which w oul d conv y m att r

e
1
o e e e e e e

at th sa m rat is got by divi ding th

e e
p r ssion ( )
1
e 8 by p d e e x e
l ,
an

is wh n a m a i m u m bout 6 3 2 f t p s con d f i at 3 2 F
,
e x ,
a e e e r e or a r
°
.

34 . ass f liqui d rot t s n d r th ac t i n f

E x a m p le 3 . Am o a e , u e e o o

gr vi ty only w ith co stant ngular v locity

a ,
bout th a is f n a e a e x o z

su pp os d dr w n v r t ical ly u p wards
e a e .

By hy poth e sis my m w 0; ,
n , C ax,

als X 0 Y 0 Z
= = = —
o
g , , .

Th quation f continuity is i de ntically satisfi d d th dynam ic l

e e o e ,
an e a

equations f m otion b co m o e e

d
’
x
p

Th s e hav e e th e com m on int gr e al

1
—
7 ’
co st
(
’ ’
éw w y ) g z n .

p
33 RO TATI N G F L UI D . 29

sur f c p
Th e f r ee a e , const is t h e r f r a paraboloi d f re vol
.
,
e o e o

u ti b ut th a is
on a o e x o f h avi ng its concavi ty u pwards
z, d it , an s

latus r ctu m 3 2 e .

(1)

inc e S 2 fiz — i ?
z i
a v loci ty-pot nti l do s no t ist A 0) e e a e e x
d o: dy
m otion f t his kin d could g n rat d in a p rf c t fl i d
‘
t b
’
o n o e e e e e e u ,

te . . unabl to sustain t ng nti l str ss Th fac t that i t

In on e e a e a e . e

can b r ali e d with actual fluids sh ws that th s

e e z not e e e are
‘
p e r f ct e .
’

35 Inst ad f su pposing th angular v loci ty

. E x a m p le 4 . e o e e to

t b e u i for m l t us su pp os it t b a function f th d is t anc

o n , e e o e o e e r

fro m that a is d l t us in quir what f r m m ust b e assign d

x ,
an e e o e

to this function in ord r that a v locity p ot n t i l m y ist f th

- e e e a a ex or e

m oti n W fi d o . e n

d ?) du d o)
dy
’
doc dr

an that this m y vanish w m ust hav

d a e e ai r
”
a a const n t ,
Th a . e

e f
v locity at any p oint is i so that th e e quatio ( 9 ) b co m s n e e

13
p
i f we su ppos f si m plicity that no t rnal forc s act To
e ,
or ,
ex e e . fin d
th e v locity -
e p ot ntial d l t us intro d uc p olar -
or d inat
e s ,
e e co e r ,
9 .

By Ar t 2 7 .

dab
dr
v e l o cI t
y along r 0 ,

v e locity p rp e n dicular to e r

so that
d m9 const . u
,
. ar e

2
tan 2 + co n st .

hav e h r e an instanc
We am y or cy cli c func tion
e e o f an -
v a lu e d .

A function is sai d t b s i g le - v a l e d throughout y r gion f o e n u an e o

s pac wh it is possibl to assign to v ry p oint f that r gion

e en e e e o e a

d finit valu
e f th function in such a way that th s v l u s sh ll
e e o e ,
e e a e a

for m a c o ti S s ri s This is not th cas e with th functio

n n uou e e . e e n
30 I NT EG R AT I ON OF TH E EQUA T I ONS IN SP ECIA L C A S E S [C H A R . II .

in ( 1 9 ) f th valu f d th r giv n i f it vary continuously

or e e o e e e , ,

ch ng s by
a e as th p oint t which it r f rs d scribe s a co m pl t e o e e e e e

circuit round th origin wh r s si gl -valu d function woul d e ,

e ea a n e e

un d r th sam circu m st nc s r turn to its original valu ?

e e e a e e e

A function which lik th abov p ri nc s a finit ch ng f e e e ex e e e e a e o

valu wh n th p int to which it r f rs d scrib s a clos d curv

e e e o e e e e e e ,

r tur i g t th p oint wh nc it start d is sai d to b m any -valu d

e n n o e e e e ,
e e

or cyclic Th th ory f m any -valu d v locity-pot nti ls will b

. e e o e e e a e

discuss d in th n t chap t r
e e ex e .

36 E m p le 5
. A m ss f liqui d filling a right circular y
xa . a o c

lin de r m ove s from r st un de r th action f th forc s e e o e e

X = Ax + By , Y = B x + Cy ,
Z :
0,

th e a isx b i g that f th cyli n d r

of z e n o e e .

L t us assu m
e my w , 0 wh r is a function e it :
,
C as i t) ,
e e co

o f t only Th s v l u s satisfy th quation f c ntinuity d

. e e a e e e o o an

th e boundary con ditions Th dynam ical quations b co m . e e e e

dw l dp
w
2
x — Ax + B —
y dt
p
’
dx
d a) l dp
m wy -2 -—
B x l Cy
’ '
'

di d
p y

Di ffe r e ntiating th e first th s with r s p ct to y

o f e e e e ,
an d th e
s con d with r sp ct to
e e e x an d subtracting w li m inate p ,
e e ,
an d fin d

dw B —B
dl 2

Th e fluid th r for rotat s as whol about th a is f with

e e e e a e e x o z

un if r m ly incr asi g angular v locity c pt in th particular c s

o e n e ,
ex e e a e

d c)
wh n E B To fi d p w substitute th valu f df in ( 2 0)
e :
'
. n , e e e o

and int grat ; th s w g t

e e u e e

5 W(
« x
2
y
’
) A(Ax
’
2 Bwy of ) const .
»

wh e r e
'
B B .

37 . Ex a m p le 6 . L et X i i I }
,
Y f — Z = 0 ; th e oth r e

circu m stanc s r e e m aining th e .sam e a s i n th e p r c ding

e e ex a m pl e .
354 —37 ] R OT A T I N G F L UI D .
31

Assu m ing a my , 71 co x , w
'
0, wh re e a function o f
r Jx ’
+y
’

) an d t o nl y , we fin d

E li m inating p , we o btain
2 r

Th e solution o f this is
F a)
(1 ) —
?

wh e r F e an d f not arbitrary
de functions e . S i c
n e co 0 w h n
e t 0
we hav e

an d th r e e fo r e

F ( t) F ( 0) A .

2 2
r r

wh e r e A is a function f t which vanish s o e fo r t 0 . S ubstituti n g

in an d int grating w fi d e , e n

19
ar e tan g 53 7
3
+ x ( t) .

S inc
p ise ss e ntially a singl e -valu ed function w m ust hav e ,
e e

2;
7
n A , a tor H nc th flui d rotat e s w ith
. an ang l
e ar v locity
e e u e

which vari s inv rs ly as th squar f th distanc fro m th a is

e e e e e o e e e x ,

an d incr as s uni for m l y with th ti m

e e e e .
 C H APTE R I I I .

I R R O TATI ON AL M O TI ON .

38 . r s nt chapt r is de vot d m ainly t an position

TH E p e e e e o ex

of so m g n r l t h or m s r lating to th cl s f m otions lr a dy
e e e a e e e e as o a e

consi d r e d i Arts 2 2 — 2 7 ; i thos in which d + dy + wd

e n . v z . e u x v z

is an act di ff r ntial through out a finit m ss f flui d It is

ex e e e a o .

conv ni nt t b gin with th following analysis d to S tok s

e e o e e ,
ue e
*
,

o f th e m otion f flui d l m nt in th m ost g ne ral cas

o a e e e e e e .

Th com p on nt v lociti s at th
e e p oint ( y ) e b ing w e e x, ,
z e a ,
v , ,

thos at an infinit ly n e ar p oint ( X y Y

e e Z) x , ,
z ar e

da da da
U=u + m
a
d e ?
dv dc dc
” 4 + h +
a a; 3;

I f we writ e

e quations ( )
1 m a
y b e writt n e

—§ Y ,

rX — fZ ,

—n X .

Ca m b . Phi l . Tr a n s Vo l. . VI II 1 84 5 .
 38 ] A N A LY S I S OF M O TI ON OF AN E L E M ENT or F L UI D . 33

He nc th m tion Of a s m all l e m e nt having th p oint ( y ) f

e e o e e x, ,
z or

its c ntre m y b conc iv d m ad p f thre p rts

e a e e e as e u o e a .

Th first p art whos co m p on nts

e e w is a m otio f , e e ar u, v , , n o

t l ti o
r an s a f th l m nt as a whol n o e e e e e .

Th e s con d part p r ss d by t
eh e s con d thir d d four t h ,
ex e e e , , an

t r s on
m
e th -
right han d S i d f th quations e is a m otion such e o e e

that e v ry point on th e quadric

e

X bY 2f YZ + 2g ZX 2 h X Y = const
2 2
cZ
2
a .

is m oving in th e dir ctio o f th norm al to th surface I f w e n e e . e

r f r this quadric to its p rincipal a s th corr spon di g parts f

e e xe ,
e e n o

th e v lociti s p arall e l to th es e a s will b

e e xe e

U
’
X
'
Y W
’ ' ’ ’ ’
V b Z
' ’
a , ,
c

w h r e e a X
' ”
b Y
’ ’2
c
’
Z
”
const .

is what ( 3 ) b co m s by th transfor m tion Th form ul ( 4) pr ss

e e e a . e ae ex e

that th l ngth f v ry lin in th l m nt p r ll l to X is b ing

e e o e e e e e e e a a e e

e longat d t th rat ( p ositiv e n gativ ) whilst lin s parall l

a e e e or e e a
’

,
e e

to Y d Z e b ing si m ilarly longat d at th rat s b d

an
'
ar e e e e e
'
an c
'

r sp ctiv ly S uch a m otion is call d

e e e . fp e t i or di e on e o ur s r a n s

t ti
or Th p rincip al a e s o f ( 3 )
on . call d th a s f th stra i
e x are e e xe o e n

or distortion .

Th last tw t rm s on th right -
e han d sid f th quatio s ( 2 )
o e e e o e e n

ex
p r ss a e t ti f th l m nt as
r o aa w hol about an inston n o e e e e e a

t an e ou sa is ; th co m p on e t angular v e lociti s f th rotati n

x e n e o e o

b ing 5 n C
e , , .

It can b e sh e wn that th abov r solu t ion f th m otion i e e e o e s

uniqu I f we assu m e that th m otion r l t iv to th p oint (

e . e e a e e x ,

y ) , canz b m d p f a d istortion e d a rotation in w hich

a th e u o an e

a s d
xe ffi i t
an f th distortion
co e d th a is d angu lar
c en S
'

o e an e x an

v locity f th rotatio
e arbitrary th n calculating th r l tiv
o e n are ,
e e e a e

v l ociti s U — V v W —w w g t p r ssions si m il r to thos

e e u,
'
, ,
e e e x e a e

on th right-han d si d f
e but with arbitr ry v lu s f b e o a a e o a , , c,

f g , h E 7 g
, ,
E quating co,
ffi
7 ci nts,
f X Y Z ho
. w v r w fi d e e o , , ,
e e , e n

t hat b a& m ust h v th sam

, , c, valu s as b for H nc th
c . a e e e e e e . e e e

d ir ctions f th a s f distortio
e th rat s f
o t nsi n or e xe o n ,
e e o ex e o co n

t raction along th m d th a is d th angul r v loci ty f ro t a e ,

an e x an e a e o

3
34 I RR O TATI O NA L MO TI ON .
[C H AR 1 11 .

tion at any p m t o f th e flui d d p n d only on th e stat e f r lativ

,
o ,
e e o e e

m otion at that oint d t th e p osition o f th e a es f x o

p n o ,
an o n

r e f r nc
e e e .

W h throughout a finit p ortio f a flui d m w hav E

’

en e n o a ss e e ,

n ;
, 2 all ro th m otion
ze f any ,
l m nt ef that p ortion consists f o e e e o o

a translatio d a distortion o ly W f llow T h o m son in calling

n an n . e o

m otion in such cas s irrotational d t h at i all oth r

‘
th
’
e e , an n e

cas e s rotational
‘
.
’

39 . int gral
Th e valu oth r e of th e e or ,
e

+v — +w d
u tak e n alo g any lin AB CD is e, n e ,

"
call d th e flow o f th e flui d from A to D along that lin e W
e
‘ ’
. e

shall de not e it fo short ss by I (ABCD) r n e .

If A coinci d so that th e lin form s a clos d curv or

an d D e ,
e e e ,

cl r cu i t th v l u, f th int gral is c l l e d th e circulation in th t

e a e o e e a a

circuit W d not e it by I ( AB OA) I f in ith e r cas e th int

. e e . e e e

g r a ti b
on e tak e n in th e o pp osit e d ir e ctio th e si g n s o f
g &c n , ,
.
,

will b e r e ve rs e d so that w hav e ,

e

I ( AD) I ( DA) , an d I ( AB CA) I (ACE A) .

It is also plain that

I ( AB CD) ’
I ( AB) I (B C ) I ( CD) .

us calculat e th e circulation
L e t In an infinit ly sm al l circuit e

surroun ding th p oint ( y ) I f ( e x, ,

z . x X y+Y ,
Z) b e a p oin t ,
z

on th e circuit w hav by ,
e e ,

d + Vol 1 +
7
WdZ ==d ( UX + VY + W2 )
2 h X Y)

—Zd Y) + n ( Zd X XdZ) —Y dX) .

Th e first two lin s f this pr e ssion b ing e act diffe re nti al s f

e o ex ,
e x o
-
singl valu e d functions disapp a r wh n int grate d roun d th e cir
e , e e e

Th o m so n , On Vo rte x Mo ti o n . E di n . Tr a n s . Vo l . xxv .
, 1 86 9 .
3 8 — 40 ] C I R CU L ATI ON . 35

cuit . Again f( YdZ

is t wice th e ar e a f th e p roj ction f Zd Y) o e o

th circuit on th p lan y
e d th r for qual to 2 ldS wh r 18
e e z, a n e e e e , e e (

is th ar a f th circuit d I m th di r ction -cosin s f th

'

e e o e , an , , n e e e o e

nor m al to its plan e Th co ffici nts f ) d Q g iv in th . e e e o 7 an

“
e e

sam w y on in t gra t io 2 m ds d 2 dS r e sp ctiv ly He nc

e a ,
e n ,
an n , e e . e ,

finally th e circulation roun d th e circuit is

,

2 ( 15 é) d S
’

m 7; n

or, t wice th pro duct f th e ar a f th circuit into th co m pon nt

e o e o e e e

a g ular v locity f th fl id about th norm al to its plan

n e o e u e e .

We hav h re tacitly m a d th conv ntio that th e dir ction

e e e e e n e

of th nor m al to which l m
e r f r d th dir ctio in whic h , ,
n e e ,
an e e n

th circulation in th
e circuit is sti m at d r lat d i th sa m e e e ,
are e e n e e

m ann r as th d ir e ctions f a dvanc

e d rotation i a righ t-
e hande d o e an n

scr e w
40 finit s rf c m y b divi d d by a d o bl s ri s f
. An y e u a e a e e ,
u e e e o

straight lin s crossing it into an infinit e nu m b r f infinit ly s m all

e ,
e o e

e l m nts
e Th e m f th e circulations roun d th boun dari s f
. e su o e e o

th s l m nts tak n all i th sam s ns is qual to th i

e e e e e , e n e e e e ,
e e c r cu

lation roun d th e original boun dary f th surf c ( su pp os d f o e a e e or

th m o m nt to consist f a singl clos d curv )

e e F or i th m o e e e .
,
n e su

in qu e stion th flow alo g ach si d co m m o to t w e l e m e nts

, e n e e n o

com e s i t wic e once f e ach l e m nt but w ith opposite signs

n , or e e , ,

and th r for disapp ars fro m th e r sult

e e eTh r e r m in th n only e e . e e a e

th flow s al ong thos e si d s which

e e parts o f th e origi n al boun d e ar

ary ; wh e nce th e truth f th e abov stat m e nt o e e .

S e e Ma xwe ll , E l e ctr i c i ty an d M a g n e ti sm , Ar t 2 3 . .
36 I RR OTATI ONAL M O TI ON .
[ C HAR I I I .

E xp r e ssing this stat em e nt analytically w hav by e e ,

ff ( g
2 l -
M m ) + n §) dS = f( a dm + u dy

or substituting th valu s
,
e e of
’
’

g ,
77, gf ro m Ar t 3 8 .
,

f( a dm v dy w dz ) ( )2
7

wh r th d oubl -int gral is tak n ov r th surf c

e e e d th e e e e e a e ,
an e

singl -int gral long th boun ding curv

e e In th s for m ul
a e e . e e ae

q u titi s l m d ir ction c sin s f th

- nor m l
i

th e an th e , ,
n ar e e e o e o e a

d r w n l w ays
a si d f th surfac wh ich w m y t rm th
a on on e e o e e , e a e e

p si
o t iv si d ; t h d ir
e ction f int gr etion in th s con d m m b r
e e o e a e e e e

is th th at in which a m walking
e n th surf c th an on e a e ,
on e

p ositiv si d f it ed clos to th d
e g m usto p roc d as to
,
an e e e e ,
ee so

hav th surfac always his l ft han d

e e e on e .

Th th or m ( 6 ) or ( 7 ) m y vi d ntly b
e e t n d d to a sur f c
e a e e e e x e e a e

wh os boun dary c nsists f tw

e m or clos d curv s p rovi d d o o o or e e e ,
e

th int gr tion in th s con d m m b r b t k n r n d ach f

e e a e e e e e a e o u e o

th s in th p rop r dir ction accor di g t th rul just giv n

e e e e e ,
n o e e e .

Thus surfac -i t gr l in ( 6 ) t d ov r th sh d d por t ion

,
i f th e e n e a e x en e e a e

of th nn d figur th dir ctions in wh i h th circul tio s

e a e xe e ,
e e c e a n

in th s v r l p arts f th b un d ry
e e to b t k n
e ash wn by o e o a are e a e ar e e

th arrows th p ositiv si d f th surf c b i g that which

e ,
e e e o e a e e n

fac s th r a d r
e e e e .

Th valu f th surf c e -
e int gr l t k n ov r l e d sur f ce
e o e a e a a e e a c os a

is ro ze .

It shoul d b notic d th t ( 7 ) is a th or m f p ur m th e e a e e o e a e
40 S I MP LY -CONNEC TED SPAC ES . 37

is tru wha t v r f nctions

m a ti c s , a n d w m e e e u i t, v , a
y b e o f x,
y , z,

p rovi d d only th y b continuous

e ov r th sur fac e e e e e

I Tr o ta ti o n a l M o ti o n .

41 . r st f this chapt e r is d ot
Th e e o e v e d to th e stu dy o f i rr o ta
t io n l m otion as d fin d by th quations ‘
a ,
e e e e

7
) = 0,

Th e ist nc ex d th p rop e rti s f th e v locity -

e e p t
an ntial in th e e o e o e e

various c s s that m y aris e will app ar s cons qu e nc s f th s

a e a e a e e o e e

e quatio s n .

C onsi d ring any r gion occu pi d by irrotationally-

e m oving flui d e e ,

w e fro m ( 6 ) that th circul tion is

se e ro in v y c ircuit which e a ze e er

ca n b fill d p by a continuous surf c lying w holly in th

e e u a e ,
e

r gion
e i oth r wor ds cap abl
,
or f b e ing con t r ct d to a p oint
n e e o a e ,

with out p assing out f th r gion S uch a circuit i s sai d to b e o e e .

e van e scibl
’
e .

Again l t us consi d r two p aths A CB ADB conn cting two

,
e e , ,
e

p oints A B f th e r gion,
d such that e ith e r m y by con
o e ,
an a

ti variation b m ade t o coinci d with th oth r with ut v r

n uous e e e e ,
o e e

p ssinga out f t h r gion S uch p ths O call d m tuallye e . a are e u

il b l e S inc th circuit A CE DA is van scibl w have

’
re o c n c ea . e e e e e , e

I ( ACB DA) O or sinc I ( BDA) I ( ADB )

’
,
e ,

I ( A OB ) I ( AD B );
t e th e
. flow is th sam along any tw
. e i l b l p aths e o r e co n c ea e .

A r gion such that ll p aths j oining any tw p oints f it

e a o O ar e
‘
m utu lly il b l sai d to b si m p ly -conn ct d S uch a ’
a r e co n c ea e Is e e e .

r gio i that e nclos d with in a sph r or that inclu d d b t w

e n s e e e , e e ee n

tw conc ntric s ph r s
o e In what f llo ws as f as A t 5 3 w con e e . o , ar r .
, e

t e m plat only si m ply -conn ct d r gions

e e e e .

42 Th irrotational m otion f a flui d within a si m p ly-

. e con o

n ec et d r gion is charact ri d by th
e ist nc f a si gl -valu d e ze e ex e e o n e e

It i tn c y th t
s n o th i d i ff
e r n ti l fli
e s s ar i t h l d b a c nti n e r e e a co e c en s s ou e o u ou s .

Th th r tt t M S t P ’

( 7 i i b d b m w ll t k S i h i E i i m t m n a t on
'

e eo ey s a r u e ax e o o e s, s r ze xa

P p f 1 8 5 4 Th p f gi n b i d t Th n L
a ers or . e roo F th v e a ov e s ue o o m so , e . an te . or o er

p f
roo Th s, n d
se e T i t N l
o m so P h i l p h y A t
an 1 9 0 ( j) d M w
a ll ,
a tu r a o so , r .
, an ax e ,

E l e c tr i c i ty an d M a g n e ti s m , Ar t 2 4 . .
38 I RR T TI O A ONAL M OTI ON .
[ CHA R III .

v locity-
p
e ot e ntial L t 4 d not . e ; e e th e flow fro m so m e fi xe d p oint
A to a variabl p oint P i e ,
v z.

d ( dx udy wdz )
'
) u

Th e valu O f d h a s b e sh e wn to b i d p n d nt o f th path
e ) e n e n e e e e

a l o g which thn in t gration is ff ct d provi d d it l i wholly e e e e e , e e

e -
within t r gion H nce d is a singl valu d function f th
h e . e ; e e o e

p osition f P ; l t us Su pp os it o
e p r e ss d in t m s f th e e x e er o e co

ordinat s (w y ) f that p o i nt By displaci g P through an

e , ,
z o . n

i nfinit ly short s p ac p arall l to e ach f th e a e s f c o -

e ordinat s e e o x O e

in succ e ssion w fi d , e n

i e 4
. is a
. v locity
; -p ot ntial accor d ing
e to t h d fi nition o f A t 2 2 e ,
e e r . .

Th e substitution f y oth r p oint B f A th e low e r li m it o an e or ,

as

in si m ply a dds an arbitrary constant to th e valu f i th e o v z . e

fl w fro m B to A
o Th original d finition f gb in A t 2 2 . d its e e o r .
, an

p hysical int rp r e tation in A t 2 6 l av

e th e function in d t rm i at r .
,
e e e e n e

to th t t f an a dditiv constant
e ex e n o e .

f s -
A w e ollow th course o f any str a m lin e th valu f 95 con e e e e O

ti l ly incr a s ; h nc in a si m ply -
n ua conn e cte d r e gion th stre am
e se e e e

lin s ca ot form cl os d curv e s

e n n e .

unction I with which w hav h e r e to do is tog th e r

43 . Th e f () e e , e

w ith its first d i ff r e ntial co ffici nt by th e tur e O f th cas e e e e s, n a e ,

finit continuous d singl -v lu d at all p oints f th e r gi on

e , ,
an e a e o e

consi d r d I n th cas e f incom p r ssibl flui ds which w

e e . w e o e e , e n o

p roc d to consi d
ee r m or p articul ly 4 m ust lso s atis fy th e e ar , ) a e

equation o f co tinuity ( 5 ) o f A t 2 5 as we shall writ it f

n ,
r .
,
or e , or

shortn e ss ,

at e v ry point O f th e r e gion H e nc e qb is now subj e ct to m ath e

e .

m ti l con ditions i de ntical with thos satisfi e d by th p ot ntial f

a ca e e e o

m ass e s attracting or r p lling accor ding to th law f th inve rs e e e e o e

squar e f th e distanc at all p oints e t r al to such m s s ;

o e, x e n as e so

t h at m a y f th r e sults prov d i th th ori e s f Attractions

n o e e n e e o ,

S t tical E l ctricity 8 0 hav also a hy dro dyn a m i al app licatio

a e ,
5 e c n .
4 2— 4 5 ] T UB ES or FLOW . 30

We p roc e d to e de v e lope thos e which are m ost i m portant fro m this

p o int f vi w o e .

44 . roo f f ( 1 0) give n i A t 1 2 is bas d ss ntially on

Th e p o n r . e e e

th consi ration that sinc th e flui d is inco m pr ssibl

e de th total e e e e

volu m which e nt rs any l m e nt d dy d in unit ti m is ro To

e e e e x z e ze .

a pply th e sam princi pl to a finit e r gion occu pi d ntir ly by

e e e e e e

li q ui d l t dS b e an l m e nt f th e surf ce f th r gion d an
, e e e o a o e e , n

e l e m e nt f th e nor m al to i t dra wn inwar ds

o By A t 2 7 d i th e . r .
)
s
d n

inward v locity o f th fl ui d nor m al to th e surfac e a d th e r fore

e e ,
n e

is th e volu m e which i unit ti m e nt e rs th e r e gio across n e n

th l m nt d S H nc e
e e e e . e

dB 0

th e int gratio e t e n ding ove r th e whol e b ou n dary f th r e gio

e n x o e n .

E quations ( 1 0) d e
p r ssing t h e sa m e f ct m ust
an b e m ath e x e a ,

m tia l ly quival nt ; e Ar t 6 4
ca e e s e . .

Th e str am - lin s d rawn through th e various points o f

e e an

infinit si m al circuit constitut a tub which m y b call d a tub

e e e ,
a e e e

f fl w Th p ro duct f th e v locity ( 9) into th cross - s e ctio ( )

’
o o . e o e e n a

is th e sam at all p oints o f such a tub e

e .

We m y if we choos r e gar d th e whol e sp ac occu p i d by th e

a ,
e ,
e e

flui d as m ad p f tub s f flo w d su ppos th si e u of th e o ,

an e e ze o e

tub s so chos e that th e p ro duct g i s th e sam e f e ach Th

e n o or . e

valu e f th i o dS tak ov r a y s rfac e is th e

e en e n u n

ro
p p ortional to th e nu m b r f tub e s which cross that surfac e I f e O .

th surf c b clos d th
e a quation ( 1 1 ) pre ss s th fact th t as
e e e ,
e e ex e e a

m any t b e s cross th u surfac in wards as outwards He nc a e e . e

str e am -lin e cannot b e gin or e d at a p oint f th flui d n o e .

45 unction gb cannot b e a m a i m u m or m ini m u m at a

. Th e f x

p oint in th int rior O f th e fl ui d ; f

e if it w e r w shoul d
e hav or, e ,
e e

d f v e rywh e re os o t o v e or v e rywh e r e
dif
e
p g t e ov e r a s m all
,
i i , e n e a 1v
0

clos d surfac e surroun ding th e p oint in qu e stion E ach Of th e s e

e .

su ppositions is inconsist nt with e

40 I RR O TATI ONA L M OTI ON .
[CHA R III .

F urth e r a m i m m at a p oin t in th
,
th e
_
v e l o c i ty ca not n be ax u e

Int rior f th flui d F l t th a is f b t k n p r ll l t o th

e o e . or e e x o a: e a e a a e e

dir cti n f th
e v l city t any p int P Th q u tion
o o e e o a ,
o . e e a

an d th r for also th e q u tion

e is satisfi d i f w w rit
e e e a e e e

dd
if
)
f T
orh abov argu m nt th n sh w s that — c nn teb a e e e e
x
a o e

m a i m u m at P
x H nc th r m ust b so m p i t in th i m m . e e e e e e o n e e

d iat n igh bourhoo d f P f

e e which
if has a gr at r v lu d o or e e a e ,
an

th r for
e e e a
f or ti o r i , fo r which is gr at r e e

( Mv e locity f th flui d at so m e n ighbouring point

i e th e o e e
3
. .
,
5

is gr t r than that at I
ea e
”
.

O th e oth r han d th
n l i t m y b a m i i m m at so m
y e ,
e v e oc a e n u e

p oint f t h flui do In fact taki g any ecas f flui d m tion l t us

.
,
n e o o ,
e

i m pr ss on th whol m ss a v locity qual d o pposit to th at

e e e a e e an e

a t y p
anoint P f it In th r sulting m otion th v locity oat P . e e e e

will b e ro d th r f r a m ini m u m
e z ,
an e e o e .

46 us pply ( 1 1 ) to th boun dary f a finit sph e rical

. L e t a e o e

p ortion f th liqui d I f o d not th d istanc f e

y p oint fro m . 7 e e e e O an

th c ntr
e f th sph r d
e th
e l m ntary soli d ngl subt d d
o e e e ,
o: e e e e a e en e

at th e c ntr by an l m nt 18 f th surfac w hav

e e e e e ( o e e , e e

dd) d¢
dn dr

an d dS = r da
i
. Om i tti g th constant factor
n e r
”
, ( )
1 1 b e co m s e

7
4 :
f
fid w ; 01
'

47 e t
cd S , is th e m e an valu e of ()
I ov e r
th e surfac e of th e sph e r ( 1 2) sh ws that this m e an v lu is in d
e ,
e a e e

Th i s th e o r e m wa s t by P f M
se w ll q ti n i th M t
roh ti c l . ax e as a ues o n e a em a a

Tr i p o s , 1 8 7 3 . Th e ab o v e pr o o f i s t a ke n fr o m Ki r c h h o fl, Vo r l e su n g e n i i b e r M a th e m a
ti s c h e Phy i k s . M e ch a n i k, p 1 8 6 . . A n o th e r pr o o f i s g iv e nb e lo w, Ar t 6 4 . .
4 57 SPHE R I CAL BOUNDAR Y . 41

p ned nt f th ra
e dius It is th r f or th sa m f any sep h r . e e o e e e or e e ,

conc n t ric with th fo m r

e w hich can b m ad to coincid e r e on e ,
e e e

w ith it by gr d ual variation f th rad ius wi t hout v r p assinga o e ,

e e

ou t f th r gion occu p i d by th
o irrotation lly m oving li q ui d
e e e e a .

W m y th r for su pp os th s ph r contr ct d to a p oin t

e a e e d so e e e e e a e ,
an

obt in a si m pl p roof f th th or m first giv n by G auss in his

a e o e e e ,
e

m m oir e on th e th ory f Attractions that th m an valu f I

*
e o ,
e e e o ( )

ov r any sph rical surfac thr ughout th int rior f which ( 1 0)

e e e o e e o

is satisfi d is qual to its valu at th e c ntre

e ,
e e e .

Th th or m p rov d in A t 4 5 that f cannot b a m

e e e im u m ,
e r .
, c) e ax

or a m inim u m at a p oint in th e int e rior o f th flui d is an obvious e ,

cons qu nc f th abov e
e e e o e .

Ag in l t us su pp os that th r gion occu p i d by th i ta

'

a , e e e e e e r ro

ti l ly m oving flui d is p i ph
on a
‘
ti fif i e that it is li m it d i er r ac c
‘
. . e n

t l ly by
ern a m or e clos d surf c s d l t us apply ( 1 1 ) t o th
on e or e a e , an e e

sp c inclu d d b tw n
a e ( m or ) f th s int rnal
e bou d ri s e ee on e or e o e e e n a e ,

an d a S ph rical surf c co m p l t ly ncl sing it e d lying wholly a e e e e o an

in th flui d I f 4 M d not th total fl in war ds across th

e . 7r e e e ux e

int rn l boun dary f this Spac we fi d with th notation as

e a o e ,
n ,
e

b for
e e ,

£4 ( ZS )
:
4 7r M,
dr
th e sur fac int gral e e ex e t n ding ov r th e sph r only e e e . This m ay be
w rit t n e

1 d
( fidw
4 rr d?
' “

wh nc e e

1
¢ dS
4 7W
,
Er
That is th e m an ,
e valu f c] ov r any sph rical surfac draw
e o ; e e e n

un d r t abov m
h -
e e e e ntion d con ditions is qual to
e C wh r e ,
e e

'
r i th ra dius M
s e ,
an absolut co stant d 0 a quantity which is
e n , an

in d p n d nt f th
e e e o e radius but m y vary w ith th p osi tion f th a e o e

c ntr i
e e .

We r ke , t . 5 , p 1 99 . . At r a n sl a ti o n O f th e m e m o ir i s g i v e ni n Ta y l o r
’
s c
S i e n tific
M e m o i r s Vo l I I I , . .

1 S e e M a x we l l , E l e c tr i c i ty
"
an d M a g n e ti s m , At r s . 1 8 , 22 .

1 I t is un de r s t oo d, o f co ur se ,
t t
h a th e s p h e i rc l a sur fa ce s to whi h c th i ta t s s e me nt
42 I R R T TI O A ONAL M OTI ON .
[CHAP . . III .

how v e r th or ginal r gion throughout which th e i t

If e e i e rro a

ti l m otion hol ds b e unli m it d e t rnally

on a d i f th first ( d e x e ,
an e an

th re for all th high r) d rivativ s o f 1 vanish at infinity th n C

e e e e e e <) ,
e

is th sam f a l l sph rical S urfac s nclosing th whol o f th e

e e or e e e e e

int r al bou d ri s F or i f such a Sph e r e b displac d p arall l

e n n a e . e e e

to without alt ration f si th rat at which 0 vari i

x
*
,
e o ze ,
e e es n

cons qu nc f this displac m nt is by

e e e o qual to th m e an e e ,
e e

dl <> 14 ( >
valu e f ov r th surfac e S inc e d vanish s at infinity we
o e e . e ,

,can by taki g t h s p h r larg e e g h m

n ak th e latt e r m ean valu e e e n ou e e

as sm all as w pl as H c e C is not al t r d by a displac m nt e e e . en e e e e

o f th c ntr o f th s p h r p arall l to
e e eIn th sam way we e e e e a) . e e

s ee that C is t lt re d by a displac m e nt para ll l to y or

'
n o a e e e .
z

i 6 it is absolut ly const nt
. . e a .

I f th e int rnal boun d ri s b e such that th e total fl e acro s a e ux s

th e m is ro i f th y b th e sur fac s f soli ds or f portions

ze , e e e o ,
o

o f inco m pr ssibl flui d w hos m otion is rotational w hav M

e e 0 e , e e ,

so that th m n v lu o f I ov r a y sph rical surfac e e nclo ing

e ea a e ( ; e n e s

th m all is th e sam
e e .

47 ( ) I f 4 b e .constant ovar t h boun d ary f any si m p)ly e e o

conn ct d r e gion o cu pi e d by li q ui d m oving irrotationally it has

e e c ,

th sam constant valu throughout th in t rior f that r gion

e e e e e o e .

F if ort consta t it w oul d n c ssarily hav e a m a i m u m or a m ini

n o n e e x

m m valu u t so m p oint f t h r gion

e a e o e e .

O th r wis w hav s e e n in Arts 4 2 4 4 that th str m -

e e : e lin s e .
, e ea e

cannot b gin or d at any point f th r gion d that th y

e en o e e ,
an e

cannot form clos d curve s lying wholly w ithin it Th y m ust e . e

th r for trav rs th r gion b ginning d n ding on its boun d

e e e e e e e , e an e

ary In . cas this is how v r i m p ossibl f a str a m -lin

our e e e e ,
or e e

al ways pr ds fro m pl c s wh r f i l ss to p lac s wh r it is

oce e a e e e ( ) s e e e e

gr at r wh r as f is by hyp oth sis cons tant ov r th e boun dary

e e ,
e e I) ,
e , e .

H nc e th r can b e no m otion i e
e e e , . .

d <l> _
—0 0)
{Ell ,

an d th e re for e
gb is co sta t n n an d e qual to its valu at th e bou dary e n .

a p pli e s ar e
‘r e co n c il e a b le ’
(in a se n se an a l o g o u s to th a t of Ar t 41 ) wi th
. on e

a n th r o e .

Thi s s ept is ta ke n f r om Ki rch h o ff , Vo r le s u n g e n li b e r M a th . P hy i k s . M e c ha n i k,

p 1 9 1 . .
4 6— 43 ] S TR EA M-
L I NES . 43

dd)
(6 ) Again i f
ro at e v ry point o f th boundary f
, be ze e e o

such a r gion as is abov d scrib d 1 will b constant throughout

e e e e , <; e

d ab
th int rior
e F or th e e di ti = o e p r e ss e s that no str am
. co n on x e
d
’
n

lin s nt r l av th r e gion b t th t th e y
e e e or all contain d
e e e ,
u a ar e e

w ithin it This is how v r as w hav s e n inconsist nt with

. e e , e e e , e

th oth r con ditions which th str m -lin s m ust con fo m to

e e e ea e r .

H nc e b for th r
e , b e no m otion
as e d <1 is constant
e ,
e e ca n ,
an ) .

This th or e m m y b oth rwis stat d as follows no i t

e a e e e e : rro a

ti l m otion f a liqui d can tak e pl ac e throughout a S i m p ly

on a o

conn e ct d r gion boun d d ntir ly by fi e d rigi d wall s

e e e e e x .

(7 ) A gain l t th bou d ary f th e r g ion consi d r d consist

,
e e n o e e e

p artly f sur fac s S ovo r which b

g has a giv n co set ant valu d e e n e ,
an

54 ( >
p artly o f oth r sur fac e s 2 ov r which d
0e B y t h e p r vious e
n
. e

argu m e nt no str e am -li n s can p ass fro m o point to noth r f S

,
e n e a e o ,

an d non can cross 2 H e nc no str e a

e m -
lin s ist ; th r . e e ex e e

for co stant as b for

e n d qual to its valu at S e e ,
an e e .

48 . R e c a lling th e dyna m ical

int e rpr tation f 4 giv n in A t e o ) e r .

26 w ,
e th t th first th or m o f A t 4 7 ass rts that a uniform
e s e a e e e r . e

Im p ulsiv p r ssur e app li d to th e b ou dary f a liqui d m ss p

e e e n o a ro

d uc s no m otion
e This is oth e r wis e obvious . .

A non - uni form im pulsiv p r ssur appli e d to th bo n dary o f e e e e u

th e m ass will o f cours e g e n e rat so m e d e finit e m otion F ur th r e . e ,

it app ars highly p r obabl e that this m otio will b e e v rywh e r

e n e e

finit d conti uous throughout th m ass ; altho gh i f this b e

e an n e u

th cas right p to th bou dary it i s n e c e ssary that th e

e e u e n ,

gi n surfac -valu f th i m p ulsiv p r ssur shoul d b continuous

v e e e o e e e e e ,

an d Shoul d also hav its rat f variation fro m p oint to po int f e e o o

th boun dary e v rywh r finit e

e d continuous We a e thus l d
e e e an . r e

to th e following analytical th or m : e e

( ) Th e r eae ists a singl e -

v al u d f unction t which satisfi s th
x e e c e

e q uation V 36 0 at v ry p oint f a fini t r gion f sp ac which

2
e e o e e o e,

is with its first d rivativ s finit a d continuous thro ghout that e e e n u

r gion d which h a giv n arbitrary v lu e at e v ry p oint f

e ,
an as e a e o

th boun dary
e I f th finit n e ss d continuity f g! hol d p to th
. e e an o ) u e
44 I RR O TATI ONA L M O TI ON .
[ CHA R III .

boun dary th arbitrarily giv n surf c -valu m ust w ith its rate
,
e e a e e ,

of variation from p oint t o p oint h finit d continuous , e e an .

Again l t us consi d r a m ass f liqui d initi lly at r e st

,
e d e o a an

env lop d by a p rf c t ly sm ooth fle ibl m m br n which it just

e e e e x e e a e

fills ; d l t us supp os th at v ry p oint f th m m bra is

an e e e e o e e n e
’

d sb
su dde ly m ov d with a giv n orm al v l i ty d which m ust f
n e e n e oc , O

c ours satisfy th con dition

e dS = O wh r th int gration e , e e e e

t n ds ov r th whol m m bran S inc som d finit m otion f

ex e e e e e e . e e e e o

th m ass m ust nsu

e w l d th sa m kin d f vi d nc e as e e , e ar e e ,
on e e o e e

b for t th following analy tical th or m

e e ,
o e e e

( )
6 Th r ists a singl -valu e d f ction 1ewhich satisfi
e s ex e un <) e

th qu tion V 95 O at v ry p oint f a giv n r gion wh ich is with

e e a
2
e e o e e ,

i t first d rivativ s finit e

s d continuous throughout that r gion
e d e an e ,
an

d! c)
w hich h at e v e y p oint o f th boun dary its rat e f variation
as r e o

i th e dir e ction f th
n or m l qual to a giv n arbitrary valu e o e n a e e ,

subj ct to th con dition

e S 0 I f th e finit n ss
e d con . e e an

ti i ty f 1
n u d its d rivativ s hol d right p to th e boun dary th
o <) an e e u ,
e

dl <>
give n surface -valu e s o f m ust b continuous S e A t 8 4 e . e r . .

( y) astly' co m bining th t w L
o m o d s f g n sis f m otion
,
e e o e e o

d scrib d abov w
e l d to nunciat th th or m th at a sin g l
e e ,
e ar e e e e e e e e

valu d function 4 ists which s tisfi s V 4 O at all p oints f a

e ) ex a e
2
3 o

g i v n r gion which is with i t first d rivativ s finit d continuous

e e , s e e e an

t h roughout th r gion d which has a giv n arbitrary v lu ov r e e ,

an e a e e

on e p art f th boun dary d giv s an assign d arbitrary valu e f

o e an e e o

if: ov r th r e st o f th boun dary

e e e .

hysical consi d rations a dduc d i su pp ort f th abov

49 . Th e p e e n o e e

th or m s d
e to Tho m son
e Th th or m ( ) w are originally ue
*
e e e a as
-
.

stat d by Gr n l d b s d by h i m
e l ctrical consi d r tions
ee ,
an a e on e e e a .

A analytical proo f couch d how v r in th languag

n f th ,
e e e e e o e

R ep r i n t f
o Pp a ers on d M a g n e ti s m , Ar i l e
E l e c tr o s ta ti cs an tc xxv m .

TAn e ss a y o n E l e ptr i c i ty a n d M a g n e ti s m 5 .
48 TH E VE LOC I TY -
PO TEN TI AL DE TE RM I NATE . 45

t h e ory Attractions
was first giv n by Gauss ( l o A t
of ,
e . r .

Anoth r m e tho d f p roo f p ur ly analytical in for m

e d applicabl o , e ,
an e

t o th or m s d ( y)
e e
"
w ll was giv n by Tho m son in 1 8 4 8 an r as e e .
,

AS this m th d is not fr fro m d i fficulty it is not r p ro duc d

e o ee ,
e e

h r It is how v r p rf ctly asy to sh w an lytic lly that i

e e . e e e e e e a a n

th r m s ( ) d ( y ) f A t 4 8 4 is com pl t ly d t r m inat i e
eo e a an o r . ) e e e e e , . .

that th r is only o function satisfying th con dition stat d

e e n e e s e ,

d that in ( B) j is d t r m inat sav as to an a dditiv con tant

.

an () e e e e e s .

In th first plac if T 95 qb & b v locity p ot n tials f

e - e » c . e e e o
, o 2

p ossibl stat s o f m otio throughout

e any giv r egion th n n en e ,
e

( ) f A1 ¢ 1 A2 ¢ 2 Aa‘
fs
’ &c"

w h r A A A 8 e e any co st nts is th v loci ty-p ot ntial

,, 2, S,
50 . are n a ,
e e e

o f a p ossi b l s t at f m o t ion ( throughout th e r gion ) This

e e o e .

f llows fro m th lin arity f

o e e o

N w i f p ossibl l t th r e b
o ,
tw singl -valu d functions e , e e e o e e

gb l
ach,
satis fying th coed itions o f ( ) with r s p ct to any e n a e e

r gion Th n a qb satisfi s ( 1 0) throughout th is r gi o

e . e d is, ,
e e n an

ze ro at v ry p oint f th boun dary It is th r for by A t 4 7

e e o e . e e e ,
r .
,

ze ro throughout ; i e i d ntical . .
,
are e .

Again i f it b p ossibl l t 7 a b e tw singl e -

, valu d functionse e ,
e 3
1 , )
,
o e

e ach satis fying th con ditio s f w ith r s p ct to any r gion e n o e e e .

Th n esatisfi s ( 1 0) throughout this r gion d m ak e s e e ,

an

all ov r th e boun dary H nc e by A t 4 7 w e hav

e . e r . e

constant throughout th r gion ; d th r for th m otion which e e an e e e e ,

is d t rm in d by th de rivativ s f is th e sa m in ach cas

e e e e e o e e e .

L astly i f b e two S i gl -
valu d functions satisfying th e
,
n e e

con ditions f ( y ) it is s n in th sa m e w y that we m ust hav e

o , ee e a

class f cas s f gr at i m portanc but not strictly i

50 . A o e o e e ,
n

clu d d in th scop f th for going th or m s

e thos wh r th
e e o e e e e ,
are e e e e

r gion occupi d by th liqui d t n ds to infinity but is boun d d

e e e ex e , e

in t rn lly by e m or
a clos d surfac e s W assu m f th on e or e e . e e ,
or e

S R p i A ti cl ee Al Th n d T it N e l Ph i l
r n t,p hy r e xI I I . so o m so an a , a tu r a o so ,

App di A ( d ) Th i th d i ft n tt i b t d b y G n wri t t D i i ch l t
en x . s m e o s o e a r u e erm a ers o r e .
46 I R R T TI O A ONAL M O TI ON .
[CHAR I II .

p r s
ee nt that this r gio
, is si m p ly - co nn e ct e d a d that 1 i
e s th r e n ,
n <; e

for e S ingl - v lu e d e a .

I f 95 b constant ov r th int r al boun dary f th e r gion

e d e e e n o e ,
an

t n d v rywh r to th s m const nt valu at an infinite dist nce

e e e e e e a e a e a

fro m th int rn l boun dary it is constant through out th e r gio

e e a ,
e n .

F or oth rwis gt woul d b e -m a i m u m o a m ini m u m at so m

e e a x r e

p oint f t h r giono e e .

W in f r actly as i A t 4 9 th t i f f b e giv n arbitrarily

e e ,
ex n r .
,
a c; e

ov r th i t rnal boun dary d ha a giv n co s tant valu e at

e e n e ,
an v e e n

infinity its valu is v ry wh r d t rm inat

, e e e e e e e e .

O f m or i m p ort nc in p r es t subj ct is t h th or
a m that e our e e n e e e e

i f th nor m al v locity
e
M b e ro at v ry oi t f th int rnal (
e
75 p e
1
z e e n o e e

boundary d i f th flui d b t r st t infinity th n 4 is v ry

,
an e e a e a , e ) e e

wh r const t W c nnot h w v r in f r this t nc fro m th

e e an . e a o e e e a o e e

p roo f f th c rr
o s p on d ing th or
e m in A ot 4 7 Ite is tr t h t w e e r . . u e a e

m y su ppos
a th r gion li m it d t rn lly by
e e infinit ly larg
e e e x e a an e e

surf c at v ry point f which 3

a e e
35 is in
e finit ly s m all ; but it is O e

conc ivable that th int gral

e tak n ov r a p ortion f this e e e e o

surf c m ight b finit in whi h c s th inv stigation r f rr d to

a e e e ,
c a e e e e e e

w oul d f il W p roc d th r for so m what in dir ctly

a . e follows ee ,
e e e ,
e e ,
as .

51 S inc th v locity t n ds to th li m it
. e ro at an infinit e e e e ze e

d istanc fro m th int rn l boun dary ( S say ) it m ust b p ossibl

e e e a , , e e

to draw a clos d surfac 2 co m p l t ly nclosi g S b yon d which

e e ,
e e e n ,
e

th v locity is v rywh r l ss than

e e c r t ain s m a l l valu which
e e e e e a e e e,

valu m y by m aking 2 larg nough b e m ad as s m all as w e

e a ,
e e ,
e

p l as
e N w ein any
. d ir ction fr m S ol t us tak a p oint P at such e o e e

a distanc b yon d 2 that th s li d angl w hich 2 subt n ds at i t i

e e e o e e s

infinit ly s m all ; d w ith P c ntr d scrib tw sph r s

e an as e e e e o e e , on e

just clu ding th oth r just inclu ding S W sh ll prov that

ex , e e . e a e

th em a valu f 4 ov r ach f th e s Sph r s is within an

e n e o ) e e o e e e ,

infinite ly s m all am ount th sam Q h po i ts f

’
F if Q ,
e e . or ,
e n o

th s sph r s a co m m o radius P Q Q th e n i f Q Q f l l within

e e e e on n
'

, ,
’

2 th e corr sp on ding valu s f 4 m y d i ff r by a finit a m ount ;

e e o ) a e e

but sinc th p ortion f ith r sph rical surface which falls w ithin
e e o e e e

2 i s an i n fi nit ly s m all fra ctio o f th e whol e no fi n it e di ffe re nc e

e n ,
50 F I N I TE -
S TR EAM L I N ES IM POSS I BL E . 47

in th m an valu s e arise fro m this caus O th oth r hand

e e ca n e . n e e ,

w h n Q Q fal l w ithout 2 th corr sp onding alu s f d ca n t

’
e , ,
e e v e o ; n o

diff r by so m uch as
e QQ f is by d finition a su pe rior li m i t e .
'

,
or e e

to th r t f vari tion f
e a e H nc o th e m an valu s f 4 ov r
a o e e , e e o ; e

th tw s p h ric l sur fac s m ust di fl by l ss than Q Q S ince '

'
e o e a e er e 6 .

QQ is finit
’
e w h ilst m y by taking , 2 l rg nough b m ad as e a a e e e e

s m all as w p l as th e d i ff r nc e f t h m e n valu s m e by e e
e e
y ,
o e a e a ,

taking P su ffici ntly distant b m ad infinit ly sm ll e ,

e e e a .

N w w hav s n i A t 4 6 that th m an valu e f gb ov r

o e e ee n r . e e o e

th inn r sph r is qual to its v l u at P d that th m a

e e e e e
‘

a e ,
an e e n

v lu ov r th oute r sph r is ( si c M 0) qual to a constan t

a e e e e e n e e

quantity 0 H nc ulti m t ly th val u e f 4 at infi ity te n ds

. e e ,
a e , e o ) n

e v ry wh r to th constant valu 0
e e e e e .

Th sam r sult holds e v n i f th nor m al v locity f b e not

e e e
i}: e e e

ze ro ov r th int rnal boun dary ; f in th th or m f A t 4 6

e e e or e e e o r .

M is divi d d by r w hich is in our cas e infinite ,

e .

52 Th t h or m st t d at th
. e d f A t 50 is now obvious
e e a e e en o r . .

F or un d r th con ditions th r e stat d

, e e str am -lin s can b gi n e e ,
n o e e e

or d th int rn l boun dary H nc any str am -lin e s which

en on e e a . e e ,
e

e xist m ust co m e fro m an infinit distanc trav rs th r gion d e e ,

e e e e ,
an

p ass ff g in to O infinity ; i
a 6 th
a y p r for m infinit ly long cours s . . e e e e

b tw n plac s wh r d has w ithin infinit ly s m ll m ount th

e ee e e e ) ,
an e a a , e

sam v lu 0 w hich is i m possibl H nc e no stre am -

e a e ,
li s ist e . e n e ex ,

or in oth r words th r is n m otion e e e o .

W d riv e actly as in A t 4 9 th e i m portant th e ore m that

e e ,
e x r .
,

if —
f Z
b giv at e v ry p oint
e f th int e rnal boun dary
en d if th e o e , an e

ve locity b e ro at infinity th e m otion is e v rywh e re de te rm inate

ze ,
e .

53 B for d iscussing th p rop rti e s f irrotation l m otion i

. e e e e o a n

m ulti ply -conn ct d r gions w e m ust am in m or in d tail the e e ex e e e e

natur d classification f such r gions In th followi g synopsis

e an o e . e n

o f this branch f th g o m e try f p ositio w r capit ulate f th e o e e o n e e or

sak e f com pl t n ss o or tw d finitions alr ady gi v n

e e e on e o e e e .

On M u lti ply-
Co n
'
n e cte d R e gi o n s .

We consid r any conn ct d r gion f Spac nclose d by boun d

e e e e o e ,
e

ari s e . A r gion is conn e ct e d wh e n it is p ossibl to p ass fro m

‘
e
’
e
48 I R R T TI O A ONAL M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

any p oint
on e f it t any oth r by an infinity o f p aths ac h f o e o , e o

w hic h li s wh olly in th r gi n e e e o .

A y tw such p th s
n
y two circuits w hich can by continu
a ,
or an o ,

ous variation b m ad to coinci d without v r p assing t f th e e e e e ou o e

r gi n
e o sai d to b m utually
,
ar e il b l A y circuit which e r e co n c ea e .
’
n

ca n b contr ct d to a p oint w ithout p ssin g

e a e t f th r gi n is a ou o e e o

said to b van scibl eTw e il b l p th s co m bin d f r m

e e .
’
o r e co n c ea e a ,
e ,
o

an van scibl circuit I f tw p th s tw circuits b r concil

e e e . o a or o e e e

abl i t m ust b p ossibl to conn ct th m by a continuous surf c

e ,
e e e e a e ,

w h ich li s wholly w ith in th e r gion d f which th y form th e e , an o e e

co m pl e t boun dary ; d conv rs ly

e an e e .

It is furth r conv ni nt to d istinguish b twe n si m pl e

‘
d e e e e e
’
an
‘
m ulti l e - van scibl circuits
’
n on A ‘
m ulti pl
e circuit is e e e
’

p . on e

w hich can b y variation b m ad to pp r in wh l or

’

ti co n n u ous e e a ea , o e

in part as th r p tition f anoth r circ it a c rtain nu m b r f

,
e e e o e u e e o

ti m s A si m pl e circuit is
e .
‘
w i t h w hich this is t p ossibl
’
on e n o e .

Th r is o distinctio b tw
e e n si m pl d m ultip l van scibl n e een e an e e e e

circuits .

A b rri r
‘ ‘
diaphragm is a surfac drawn cross th
’ ’
a e , or , e a e

r gion d lim it d by th li n
e ,
an lin s in which it m t s th e e e or e e e e

boun dary H nc a barri r is n c ss ril y a conn c t d surfac

. e e d e e e a e e e ,
an

cannot consist f two m or d tach d p ortions o or e e e .

A si m ply -conn ct d r e gion is e such th t all

p aths ejoining e on a

any two p oints o f it o i l b le such that ll circuits ar e re c n c ea ,

or a

draw withi it n van scibl n are e e e .

A ‘
d oubly -conn ct d r gion is such that tw i e il b l e
’
e on e o r r e co n c ea e

p aths d,
no m or
an can b d r w n b t w n y tw p ints
e ,A B f e a e e e an o o , o

it ; i any oth r p th joining AB is

v z . i l b l w ith
e a f r e co n c ea e on e o

th s or w ith a com bination f th two t k

e e ,
ch c rtain o e a en ea a e

nu m b r f tim s In oth er words th r gion is such that

e o e .
, e e on e

si l -van scibl circuit can b d r w n in it w hilst all oth r

( m p ) e n on e e e e a , e

circuits ith r are il b l w it h this ( r p at d i f n c ssary )

e e r e co n c ea e e e e ,
e e ,

Or ar evan scibl e A an a m pe l f a d oubly -conn e ct

. d r gion S ex e o e e e

w m y t ak t
e a h e -
t nclos by an anchor r ng that t rn l to
d a e e i ,
or ex e a

such a ring d t ding to infinity an ex en .

G n rally a r gion such that

e e i
,
i l b l p aths e d n r r e co n c ea e , an n o

m or can b draw n b tw n any tw p ints f it such th t

e ,
e 1 e ee o o o ,
or a n
53 M U LTI P L Y -
CONNEC TED SPACES . 49

( sim l
p ) i i l
e b l - van scibl circuits
r r e co n c d no m or can
ea e n on e e e ,
an e ,

‘ - -
b dra w n in it is sai d to b l conn ct d
’
e e e
py ,
n e .

Th shad d p ortion f F ig 3 A t 4 0 is tri ply -

e e conn e cte d spac o .
,
r .
,
a e

o f tw d i m nsions o e .

It is sh wn in ot ( B) that th abov d fini t io f an -ply

e n e e e e n o n

conn e ct d spac is s l f-consist nt In such si m pl e cas s as

e e 2 e e . e n ,

n 3 th is is su ffici e ntly obvious without d m onstr tion

, e a .

us su ppos now that w hav an -

54 . L e t l
p y
- conn ct d e , ,
e e n e e

r gion wi t h
e 1 S i m pl
,
in d p n d nt non -van scibl circuits
n e e e e e e e

d raw n in it It is p ossibl to draw a barri r m ting y O

. f e e ee an n e o

th s circuits in
e e
p oint only d not m ti g any
on e f th e 2 ,
an ee n o n

r m aini g circuits
e A b rri r d raw n in thi s m ann r do s not d
n
*
. a e e e e

str y th continuity f th r gi on f th int rru p t d circuit r m ains

o e o e e ,
or e e e e

as a path l adi g roun d fro m e S i de f th barri r to th o t h r

n on e o e e e e .

Th orde r f c nn ction f th r gion is how v r r duc d by u ity

e o o e o e e e e e e n

f v ry circuit draw n in th m o difi d r gion m ust b

or e e il b le e e e e r e co n c ea

with m or e
on e f th n 2 circuits
or t m t by th barri r
o e n o e e e .

A s con d barri e r draw in th sam m ann r will r e d uc th

e ,
n e e e ,
e e

o rd r f conn ction ag in by
e o d e ; that by d awi g a on e ,
an SO on so r n

n 1 barri e rs w e can r d uc th r egion to a si m ply - conn e ct d o e e e e n e .

A si m ply -conn e ct d r e gion is di vi d d by a barri r i nto two e e e

s parate parts ; f oth rw is it woul d b possibl to pass fro m a

e or e e e e

p oint on e si d e th barri r
onto an a djac e nt p oint th othe r si d e on e e e

by a path lyi g who lly w ithin th r gion which path w ould in th

n e e ,
e

original r gion form a -e van scibl e circuit

e n on e .

H nc in an -
e l
p y
- conn ect d r gion it is p ossibl
n to d ra w 1 e e e e 77.

barri rs d no m or without d stroying th continuity f th

e ,
an e , e e o e

r gi on W m ight i f w h d so ch os n hav t k n this p rope r ty

e . e , e a e ,
e a e

as th d finition f an -ply-conn ct d sp c W l v it
e e o n e e a e . e ea e as an

e xercis f th stu d nt to p rov that this d finition is fr fro m

e or e e e e ee

am big ity d that it is quival nt to th form r

u , an e e e e on e .

I r r o ta ti o n a l M o ti o n i n M u ltip ly co n n e cte d Sp a ce s .

55 . Th e circulat on isam in any tw IS th e e o r e co n c cir il e a b l e

cuits AB CA ,
AB
' '
C A d rawn in a r gion occu pi
’ ’
e e d by flui d m oving

In si m pl e c a se s th i i b i F g n r l pr
s s o v ous . or a e e a oo f n t ( B)
se e o e .

4
50 I RR O TATI ONA L M O TI ON .
[ CHA R III .

irrotatio ally F th e two circuits m y b conn ct d by a con

n . or a e e e

ti s sur f c e lying wholly withi

n u ou th r gion ; d i f w pply
a n e e an e a

th th or m
e f A t 4 0 to t h is surfac w h v r m m b ring th
e e o r . e ,
e a e ,
e e e e

rul as to th dir ction o f int gration roun d th boun dary

e e e e e ,

A A A
’
I ( B O ) I ( o,

I ( AB OA) I

If a circuit AB OA b
wi t h two m or circuits '
e r e c o n c il e a b l e or e

& co m bin d w conn ct ll th s cir c .

, e ,
e ca n e a e e

cuits by a continuous surf c wh ich li s wh olly w ith in th r gion a e e e e ,

and o f which th y form th co m pl t boun d ry H nc e e e e a . e e

"
I ( AB CA)
’
I I (A c a n ) &c . o,

I ( AB CA)
’
I I &c .

t e
. . th e circulation in any circuit is qual to th s m f th cir e e u o e

c u l a ti o n s in th s ve ral m m b rs f any t f circuits with which

e e e e o se o

it is r e co n ci l e a b le .

Lord r f con ctio n f th r gion b e + 1

e t th e eth t o n e o e e n ,
SO a n

n e m e -
i d p n d nt si pl non van scibl circuits e be e e e e a a m a ca n
” ,, n

d rawn in it ; d l e t th circulations in th s b “ an r s p ct e e e e re x
2 ,
to
” ,
e e

i v ly
e Th S ign f any
. will f cours e d p n d
e th dir ction f o 1c o e e on e e o

int gration roun d th corr sp on ding circuit ; l t th e dir ction in

e e e e e

w hich is sti m t d b call d th p o sitiv dir ction in th circuit

R: e a e e e e e e e .

Th valu e f th c i rculation in any oth r circuit can

e o w b e f un d e n o e o

at onc F th giv n circuit is n c ss rily

e . or i l b l with e e e e a r e co n c ea e

som e com bin a tion f th circuits ; y with t k n p o e a

l , a
, , m a
n
sa a
1
a e
l

t im s tak p ti m s d
e , a
2
wh r f cours e any p i
en
2
ga e an so o n , e e o s n e

tiv wh n th corr spon di g circuit is t k n in th

e e e gativ e n a e e n e e

dir ction e Th r quir d circulatio th n is

. e e e n e

pa le
1
+ p pc2 pu re
"

ince any two paths joining tw p oints A B f th r gion

S o ,
o e e

tog e th r form a circuit it follow s that th valu s f th flow in

e ,
e e o e

th tw p aths di ff r by a quantity f th
e o form wh r f e o e e e, o

cours in particular cas s so m

e ,
all f th p m y b ro e e or o e
’
s a e ze .
55 CYC L I C CONS TAN TS . 51

56 . L e t 45 b e th e flo w f ro m a fi xe d p oint A to a vari bl e point a

P, v iz .

4 : ( u dr My u de )

So long as th path f int gration fro m A to P is not sp cifi d 1 e o e e e ,

( )

is ind t r m inat to th e e t nt f a q uantity f th form

e e e x e o o e

I f ho w v r barri rs b dra wn in th m ann r e pl in d i

e e 71. e e e e x a e n

A t 54
r .
,
so -
to r duc th r gi to a S i m ply conn ct d
as e e e e on e e on e ,

an d i f th p ath f int gra t io n i ( )

1e5 b r strict d to li w i t hio e n e e e e n

th er gio as thus m o difi d ( i it is not to cross y f th e

e n e . a . an o

barri rs) th n qt b co m s a singl -v lu d function as in A t 4 2

e , e e e e a e ,
r . .

It is conti nuous throughout th m o difi d r gion but its valu s e e e ,

e

at two adj c nt p oints on opp osit si d s f a barri r d iff r by

a e e e o e e

i 1c.To d riv th valu f qS wh n th int gration is t k n along

e e e e o e e e a e

any path in th un m o difi d r gion w m ust dd th quantity e e e e a e

w h r any p d not s th u m b r f ti m s this p ath cross s

e e e e e n e o e e

th corr s p on ding barri r

e A crossing in th p ositiv di r ction f
e e . e e e o

th ecircuits int rru pt d by th barri r is h r count e d as p osi tiv

e e e e e e e ,

a crossing i th opposit e dir ction as n gative n e e e .

By dis pl aci g P through an infinit ly short sp ac e p arall l to

n e e

e ach f th e c -or dinat a s in succ ssion w fi d

o o e xe e ,
e n

d d) q
doc

so that t satisfi e s th de finition f a v locity-p ot ntial A t 2 2

c e o e e ,
r . .

It is w how e v r a m any— alu d

n o cyclic function ; i a it is e v e or . .

not p ossibl to assign to v ry p oint f th e original r gio a de

e e e o e n

finit valu f qb such valu s form ing a conti uous syst m O

e e o ,
e n e . n

th contrary wh
e P d scrib s in th r gion a non -
, e van scibl en ev er e e e e e e

circuit 96 will not i g n ral r turn to its origin l v lu but

, , n e e ,
e a a e ,

will diff r fro m it by a q antity f th form

e Th q u ntiti s u o e e a e

"u
call d by Tho m son th cyclic constants f
ar e e e
’
o

r going th ory is illustr t d by E 4 A t 3 5

57 . Th e fo e e a e x .
,
r . .

Th e form ul th r giv n m ak th e v loci ty infinit at p oi ts

ae e e e e e e n on

th a is f
e which m ust th e r for b
x clu de d fro m th r gion t o
o z, e e e ex e e

which th or m s apply This r gion b com s th r by doubly

our e e . e e e e e

conn ct e d f w can conn ct any tw p oints A B f it by tw

e ,
or e e o ,
o o

4— 2
52 I R R T TI O A ONA L M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

i r r e co n c i l e a b l e p aths p assing on opposit si d s f th a is g e e o e x ,

e . .

A OB, ADB
’
th e in figur Th p ortion f th plan e f w hich e . e o e z cv or

Fi g . 4 .

a: is p ositiv m y b tak n as a barri e r d th r gion is thus

e a e e , an e e

m a d si m ly - con ect d Th circulation in any circuit m ti g

p n e e . e e e n

" 2
th s barr r onc e only L dfl 2 m Th t
0
!“
A
o 0

i ie , In r or 7 . a
,

in any circuit t m ti g th barri r is ro In th m o difi d n o ee n e e ze . e e

r gion gb m y b e p t qual to a singl -v lu d functio i n fl

e a u e e a e n ,
v z .
,

but its valu e on th p sitiv si d f th barri r is ro that at an e o e e o e e ze ,

a djac nt p oint th n gative si d is 2

e on e e e ,
7r a
,
.

M or co m p l illustr tions f i rotational m otion i m ulti ply

e ex a o r n

e t d s ac s will
n r s nt
c e th m s lv s i th n t cha t r
p p e e p e e e e e n ex e .

or proc e di g furth r w m y bri fly in dicate a so m e

58 . Be f e e n e e a e

what di ff r e nt m tho d f pr s e nting th abov th ory

e e O e e e e .

S tarti g fro m th ist nc f a v locity-p ot ntial as th

n e ex e e o e e e

charact ristic f th cl ss f m otions which w wish to stu dy d

e o e a o e ,
an

adopting th s con d d fin i tion f an + 1 -ply -conn ct d r gion

e e e O n e e e ,

giv n in e A t 5 4 w r m ark th t in a S i m ply con ct d r gion

r - .
, e e a n e e e

ev ry qu ip ot ntial sur fac m ust ith r b a clos d surfac or

e e e e e e e e e,

els for m a b rri r divi di g th r gion into tw s p r t p rts

e a e n e e o e a a e a .

H nc su pp osing th whol syst m f such surf c s dr wn w

e e , e e e o a e a , e se e

th at i f a clos d curv cr ss any giv n quip ot n tial surf c onc it

e e o e e e a e e

m ust cross it again d i th opp osit d ir ction H nc cor ,

an n e e e . e e ,

r sp on ding to any l m nt f th curv inclu d d b t w n two

e e e e o e e , e e ee

cons cutiv quip ot nti l surfac s w hav a s con d l m nt such

e e e e a e , e e e e e e

that th fl w al g it b ing q ual to th diff r nc b t w n th

e o on ,
e e e e e e e ee e

corr sp on ding valu s f t is qual d opposit to that along th

e e o I ,
e an e e

form e r ; that th circulation in th whol circuit is ro

so e e e ze .

I f ho w v r th r gion b m ulti pl y - conn e ct d an e quipot nti l

e e e e e e , e a

surf c m y for m a barri r w itho t divi ding it into two s parat

a e a e u e e

p arts L e t as m any.such sur fac s b d ra w n as it i p ossibl to d r w e e s e a

57 CYC L I C VELOC I TY-
PO TEN TI A L . 53

w ithout d stroy ng th continuity f th e r gion Th nu m b r o f

e i e o e . e e

t h s cannot by d finition b gr a t r than

e e E v ry oth r qui
,
e ,
e e e n . e e e

p ot ntial
e sur f c w hich is not clos d will b e o il
a b l ( in an
e e rec n c ea e

O bvious s ns ) with or m or e f t h s b r i e rs A curv dra wn

e e on e o e e a r . e

fro m si d f on e f th s barri rs roun d to th oth r without

e o on e o e e e e e ,

m ting any f th r m aini g barri rs wi ll cross v y surfac e

ee o e e n e , e er

i l b l with it an dd nu m b r f ti m s
r e co n c ea e d v ry oth r sur o e o e ,
an e e e

f c an e v n nu m b r f ti m s
a e H nc th circulation i th cir
e e o e . e e e n e

cuit thus form d will not vanish d 4 will b a cyclic f nction e ,

an ) e u .

In th e m tho d adopte d abov e e we have bas e d th e whol e th e ory

on th e e quations
dw dv dv da
o
dy a; dz dx

an d have d duce d th ist nc d p ro pe rti s f th e

e locity e e x e e an e o v e

p ot e ntial in th various cas s as n c ss ry cons qu nc s f th

e s e e e a e e e o e e .

In act Arts
f 4 1 4 2 ,
—
d 5 3 5 6 m y b r gar d d as a tr atis e on
.
, ,
an ,
a e e e e

th e int gration f this syst e m o f d iff re ntial quations

e o e e .

int gration o f
Th e e h n w hav e on
w e e , th e right -han d side ,

inst a d f ro know
e o ze n functions f w y o , ,
z, w ill b e tr e at e d i n
C hapt r V I e .

59 . I f th e d e nsity o f th e
ith e r constant or a function fl ui d be e

o f th p r ssur e only
e d i f th e t rnal i m pr ss d forc s hav a ,
an e ex e e e e e

S ngl -valu d p ot ntial th cyclic constants f 4 d not alt r with

i e e e ,
e o ) o e

th ti m e
e F or i f t b e th .initial v lu f th v locity -
p ot e ntial ( e a e o e e ,
o

we hav A t 2 3 e, r .
,

wh e r e ,
Ar t 1 9 .

U n de r th circu m stanc s stat d X e a S ngl -

valu d function d e e Is i e e ,
an

th cyclic const nts f ]

e e th sam as thos f In oth r
a o c; ar e e e o e

w or ds th circul tions i th s e v e ral circuits f th r gion occ p i d

e a n e o e e u e

by th e flui d e constant ar .
54 I RR O TATI ONA L MO TI ON .
[CHA R I II .

This i oth r wis vi d nt fro m A t 2 5

s which sh ws th at
e e e e r . e

014
is singl -v lu d d that t h r for th cyclic const nts f g!
e a e ,
an e e e e a o )
dt
cannot l t r a e .

I E m pl s 5n d 6 Arts 3 6 3 7 w h d insta c s to which

xa e an ,
.
, ,
e a n e

th abov r s lt is not pp lic bl ; th r ason b ing t h t in E

e e e u 5 a a e e e e a x .

th t rn l f rc s h v
e ex e t a p t n t ial w hilst i
a E 6 th ir
o e a e n o o e ,
n x . e

p ot ntial i its
e l f a cyclic f nction s e u .

r c ding w
60 . in A t 4 3 to th particul r cas f
P o ee n o ,
as r .
,
e a e o

an incom pr ssibl flui d w r m rk th t wh th r I b m any val d

e
- e ,
e e a a e e ( ) e ue

dd dd i cs t
d th r f r all th
) )
or t its first d rivativ s
n o e e , ,
an e e o e e
d
,
l ly
,
O a: c z

h igh r d rivativ s e ss ntially singl -v lu d functi ns so that

e e ,
ar e e e e a e o ,

d w)ill still satis fy th qu tion f con t inui t y e e a o

i
= 0
V c;
]
an d th e e quival nt f rm e o

wh r th surf c -int gration

e e e a e e ex e t n ds ov r e th e w hol boun d ry
e a of

any p ortion f th fluid o e .

In th th or m s f Arts 4 5 d 4 6 th sp c s to which ( 1 1 )
e e e o . an e a e

is ap pli d si ply conn ct d

m - e that it i llowabl to su ppos
are e e , so s a e e

f
I) S ingl -valu d thro ghout t h
e m v n wh n th r gion
e f w hich u e e e e e e o

f m e o -
t y r a p rt is m ulti ply conn ct d O this un d rsta n ding
h a e e . n e

t h th or em s in qu sti n st ll hol d w h n oS is a cyclic functi n

e e e o i e o .

th or m ( ) f A t 4 7 i that I m ust b c nstant

Th e e e a o r .
,
v z . ( ) e o

throughout th int ri r f any r gio t v ry p oint f which ( 1 0) e e o o e n a e e o

iss tisfi d i f it b constant ov r th boun dary s t ill h ol ds wh n th

a e e e e ,
e e

e m -
r gion is ultiply conn ct d F or b ing co stant ov r th e e e . e n e

boundary is n c ss rily S ingl valu d

- , e e a e e .

r m aining th or e m s f A t 4 7 b ing bas d th s m p

Th e e e o r .
,
e e on e a su

tion th t th str am -lin s cannot f r m clos d curv s

a how v r
e e e o e e ,
ar e e e

no lo g r ct W m ust intro duc th additional con dition that

n e e xa . e e e

th circulation is to b
e ro in ach circuit f th r gion e ze e o e e .
59 T HEO R EM S M OD I F I ED BY M U LTI PLI C I TY . 55

th e or m s f A t 4 8 also call f
Th e e o r . or m o dification . Th e p ro p r e

e x e t nsion o f ( B) is as f llo ws : o

61 A function (I) e x ists

. which satisfi s ( 1 0) throughout a giv n e e

it 1-l
p y
-
conn e ct e d r e gion
w hich h any giv n cyclic co s t ants ,
as e n

x
1“ ,
corr
1c s
, p on d ing to th xin d p”
n d nt non - van scibl
e cir e n e e e e e e

cuits capabl e f b i g dr w in th r gion d which is such that its

o e n a n e e ,
an

rat e f v riation o n th dir ctio f th nor m al has a give n val u e

a e e n o e

at e v ry p oint e of th e boun dary Th s arbitrary valu s . e e e of {L4 m ut s

dn

of cours fulfil th e con dition

e cl S 0 .

ollo w Thom son in m arshalling th follo wing physical D

We f e CO SI

d rations in su pp ort f this th or m L t us su pp os th r gion

e o e e . e e e e oc

cu
p i d by inco
e m p r ssibl flui d f unit d nsity nclos d in a e
p r f ctly e o e e e e e

s m ooth d fl i b l m m bran F urth r l t barri rs b drawn

an ex e e e . e , e it e e ,

as in A t 5 4 as to r duc th r gion to a si m ply-conn e ct d

r .
,
so e e e e e on e,

an d l t th ir p l c s b occu p i d by si m ilar m m bran s infinit ly

e e a e e e e e , e

thin d de sti t ut f in rti Th flui d b ing ini tially at r st l t

,
an e o e a . e e e ,
e

e ach l m nt f th fi t m ntion d m m bra b su dd nly m ov e d

e e - e O e rs e e e n e e e

dd )
inwar ds with th giv n (p ositiv e or n gativ ) norm al l i ty e e e e v e oc ,
d
whilst unifor m i m p lsiv p r ssur s pp l i d uto e e e x
l , x
2 , x
”
are a e

th ositiv
e si d s f t h r s p e ctiv e barri r -m mebran e s Soo m e e e e e
p . e

d finit m otion f th flui d will nsue ; charact ri d by th follo w

e e o e e e ze e

ing prop rti s e e

( ) It is
a irrotational b e i g g n rat d fro m r st ; ,
n e e e e

( )
6 T h nor m al v locity at e v ry p oint f th
e original boun d e e o e

ary has th assign e d valu e e

( )
c T h valu s f th i m p ulsiv p r ssur
e d th r
e f or o f
o th e e e e ,
an e e e e

v e locity-p ot ntial at tw a dj c nt p oints on opp osit si d s f a

e , o a e e e o

barri r- m e m bran e d i ff r by th e corr sp on d ing valu e f e ,

which i e e o it , s

constant ov r th barri e r ; e e

otion si barri r is continuous with

'

( )
d Th m o e d e e f on n o a e

that th e oth r on e .

To prov th e last state m e nt w r m ark first that th v lociti s

e e e , ,
e e e

n orm l to th barri e r at tw adjac e nt p oints on opp osit e si d s f i t

a e o e o
56 I RR O TA TI ONA L M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

are sam b ing ach q l to th norm l v l ocity f th

th e e ,
e e e ua e a e o e

adjac nt p ortion f th m m bra

e Again i f P Q b tw con o e e n e .
, ,
e o

ti
s e cu
p oints a barri
v e r d i f th corr s p on d ing v lu s f 1 on e ,
an e e a e o <)

b on e si d
e ( pp M d onth oth r p ¢Q w have by ( ) , ( , an on e e c p
'

,
'

, e e ,
e

W = 5
'
"
¢ P K
¢Q “
4a ,

¢Q ~ = y — i
f
< >P
s n i
i . e .
,
if P Q ds ,

He nc th tang n t i l v loci t i s at tw adjac nt p oi ts Opposit

e e e a e e o e n on e

si d s f a barri r also agr

e o I f th n w su pp s th barri r e e e . e e o e e e

m m br n s to b
e liqu fi d i m m diat ly ft r th i m puls w
a e e e e e e a e e e ,
e

Obtain a st t f irrot tio l m otion satis fying th con di t ions

a e o a n a e

stat e d t th h ad f this articl a e e o e

*
.

I t i a y to sh w analytic lly that th sai d con ditions

62 . s e s e a e

co m pl t ly d t r m in 96 sav
e e to an dditiv const nt F i f
e e e , e as a e a . or ,

p ossibl l t t h r b t w
e functions
, f fe ach satis fy ing th e e e o I) I)
,
e e

con ditions S inc b l hav th sa m cyclic c nst nts 1 l a

. e ( l , < >2 e e e o a , <) ( )
.
)
,

-
is a S i gl v lu d functio which m or ov r s tisfi s ( 1 0) t h rough
n e a e n ,
e e a e

ou t th r gion d m ak s e
if; 0 at v ry p oint f th boun dary
e ,
an e ”

e e o e .

H nc A t 4 7e appli s d sh ws that d i co stant

e r . e ,
an e ) s n .

H nc th irrotat ional m otion throughout an + 1 ply -con

e e e ~ n

t d s p c i d t r m in t w h n w know th v lu
n ec e a e f ths orm al e e a e e e e a e o e n

v locity at v ry p oint f th boun d ry d also th valu f th

e e e o e a ,
an e e o e

circulation i ch f th e in d p n de nt circuits which n eab o 77. e e ca n e

d raw n in that sp ac e .

Th follo wing th or m which now r p lac s that f A t 5 2 is

e e e ,
e e o r .
,

p rov ed i lik m an e r n e n .

Th irrot tional m otion through an

e -
1 p y conn e ct d r gion
l - a n e e

t n ding to infinity but li m it d int rnally b y

ex e m or clos d , e e on e or e e

surfac s i m a d fully d t rm inat by th follo wi g con ditions

e ,
s e e e e e n

Th e m fi c a ti o n s n e c e s s a r y i n th e o r e m s
o di (a ) an d (7) o f Ar t . 48 ar e pa sse d
ov e r , as o f l i ttl e i n te r e s t i n o u r pre s e nt s u b je ct .
61 — 64 ] T HEO R EM S M OD I F I ED BY M U LTI PL I C I TY . 57

( ) or
a m al v locity h
Th e s a p r scrib d valu e at e v
n y p o i t e a e e er n

of th int rnal boun d ry ;

e e a

Th circulations in th e i d p n d nt circuits f th
e 91. n e e e o e

r gio hav p r scrib d v lu s ; d

e n e e e a e an

( ) Th vce locity vanish e s at e infinit d ista c fro m

t h an e n e e

int rnal boun dary

e .

I f f instanc ,
w hav an
or anchor -ring m oving in an in finit
e ,
e e e

m ass f liqui d which is at r st at infinity th

o irrotational m o tion e ,
e

of th flui d t any instant is d t r m in t wh

e a w kno w th m otion e e a e en e e

of th ring ( d th r for
e th v locity f v ry l m nt f i t s
an e e e e e o e e e e e o

surfac norm al to its l f) d lso th e valu e f th circulatio in

e e ,
an a o e n

any circuit e m bracing it .

63 th ory f m ulti pl continuity s m s to hav b

. Th e e o e ee e een

first d v l p d by R i m ann f s pac s f tw di m e nsions l p p

e e o e e or e o o ,
c r o os

of his r s arch s on th th ory f functions f

e e co m pl variabl
e e e o o a ex e ,

in which conn e ction also cyclic functions satis fying th e quatio e n

dq
2
0 3 4)

through m ultiply-co n ct d r gions pr e s nt th e m s e lve s n e e e e .

Th b e aring f th th ory on Hy dro dynam ics

e d th ist nc
o e e , an e ex e e

in c r t in cas s f m any - alu d v locity -p ot ntials w r first p oint d

e a e o v e e e e e e

out by H l m holt t Th subj ct f cyclic irro t tional m o t ion i

e z . e e o a n

m ul t i ply -
conn ct d r g ons w aft r war ds tak n p d f ully
e e e i as e e u an

inv stigat d by S i W Tho m son i his p ape r on vort -m otion

e e r . n ex

alr e ady r f rr d to e e e .

Th e o r e m
’
Gr e e n s .

64 tr e atis e s on E l ctrostatics & m any i m p ortant p

. In e ,
c .
,
ro

p e t i
r f t h
es o p ot nti l usually p erov d b y m ans o f a c rtai
e a are e e e n

t h or m d to G
e e i O f th
ue s t h m ost int r sti g fro m our
reen . e e e e e n

p r e s e nt p oint f i e w hav b alr a d y giv

o n ;Vbut as th th e or e m e een e e e

L h t d An ly i Si t C ll t 5 4 1 8 5 7
e r sa ze a u s er a s s u s. re e, . . .

l Gr e l l e ,
' '
t . 55 . 1 8 58 .

An e s sa y o n E l e ctri ci ty an d M a gne ti sm , g 3 .
58 I RR O TATI ONAL M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

in qu e stion l a ds to a us f l e e u e x
p r ssion fe th kin tic n rgy in or e e e e

any cas f irrotational m otione o ,

w gi e th follo wing p roo f f it
v e e o .

L e any functions which

t u ,
'
v, fi it contin ous
g!
) b e ar e n e , u ,

an d singl - valu at oints f a conn ct d r gion S com pl t ly

e ed a ll
p o e e e e e

boun d d by m ore clos d surfac s ; l t d S b an l m nt f

on e or e e e e e e e e o

any f th s sur fac s l m

on e oth dir cti n - cosin e s f th norm al
e e e , , ,
n e e o o e

to it dra wn in war ds W sh all prov e th t . e a

I
( ) ( l u + mv + n w) d S

d i d
f
b
q u ( ?)
d )

y z

wh r e e th e d oubl -int g al is tak n ov r th whol bou dary

e e r e e e e n o fS ,

an d th e tripl -int gral throughout its int rior

e e e .

conc iv a s e ri s f surf c s draw n

I f we e e e o a e so as to divi d e S into
any nu m b e r f s parat p arts th int gr l o e e ,
e e a

q (
S l u mv n w) d S

t k e n ove r th e bo n dary f S is e qual to th e m f th si m ila

a u o ,
su o e r

int grals tak n ach ov r th wh ol boun da y f

e e f th s p ar t s
e e e e r o on e o e e .

F or f v ry l m nt d f a divi ding sur f c w hav in th e

, or e e e e e o o a e , e e ,

int grals corr sp on ding to th p arts lying th two S i d s f this

e e e on e e o

surf c l m nts I ( l m e m ) d
a e , e e d qb ( l m e w) d ( ) u e o ,
an
’
u
'
v n
’
o ,

r s p ctiv ly B t th nor m als to which l m l m

e e e . r f r b ing
u e , ,
n ,
’ ’

,
n
’
e e e

ra
d w n i w ar d s in ach cas w n hav l l m — m ; e e ,
e e
'

, ,
n
’
n

so that i form ing th m f th int grals s p ok n f th l m nts

n e su o e e e o e e e e

d to th divi ding surf c s dis pp ar

ue e d w hav e l ft only thos a e a e ,
an e e e

d ue to th original boun dary f S e o .

us suppos th divi ding surf c s to consist f thr

N o w le t e e a e o ee

infinit s ri s f p l n s p ar ll l to y
e e e my r s p ctiv ly
o L t a e a e z, zx, ,
e e e . e

b th -or d inat s feth c ntr f e co f t h r ctangul r e o e e e o on e o e e

as,
y ,
z a

S p c s thus form d d dy d th l ngths f its dg s

a e ed l t us
,
d) , ,
z e e O e e , an e

calculat th valu f ( 1 8 ) tak n ov r th b un dary f t his spac

e e e o e e e o o e .

A i Ats 8 th np art f t h int

r gral
. d to th y
-
f
eac n r st th o e e ue e z e ea e e

d
4 df
u
d y d d that d e to th e o
pp osit e fac z, a n u e
 C R E EN S
’
T HEO R EM . 59

d t dx d dz
c u
da '
dy dz . Th e su m o f th e s e 18
dz y .

C alculating in th sam e w e ay th e p arts of int gral d

th e e ue to th e
r m aining p airs f fac s w
e o e ,
e
g e t fo r th e final r s lt e u

d .
¢ v
+
cl
y

He nc ( 1 7 ) si m ply pr e ss s th f c t that th surf ce -int gr l

e ex e e a e a e a

tak ov r th boun dary f S is qual to th

en e m e f th si m ilar o ,
e e su o e

in t grals t k n ov r th boun d ri s f th l m nt ry Sp ac s f
e a e e e a e o e e e e a e o

which w hav su ppos d S built p e e e u .

W m y int rpr t ( 1 7 ) by r e garding

e a w th co m pon nt
e e u ,
v ,
as e e

v lociti s f a continuous syst m o f p oints filli g th r gion S d

e e o e n e e ,
an

supposing t to r p r s nt so m p rop rty ( sti m t d p unit

I e e e e e e a e er

volu m ) which th y carry with th e m in th ir m otion Th surfac

e e e . e e

int gral th
e l ft- h n d sid f ( 1 7 ) pr ss s th th am ount
on e e a e o ex e e en e

of d w h ich n t rs S in unit ti m
) across its boun dary ; whi lst th
e e e e

abov inv stig tion sh ws tha t ( 1 9 ) p r ss s th e rat at which

e e a e ex e e e

th ro
p p erty A is b ing accu m ulet d in th l m ntary
( s p ac e a e e e e e e

d dy d
x Th th or e m th e z . ass rts that th e total incr as f 95
e e n e e e o

within th r gion is e qual to th influ across th e boun dary A

e e e x .

p articular cas is wh r e v w t h co m p on nt ev lociti s f a e u , , ar e e e e e o

flui d filling th r gion d o5 is p t p th d nsity S A t 1 2 e e ,

an u ,
e e . ee r . .

Co ll y 1 L t gt 1 ; th e th or m b e co m e s
r o ar . e e e

( l u + m v + n w) d S =

If u, co m pon e nt v lociti s f li q ui d filling th r gion

v ,
w b e th e e e o a e e

S th right
,
-
han d si d f this quation vanish s by th e quatio
e e o e e ,
e n

of continuity ; s o that

d S = O
( l u + m v + n w)

whi ch e xp e r ss e s that as m uch flui d l av s e e th e re gion as nt rs it e e .

d xlr dxlr d xlr

Co r o lla r y 2 L et u, v w ’ ,
’
r sp ct v ly
e e i e ,
w he re
dy dz
.

dz;
,

)
x» is a f nctio which w ith its fi st d i ff r e ntial co e ffici nts is
u n ,
r e e ,

finit d continuous throughout S Th n

e an . e
60 I RR O TATI ONA L M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

lu + mv + nw

wh re d is an l m nt f th in war dly-dir ct d nor m al to th e

e a e e e o e e e

surfac f S S ubsti t uting in ( 1 7) d p rform ing th diff r ntia

e o . an e e e e

tions in dicat d w fi d e ,
e n

i f d‘
lf d i > d‘
l
’ d <f> d‘
l
’
dS = _ dx dy dz
¢ d da:
+
dy dy dz dz

By si m ply int rcha ging e n c

t an d «f
I we obtai n (p rovi d e d xr
l be singl e

valu d) e ,

di f (1 >
4 day 6 795
+ dazdy dz
da '
dy dy dz dz

E quations ( 2 1 ) an d (2 2) tog th e r constitut

e e Gr e e n
’
s th or e m e .

C or o lla r y 3 . In ( )
2 1 l e t qb b e th e v locity-p ot ntial
e e of a liqui d ,

an d le t 4 ” 1 we fin d, sinc
e v h )
f 0 ,

which is in fact what ( )

20 b co m e s
e fo r th e cas e of irrotatio al n

m otion C o m par A t
. e r . 44 .

In ( 2 1 ) l t
Co r o lla r y 4 . e an d le t 4. b e th e v e locity
p ot ntial
e f a liqui d W ob
o t ain . e

as

ultiply this quatio by p it b co m s susc ptibl f a

I f we m e n e e e e O

d lb
si m pl e dynam ical int rp r tation O th right han d si d d e e . n e e e
d
not s th nor m al v locity f th e flui d inw ards w hilst —p¢ by
e e e o ,
°

I s,

A t 2 6 th i m p ul iv p r ssur e n
r .
, e ssary to g n e rat e th e actual
s e e ece e
64 KI NETI C ENE RGY or A LI QU I D . 61

m otion It is a pro position in

. w ork don by "
Dyn a m ics that th e e

an i m puls e is m asur d by th p ro duct f th i m pul s into hal f

e e e o e e

th e m f th ini t i l
su d final v lociti s r solv d i th e d i e ction
o e a an e e , e e n r

of th i m pulse f th p oint t whic h it i appli d

e ,
o H nc th e o s e . e e e

right-han d si d f ( 2 4) wh n m o difi d as d scrib d pr ss s th e

e o e e e e ,
ex e e

work do by th syst m f i m pulsiv pr ssur s which appli d to

n e e e o e e e , e

to th surf c f S g n r t th actu l m otion ; whilst th l e ft

e a e o ,
e e a e e a e

han d si d giv s th ki tic n rgy f this m o t ion Th q u tio

e e e n e e e o . e e a n

( )
2 4 ass rts that th s t
e w q uan t iti s q ual thus v ri fying f e e o e are e , e or

o ur
p articular cas e th p rinci p l f n rgy e e o e e .

H nc e i f T d not th total kin e tic e n rgy f th liqui d w

e e e e e o e , e

hav e
zé
2 T= —p d> ff d S

In ( 24 ) inst e ad o f I l t us w rit
Co r o l la r y 5 .which will f ( ) e e
Z
—i
, o

cours satis fy ( 1 0) as ] do e s ; d l t us apply th r sulting th or e m

e c; an e e e e

to th r gion inclu d d within a sph rical surf c e f radius having

e e e e a o r

any point ( y ) as c ntr W ith th e sam notation as in A t 4 6

as, ,
z e e . e r .
;

we h av e

as d d¢
ds

an e ss ntially p ositive quantity

e . He nc wri t ing Q
e ,
2
u
”
v
2
to
”
,

w e e that
s e

is p ositiv ; i e th e m a valu f tak n ov r a s ph r havi g

e . . e n e o e e e e n

an
y p oint as c ntr incr s s w ith th r d i
e s f t h S p h r
e ,
H nc ea e e a u o e e e . e e

q cannot b a m i m u m at any
e p oint f th e flu i d as
ax w th r wis o ,
as o e e

p rov e d i A t 4 5 n r . .

65 .W e Shall r e quir e to kno w ,

h r e aft r th form su m d by
e e ,
e as e

th e e x p r e ssion ( 2 5 ) fo r th e kin e tic en rgy wh n th e flui d e t n ds

e e x e

Th o m so n an d Ta i t , N a tu r a l Ph il o s op h y , Ar t 308 . .
62 I RR O TA TI ONAL M O TI ON .
[CHA R III .

to infinity d is at r st th r b ing li m it d in t rnally by

an or e e e, e e e on e

m or clos d sur f c s S
e L t us su p p os a l rg clos d s r fac 2
e a e . e e a e e u e

d scrib d
e as to nclos th whol f S Th n rgy f th flui d
e so e e e e o . e e e o e

inclu d d b tw n S d 2 is
e e ee an

—% p I?
(
dz

wh r th int gration in th first t rm t n ds ov r

e e e e e e ex e e S ,
that in th e
s con d ov r 2 S inc e w h v by ( 1 1 )
e e . e a e

d <l>
— dz 0,
dn

( )
2 6 m a
y b e w ritt n e

d d
—0 )
a
dS
%—
se
—C )
£ d2

wh e r e C m y b y constant but is
a h r su pp osee d to b
an th , e e e e

constant valu to which d w sh w n i A t 5 1 to te n d at an

e ) as e n r .

infinit dist nc fro m S N w th whol r gion occu pi d by th

e a e . o e e e e e

flui d m y b su pp os d m ad p f tub s f fl w ach f which

a e e e u o e o o , e o

m ust p ss ith r fro ma p oint ef th int r ale boun dary to on e o e e n an

oth r fro m that boun dary to infinity H nc th valu f th

e ,
or . e e e e o e

int grale

0 32 ,

tak n ov r any surfac op n or clos d finit or infinit drawn

e e e, e e , e e ,

within th r gion m ust b finit e H nc ulti m at ly w h n 2 is

e ,
e e . e e e ,
e

tak n infinit ly larg

e d infinit ly d ist n t all roun d fro m S th
e e an e a ,
e

s con d t rm f ( 2 7 ) vanish s d w h v
e e o e ,
an e a e

2T = —p ( )
1 — C ) dS

wh e re th e int gration t ds ov r th int rnal boun dary only

e ex en e e e .

I f th e total fl across th int rnal boun dary b e ro we have

ux e e ze ,

so that ( 2 8) b e com e s
2T p
s im ply .
 E XTENS I ON OF H EO R EM
’
65 O RE EN S T . 63

E x te n s i o n f Gr e e n Th e o r e m
’ ’

Th o m s o n s o s .

It was assu m e d i th p roo f f Gr n s Th or e m that f

66 . n e o ee
’
e I;

an d i w r e both S ingl -
«f val d functions I f i th r b a cyclic
e e ue . e e e

f nction as m y b th cas wh n th r gio to w hich th e int

u ,
a e e e e e e n e

i in d r f r is ulti ly -conn ct d h stat nt

g rat ( )
2 1
on s
( )
2 2 e m p t an m e e e , e e e

o f th th or m m ust b m o difi d
e e L t us su pp os f
e instanc e e . e e ,
or e ,

t ha t t is cyclic ; th sur f c int gral on

I - t h ft -
l han d si d f e a e e e e e o

an d th s con d volu m - e int gr l e th right -han d si d th n e e a on e e ,

ar e e

in d t rm inat on account o f th e a m biguity in th valu f d its l f

e e e ,
e e o ) e .

To r m ov this am b i guity l t th barri rs n c ssary to r duc

e e ,
e e e e e e e

th r gion to a si m ply -co ct d o e b dr wn as pl in d in

e e n n e e n e a ,
ex a e

A t 5 4 W m y su pp os such valu s assign d to b th t it shal l

r . . e a e e e ( a

b e continuous d singl - valu d throughout th e r gion thus m o di

an e e e

fi d (A t
e ~ d qu tion ( 2 1 ) will th n hol d p ro i d d th e t w
r . an e a e , v e o

si d s f ach barri r b r ckon d as p art f th bou dary f th

e o e e e e e o e n o e

r gion
e d th r for , an -
inclu d d in th sur f c int gral on th e e e e e a e e e

l e ft-han d si d L t d b e l m nt f e . f th barri rs e th o an e e e o on e o e e 1c e

d
i e
cyclic constant corr e sp on ding to that b i d th rat f varia arr e r, e e o

tion f If in th p ositiv dir ction f th e orm al to

o « e S inc e e o n e ,

i th arts f t h sur fac - int g al d to th o two si d s fe e e r ue e

n p e e o

d’ ’

: is to b e tak n with O p p osit signs whilst th e valu e f 1

r
e e , o <)

on th e n gativ e si d c ds that on th p ositive si d by w e

e e ex ee e e E
l ,

g et fi ally f t
nh l m nt f th int gralor d to d the value ee e o e e ue o
] , e

l
i d - H e nc e 2 1 b e co m s in th e alt r d circu m stanc e s
il ii
(
- 1c
, ( ) o
l
. e , e e ,

a i dS
gg x
,
do ,
85 0 .

JP 024 d¢
+ dx dy dz
dx dy dy dz d

9 f
5 l r dx dy dz

wh r th sur e e e f -
ac e int e gration s in dicat d e on th e l ft-h d si d e an e

t d th e first ov r
e x en ,
e th e original boun dary of th e r gi n only e o ,
64 I RR O TATI ONAL M O TI ON .
[ HACR III .

an r st ov e r th s v r l barri rs Th co ffici nt f any is

d th e e e e e a e . e e e o re

evi d ntly th tot l fl across th corr s pon ding barri r in

e e a ux e e e ,
a

m otion f which i is th v locity

o -
p ot nti l Th v lu s f j in «f e e e a . e a e o ()

th first
e d last t r m s f th an quat ion to b a si g d in th e o e e ar e e s n e e

m ann r in dicat d in A t 5 6
e e r . .

I f t also b a cyclic function having th cyclic constants

I e ,
e

IC
’

I ,
th n ( 2 2 ) b e com s in th s m w y
x
2
e e e a e a

d d)
dS _ '
dO 2 &c
i
'

t e le .

dn l

di le d d) d\1r
+
q dx dy dz
d a: dy dy dz

E quations ( 3 0) d ( 3 1 ) tog th e r constitut Tho m son s an e e

’
e x e t nsion
f Gr n s th or e m
’
o ee e .

in ( 3 0) we p t 1 96 d su ppos e
67 . If u «»
,
an
I
() to b e th e v locity
e

p ot ntialef an inco m p r ssibl flui d w fiod e e ,

e n

dx dy dz

do , p k
g
dO 2 '

&c .

To in t rp r t th l st m m b r f this form ula w m ust r cur to th

e e e a e e o e e e

artificial m tho d f g n rati g cyclic irrot tional m otion p l in d

e o e e n a ex a e

in A t 6 1 Th first t rm h
r . lr dy b n int rpr t d t wic
. e e as a ea ee e e e as e

w ork d on by th i m pulsiv p r ssur p q appli d to v ry '

th e e e e e e ) e e e

p art f th ori gi n
o l bou d ary f t he flui d Again p is th e a n o e .
,
ic
l

i m pulsiv pr ssur appli d in th p ositiv dir c t ion t th i

e e e e , e e e ,
o e n

finit ly thin m assl ss m m br n by which th e plac f th first

e e e a e e o e

barri r was in A t 6 1 su pp os d to b occ pi d ;

e that th r . e e u e so e

ex p r ssion 5e E
ggd - d not s th e work d on by th i m p ulsiv a
1
e e e e e

forc s app li d to that m m br n

e d e H c ( 3 2) p r ss s e a e an so o n . en e ex e e

th f ct th t th e
e a n rgy f th m otion is qual to th work d on
a e e o e e e e

by th whol e syst e m o f i m p ulsiv f rc s by which w m y supp os

e e o e e a e

i t g e n e rat e d .
 E XTENS I ON OF EO R EM
’
66 C RE EN S TH . 65

Inapplying ( 32 ) to th cas wh e r e e e th e flui d te n dex s to

infini ty d is t r e st th e r we m ust r e plac
an a e, e th e fi rst te r m f o th e
third m e m be r by
a) as

wh e re th e int e gration e t e n ds ov r th e inte rnal bou dary only ;

x e n

or wh e n th e total fl across this boun dary is e ro by

,
ux z ,

dr
as
37;
Th e p roof is th e sam e as in Ar t 6 5
. .
 C HAP T ER I V .

M TI O ON OF A LI QU I D I N TWO D I M ENS I ONS .

68 . IF
v locitie s u e b e functions f y only whilst w
th e e , o a , ,

is ro th m otion tak s pl c in a s ri s f pl n s p arall l to my

ze ,
e e a e e e o a e e ,

an d is th e sam in ch f thos plan s Th inv stigation f th

e ea o e e . e e o e

m otion f a liqui d un d r th s circu m stanc e s i charact e ri d by

o e e e s ze

c rtai analytic l p culiariti s ; d th solutions f s e v ral p o

e n a e e an e o e r

b l e m o f gr at int r st
s r e adily obtain d
e e e ar e e .

S inc e th whol m otion is kno w n wh e n We kno w that in th

e e e

p lan = 0 w Shall confin e our att ntion to th

e z ,
e m otion w hich e e

t k s plac e in that p lan W h n w sp ak f p oints d lin s

a e e . e e e o an e

d raw n in t hat p lan w shall in g n ral un d rstan d th m to e e ,

e e e e e r

p r s e
e nt r s p ctiv e ly th straight
e lin
e s p arall l to th a is f e e e e x o z,

an d th cylin drical surfac s having th ir g n rating lin s parall l

e e e e e e e

to th a is f f which th y
e x oth trac s
z, o e ar e e e .

By th fl across any curv w shall un d rstan d th volu m

e ux e e e e e

o f flui d which in unit ti m cross s th t p ortion f th cylin drical e e a o e

surf c having th e curv as bas which is inclu d d b tw n th e

a e e e , e e ee

p lan s 0
e z 1 z , .

69 any tw p oints in th plan my Th fl

. L et A P be , o e e . e ux

across any tw lin s j oining AP is th sam provid d th y can b

o e e e ,
e e e

r concil d without p assing out f th e r gion occupi d by th

e e o e e e

m oving liqui d ; f oth rwis th s pac inclu d d b tw n th s or e e e e e e ee e e

tw lin s woul d b gaini g or losing flui d H nc i f A b

o e e n . e e e

fi d n d P variabl e th fl across any lin AP is a

xe ,
a , e ux e
68 ,
F L U X AC R OSS A CU R VE “

. 67

unction f th e p osition f P L t d b th function m or

’

f o o . e r e e e

p r cis ly
e l t ‘
1 d not th efl across A
,
P f m el f t to g h t ’as e e e ux r o e r i ,

r g rds obs rv r p lac e d on th curv

e a an d looking along i t fro m
e e e e ,
an

A in th dir ction f P A alytically i f l m b e th dir e ction

e e o . n , ,
e

cosin s f th norm al ( drawn to th right) to any l m e nt de f

e o e e e e o

th e curv e we hav e ,

«f
i ( l u mv ) de

I f th e r gion occu pi d by th liqui d b

e pe i p h ti ‘l is e e e a r r ac c, ”

e e -
n c s sari ly a singl valu d function but in p ri phractic r gions e e ,
e e

th valu e f J m y d p e n d on th nat r
e o f th p ath j oini g AP
«r a e e u e o e n .

F S p c s f tw di m nsions ho w v r p riphr y d m ultipl

or a e o o e e e e ax an e

continuity b e co m th sam thing that th prop rti s f i e e e ,

so e e e o «f ,

wh it is a m any-
en valu d function i lation to th natur f e ,
n r e e e o

th r gion O ccu pi d by th e m oving liqui d m y b in f rr d fr m

e e e ,
a e e e o

Arts 5 5 5 6 w h r e w hav d iscuss d th sam e qu stion w ith

.
, ,
e e e e e e

r gard to
e

Th e cyclic constants f a wh n th r gion is p ri phractic o ,

e e e e , ar e

th valu s f th fl
e across th clos d curv s form ing th v ral
e o e ux e e e e se e

p arts f th int rnal

o boun d ary e e .

A ch ng e y fro m A to Ba f th p oint fro

, m w hich
sa i
l s , O e x /

r ckon d has m r ly th ff ct f adding a c nstant i th fl

e e e e e e e o o ,
v z . e ux

across a lin B A to th valu f ) so that we m y i f w pl as

e ,
e e o x» a , e e e ,

r gard I as in d t rm inat e to th t nt f an arbitrary cons t ant

e «f e e e ex e o .

I f P m ov about in such a m ann e r that th valu e f 4 do s e e o ” e

not alt r it will trac t a curv such th t flui d any wh r

,

e ,
e ou e a n o e e

cross s it i e a str am -lin H nc th curv s i const e th e

e , . . e e . e e e e «f . ar

str a m -lin e s d i is call d th str a m -function

e ,
an «f e e e .
’

I f P r e c iv e in finit sim al displace m nt P Q dy) parall l

e an e e e

to y th e i cr m nt f j is th fl x across P Q from l ft to right

,
n e e o xr e u e ,

i e H
. . P Q or
( r u ,

dxlr
dr

Again dis placing P paralle l to a t, w e fin d in th sam e way e

di ff
da:
68 M TI O ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENSI ONS [CHA R . Iv .

iste c f a f nctio i re late d to u a d v i this

'

Th e ex n e o u n «n n
'
n

ma e r m ight
n n l so hav b e e n i f rr e d from th e form which th e
a e n e

equatio o f co ti uity tak e s i thi s cas e v i

n n n n ,
z.

da do
o
da: dy

which is th a alytical con ditio th at u dy v dc shoul d b e an

e n n

e act d i ffe r
x tial e n .

Th e for going cons i de rations apply wh th r th e m otion b

e e e e

rotational or irrotational Th form ul f th com pon nt angular . e ae or e e

v e loc iti s g ive n in A t 3 8 b e com

e ,
r .
, e

so that i irrotational m otion

n we hav e
d nr
g O
dx

70 what follows we confin e ours e lve s to th e cas e o f

. In
irrotational m otion which is as w have alr e a dy s e n charac te r , ,
e e ,

i e d by th
z e ist e nc in addition f a v locity-
e
p ot
x t ial e , ,
o e en

co e c t e d with u u by th e r latio s
n n ,
e n

1
{1 >
)
dz

an dsince we a e consi de ring th e m otio n o f incom pre s sibl e flui ds

,
r

o n ly satisfying th e e quatio o f continuity

,
n

a s
M
th e ory o f th e function (I d th e c on ctio o f its p rop r
Th e ) ,
an n e n e

ti s with th e atur o f th e two-

e d im e sional S pac through which
n e n e

th e irrotational m otio hol ds m y b e r ad ily in f rr d fro m th e n ,

a e e e

corr e spo ding th e or e m s i thr di m nsions prov d i th las t

n n ee e e n e

ch apt e r Th alt e rations both i th nunciat io

. e d i th e ,
n e e n an n

p roo f which ,
a e r quisit to a da p t th e s torth e cas e o f two
e e e

d i m e sions n e f th m ost p art p r ly v rbal

ar A e c e p tion
or e u e e . n x ,

which we will bri fly e am in e occurs how ve r in th e cas f th e x ,

e e o e

th or m f A t 4 6 a d f thos e which de p n d on it
e e o r . n o e .
69 C I RCULA R BOUNDAR Y . 69

71 an e l m nt o f th e bounda y f any portion f th

. I f de b e e e r o o e

p lan e my which is occu p i e d wholly by m oving liqui d d i f d b ,

an r e

an l m e nt o f th e nor m al to d drawn inwar ds we hav by

e e e ,
e ,

Ar t 4 4 .
,

C Md. »
37
th e in t e gration t e n ding roun d th e whol e boun dary I f this
ex .

boun da y b e a circl d if r 0 b p olar c o -

r ordi ate s r e fe r d to
e ,
an ,
e n r e

th e c ntr e P o f this circl e as origin th e e quatio

e ( )
8 m a y b e ,
n

writte n

se e 0 .

He nce valu int e gral

th e t dd i ee of
t h e th e of c , . . me n -
a valu e
1
<)ov e r a circl e o f c e ntr e P a d ra dius is in d e
p e de t o f th ,
n r ,
n n e

valu o f d th e r for e r e m ains unalt r e d wh

e r ,
an is dim i i sh e d
e e en r n

without li m it i which cas e i t b e com e s th e valu e f 4) at P

,
n o .

r gion occu pi d by th e flui d b e p e ri phractic d we

I f th e e e ,
an

apply ( 8 ) to th e spac e nclos e d b tw o e o f th e i n te r al e e een n n

boun dari e s d a c i rcl with c ntre P d radius surrou di n g

an e e an r n

t his b oun dary a d lying wholly i th e fl ui d w hav, n n ,

e e

c
1’

r dfl 2 7r M ;
dr

wh e r e th e int e gration i th first m e m b e r e t e n ds ov r th e C rcl n e x e i e

only d 2 M d not e s th e fl into th re gion across th e i t e rnal

,
an 7r e ux e n

boun dary He nc e .

d 1
-
el f 2 7;
7

w hich g ive s O in t gr tio n e a n

d0 = M lo + C
¢ g r

i . e . th e m e an valu e of
4 ov) r a circl e with
e c ntr e P d rad ius e an
'

is qual to M l
e og r C, wh e r C is in d p n d nt f but m y v ry
e e e e o r a a
70 M TI O ON OF A L I QU I D IN TWO D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

w ith ositio f P This for m ul holds f cours only so long

th e p n o . a o e .

as th circl m brac s th
e sa m int r al boundary d li s i ts lf
e e e e e e n , an e e

wholly i th flui d n e .

I f th r gion b e unli m it d e t rn l ly d i f th circl m brac

e e ex e a , an e e e e

th whol e f th int rn l boun d ri s

e o d i f furth r th v loci ty b
e e a a e ,
an e e e e

e v rywh r ro at infinity th n C i an absol ut const nt ; as is

e e e ze ,
e s e a

s e n b y r aso ng si m il r to that f A t 4 6
e e n i a o r . .

It m y th n b sh w n actly in A t 5 1 that th valu

a e e e , ex as r .
, e e

o f I at a v ry gr e at d istanc
() fro m th int rn l boun dary t n d s
e e r e e a e

to th e valu M log C In th p articular c s wh n M 0 th

e r . e a e e e

li m it to which 4 t n ds at infinity is finit ; in all oth r cas s it is

) e e e e

infinit d f th same ,
S ign as M
an o e e .

W in f r in A t 5 2 that th re is only e singl -valu d

e e ,
as r .
, e on e e

functio ( I which ( ) satisfi s th

n ) quation ( 7 ) at v ry point f a e e e e e o

th e p lan e my t rnal to a give n syst m f clos d cur s ( 6) m ak s

ex e e o e ve , e

th valu e o f 3
e
2
— e qual to an arbitrarily giv n qu ntity at v ry e a e e

p oint f th e s curv
o e s d ( ) h its first
e d i ff r ntial co e f
fi ci nts ,
an c as e e e

all e ro at infinity
z .

kin e tic e n rgy f a p rtio f flui d boun d d by a

72 . Th e e o o n o e

cylin drical surf c e w hos g n e rating lin s p arall l to

a th e e e ar e e e

a is f
x d tw p lan e s p rp e n d icular to th e a is f
o z, an at uni t o e x o z

distanc is giv n by th e for m ula

e , e

or
dx dy = —1
}p —
d fz ds

w h r th e sur fac e -int gral is tak n ov r th p ortion f th

e e e e e e o e

lan w cut ff
e by th cylin d rical sur fac d th lin
o -
e int gral e e an e e
p y ,

rou d th bo un dary f this portion

n e o .

I f th cylin drical part f th boun dary consist f tw or m or

e o e o o e

s p arat p ortions o
e f w hich m brac s all th r st th
e nclos d n e o e e e e ,
e e e

r gion is m ultip ly -
e conn ct d d th quation ( l O) n ds a e e ,
an e e
'

ee

corr e ction which m y b appli d actly as in A t 6 6

,
a e e ex r . .

I f we att em
p t by a p,
roc e ss si m ilar to that f A t 6 5 to o r .
,

c lculat
a e th e e n rgy in th cas e wh r th r gion t n ds to
e e e e e e ex e

i finity
n ,
we fin d that its valu i s i fi i t c e p t wh n M = 0 e n n e , ex e .
71 C o M PL E x VA R I AB L ES . 71

Fo r i f we intro duce a circl f gr e at radius as th e E t rnal e o r x e

boun dary f th p ortion f th e plan y co sid re d w fi d t h at

o e o e ar n e ,
e n

th corr s on d ing art f th int gral th right -

han d S i d of o e e on e e
e
p p e

( )
1 0 t n ds as eincr as s to th valu
,
e p M (rM l g + C ) d ise e ,
e 7r o r ,
an

th r for ulti m at ly infinit Th only c ption wh n M O

e e e e e . e e x e is e :
,

in which c s w m y su ppos th lin e i t gral ( 10) to te n d

a
-
e e a e e n e In e x

ove r th i nt rnal boun dary o l y

e e n .

73 . Th e functions gb an d )
x» a r e conn ct e d by th r latio s
e e e n

do di e
if
d a: dy

Th s e th con ditions that ¢ + i l wh e r e

e e ar e xr ,
i stands fo r V I ,

should b a function f th e co m pl variabl

e o ex e a iy . F or if

¢ + i xlr
we have
i

wh nce quati g s parat e ly th e re al a d th e m aginary parts we

e ,
e n e n I ,

obtain
H nc any assu m p tio
e f th for m e give s a p ossibl e cas e f n o e o

irrotational m otion Th curve s 4) const th curv s f e qual . e . ar e e e o

e -
v locity pot ntial d th e curve s f const e th -
str am lin e s,
an «r . ar e e e .

S inc by e ,

e n o er A .
_ 0
m m
we that th s e two syst e m s o f curve s cut o e anoth e r at right
se e e n

angl e s as w hav alr ady prov d S e A t 2 7 S inc th e r la

,
e e e e . e r . . e e

tions ( 1 1 ) e unalt r d wh e n w w rit — [ f 96 d t f

ar e e e e 1r or ,
an I or

w m y i f w choos e look u p on th e curv e s (

e a ,
e con st as th e e qui , «r .

p ot ntial curv
e s d t h curv s gt const as th
e str a
,
m -lin s
an ; e e . e e e

so that v e ry assu m ption f th e kin d in dicat e d giv s us tw

e o e o

p ossibl cas s f irrota t ional

e m otion e o .

74un dam e ntal p rop rty f a function f a com pl

. Th e f e o o ex

variabl from which all oth rs fl w is that it has a di ff r nti l

e , e o ,
e e a

co ffici nt with r spe ct to that variabl e I f

e e
t d ot any e . a en e

function s what v r f d y th n corr s p o ding to v ry valu

e e o a; an , e e n e e e
72 M TI O ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

of w + iy th e r e m ust b o or m or d finite valu e s f <1

e n e e e o ) bu t
th e ratio o f th e di ff r e ntial f this functio to that o f + i y
e o n 33 , v iz .

as at

n ds i g n e ral on th rati
de pe n e e o da: dy . Th e con dition that it
shoul d b e th sam e f all valu e s e or of this ratio is
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

which is e quival e nt to
We m y th e r e for e tak this p ro e rty as th e d finitio o f a
a n
p
e e

function f th e co m p l variabl w + y
o h a fu ction m ust ex e i v 1z . su c n

h v f e v e ry as sign e d valu f th variabl

a e , or t only a d fi i te e o e e ,
n o e n

valu or syst m f valu s but also f ach f th s e valu s a

e e o e , or e o e e

d finite di ffe r e tial c o e fli i t

e Th e a dva tage f this d finition
n c en . n o e

is that it is quit e in d p n de nt o f th iste nc f an analytical e e e ex e o

ex p r e ssion f th function or e .

Th th ory f functions f this kin d has r e c iv d c onsi d rabl

e e o o e e e e

d lopm nt at th hands f C auchy R i m ann d oth rs ; d

e v e e e o ,
e , an e an

h as gro w into i m p ortant branch f m th m atic l analysis

n an o a e a .

W giv h r o ly such l m ntary notions conn ct d with th

e e e e n e e e e e e

subj ct as e f im m diat hydr dy a m ical int r st

e ar o e e o n e e

75 assu m e th stu d nt to b acquaint d with th m thod

. We e e e e e e

of r pr s nting th
e sym bol w + i y by a v ctor drawn from th
e e e e e

origi f re ctangular o -
n o or dinat e s to th point ( y) c e x, .

In this m th od th e s m f two v ctors is d fin d to b th

e u o e e e e e

v ctor drawn fro m th origin to th opp osit cor r f th e p

e e e e n e o ar

all l g m f which th y form adjac e nt S i d s

e o ra o e e .

Th e ff ct f m ultip lyi g e e v ctor 1 + i y by anoth r a + i b

o n on e e 519 e

is to incr e as e its l e ngth i th ratio 1 d to turn it i th e n e r ,

an n

Th e r e a de r wh o wi s h e s fo r an e le m e nt a r y e xpo s i ti o n o f th e a n lyti c l th ry
a a eo

m ay c o n su l t Du r é g e : E l e m e n te d e r Th e o r i e d e r Fu n c ti o n en e in er c o mp l e x e n v e r an

de r li c h e n G r o ss e . 2n d cd .
, L e ipzi g , 18 73 .
74 C o MP L Ex VA RI AB L ES . 73

positiv e d ire ction ( i ro m w to y) through an angl 0 wh r

. s . f e ,
e e

b
—
r an d 0 i th e l e ast p osi t ive valu e f arc tan
s W ith o
CL

re spe ct to th e e p r ssio
x a + ibe is call e d th e m od ulus d 0
‘
n ,
r ,
’
an

th e
‘
a m plitu de .
’

anings f subtraction a d division o f v ctors follow at

Th e m e o n e

onc from th consi de rations that th y

e th e op ratio s i ve rs e ar e e e n n e

to thos e f a dditio d m ulti p lication r e sp ctiv e ly

o n an ,
e .

With th e se conv n tions th e addition m ulti p lication & f e , , ,

c .
, o

v ctors
e
p rfor m d cor
,
d ing to
are th sa m la
ew s f o p ration e ac e e o e as

in co m m on alg bra e .

76 . F or S hortn e ss com pl qua titi s we d e not e th e ex n e

an d w i y by th e l tt rs w d r sp ctiv ly Th s sym bols e e ,

an z, e e e . e e

not b ing r e quir d at p r s nt in th ir for m e r m e anings m y

. e e e e e a

without inconv ni nc e have th e s e w on s assign d to th m Th e n

e e e n e e e .

w b ing any function f

e accor di g to th d fi i tio f A t 7 4 o z, n e e n n o r .
,

w e hav e corr e sp on d ing to any p oint P f th e plan e y ( which w o sa e

m y call th
a
p lan f th variabl e
) o e or m or de finit oe valu s e e z n e e e

fw L t s choos any f th s d d not e it by a p oi t P

’
o . e
e u e on o e e ,
an e n

o f w hich ( I th r ctangular - or
f d inat s
ar e in a s e con d p lan
e e co e e

( th p lan e f th f unction w
e
) I f
o P trac out any
e curv e in th e . e

p lan f Pe w ill trac

o out a
z, corr s p on
’
d ing curv e in th p lan e e e e

fw By m pping out th p ositions o f P corr sp on ding to th

’
o . a e e e

various p oints P f th plan my w m y e hibit graphical ly all o e e ,

e a x

th p ro p e rti s f th function w
e e o e .

L et Q a p oint infinit
n owly n e ar to P d l tbeQ b e th e , an e
’
e

corr sp on ding p oint infinit ly n ar to P W e m y d not e P Q

e e e
’
. a e

by d P Q by d w Th e v ctor P Q m y b e obtain d from th

z,
’ ’
. e
’ ’
a e e

dw
ve ctor P Q by m ultiplying it by th e diff r e tial co e ffici nt e n e
d z

w hos valu is by d finition d

e n d nt eonly on th p osition f P e e o
p e e e ,

an d not on th d ir ction f th l e m nt d ( P Q ) N w th e ff c t
e e o e e e z . o e e

com pl qua tity s :

i
of m ulti p lying any v e ctor by th is t e ex n o

incr as its l ngth in s m d finit ratio d to turn i t in th

e e e o e e e , an e

p sitiv
o d ir cti n thr ugh
e s m d fini t e g l H nco i th o o e e e an e . e e ,
n e
74 M TI O ON OF A L I QUI D I N TWO D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . IV .

transitio fro m th plan f to that f w all th infini te si m al

n e e o z o ,
e

v ctors d rawn fro m th p oint P hav th ir l ngths alt r d in th

e e e e e e e e

sam ratio d e turn d through th sam angle H nc any

,
an are e e e . e e

angl in th plan f is q u l to th corr sp on ding gl in th

e e e o z e a e e an e e

p la f w
n e d any
o infinit ly s m
,
all figur
an in t h p lan is e e e on e e

si m ilar to th corr sp on ding figur i th oth r In oth r words

e e e n e e . e ,

corr spon ding figur s in th p lan s f

e d w e sim ilar in th ir
e e e o z an ar e

infinit ly sm all p arts

e .

F instanc e in th p lan o f w th straight lin s 1 const

or , e e '
e e ( ) .
,

= const wh r th e constants hav assign d to th m a s ri s f

I
«f .
,
e e e e e e e o

valu s i arith m tical progr ssion th com m on di ff r nc b i g

e n e e ,
e e e e e n

infini t sim al d th sam in ach cas for m tw syst m s f

e an e e e e ,
o e o

str ight lin e s at right a gl s d ivi ding th plan into infinit ly

a n e e e e

s m al l squar s H nc in th p lan my th e corr sp on ding curv s

e . e e e e e e

e valu s constants b ing assig

i

i
g c t th ‘
fr th on s .
,
d e o e e n e

to th m as b fore cut e anoth r at right ngl s ( as has alr e ady

e e on e a e

b n prov e d oth rwis ) d divi d th plan e into a s ri s o f i

ee e e an e e e e n

finit ly s m all square s

e .

Th e si m ilarity f corr e s p on ding infinit ly s m all p ortions f th e

o e o

p lan s ed z br aks
to d o w nanat p oints wh r t h d i ffe r ntial e e e e e

dw d w d¢ d [
co fici e nt
f e ro or nfin te S nce IS + ze
- — th I i i i
. \r
e
a 7
,
d d
.

z ; ( 5 x

corr sp on ding -
e valu e f th v locity in th e hydro dynam ical p o e e ,
a

p lic tion a i e ro or infinity

, s z .

77 . Th e p roc e ss s e of i r ntiatio a d int e gration as appli

d ffe e n n , e d
to functions of a com pl ex variabl clai m a li t tl notic e ,
e e .

Th e con ditions ( 1 3 ) that to shoul d be a fu ctio n n of z m a y be

writt en

dw . dw

a for m which th stu de nt shoul d int rpr t It is obvious that ( 1 4 )

e e e .

dw
is satisfi d wh e n d eis writt e f w d th r fore that z
n or ,
an e e

dw
its e l f a function nc e al l th de rivative s f a function
'

is of z He e o
d
.

o f a c m pl variabl e
o ex ar e th m s lv s functions o f that v ri abl
e e e a e .
76 7 ,
C o M P L Ex VA R I AB L ES .

Th e me aning of th e int g ral e

tak n lo g y ig e d p th fro m to is d fin e d as follows

e a n an a ss n a z
o
z, e .

S u pp osing th p ath d ivi d d into infinit si m al p ortions w for m

e e e , e

th p ro d uct wd f
e ach o f th m d dd th r sults It is asily z or e e ,
an a e e . e

sh wn that th valu f th int gral is to a c rtai e t nt in d

e e e o e e e n x e e

p n d
e nt f th natur
e e o f th p athojoining d T h
e e th e or e m e z
o
an z .

of Ar t 4 0 wh n appli d to a p lan e s p ac ( my) b e co m s

.
, e e e e

Th e d oubl int gral te n ds ov r any p ortion f th p lan e y

e e ex e o e ar

throughout wh ich d v finit d continuous d th ir first it an '

are e an ,
an e

d rivativ s finit ; whilst th singl int gral e t e n ds in th p ositiv

e e e e e e x e e

d ire ction ( e A t 3 9 ) roun d th boun dary f that p ortion

s e r N W . e o . O

i f w writ e w i w it follows by ( 1 4 ) that f(wd

e it i wdy ) or
,
'
v ,
z ,

f w d is e ro wh
z, e n tak n ro u n
z d th boun d ary f any p ortio f th e e o n o e

p lan m y throughout
e w hich w is finit a d continuous d its first e n ,
an

d rivativ finite
e e .

W e in f r as in A t 4 1 that th e int gral ( 1 5) is th e sam e f

e , r .
,
e or

any two paths joini g so long as th s p aths d not inclu d n z, z ,

o
e e o e

b e tw th m any points at which w is infinit e or discontinuous

een e ,

dw
d
nfin tz
e I i .

An y p oints
at whi ch th e s e con ditions e violat e d m y b ar a e

isolat d by drawing an infi i t ly sm all clos d curv aroun d ach

e n e e e e .

Th r st f th e plan e my th n for m s a m ultiply-

e e o conn ct e d r gio e e e n .

Th val u e f th e int gral fwd tak n rou d any van scibl e circuit
e o e z e n e e

drawn in this r gion is ro ; d th int e gral ( 1 5 ) is th e sam f

e ze an e e or

any two il b l p aths Th e valu s o f ( 1 5 ) c orr e sp on ding

r e co n c ea e . e

to two i e il b l e p aths d i ff r by a quantity f th

rr co n c formea e o e

p l+ pz
,
wh r p p 2
x
2
i nt g rs d e e
l , g,
ar e e e ,
an x
l , x
2 ,

de not th e valu e s f [ wd tak e

e roun d th s e v ral circuits o z n e e su r

-
roun ding th e above m ntion e d p oints " It is unn e ce ssary to e .

i‘I n th e a n lyti c l th ry
a a eo x
1 , ar e call e d th e ‘m o du l i of r
pe i o di i y ct ’
of th e
i nt g e r al
76 M TI O ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

dwe ll o th e proof f th s e stat m e nts or to e nt r m ore fully in to

n o e e , e

th e th e ory o f m any - valu d inte grals f th for m to d so e o e o

w oul d b to r p at with m e r ly v e rbal alt e rations portion s o f

e e e ,
e ,

C hap t r I I I e .

Th e i t e gral ( 1 5 ) is its e l f a functio o f

n according to th n z, e

d finitioe of A t 74 nF or d noting its valu e by Z we hav

r . .
,
e ,
e ,

d Z
'

obviously __
dz

i . e . Z h a s a de finit e d ffe i re ntial co e ff ci nt i e .

78 . i m portant illustratio
An n of th e abov e th e ory is furn ish e d
by th e int gral e

Th e o l y point at which th e fu nction

n or its d rivative is z e ,

infinit or discontin uous is th e origi

e I tro ducing p olar c ,
n . n o

ordi ate s we writ e

n ,

( cos 9 + i S i 9 ) 2 r n

w he ce n
Q d
_
r

z r

He nc e th e valu e f ( 1 7) tak e n roun d an infinit e ly s m all circle

o

having th e origin as c ntre is e

dz

I n th e analytical th e ory abov r f rr d to e e e e , th e logarith m of a

com pl ex quantity is d fin d by th e quation
z e e e

dz
lo g z
z
1

He nce log is a m any - valu e d function th e cyclic constan t

z ,

b ing 2 i
e 7r .

Th e p rop rti s f th logarith m ic functio r ad ily follow fro m

e e o e n e

th de finition
e Thus i f b e any two co m pl e quantiti e s z
, , z x
2

w hav e e

d . z z
, 2
dz l dz ,
9
2 2 z 2
1 2 : 2
 CO MPL EX VAR I A BLES .

or log log z log ,

z
, ( 2 1

P utting 0 we hav e z
, ,

log 0 log log 0 z

1 ,

log 0 00 ,

sinc e it appe ars that th r e al part e of th e logarith m

quantity is e ss e ntially n gativ e e ,

log 0 oo

I th e sam way
n e
log 00 oo

L et us
am in th e pro pe rti e s f th function inve rse to th
ex e o e
‘
e

logarith m ; i writing v z .

i t) log z,

l t us i v e stigat e th e prop rti e s f

e n as a function o f w Thi e o z . s

fu ctio we de not e by
n n It follows at onc e f o m ( 2 1 ) that r

wt we wx+ w2
e e

th e f undam e ntal prop e rty of th e

‘
e xp on ntial e
’
function . He nc e ,

an d fro m

e
°
= 1, + 00 , 0 .

Al so S i n ce lo g z is cyclic , th e constant b ing e 2 71i , e

‘
”
i s a p e r i o di c

fu ctio n n , th e p e rio d b e ing 2 7r i , v iz .

w + 2n 1r i
e

wh e re n is any int e ge r .

us m p out i th m ann e r
L e t a ,
n e ex
p lain e d i A t 7 6 th n r .
, e

r e lation b twe e th e two functions

e n z an d w It appe ars from ( 1 9 )
.

w = lo g z

Th e first te rm on th right -han d si d e e of ( )

2 5 is e ss ntially r al ;
e e

we de no te it by log r We hav e th e . n lo g r and 0 as th e r ct e

P u tti n g r —1 in ( 1 8) an d ( 2 5 ) we se e th a t
c
w co s 0+ i sin 0.
78 M TI O ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

a gul r
n a co -
ordinat e s o f th e po int P ’

in th l n of w corr e sp on di n g
e p a e

t o th p oint P e
( re ,
y) o f th e p l n
a e of z . I f P de scrib a circl e e o f

Fi g . 5 .

radius unity about th origin starting fro m th e point ( 1 0) th n e , ,

e ,

sinc log 1 0 P will m ov al ong th a is f I d will d scri b

’
e , e e x o «», an e e

a l ngth 2 f that a is f v ry r e volution f P T p oints P

e 7: o x or e e o
’
. o

outsi d th ci rcl = 1 corr sp on d points P to th righ t f th

e e e r e
'
e o e

a is f If
x d ico e « To v ry str ight lin through th
an v e v r sa . e e a e e

origin in th plan f corr e s pon ds in th pl n f w a straight

, e e o z, e a e o

lin p arall l to th a is f f Th p rio dicity f

e e d th cyclosis
e x o I) . e e o z, a n e ,

of w m ani f st d by th
, are d ivision f th p lan e f w by t
eh e o e e o e

straight lin s ‘l 2 into an i finit

e n m b r ’ f co m
p rt m nts u rr n e u e o a e ,

e ach f which corr sp on ds to th wh le f th plan f

o e e o o e e o z .

In th sam w y th prop rti e s

e e a e e of th e fu nction ar e tan z m a
y b e

de duc d fro m th d e finition

e e

dz _”
ta n 1 10g
z
ar c z
1 z
2
2i z --
l i
’

an though with m uch gr e at e r di fficulty thos e

d, , of th e f unction
arc i z from th e de finition
s n

a r c si n z
 7 8 7 9) ,
C o MP L E x VA R I A BL ES .
79

hy dro dynam ical int rp r tation f cas e s wh r w is

79 . Th e e e o e e ,

in th e for going s ns a m any - val d function f is obvio s fro m

e e e , ue o z u

th p rec ding cha p t r I t eis p ossible ho w v r f i v to b e . e e e or e

a m biguous in anoth r way L t us tak f instanc e th func e . e e or e

t ion

I f we start fro m th e p oint = l with r , th e valu e w= 1 ,

th e valu f th e function at any oth r p oint is

e o e

= i cos 9 i sin
w r ( 5
wh e r e ust f cours e b su pp os e d to vary continuously He nc
9 m o e . e

i f th p oint P ( 9 ) de scrib a clos e d curv not m bracing th

e r , e e e e

origin w will r turn to its f rm r valu ; but i f th p ath o f P

,
e o e e e

e nco m pass th origin th is will not b th cas ; i f th m otio f P

e e e e e n o

b in th p ositiv dir e ction 0 will hav incr s d by 2

e e d w e e ea e 7r ,
an e

sh ll hav w
a 1 A s con d circuit roun d th origi will r stor e
e . e e n e

to w its original Valu H nc to v ry poi t P i th p lan f e . e e e e n . n e e o z

corr sp on d tw valu s o f w which how e v r p ass i to o anoth r

e o e ,
e n n e e

continuously as P d scrib s a clos e d curve about th origin wh r e e e , e e

th tw valu s c o i ci d
e o e n e .

Agai n i f ,

an start fro m any p oint A with th valu

d we th e valu o f w e e e

at A aft r e circuit f P roun d th origin will b w aft r a

e on o e e a o , e

s e con d circuit w d ft a third w wh r is a cub e root

'

’f 3f
a , an a er a
o , e e a
o

o f unity H nc to v ry p oint P f th p lan e f

. corr sp on d
e e e e o e o z e

thr valu s f w form i g a cy cl which r curs at e v e ry thir d cir

ee e o ,
n e e

cuit f P roun d th e origin

o .

A p oint
such as th e origin in th abov e e am pl e s at which
,
e x ,

two or m or valu e s f a function coi ci d is call d a branch

e
‘
o n e ,
e

p oint T h si m ilarity
’
. in th e ir infinit ly s m all
e p arts f th p lan s e o e e

ofw d m ust obviously br

an z -
k down at a branch p oint so that ea ,

we m ust hav e at such p oints ( Ar t 7 6 ) .

dw
d;
0, or co .
80 M TI O ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHA R . Iv .

branch -p oints f a functio i t)

Th e also branch- p oints f o n are o

dw
d i ce v e a as is e asily s e n fro m th e m e aning f th latt r
an v r s e o e e
d
,
z

function .

H e nc e i f assu m ption o f th form ( 2 6) an

( )
2 7 b e hy d ro e . or

dynam ically int lligibl th p ortion f th p lan

e my occu p i de ,
e o e e e

by th e flui d m ust not inclu d any branch - p oints ; oth r w is e t h e e e

com p on nt v lociti e s woul d b am biguous at v ry p oint f th

e e e e e o e

fl i d Branch -p oints m y how v e r occur on th boun d ry f this

u . a e e a o

p ortio i which
n cas
,
circunl ation roun d th m is i m ossibl
p e e e .

80 . We can n o w p roc ee d to som applic ti ns

e a o o f th e f or goinge

th ory
e .

Ex a m p le 1 . Assu m e
w Az ”

and su ppos e A to be r ale Intro ducing polar cc -

or dinate s r ,
9 ,

we hav e

d ) Ar ”
cos n 0,

i f Ar ”
Sin n fl .

str a - lin s a syst straight li

o

If = 1 , th e f
( ) a m
n m e e ar e e o n e s

p arall e l to d th e qui p ot ntial

as , a n curv s a si m ilar syst
e m e e are e

pa rall l to e
y In this cas .
y corr e s p o ding figur s i t h e p lan e s an n e n e

of w a d ne si m ilar wh e th r th y b e finit
z ar infi n ite si m al
, e e e or .

b
( ) I f 2 th curv s
n 4 const a
,
syst e m e f r cta g ular e ) . are o e n

hyp e rbolas having th a s f -ordinat s th i r principal a s d e xe o co e as e xe , an

th curv
e e s p co st a u si m ilar syst m having
n t.h ar e -or d inat e e co e

a s as asym ptot s Th lin s 9 0 9 = §

xe e .
p arts f th se m e , 7r are o e a e

str m -lin l = 0 so that w m y tak th e positive parts f th

ea e «e , e a e o e

a s f y fi d boun dari s d thus obtai th c

xe o x, as xe f a flui d e , an n e as e o

in m otion in th angl b tw n tw p rp n di cular walls e e e ee o e e .

( )
0 I f 1 w g t
n t w syst m s o f circl,e s touchie g th e o e n e

a es f -
ordinat e s at th origin S inc A cos 0
x o co w 4 th e . e n o )
“
e
7

If A b e c o m pl e x, th e cur v e s ¢ = c o ns t . ar e n o t al e t rdi e n r
fo m b u t
on ly in p o si i o n t ,
be i g n t urn e d r oun d th e or i gi n th r ou gh an an gl e ar c ta n 8 if,

A= a + i fl .
79 SPEC I AL CASES OF M O TI ON . 81

v locity at th origi is infinit ; to avoi d a phy i l b urdi ty w

e e n e s ca a s e

m us t su pp s th r gion t which o for m ul

e ely t b li
e m i t d o our
pp ae a o e e

int rnally by a clos d curv surroun ding th origin

e e e e .

d
( ) I f 2 ach syst e m o fncurv s is co m p os d f a ,d oubl e e e o e

syst e m f l m niscat s Th a s f th syst m 1) const coin

o e e . e xe o e e < .

ci d with or y ; thos e f th syst m ‘

e a:
f const bis ct th angl s o e e ’ . e e e

b tw n th s
e ees e e a xe .

( 6 ) B ro
y p p rly ch osing th e valu f w g t a cas
e f o e o n e e e o

irrotational m tion in which th boun dary is co m p s d f tw rigi d

o e o e o o

w alls inclin d at y angl e The quatio f th str

an a m -li a . e e n o e e n e s

b ing
e
"
S in 0 const r 71 .
,

we se e that th e lin s e 6 0, 0 ar e
p a rts o f th e sam e str eam

lin e . He nc e we hav o ly to p e n ut a, a n d so obtain th e r quir

e e d

s lutio in
o n th e f orm
;l
«f
i Ar s in

Th e co m pon e nt v l citi s along e o e an d pe p e d r n icul r to a r ,

are

’
5 1 - d -l
A—
7r
r
“
co s
7r
an d —A — r " n
l
SI n
a a a a

an d th r for ro finit
ar e e in finit at
e e ze ,
e , or e th e origin ,
ac cording as

a is l ss than qual t or gre at r than

e ,
e o ,
e '
n
'
.

81 E m p le 2
. Th assu m p tio
xa . e n

w= u
,
. lo g z,

i = l i "
b
g + l
xr a o
g r e ,

= 1
¢ 0
F 8 v 7 3

Th e qui pot nti l lin s

e conc ntric circl s about th origin ;
e a e ar e e e e

the s t r m - lin s s t r ight lin s radiating from th origin O

ea e are a e e . r,

w m y tak e th
e acircl s = t s th str a m -lin s
e d th e r co n s . a e e e ,
an e

radii 0 = const as th e quip ot ntial line s In both cas e s th

. e e . e

f L
v locity at a d istanc from th origin is
e — we m ust th for e r e
.
e re e
7

s u ppos th origin clu d d ( y by drawi g a sm al l circl e roun d

e e ex e e . . n

i t) fr m th r gion occu pi d by th flui d In th

o e e con d c e e . e se a se ,

L . 6
 7
8 2. M TI O ON OF A LI QU I D IN TWO D I M ENS I ONS .
[
C HAR IV .

alr a dy discuss d i A t 3 4 th m otion is cyclic ;

e e n r .
, e th e circulation
i any circuit surroun ding th origin b ing
n e e

82 . E x a m p le 3 . L e t us writ e

I f r 1, r 2
de not e th e d istanc s e of an y p oint in t h e p lan y fro m t h e x e

p oints (i a , an d 9 1 , 02 th e a gl s which th e s e distanc s m ak

n e e e

w ith th p ositiv e e d ir ctione o f ac , w hav e e

a: iy a r
‘
x iy a r e
es

an d th r e for e e

T
= fb l 0 =P 9
¢ ( 1
l
g T
1
P
2

T eh curv e s p co st i e 9 — 0 = const « circl s p assing n .

, . .
,
. are e
2

through th p oints ( i th curv s qt const

e th syst m a, e e . ar e e e

o f circl s orthogonal to th s
e E ith r f th s syst m s f circl s e e . e o e e e o e

m y b e tak n
a th quip t nti l curv s d th o th r syst m
e as e e o e a e ,
an e e e

will th n co m p os t h e str m -lin s In i t h r cas th v locity

e e ea e . e e e e e

at th p oints a 0) w ill b infinit ;

e th at w m ust clu d ,
e e so e ex e

th s p oints ( e y by sm all clos d curv s dr wn roun d th m ) from

e e . e e a e

th r gion to which th for m ul apply which th us b co m s

e e e ae , e e

r
t riply -conn e ct d I f th e curv s const b t k n th str a m
e . e . e a e as e e

lin s th circulation in any circuit m br cing th first o ly f

e ,
e e a e n o

th abov p oints is 2 m ; th at in
e e m br cing th s con d p oint 7 on e e a e e

only is 2 m ; whilst that in a circuit m br cing both is ro

7 e a ze .

83 . E x a m p le 4 . Assu m e
i wr = a lo g + iy —a
b
§ + l ( a: )
If r
1 , r
, , 9 1 9 2 h av e th e
, sam e m ea nings as in th e l st
a ex am p l e ,

t h is giv s e
=
¢ W¢ w ( )
2 8

Th e cu rv s const e r r
l 2
. ar e a syst m e o f l e m niscat s whos e e
p ol s e

ar e at th e p oin ts ( i a , Th cu v s e r e 9, 9 const i e
2
.
,
. .

y y
arc tan + ar c ta n c nst
o .
,
x + a
81 SPE C I AL CASES OF M O TI ON . 83

are tan
are a syst m f r ctangular hyp rbol as r th gonal to th b v
e o e e ,
o o e a o e

sy t m f l m niscat s d passing through th ir pol s A dr wing

s e o e e ,
an e e . a

of bo t h syst m s f curv s is giv n by L a m é e

“ o e e
’

Th f r m ul ( )
2 8 m e ak th o v locity infinit at
ae th p ol s e e e e e e ,

which m ust th r f r b clu d d fro m th r gion to which th

e e o e e e x e e e e

r
f m ul a ly I f th l m nisc t s b t k n th str a m - lin e e a e e a e as e e e s,
o
pp ae .

th v loci ty - t n t i l ( 9 9 ) is a cyclic f unction ; th circ lation a e u

e p e o e u.
, 1 2

in any circuit m braci g p ol only is 2 m thate in a circui t n on e e 7 ,

em bracing both p ol s is 4 m e 7 .

84 . E x a mp l e 5 . Assu m e

dw
dz

in th e notation o f Ar t 8 2 . . S i c n e

dw
dz
t his giv s e

u a l o g v u.
, ( 2
9 91 )

I f we su pp os th r gion occ pi d by th e flui d t h av th e e i e u e o e e ax s

of as a boun d ry th r will b
a: a m biguity in th s v lu s f
a , e e e n o e e a e o

u M or ov r
,
w ill b v ryw h r finit
e e d continu us
, u , 1) e e e e e e an o

ex c pt on th a is f
e Wh n y = 0 d e th n 9 9 0
x o x . e ,
an as a ,
e
1 2

an d wh n y 0 th n 9 9
e In ach c s ,
0x a , e
1 2
7r . e a e 7) .

Wh n y 0 d
e w hav 9 , 9 an 0 d th r fora a: a ,
e e
1
7r ,
2 ,
an e e e

v =
p m W h v t h us t h solution
. f th foll
e w ing p robl am e e o e o e

A infinit m ass f li q ui d bou d d by

n e infinit rigi d pl n bu t o n e an e a e

oth r wis un l i m i t d i initially at r st

e e d a stri p f t h is p l n e f s e ,
an o a e o

br adth 2 i su pp s d d t ch d fro m th r m in d r d su dd nly

e a s o e e a e e e a e an e

p ush d in w r d s w ith
e v loci t y w ; t fi da t h m otion p ro d uc d in e ,
rr o n e e

th flui d In th abov e form u l th rigi d plan corr spon ds to

e . e ae e e e

th a is f e d th flui d li s to th n g tiv si d
x o x, a n f th la tt r e e e e a e e o e e .

It pp rs fro m ( 3 0) that a t th dg s f th stri p i infini t

a ea e e e o e u s e .

i l ig n p 223
'

L e go n s s u r le s C o o r do n n e e s cu r v es ,
. .
84 M TIO ON
D I MENS I ONS [CHAR I v or A L I QU I D I N Two . .

This e am pl is m e r ly giv n as an instanc e f discontinuous

x e e e o

-
bou d ry con ditions
n a .

Th v l u s f 95 l can b e at onc e foun d i f r quir d by

e a e o , xr ,
e e ,

i t grating
n e

v ry g e n e ral for m ula f th e functions d i m y b

85 . A e or ) ,
« f a e

obtain d as follo ws It m y b e sh w n that if a func t ion f ( ) b

e . a e z e

finit e continuous d singl -

,
valu d d hav e its first d rivativ ,
an e e ,
an e e

finit at all p oints f s p c inclu d d b t w n tw conc ntric

e ,
o a a e e e ee o e

circl s about th origin its valu at any p oint f th Spac can b

e e , e o e e e

e p a d e d in th e conv rg nt form
x n e e

f( ) z A° + A1 z + Azz +
’

1 -
Bl z B ,, z 2
'

abov con ditions b satisfi d at all p in ts w ithin a circl

I f th e e e e o e

having th e origin c e ntr w r e tain only th asc n ding s ri s ; as e ,

e e e e e

i f at all p oints without such a circl th d sc n d ing s ri s with e , e e e e e ,

th e a ddition f th e constant A is su ffici nt oI f th con ditions b e 0,

e . e

fulfill d f all p oints f th plan my wi t hout

e or c ption f ( ) can o e e ex e ,
z

b no oth r than a constant A

e e 0
.

P utting f ( ) intro d ucing p olar -

or d inat
z s d co e , an

writing th e c m pl constants A B“ i th form s o ex ,

n e

B ,
r sp ctiv ly w O btain e e e ,
e

c
t P 2 2 ( P cos
O
9 Q “ S in 9 ) 2 2
°
F r( R
”
cos 9 S i 9,) n n
° ”
,
71 ,,
S n n

“ “
2 1r E? r
°

Q (Q 9 P "s i n 9) ( S 9 R sin n 9)
’

,
co s n n co s n
0 , n

Th e s e form ul e conv ni t in tr ating probl m s wh r w ae ar e en e e e e e

hav e th valu f 95 or f i give n ov r th circular boun d ri s

f e e o ,
o e e a e .

This valu m y b p n d d f ach

e boun d a y ina s ri s f S in s e ex a e or e r a e e o e

d cosi s f m ulti p l s f 9 by F i th or m Th s ri s ’
an n e o e o ,
our er s e e . e e e

thus foun d m ust b e quival nt to thos obtain d fro m e e e e

wh nce quating s para t ly co ffici nts f i 9 d cos 9 w

e ,
e e e e e o s n n an 77 ,
e

obtain four syst m s f lin ar e quations to d t r m in e o e e e e

86 . E ma m p l e 6 . An infi i t ly l g circu l r cy lin d r

n e on a e o f r di s a u
84 M TI O ON or A C I R CU L AR CYL I NDE R IN L I QU I D . 85

a is m oving with locity V p p n dicular t its l ng th in v e er e o e , an

Infinit m ass f liqui d which is at r st t infinity ; to fi d th

e o e a n e

m otion f th fluid su pposing it to hav e b

o e starte d fr m een o

r ste .

Th e m otion will e vi d ntly b in tw di m nsi ns L t th e e o e o . e e

origi b tak e n in th
n i f th cylin de r
e d th e a s f m y in e ax s o e , an xe o ,

a plan p rp n dicular to its l gth F urth r l t th a is f m b e

e e e en . e e e x o

in th dir ction f th e V locity V Th m otion having originat d

e e o e . e e

fro m r e st will n c ssarily b irro t ation l d I w ill b singl e e e a , an ( ) e e

valu d Also S inc e . ds tak e n roun d th s e ction f th cylin d r

,
e ,
e o e e

is ro i is
ze also singl -
e valu d ( e
,
«f At so that th form ulae e s e r . e

dd )
( ) pp
3 2 a ly M or ov r sinc is giv
.
e n at v ry p oint f eth e ,
e e e o e

cylin d r v i e ,
z .

dl <>
V os 9 wh e n r o , a
dr

robl e m is de t rm inat e by A t 7 1 S i c th e r e gio occu pi d

th e p e ,
r . . n e n e

fluid t e n ds to infinity w m ust i ( 3 2 ) o m it th e c o e ffi

b y th e
'

ex e n

cie t P n Th con ditio ( 3 3 ) th e n giv s

s
” ,
e n e

""
V cos 9 2 ( R cos 9 S S i n 9 )
'°

n a
1
n
n ,
n ,

which c “
b e satisfi d only by m aking R
an V d all th e
I
a , an e

oth r fli ci t ro Th co m pl t solution is the r e for giv n by

e co e en s ze . e e e e e

E 00 8 9 , ‘
l f
' K g

r r

Th s e form ulae coi ci d with thos f A t 8 0 ( e )

e n e e o r . .

A this cas is s which is r e adily co m p arabl with e pe i

e on e e x r

m nt w e w ill calculat
,
th e e ff ct
e f th e p r e ssur f th fl id e e ,
o e o e u

onth e sur fac f th e cylin d r Th e for m l a ( 4 ) f A t 2 5 giv e s

e o e . u o r .

w h r we hav o m itte d th e t r m d e to th e t r al i m pr s d
e e e e u ex e n e se

forc s th e ff ct f which can b e calculat d by th or di ary rul s

e , e e o e e n e

i
gf
of Hy drostati cs Th t e rm S - ( 3 5 ) p r e ss e s th e rat at wh.ich e In ex e

4 is incr asi g at a fi d p oint f s p c wh r s th v lu f f)

) e n xe o a e , e ea e a e o c
86 M TIO ON or A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENSI ONS [C HAR . Iv .

in ( 3 4) is r f rr e e e d to an origin which is in m otion with th e v locity

e

V p arall l to m e . H nc e e

d d) dV f
c

di dt r

w h r
e e

cos 2 9 .

Th e p r ssur at any p oint

e e o f th e cylin dric l surf c is th r a a e e e

or e
f

p
z
p §
-
V

r sultant p r ssur on a l ngth f th cylin d r is vi d ntly

Th e e e e e o e e e e

p ar llal to m ; tefi d i t m ount p unit

o l gth w m ust
n m ulti p ly s a er en e

( )
3 6 by d 9 9 d int
a grat with
. r s
co s
p ct to 9 b t w nan th e e e e e e e e

l i m its 0 d 2 Th only t r m which giv s a r sult di ff r nt

an 7r . e e e e e e

fro m e ro i th s co n d which giv s

z s e e ,
e

WP

if M ass in unit l ngth f th flui d dis plac d by th

’
b e th e m e o e e e

cylin d r C o m par A t 1 05
e . e r . .

I f in th e abov am pl w i m pr ss o th flui d d th e ex e e e n e an e

cylin d r v locity V in th dir ction f m w hav th cas f

e a e e e o , e e e e o

a curr nt flo wing with v e locity V p st a fi d cylin dric l obstacl

e a xe a e .

Adding to qS d i th t rm s V d Vy r sp ctiv ly
an «f e e a: an ,
e e e ,

we g e t

cos 9 , 1
1 r =

no t rnal fo c s t d i f V b constant
I f ex e r e ac ,
an e ,
w e fin d fo r th e
r sultant pr ssur e th cylin d r th valu ro
e e on e e e e ze .

To r n d r th for m ula ( 3 1 ) cap abl f r p r s nting y

87 . e e e e o e e e a n

cas f irrotational m otion in th spac b t w n tw c nc ntric

e o e e e ee o o e

circl s w m ust dd t th right han d si d th t rm

e , e- a o e e e e

A lo g z
86 I ND I R EC T M ETHOD OF O BTAI N I N G SO LU TI ONS . 87

IfA corr spon ding te r m s in

P i Q th e ,
e

P l g Q 9 P 9 + Q log o r ,
r ,

r s p ctiv ly Th m ning f th s t r m s will a pp r fr m

e e e . e ea o e e e ea o

E am pl 2 abov
x 2 P is th cyclic constant f
e i e (A t 6 9) e . 7r e o . . r .

th total fl across th inn r ( or out r) circl ;

e d —
ux2 Q th e e e e an 7r , e

cyclic constant f qb is th e circulation in y circuit m bracing th o ,

an e e

orI In
g .

or m ula
Th e f s a m n d d by th a ddi tion f th t r m a e e e o e e

m y r dily b g n r li d a as to apply to any cas f

ea e e e a ze so e o

irrot ti nal m otion in r gion w ith circular boun dari s

a o f a e e ,
on e o

w hich nclos s all th r st In fact corr spon ding to ach int n l

e e e e .
,
e e er a

boun d ry w h av s ri s f th f r m
a e e a e e o e o

A
A l o g (z —c
)+

w h ree
y r f rs
c,to th c ntr d ath e co ffici
+ ib e nts sa ,
e e e e e ,
an e

A A A 8
, i
1
ge n e ral co m pl e quantiti s Th di ffic l ty
, 2 , 50 . are n x e . e u

ho we v r f d t rm ining th e s e co ffi ci nts

e o as to Satisfy give
e e e e SO n

boun dary con ditions is o w so gr at as to r n d r this m e tho d o f n e e e

v ry littl utility
e e .

In d d th d t r m i nation f th irrotational m otion f a liqui d

ee e e e o e o

subj ct to giv n boun dary con ditions is a p robl m whos e act

e e e e x

solution can b ff ct d by d ir ct proc e ss e s in only a v ry f w e e e e e e e

cas s M ost f th cas s f which w kno w th solution hav

e . o e e or e e e

b e n obtain e d by an inv rs p roc ss i i nst ad f trying to fi d

e e e e v z . e o n

a solution f th quation ( 5 ) or ( 7 ) satisfying giv n boun d ry

o e e a e a

c n ditions w t k so m known solution f th diff r nti l qua

o ,
e a e e o e e e a e

t ions d nquir what boun dary con ditions it can b m d to

an e e e a e

satisfy In this w y we m y obtain som e int r sting r sults in

. a a e e e

th following two i m p ortant cas e s f th

e g n ral probl m s in two o e e e e

d i m nsions e .

88 I Th bou dary o f th flui d consists f a ri gi d

. Ca s e . e n e o

cylin drical surfac which is in m otion with v e locity V i a e n

d ir ction p rp e dicular to its l e ngth

e e n .

L e t us tak e as a is f m th dir ction f this v locity V d x o e e o e ,

an

l t d b
e l m nt f th cti n f th s r f c by th pl n my
s e an e e e o e se o o e u a e e a e .
88 M TI O ON or A L I QUI D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

Th n at all points
e of this s ction e

(1 2 = v e locity o f th e fl ui d in th e d ire ction of th e nor m l a

713 ,

v e locity of th e boun dary norm al to its lf e ,

da
V
dB
Int grati g alo g th e s ction
e n n e ,
we hav e

j
( , Vy const
I f we t k any possibl e for m f p th e quati n ( 39 ) is th
a e o « ,
e o e

equatio f a syst m f curv e s ach f which w ul d by i t m otion

n o e o e o o s

arall l to ro d uc h t f str a -lin s d fin d by const

p e m p t e m
P e e se o e e e N
”
.

We giv e a f w am p l e s e ex .

( ) I f w ea choos f «( th e for m V y + s t th n ( )
3 9 is
e or r co n .
,
e

satisfi d i d ntically f all for m s f th boun dary H nc th

e e or o e . e e e

flui d contai d w ithin a cylin d r f any shap which h a m otion

n e e O e as

of translation only m y m ov as a soli d bo dy I f furth r th a e .

,
e ,
e

cylin dric l spac e occupi d by th flui d b e si m ply-con cte d thi is

a e e n e ,
s

th only kin d f m otion p ossibl

e This is oth e rw is e vi de nt fro m
o e . e

A t 4 9 ; f th m otion f th flui d
r . or d th soli d
e m ass o e an e as on e

i de tly satisfi s th boun dary con ditions

v n d is th r for th
e e ,
an e e e e

o nly solutio which th e probl m adm its f n e o .

b
( ) L et i
«f 4 .
Si n 9 ( E x am p l e 1 ) th e n ( 3 9 ) b co m s e e
7

Si n 9 Vr s in 9 const .

In this syste m o f curv e s is inclu d e d a circl e of radius a , p rovi d e d

A
Va .

CL

He n c e th e m otion pro duc e d in an infinit e m ass f li q ui d by a o

circul r cylin d r m oving through it with v locity V p rp e n dicular

a e e e

to i t l e g th is giv n by
s n , e

w hich agr s with ee

( ) W i th
c th sa m e notation e as in E x a m pl e 3 l e t us ass u m e

l
i s 0
( 1 —9 )
 M TI O ON OF AN EL LI PTI C CY L I NDE R TH ROUGH L I QU I D . 89

Th e qu tion f th curv s by whos

e a o e e e m o ti n p rall l to
o a e a: t his
s yste m f stre a m -
lin s coul d b pro duc
o e e e d, is by ( 3 9 )

A
w h ree k is writt e n fo r
V
'

obtai an oval curve sy m m e trical with re sp e ct

I f w e p u t C = 0 we n

to m an d y curv corr e p on ding to any oth r valu e f C is

Th e . e s e o

sym m tric l with r e sp ct to th a is f y d has th lin e y = C

e a e e x o ,
an e

as an asym ptot towar ds m j; Th e curv s fe which C is th e 00 . e or

sa m e in m agnitu d but f o pposit S ig n sym m trical ly S itu te d

e ,
o e ,
ar e e a

on o pposit si d f th a is f m Th p oints ( i a O) whi ch in

e es o e x o . e ,

E a m pl 3
x tak n as origins f 9 9 m y b call d th e foci f
e ar e e o
1 , 2 , a e e o

th e abov syst e m f curv s By varyi g th constants k d

e o e . n e an a

th for m s f th curv s can b vari d in d fini t ly

e o e F ro m th ir e e e e e . e

r s m blance ( within c rtain li m its as to th r e lativ m gnitu de s

e e e e e a

of l d ) to th lin
o an o f shi p s t h y hav
a b n call e d bifocal
‘
e es ,
e e ee

n eoid by P rof R ankin wh inv stigat d th ir prop rti s with

‘

s,
’
. e
*
,
o e e e e e

a vi w to obtaining th or tical gui dance as to what p roportio s

e e e n

are to b e obse rve d i d signing a S hip in orde r to r duc m uch

n e e e as

as possibl t e r sistanc s
h d e w f -
to av s sur c friction & e e ue e ,
a e ,
c .

d
( ) L t E7 b tw e w variable s conn ,
ct d
7 with m y by
e th o n e e e , e

r latio
e n

m + iy = sin e

This give s
m
— o sin
2

0 co s
y

E li m inating f ,
we have

an d e li m inat ing 17,

“
f 6
He nc e th e curv s e 5 const 7 const . con foc l hy pe rb l
,
7 . are a o as a n d

Phil T 18 6 4 . ran s .
,
.
90 M TIO ON OF A L I QU I D IN Two D I M ENSI ONS [C HAR . Iv .

elli ps s r spe ctiv ly ;

e , e e th e d istanc e b tw e e n e th e co m m on fo i c

b i g 20
e n .

N w l e t us assu m
o e

Q!
) i xj
r Ci e flf
w hr e e C is som e r al constant e . This m ak s e
96 + i l
xr a fu ction n o f
m iy ; a d th
n valu f j ise e o xr

i Ce "cos
‘

« f

so that ( 3 9 ) b e co m s e

"
Cc 1 c o s E Vc cos 5 const .

In this syst e m f curv s is inclu d o e e d th e e llips whos e e

p ara m t r e e 7)

is d t r m in d by
e e e

e " e
‘
"
2

If a ,
b be th e s e m i -a s xe of this lli ps e e ,
we hav e by ,

e " e
'

" e " e
‘
"
a = o b=c .

2
so that

He nce th e f or m ula
l Vb e
‘
"c o s 5 ( 3)
4
x
r

giv s th m otion f an infinit m ass f liquid produc d by an

e e o e o e

elli ptic cylin d r whos s m i -a s 6 m oving parall l to its

e e e xe are a , , e

m aj or a is with v locity V x e .

That th e abov for m ula m ak s th v locity e ro at infini ty

e e e e z

a
pp rs fro
eam th e consi d ration that wh ) is larg d d d y e en a e , x an are

d
of th e sam e ord r as e d ) or e df s that e o f th n ?
’l
,
o ar e e

ord r e or g
“ ulti
e
‘

m at ly
2’7
wh, e r e d not
. s th e d ist c o f any e ,
r e e an e

p o i nt fro m th a is f t h cylin d r e x o e e .

I f th m otion f th e cylin d r w r p arall e l to its m inor a is

e o e e e x ,

th for m ula woul d b

e e

«f
I e
‘
"s i n ’’
g
8 8, M TI O ON WI TH I N A R O TATI NG E LL I PTI C CY L I NDE R . 91

D rawings f th curv s 95 c nst If c nst in th abov cas s

o e e o .
, « o .
, e e e

a re
g iv n in th Q te le
y J l f M a th w t c D
e c m b r 1 8 7 5
ua r r our n a o en
'

z s, e e e , .

Th s curv s
e e th s m e f all con focal lli ps s ; so that th
e a re e a or e e e

for m ul hol d v n wh n th g n rating lli ps r duc to a

ae e e e e e e e e e es

straight lin e joining th foci In this cas ( 4 4 ) b co m s e . e e e

-
1 Ve g
1
sin 8 1,
71

w hich w oul d c pt f th r asons stat d in A t 3 0 giv th e

,
ex e or e e e r .
, e

m otion p ro duc d in infinit m ss f liqui d by an infinit ly long

e an e a o e

l m ina f br adth 2 m oving p rp n d icul r to its lf with v locity V

a o e 0 e e a e e .

S inc ho w v r ( 4 5 ) m k s th v loci t y at th
e e e dg s f th la m ina a e e e e e e o e

infinit this solution is d stitut f practic l valu

e ,
e e o a e .

Wh n = O th p b l m f this s ction b co m s that f ( b)

e c e ro e . o e e e o

abov Th stu d nt m y as
e . rcis w ork t th trans form
e e a ,
an e xe e ,
ou e

ation f ( 4 3 ) into O

89 II Th boun d ry f th flui d consi sts f a rigi d

. Ca s e . e a o e o

cyli dric l sur f c rotating with angular v locity about an a is

n a a e e on x

p ar ll lato its l g th
e en .

Taking th origin in th a is o f rotation d th e a e s f y

e e x ,
an x o x,

in a pe rp n dicular plan w hav w ith th sa m notation

e e ,
e e ,
e e as

b for
e e ,

if v locity i
e n th e d ir ctione of th e norm al to th e boun dary

th e co m p on t v lociti s en e e of a p oint of th e boun dary b ing e

ir ctio -cosin e s f th or m al 23 iii)

wy , m m, an d th e d e n o e n
5 ,

Int grating w e hav at all p oints f th e boun dary

e e ,
o ,

If % (
w y ) co st « a:
2 ?
n .

I f w assu m e y p ossibl for m f this

e will giv
an us th e o e e

e quation f a s ri s f curv s ach f w hi ch woul d by rotatio

o e e o e ,
e o n

roun d th origin produce t e syst e

h e m f m -
str a lin s d t rm in d
,
o e e e e e

by I «f .

A m pl s w m y t k
s e xa th f llo w ing e e a a e e o
92 M TIO ON OF A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [C H AR . Iv .

( ) a I f we assu m e

3b Ar 2
co s 29 A ( x
2

th e e quation ( 4 6 ) th n b co m e s e e

(gay -
F A ) (6
2
+ (% w —A)g = g
0,
w hich f any giv n v l f A r pr e s nts a syst m f si m il r
,
or e a ue o e e e o a an d
coa ial conic s ctions That this syst m m y inclu de th lli p s
x e . e a e e e
2 2

3
1
x
+
5 5 2
7

w m ust hav e
e

(% +
w A) a
2
= A)
2 —b 2

A _ —%w
a
o 0
2
+b
2
a

g — 52
Hen ce ‘
f = —
’
2w
Ct
2 z ( m
g —y ) 2

a +b

giv e s th m otion f a liqui d contain d within a hollo w llip tic

e o e e

cylin d r whos e s m i -a s
e b p ro du d by th e rotation f th
e xe ar e a , , ce o e

cylin d r about its a is with angular v locity

e x e to .

Th e corr sp on ding for m ula f

e
1 is or <)

a
2
_b 2

Th e angular m om ntu m f th flui d e o e , p e r unit l ngth e of th e

cylin d r about th a is f rotation is
e ,
e x o ,

dx dy -
ip w ,
fl a b ( a
3

b
,
a

He nce th cylin d r rotat s un d r th action f any e t e rnal forc e s

e e e e e o x

ex actly as i f th flui d w r r pl c d by a soli d who s m o m nt f

e e e e a e e e o

i e rtia about th e a is f rotation is

n x o

2 2
b)
M a
.
6
.

p e r unit l e ngth M being th e m ass pe unit l e ngth

,
r of th e flui d .

b
( ) L e t us assu m e

p A cos 3 9 «A ( S g/ ) r
3
a:
s
an
2

Th e e quatio o f th bo n dary ( 4 6 ) th e n b e com s

n e u e

C
?
& (
e
A w m y )
89 ] M TIO ON WI TH I N A R O TATI NG EQU I L ATE RAL PR I S M . 93

L e us choos th constants th t th straight lin

t e e so a e e a: a m ay be
p art f thoe b un d ary Th con d i toions f this . e or are

Aa 3a A
s
C , &w 0 .

S ubstituting th e v lu s
A C h e nc e d e riv e d i n hav
’
a e of ,
we e

w —a —Sr g -
s s z ’
i 3 a (w O .

Divi ding out by x a ,

we g e t
” ”
x 4a m 3g ,

or

Th e r st f th boun dary consists th

e o f tw s t raight lin s
e en o o e

p assing through th p oint 2 d inclin d at angl s ef 3 0 a ,

an e e o
°

t o th a is fe Th co m pl t boun dary th e r for is co m p os d

x o x . e e e , e e ,
e

o f thr straight lin s f r m ing an e q uilat ral triangl th origi

ee e o e e ,
e n

b ing at th c ntr f gravity

e e e e o .

hav thus obt in d th for m ul f th m otion f th

We e a e e ae or e o e

fl ui d con tain d within a v ss e l in th for m f

e quilat ral prism e e o an e e ,

w h n the latt r i t in m o t ion wi t h angu lar v locity ab ut an

e e s se e to o

a is parall l to its l gth d p assing through th c ntr f

x e en an e e e o

gravi ty o f its s cti n ; i w hav e o v z . e e

g 3 9, 3 9.
s
If
«
g r co s 7
3
‘
i
8 n

w h re
e is th l ngth f a sid f th p ris m
2 V3 a e e o e o e .

Th p robl m f flui d m otio in a rotating cylin drical cas is to

e e o n e

a c rtain t nt m at h m atically i d ntic l with that o f th torsion

e ex e e e a e

f a uni for m d or bar Th above cas s ( ) ( b) m r *

'

o ro . e e a , are e e

a daptations f two f M d S aint -V nan t s solutions f th e latt r

o o . e e
’
o e

p robl m e .

( ) W0ith th sa m notati n as in A t 8 8 d
( ) let us assu m e o r .
, e e

(M i n)
4 ,
N ,

We hav e ,
fro m
x
2
+y
2
l o
g
2 cos 2 5 +
He nc e ( )
4 6 b com s
e e

cos § wc
2
2 cos 2 5 K ” ) const .

S e e Th o m so n an d Ta i t , N a tu r a l Ph i l p hy A t 7 04
o so q , r .
,
ct se .
94 M TIO ON OF A L I QU I D IN TW O D I M ENS I ONS .
[ C HA R Iv .

Thi s syst e m o f curv s inclu d se e th e

‘

e lli ps e w hos e
p ar am e t r is
e 77

p rovi d d e
—2"
06

o r, using th valu s e e o f a ,
b alr ady giv n
e e ,

C=i w ( a +
so that
I
«» i n)
( a co s 25 ,

+ b)
2
"s i n 2 8
i (
"
2
n) a e .

By th e sam r asoning a in th l st articl w

e th at at a gr at
e s e a e e se e e

d istanc fro m th origin th v locity is f th or d r

e e e e o e e

bov for m u l th r for giv th m otion f an infinit

Th e a e ae e e e e e O e

m ass f liqui d oth r wis

o t r st p r duc d by th,
rotation f an e e a e ,
o e e o

elli ptic cylin d r about i t s is w i th angul r v l city

e ax a e o to .

A d ra wing f th str m lin s in t h is c s is giv n in th

- o e ea e a e e e

Q ua te lry J l f brl th m t c D c m b
our n a r 1 8 7 5 o a e a z s,
’

e e e , .

90 a function f i t f llo ws at onc fro m th d fi

. If w be o z, o e e e n i

tio f A t 7 4 th t is a function f w Th l tt r f rm f th
n o r . a z o . e a e o o e

assu m ption is so m t i m s m or conv ni n t an ly t ic lly tha th e e e e e a a n e

for m r e .

Th r l atio s ( 1 1 )
e th n r plac d by
e n ar e e e e

dy da: dy
—
d¢ d‘
l "“
I ( f 63 5
9
Also , s m ce

Ar
dx
we hav e

dz 1
dw u —tu '

q
w h rqe is ther sultant v l city at ( y) H
e nc ei f th ro
p p rti s e o x, . e e e e e

l
f th function
ElS
hibit gra hically in nn r ‘ -
o e Q y ) b d p
—
th m ,
sa ,
e ex e e a e
;

alr ady pl in d th v ctor draw n fro m th origin to any p oint

e ex a e , e e e

in th pl n e f w ill agr in dir ction with d b in m agni t u d

e a o ee e ,
an e e

th r ci p rocal f th v loci ty at th corr spon di g p oi t f th

e e o ,
e e e e n n o e

p l an ef o z .
8 ‘ I N V E Rs E CO M PL E X FUNC TI ONS . 95

Aga in sinc e 18 th e m o dulus of i . e . o f

572 31 -
14 ,

1
,
q
w hich m a y, by b e pu t into th e e quival nt for m s e

1
?
q
dx dy dx dy
’ d‘
d‘ dd» d‘
l l”
l’

Th e last form ula ,

v iz .

1 6 1 013 , y)
9
2
d (a « w
si m ply p r ss s ex e e th e fa ct th at corr sp on ding l m ntary ar as in e e e e e

th p l an s f
e e o z an d w are in th ratio f th squar f th m o dulus
e o e e o e

91 . E xa m p le 7 . Assu m e

=c
x .
d ) ,

e
‘
P - e
-‘
P
—
y c .

Th e cur s If const v
eA t 8 8 ( l ) a syst m f con focal llip s s
« . ar e , r . c , e o e e ,

an d th e curv s ¢ = const a syst m f con focal hy p rbolas ; th

e . e o e e

com m on foci f th tw syst m s b ing th p oints ( i c

o e o e e e ,

S inc e at th foci w hav I ( 2 1 ) 0 b ing so

W 1
‘
e m e e ( ) n ,
11 , 71. e e

int g r w
e e by ( 4 9 ) tha t th v locity i infinit t h r W
, e se e e e s e e e . e

m ust th r for clu d th s p oints fro m th r gion to which our

e e e ex e e e e e

form ul app ly I f th e lli p s s b e t k n as th str am -

ae . lin s th e e a e e e e e

m otion is cyclic circulation i circuit bracing i h r

; th y m t
e n an e e e

focus l on e is
a that in a circuit m bracing both is 2
qr , e 1r .

At an infinit distanc from th origin If is infi it e d th e e « n e , an e

v locity ro
e ze .

Wh n 0 0 th is cas coinci d s w ith that f E am pl e 2 W

e :
e e o x . e
96 M TI O ON OF A L I QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHA R . Iv .

l av it as an rcis f th stu d nt to d duc th for m ul f

e e e xe e or e e e e e ae o

t hat am pl fro m t h s f th p r s nt articl

e x e o e o e e e e .

I f w tak th hy p rbol s as t h str m lin s th p ortions f

e - e e e a e ea e ,
e o
-
th a is f w hi ch l i b yon d th p ints ( 1 0) m y b tak n
”

e x o x e e e o c, a e e as

fi d bou d ri s W obt in in this m ann r th c s f a liqui d

xe n a e . e a e e a e o

fl wing fro m
o S i d to th oth r f rigi d pl n thr ugh an on e e e e o a a e , o

a
p r t ur e f br d th 2 0 m ad in th p
e l n ; but
o S inc th v l ci t yea e e a e e e e o

a t th dg s f th a p rtur is infinit e this kin d f m otion cannot

e e e o e e e ,
o

b r ali d with actu l flui d s

e e ze a .

92 . E x a m p le 8 . L e t

z A (w
w h e nc e

w = A< > j Ae c o s wr
‘
b
1
l
y i r Ae f sin ‘
‘
1
’
’

Along th e str e am -lin e s xlr i Ar r we ,

hav e

m= A i An
y
'
: '
.

As ct incr e as e s fro m
through ro to i e fro m 00 ze co x n cr a se s

r ach s a c rtain m i m u m valu

00 ,
e d th n go s back t
e e ax e ,
an e e o

Th m cc i m u m valu is r a dily foun d to b wh n gt 0 d

e ax e e e e , an

is A H c th e p ortions f th straight lin s y

.
i A which
en e o e e rr

li b tw n
e d e A m y b t k n
ee fi d a: oo an a: ,
a e a e as xe

b un d ri s L t us n t tr c th cours f str am -lin i

o a e . e ex a e e e o a e e n

finit ly n r t f th f rm r ; say If
e A( ea
) w h r is o o n e o e o e « :
71 a , e e a

i finit si m l This giv s

n e a . e

w= A y
= A7 r
a
pp ro i m t ly A 1 incrx s s f ro
a m e . incr s s
s ( )w hilst y ea e oo 9: ea e , re

m i s t first a pp ro i m t ly cons t n t
a n a d qual t A ( x ); w h n a e a an e o 7r a e ,

h ow v r pproach
e s itse m a i m u m valu
3: a y incr s s t o eth v l x e , ea e e a ue

Aw A 1 incr as s b yon d th valu

. s ( ) ro d i m inish s whils t
e e e e e ze ,
x e ,

th c ss f y ov r A Sl wly but continuously incr s s

e ex e o e 7: o ea e .

Th for m ul ( 5 1 ) p r ess th n th m otion aef a li q ui d flo w ing

ex e e e o

fro m a canal boun d d by tw p rall l p lan s into o p n s p a e

“ o a e e e ce .

W e ho w r from se e that th v locity at th dg s f t h s

,
e v e ,
e e e e e o e e

p l n s a( w h r d 0
e ] i ) is infinit
e e ; that
) t h m
,
otion x, or e so e

Th b pl i d t H
e a l h l t
ov e P h i l M
e xa m
g N 1 8 68
e A d sw i g ue o e m o z, . a . ov . . ra n

f th c r -
c t n M M
’
o e ri u v esi g i i w ll E l i i y df f
g i on s .
, s v e n ax e s e c tr c t an a n e t sm ,

V l oPl t . I .
, a e x1 1 .
91 FLOW F RO M A CANA L . 7

cannot b re ali d f th e r asons pl i n d i A t 3 0 I f h w

e ze , or e ex a e n r . . o

e v r th
e m otion b e v ry slo w
e w m y tak tw str a m lin
- s v ry e , e a e o e e e

n e ar to q i as fi e d boun dari s d so obtain a p os ibl cas

r 7: x e ,
an s e e .

93 irchho ff has a p r op os o f c rtai proble m s

. E x a m p le 9 . K ,
e n

to b e discuss d b low giv n a m tho d by which th d t rm inatio

e e ,
e e e e e n

o f th m otion in s v e ral c s e s f int r st m y b r d ily ff ct d

e e a o e e a e ea e e e .

Th m tho d r sts u p on th
e e ro
p p rty f th f unctio e{f p l in d e e o e n ex a e

in A t 9 0 I f th boun dari s f th flui d b fi d d r ct ilin ar

r . . e e o e e xe an e e ,

th e corr s p on ding lin s in th ep lan f g w hich also straight e e e o ,

are ,

are a ily lai d do wn Al sinc th fi d boun dari s

e s str m . so , e e xe e are ea

lin s th corr sp on ding li n s in th p lan f w

e , e e straight lin s e e e o are e

«
If const It is th e in m any cas.e s not d i f
fi cult to fra m e n an

assu m ption f th e form o

=
C f
by which th e corr sp on d nc f th s li s in th e plan e s f C d e e e o e e n e o an

w m y b stablish d Th r lation b t we n
a e d w is th e n to
e e . e e e e z an

b foun d by int gration

e e .

E am pl 8 abov e is v ry asily tr at e d i this m ann r

x e ,We ,
e e e n e .

tak how v r a som what l ss sim pl cas ; i that i which a

e e e e e e e v z . n

curr nt flows fro m a unifor m canal into an op e n sp ace which is

e

boun d d by an infinit plan p rp n dicular to th l ngth o f th

e e e e e e e e

canal a d in which th e m outh f th e latt e r li s S e F ig 6

,
n o e . e . .

Fi g . 6 .

Th e m dd i l lin e f e o th ecanal is e vi d ntly a str e a e m -

li n e ; say
t hat fo r which p 0 « :
. m -
Also f th e str e a lin BAC
or e
’
le t 1
11
’
7r

L . 7
98 M TI N O F O O A LI QU I D I N Two D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

on account o f th sym m try w n d only consid r th m otion e e e ee e e

b tw e n th s e tw lin s I f th v locity in th c nal at a dist nc

e e e o e . e e e a a e

from th m outh b t k n to b unity th h l f-br adth f th

e e a e e ,
e a e o e

c n l will b W Th boun d ri s i th plan f f:

a a e . sh w n in e a e n e e o ( ar e e

th figur corr sp n ding p oints in th pl n e s f n d C b ing

e e ,
e o e a o z a e

in dicat d by corr sp on ding R m an d Gr k l tt rs Th point

e e o an ee e e . e

A corr sp n ds to th origin f
e o b caus th v locity th r is e o e e e e e e

infinit ( A t e . r .

W h v w to conn ct C
e a d w by a r latio
e n o such th t 7 8 e an e n a 2

an d B s h ll corr s
oo
p on d to th t w
a str ight lin s ‘l = 0 e e o a e ’ ,
7r .

“
I f w assu m e if t h n in t h p l n e f t
zh lin'
s 7 98 d B ,
e e a e o z
'
e e 0 an oo

b co m p rts f th sam str ight lin Th ssu m ption

e e a o 1 e e a e . e a z
’
e
”

th n co v r t s th s tw p arts into th str ight lin e s t 0 If

e n e e e o e a a , « 7r .

S Ar t 7 8 W hav th
e e . . e e en

wh e nce
a :
J1 + e “
’
1
.

J1 + e w
+1

Th e constant f int gration i chos n th t th origin f

o e s so e a e o z

( hit h rto rbi t rary

e ) sh ll b t tha int rs ction f th m i dd l lin a e a e e e o e e e

o f th canal with th plan

e f its m outh e e o .

Di s co n ti n uo u s M o me n s ”

94 . hav
r qu nt occ sion to r m ark conc rni g
We e had f e e a e ,
e n

form s f flui d m otion which w hav O bt in d t h t th y c nnot

o e e a e ,
a e a

b r ali d in p ractic
e e ze account f th infinit v l ci ty d e on o e e e o an

cons qu nt n gativ pr ssur which th y w ould involv t so m

e e e e e e e e a e

p oint f t h b un d ary
o W l d
e t solutions f thison g tory . e ar e e o o u a

C haract r wh n v r a sh rp p roj c t ing dg for m s p rt f th

e e e e a e e e a o e

boun d ry E dg s f absolut g o m trical sh r pn ss d

a . t ef o e e e a e o n o o

cours occur in p r ctic ; but v n i f th dg b sl i gh tly roun d d

e a e e e e e e e e ,

( f
as inst nc
or in E a m p l 8 bov by
a th substitution
e f a x e a e ,
e o

n ighbouring str am -lin

e th fi d boun d ry ) th v loci ty ine e as e xe a ,
e e

th i m m diat n ighbourhood will unl ss th m otion b v ry

e e e e , e e e e e

H e lm h ol tz , l . o . Ar t 9 2 . .
9 3, D I SCO NTI NUOUS M OTI ONS . 99

w h r e ls e e ce e dingly sl w b v ry gr at
e e x d so will still o , e e e ,
an

transg ss th li m it p oint d out in A t 3 0

re e e r . .

It is a m att r f or dina y bs rvation that un d r such circu m e o r o e e

st nc s surf c f discontinui ty b gin i ng t th sharp dg is

a e a a e o ,
e n a e e e ,

form e d Thus th curr nt iss i g fro m an orific e in th thin wall

. e e u n e

o f v ss l do s not as w oul d ap p ar fro m E a m pl 7 s pr ad out

a e e e , e x e ,
e

an d follo w th e walls but for m s a co m pact str am boun d d all ,

e e on

si d s by fluid s nsibly t r st S i m ilarly th curr nt issuing fro m

e e a e .
, e e

a straight p ip or canal do s not spr ad out in all dir ctions in

e e e e

th m ann e r in dicat d in E a m l
e 9 but for m s at ll e ve n ts f e e a or
p x , ,

a short distanc a uni form str am whos boun dari s e p e , e e e ar ro

l g ti
on af th si d s f th canal
on s o A p ractic l m pl ifi ti
e e o e . s a e xe ca on s

o f t h s stat m nts w m y p oint to th s m ok issuing fro m a

e e e e e a e e

ch i m n y d to th m otion f a r p i d torr nt through a bri dg

e , an e o a e e

w hos spa is consi d rably l e ss than th e br adth f th cha n l

e n e e o e n e

b lo w
e .

It is not v ry e asy to form fro m th e ory a pr cis i d a f e , ,

e e e o

th m an e r in w hich th
e nist nc f th s surfac s f discon e ex e e o e e e o

ti i ty i brought about
n u I f th m otion in any f th cas s abov
s . e o e e e

r f rr d to b g n e rat d gradu lly from r st as f inst nc in th

e e e e e e a e ,
or a e e

cas f E am p l 9 b y th m otion f a p iston fitting th c nal

e o x e e o e a ,

th n i f th dg s b slightly roun d d th continuous m otion

e e e e e e e

alr ady discuss d will in th first instanc b p ossibl A h w

e e e e e e . s o

e v r th m otion f th piston is acc l rat d a ti m arriv s wh n

e e o e e e e ,
e e e

th r ssur at t h e dg sinks to ro e Th boun d ry -

con d itions e
pe e e e ze . a

a re th n alt r d d th natur f th analytical p robl m is

e e e an e e o e e

e ntir ly cha g d H e l m holt su pp os e s that at th e p oints f

e n e . z o

dp dp lp e
z e ro p r ssur th e valu s f th e d rivativ s
e e b e o e e , ’ e
d d
,
ay x z

co m discontinuous d that it is to th s discontinuous m

e ,
an e e co

p t
on e n f th total forc
s acting
o on a flui d l
e m nt t h at th e e e e e

g e n ration f th discontinuous m otion wh ich i actually p ro duce d

e o e s

is to b ascrib d e e .

Th e con ditions to b e satisfi d at a surfac f discontinuity e e e o ar

ea sily f un d W h v f cours th kin m atical r l tion ( 1 3)

o . e a e o e e e e a

o f A t 10 r d th dyn m ic l con dition is th t th p r ss r

. an t e a a a e e u e a

e v ry p oint f th surfac m ust b th sam on both sid s I f

e o e e e e e e .

th m otion b st a dy this r q uir s that th e v lu s f th

e e s q uar s
e ,
e e a e o e e
1 00 M TIO ON OF A L I QU I D I N TWO D I M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

of ,
v lociti s on th tw si d s should diff r by a constant
th e e e e o e e

qu ntity I f furth r s occurs in m ost cas s f practical i

a . e ,
a e o n

te e t th e fl ui d on
r s , S i d f th surf c b s e nsibly at r st on e e o e a e e e ,

th e con ditions r d uc to th s e that th e v locity m ust b e wholly e e e , e

tang ntial to th surfac

e d f constant m agnitu d e e , an o e .

K i r ch h ofi s M e th o d
’
.

irchhoff has appli d th m thod alr ady partially

95 . K e e e e e x

p lain e d to obtain for m s f d iscontinuous m otion ( in t w d i m o o en

sions ) satisfying th con ditions just stat d Th flui d is suppos d e e . e e

boun d d by tw str am -lin e s

e
d = 8 Consisting
p
o ar t ly f e r , ,
o

fi e d bounda i s d partly f lin e s o f constant ( say unit) v locity

x r e an o e .

Th e lin s f w hich q = 1 e r pr s nt d in th plan f é by

or ar e e e e e e e o
’

arcs f a circl f unit radius having th ori gi

o e ce ntr ; wh ilst
o e n as e

th fi e d boun dari s if straigh t ( s w e shall su pp os th m to b )

xe e , a e e e ,

b co m radii f this circl Th points wh r th radii m t

e e o e . e e e e ee

th circl corr spon to

e d th
e
p oints w h r th li m iting
e str a m -lin s e e e e e e

chang th ir charact r W hav th n to fram an assum ption

e e e . e e e e

o f th for m e

such that th p ortion f th pl n f C te r al to th abov e o e a e o ex n e e

circl d inclu d d b t w e n th tw rad ii sh l l corr sp on d to th

e an e e e e o a e e

p ort ion f th p lan f w

o inclu d d b t w n e th t w p r ll l e o e e ee e o a a e

str ight lin s b

a
l 8 I t is furth
e r n c ss
« ry ( e A t a, «» ,
. e e e a s e r .

th t th function f ( w) shall h v
a e branch -points with in th e a e n o

p ortion f th p lan f w oconsi d r d alt h ough

e such p oint m ye o e e ,
s a

occur on th boun dary f this p ortion e o .

It is foun d that this p robl m m y b r d uc d to a particular e a e e e

cas f th f ll wi g —To conn ct tw com pl variabl s

e o e o o n e o ex e z, z
'

by a functional re l tion s ch th at any giv n lun in th plan a u e e e e

o f shall corr sp on d to y giv n lun in th plan f

3 e an e e e e o z
'

an d any t h r p oi ts on th p ri m t r f th lun
ee to any n e e e e o e on e e

thr p oints ee th t f th oth r By a lun is h r m an t

‘
on a o e e . e
’
e e e

th clos d figur form d by tw circular rcs which m t but

e e e e o a ee

d not cross ‘
angl f a lun w sh all und rstand th ’
o B y th . e e o e e e e

a ngl c ntain d by th arcs at ith r int rs e ction

e o e e e e e .
9 4, TR ANSFO R MATI ON OF CO MP L EX VARI AB L ES . 1 01

solv th ab v probl e m
To e e o e we r em ark in th first plac e that e

any assu m p tion o f th form e

AZ + E DZ + B
’

’ Or Z
UZ + D

trans form s circl e s into circl e s . su pp os e th e point Z to

Fo r
’
de
"
scrib e a circl e about any p oint 0 as c ntr W hav e th e n
e e . e

Z C ) = const
”
m od ( .
,

an d th r for e e e , if by a cha g n e o f constants Z C b p t into

' ’
e u th e
form
Z 0,
K
Z C,
’

con t m od ( Z Cl )
'
m od ( Z 02 ) s .

H nc th p oint Z m ov s so that its distanc s fro m th e two

e e e e e

ints 0 0 in a constant ratio t by a

arew ll -know th or m e e e
p o
1 , ; 2
. .
, n e

of l m nt ry g m try it d scrib s a circl

e e e a T a lun e in th e
eo e ,
e e e . o

p lan f Z corr
e s poon d s th n a lun f t h s m angl
e in th e e o e a e e e

p lan f Z eT h thr
o ratios A
’
B . C D m y b eso chos n ee a e e as

to m k e any thr p oints in th

a
p lan corr s p on
eed to any e on e e e

thr e p oints in th oth r wh n th circl s d t e rm in d by th s

e e e ,
e e e e e e e

triads will also corr e sp ond H nc to stablish a corr s pon d nc . e e e e e e

b tw n any two lun s of th e s m

e ee
g l e w hav o l y to d e e a e an e e n

t rm in th abov ratios so that th e angular po ints f th

e e e e e o e on

shall corr sp on d to th a gul r p oints f th oth r d any thi rd

e e n a o e e ,
an

p oint on th e p ri m t r f th e to any thir d e

p oint on that
e fe o e on o

th oth e r
e .

As a particular cas e , th e assu m ption

Z —C l

z —
q
transform s any lun whos e angular p oints at c 0 into a lun e ar e
l , ,
e

i th p lan
n f e having its angular p oints at 0 d
e t into
o an co . e .

tw straight lin s radiati g fro m th e origin

o d m aking angle n ,
an an e

e qual t t h at f th e lun o o e .

I f we now assu m e

Z Z ”
,

t h se straight lin e s b e co m e in th plan

e f Z straight lin s ,
e e o ,
e
1 02 M TI O ON OF A L I QU I D IN TW O D I M ENSI ONS [CHA R . Iv

inclin d at an e an gl e 77. ti m s as gr at e e . Co m p ar e Ar t 8 0 . . I f we

th e n m ak e 72 E so th a t
a

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

a lun e aving its angular p oints at 0 b co m s in th e

of an gl e or h e
x, 2
e e

p l n
a f Z e straigh t lin
o d th r f r by ( 5 3 ) in th plan
on e e ,
an e e o e e e

f Z a circl Th constants in ( 5 3 ) m y b so d t rm in d that

’
o e . e a e e e e

any thr p ints on th p ri m e t r f th lun c rr sp nd to any

e e o e e e o e e o e o

thr e p oints in th p lan f Z

e e e o
’
.

S inc in e ,
th e sam e w a y , th e assum pti n o

trans form s a lun e f angl e having its tr m i t i s at o nto a a

'
ex e e c
l
'

, c
2
I

straight lin in th pla f Z w e that w i t h ( 5 4)

e d ne o
'

,
e se e an

tr nsform s a lun f ngl

a having its tr m iti s t e o a e or ex e e a c
l ,
c
,

into a lun f angl h ving its tr m iti s at c

e o
p rovi e d d th
a
'
a ex e e
l
'

, e e

ra t ios A B C D b ( th y m y b ) ch s n that thr arbi ’

e as e a e so o e e e

t y p
rar ints th p ri
o m t r f th c rr
on s p on d to et hr arbi e e e o e on e o e ee

t y p
rar ints t h p ori m t r f th oth ron This is t h
e solution e e e o e e . e

o f th e p robl m abov stat d e e e .

In th hydro dyna m ical application

e f th lun s i th s t ri p on e o e e s e

o f th p l n f w b un d d by th s t r ight lin s i
e a e o
'
0 1 b oI e e a e «f
,
x » . n

t h is cas t h p r ssion
e c rr s p on d ing
e to th ex right h
- n de si d f o e e a e o

( w it h w w ritt n f r ) ssu m s in d t rm in t e f r me ; th o 2 a e an e e a o e

a ng l r p oints f th l n b ing t infinity whilst its a gl is

u a o e u e e a , n e

ze ro Wh n valuat d by th e us al m th o ds this p r ssi n b

. e e e u e ex e o e
17 10

co m s e e
b
It is in f ct obvious fro m a Ar t 7 8 . that th assu m p tion e

Z= X+ i Y = 6
b
( )
5 6

conv rts th e e tw o straigh t lin e s in q u stion into e th e on e straight

lin Y = 0e ,
an d th r for s rv s th p urp os
e e f e e e e e o

We p roc d to giv th e m or i m p ortant

ee f th pp lications e e o e a o f
th e a bov m thod which have b n m ad by K irchho ff
e e ee e ,
9 5, VENA CONTR ACTA . 1 03

96 . This is an illustration o f th e th e ory f th e

E x a m p le 1 0 . o

v en a co t ct F lui d scap s fro m a larg v sse l through

n r a a . e e e e an

ap rtur in a plan w all Th e for m s f th boun da i s i th

e e e . o e r e n e

p lan s f C we sh wo n in F ig
z, 7 ; fi e,d boun d ari s b ing
are d e e . x e e

not d by h avy fr surfac s by fi lin e s Th figur e in th e

e e ,
ee e n e . e

p l n a f C is a lun
e of angl } having its an g ular p oints at C
e o i l e 1 7: .

Th figur e i th pla
e of w h t h li m iti g form j
n t otice d
e n e as e n us n .

Fi g . 7 .

We assu m f si m p licity that th param t rs f th e li m iti g

e or e e e o n

m -
str a lin s e If 0 If
e App lying th
e th e rul d e v e lop e d
ar « « 7r . en e
,

in th last articl w assu m

e e , e e

Ae w
+B

Th e arbitrary consta ts m ust satisfy th con ditions n e

( ) wh
a n ¢ = — C e oo
,
co ,

b
( ) wh n C — ; e
'

an d if w furth r t k th
e q ui p ot ntial surfac p assing through
e a e e e e e

th e dg s f th ap rt ur as that f which 0 ust hav

e e o e
4 w e
m e or ) ,
e e

= 0 wh n = 1
( ) m
0
C e .

Of th s c n ditions ( ) giv s B = D ( b) giv s

e e o a e ,
e A O, '
an d
( )
0 give s A B that ( 5 7 ) b co m s , so e e

1 w
e

1 w
e
 1 04 M TI O ON OF A L I QU I D IN Two DI M ENS I ONS [CHAR . Iv .

wh nc e e w e fin d

dz -2 w —
+ Je
w
1
‘
e
cl w

A long t h e str a m lin s

-
d = eC is r l so long 95 li
e s r 7r , .
ea as e

b tw n 0 d
e ee To fi d th for m f th fr boun d ri s l t
an oo n e o e e e a e ,
e

consi d r th p ortion f th str am -l in b 0 f which I 0

i

us e e o e e e 1 or ( ) .

Th first t r m f ( 5 9 ) is th n r al th s con d i m aginary

e e o that i f e e , e e ,
so

w e writ e

we hav along th lin e in qu e stion

e ,
e ,

cos 0 e
‘
4’

If 3 not th e a r c
de e of this lin e ,
m e asur e d from th e e d g e of th e
a
p e rtur e we h av e
,

d <i>
9 1’
de

wh e nc e s e q ation ( 6 0) th e n give s
u

dx
?
d
cos 9 e
3
,

an d th e r e fore
1 3
‘

a: e

i f th eorigi f z ( hith e rto arbitrary) b tak e at th e e dge f th

n o e n o e

a
p e rtur e Th fi . al wi d th f th strea m i g
ni v n by th d i fl e Ce o e e s e e
’

er n

of th tr e m e valu s f p ( th v locity b ing unity) t e it is

e ex e o « e e e , . .

equal to ; d sinc wh n s = 7r an w = 1 th abscissa f th

e e oo , ,
e o e

c ntr f th stre am is 1
e e o eW Th wi dth o f th ap rtur is th e r e . e e e e

77
for 2 e W d th e co ffici nt f contractio is
, an 611
e e o n or
'

7: 2

Agai n , fro m ( 58 ) or ( 6 0) we fin d

sin 0= —e

wh e nc e
l ——
l /l A
—c ‘
i “
= J1
y
96, F L OW FR O M A CANAL . 1 05

Th e quations ( 6 1 ) d ( 6 2) c m bin e d gi e th e form o f th e

e an o v

boun dary f th e issuing j t Th y

O obtain d i th e abov e . e ar e e n e

m a n r by L or d
n e who has also giv a drawing o f en

th e . v e in q
cu r stion ue .

S i c e sn= —log cos 0 th e radius o f curvature o f th e boun da y

,
r

gg
E tan d th e r for e va ish e s at th e dg e
an K irchho ff has
e n e .

sh e w that this is a ge n e ral prop r ty f fr e e boun dari e s

n e o .

97 . E x a mp le 1 1 . F lui d
scap e s fro m a larg v e ss l by a e e e

str ight canal p roj cting in wards This illustrat e s

a e o f th e c a s e s . on e

of th e tub s pok e n f in A t 3 1
e , o r . .

An i sp c tio
n e n of F ig . 8, giving th e form s of boun dari s in
th e e

th e p lan s f e o z, w, C ,
an d of a w vari bl n e a e VC will sh
, e w that
Fi g . 8 .

this cas e m ay obtain d fro m

be e th e p re c e di g by n me e r ly writing
4 C fo r C ,
so that we now hav e
dz

‘2w
2e 1 2e w
Je 2w
l
‘ ‘

Ph il . M a g De c 1 87 6. . .
1 06 M TI O ON O F A L I QU I D I N TWO D I M ENS I ONS [CHA R . Iv .

Alo n g th e f re e b oun dary «»

1 = 0, 6
9 0, we hav e in th e sam e
way as b for e e

dcc
2e
‘
98 - 1,
ds

w= 1 —3
i f th e origin o f a: a n d o f s be at th e ex tre m ity o f th e fi xe d wall .

wh e n ce
y
—e '
9

th e constant f inte gratio b ing so chos e as to m ak y = 0 f

o n e n e or

s 0 Wh n .
y A W so that th eefinal br a dth f th 3
e 00
, , e o

str am b ing as b for qual to W th bre adth f th e ca l is 2

e e e e e ,
e o na 7r .

Th e co ffici nt o f contraction i th r for e }

e e s e e z .

This e am pl th first x e , e of i ts class which was so lv e d, is d ue to

He l m holt ( l A t z . o . r .

‘'
fl

in ( 5 8 ) we writ
If e C
a
fo r C we obtain th solutio f th e case e n o

wh r th inclination
e e e a of th e walls f th anal has any value
o e c

what v r e e .

98 . st ady str m m p g dir ctly o a

E x a mp le 1 2 . A e ea I In es e n

fi d pl n lam ina Th r gion f d d w t r b h ind th l m ina

xe a e . e e o ea a e e e a

is bound d ch si d by surf c f discontinui ty a t which g is

e on ea e a a e o

( f t
orh m oving flui d) co stant
e ( y n sa

i ddl str am —lin afte r m ting th l m ina t right

Th e m e e e , e e e a a

angl s br nch s ff into tw parts w hich f ll w th l m in t

e , a e o o ,
o o e a a o

th dg s
e e d th e nc th sur f c s f discontinuity
e ,
an L t this b e e a e o . e e

th lin f which b O d l t us furth r ssu m th at at th

e e or « :
,
an e e a e e

p int
o f d iv rg nc ow hav b
g 0 T h f r m
e s f th b une d ri s e e e . e o o e o a e

in th p l n s f C w e sh w n in F ig 9 Th r g ion ccup i d
a e o 2 , ,
are e . . e e o e

by m ving flui d c rr sp ds t th wh l f th pl n f u ; but

o o e on o e o e o e a e o

th e two S i d s f th e straight lin b 0 b

g e 0 inot rn l b un d e 1 ,
ar e e a o

ari s Th assu m ption w = t/w transfor m s this doubl lin into

e . e
’
e e
97, IM PACT O F STR EA M ON A LAM I NA . 1 07

th e is f
ax o a b sc is s aa, hich w m ay o f c urs b r garde d
o e e e as a circle
O f infi it e
n r ad u i s . Th e rul e of Ar t . 9 5 th e n giv s e

Av w +B
v +D

Fi g . 9 .

To de te rm ine th e constants , we have th e condi ti ns o

( )
a C
( )
b C 00
,
fo r w = 0;

to which we a dd

( )
0 C= i 1, fo r w = 1 .

Th elast ssu m ption fi e s th br adth f th lam ina in t rm s f th

a x e e o e e o e

unit f l gth O f th s con ditions ( ) giv s A = O ( b) giv s

o en . e e a e ,
e

B D : d ( 0) m ak s A
, an B H nc ( 6 3 ) b e co m s e
*
. e e e

l —d w
’

C+ 1 + Vw

‘ 1
é 1
37 }
If a”
0, an d 1
<) li e b tw n
e ee i 1 , th e right-han d S i d e o f ( 6 4) is
t
Th a i s , we a s su m e \/ w = 1 wh e n (
t : + 1 , an d he t rfr e o e \/w = 1 fo r g : 1 .

Th e t
al e r n a ti v e s u p po s i ti o n l e ad s to th e sa m e r e su l s t .
1 08 O
M TI O N OF A L I QU I D I N Two D I M N I E S ONS .
[ CHA R Iv .

r al T fi d th e br adth
e . o n e l of th e lam ina in t rm s e of th e unit of

l ngth w hav
e ,
e e

4 W

To fin d th e ex e c ss of
p r e ssur on e th e ant rior face
e of th e lam ina ,

we hav e ,

oving fluid
5
2
fo r th e m C %9 ,

2
d fo r th e de d a wat r
3 0
'
an e :

No w at th e e d g e of lam ina w hav p

th e , e e p
'

, g
:

"
0 C an d th e r quir d c ss is giv n by
e e ex e e

111 —
3
r <1 r) .

p
I f we m ultiply this by d x, an d inte grate b e twe e n th e

ob ta i n
'

’ we
d sb a

or, S inc e

w hich 7r .

To m ak this r sult int lligibl w m ust g t id f th e arbi

e e e e e e r o

trary assu m p tions m ad f si m p licity f calc l ation I f g b th e or o u .

o
e e

g n ral v l city o f th str am t th valu o f 4 at th e dg f th

e e e o e e , ( o
e e ) e e o e

lam ina we hav inst a d f

,
e ,
e o

so that ( 6 5 ) is r plac e e d by
l ( 4
 IM PACT OF STR EAM ON A LAM I NA . 1 09

an d ( 66 ) by

M ulti plying ( 6 8) by p d e li m i ating ,

an n 6
90 , we obtai n fo r th e to tal
ex c e ss f pre ssure on th ant e rior fac e
o e

'
'
n

4 + 7r

str am b e obliqu e to th e lam ina m aking an angl with

I f th e e ,
e a

i ts plan th con dition ( ) is r e p lac d by

e ,
e a e

C f or =
¢ i 00 ,

which giv s e

A C = co s —1 cos + 1 : a : a

( )
b is un l t r d whilst
a (e) is noe long e r
,
a pp licabl th e r b e i g no
c e ,
e n

lo g r sy m m try as r gards th e lin e 1 = 0 Th e form e r conditions

n e e e 1r .

howe ve r r e duc ( 6 3) to th e form e

C—l “
K —( l —c o s a h /w
C+ 1

which sh e ws that th valu e f th r m aini g constant K only e o e e n

affe cts th scal f I f w e assign to it any r al valu w m ak

e e o e e ,
e e

th ecusp C 1 f th lun in th plan e f C corr sp on d to som

o e e e o e e

d finit p oint o f th boun dary in th plan Th e si m p l st

’
e e f w e e e o . e

assu m p tion is K 1 which giv s aft r so m r duction

:
,
e ,
e e e ,

cos a +
th e

F or iscussion f this r sult d th calcul ation f th e r e sult

th e d o e ,
an e o

ant p r e ssur th e lam ina w e m ust r e fe r to th e p ap r by L or d

e on e

R ayl igh alr e a dy cit e d ( l 0 A t

e , . . r .
 C H AP T ER V .

ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D .

99 .chi f subj ct tr at d f in this chapt r i th

TH E e e e e o e s e

m otion f a soli d th rough

o infinit m ss f liquid un d r th an e a o e e

action f y giv n forc s Th e sam nalysis appli s with l ittl

o an e e . e a e e

or no alt ration to th cas f a liquid occu pying a cavity in a

e e e o

m oving soli d We S hall consi d r t h ough l ss fully c s s w h r

. e , e ,
a e e e

we hav e m or than m oving soli d or wh r e th e flui d d o s not

e on e ,
e e

t n d in ll dir e ction to infinity b ing boun d d te rnally by

ex e a s , e e ex

fi e d rigi d wall s
x .

W shall assu m in th e fi st instanc that th m oti n f th

e e r e e o o e

fl ui d is ntir ly d to t h at f th soli d
e ed is th r for ch rac ue o e , an e e e a

t i d
e r zeby th ist nc f a singl -v lu d v l city
e -
p ot ntial
ex
j e e o e a e e o e ( )

which b si d s satis fying th

e q uation f continuity
e e e o

v hf) 0 ( )
1

d¢
fulfils th foll owing con ditions : ( ) th e valu e o f d d d noti g
e a
n
n e n

as us al an l m nt f th nor m al t y point f th surf c f

u e e e o e a an o e a e o

th soli d dr w to w r d s th flui d m ust b

e a q ual t th v loci ty f
n a e ,
e e o e e o

th surf c at th at p oint nor m l to its l f

e a e d ( b) th di ff r ntial a e ,
an e e e

dd d d dd ; )
co ffici nts
e e m ust vanish t an infinit e distanc in )
a e ,
d dy d a: z

ev ry dir ction fro m th soli d Th latt r con dition is r nd r d

e e ,
e . e e e e e

n ec ss ry by th consi d r tion th t a finit v locity t infinity

e a e e a a e e a

w ul d i m ply an infinit kin tic n rgy wh ich coul d not b g n r

o e e e e ,
e e e

at d by finit forc s cting f

e finit tim on th solid It i
e e a or a e e e . s

also th con diti n to which w

e l d by su pp osing th fl id
o e are e e u

enclos d w ith i a fi d v ss l infinit ly l rg

e d infinit ly di
n xe e e e a e an e s

tan t all rou d fro m th m oving bo dy Fo o this su pposition

n e . r n
9 9 — 1 00 ] KI NEM ATI CAL I NV ES TI GATI ONS . 111

th e sp c occu p i d by th e flui d m y b conc iv d as m ad p f

a e e a e e e e u o

tub s f fl w which b gin d d on th surfac f th oli d so

e o o e an en e e o e s ,

th t th e t tal fl
a cross y r a finit o i finit drawn in thux a
’

an a e ,
e or n e , e

fluid m ust b finit d th r for th v locity at infinity

e ro e , an e e e e e ze .

In th cas o f a flui d occu pying a cavity in a m oving sol id

e e ,

th con dition ( b) do s t apply ; th surfac f th c vity is

e e n o e e o e a

th n th c m pl te boun dary f th flui d d th con dition ( )

e e o e o e ,
an e a

is th r f r su ffici nt
e e o e e .

W hav s n in Arts 4 9 5 2 that un d r ith r f th abov

e e ee .
,
e e e o e e

s ts f conditions th m otion f th flui d is d t r m inat

e o O e o e e e e . ur

p robl m th n deivi d s its l f into t w d istinct

e
p arts ; th first or e e o e

kin m tical p art c nsis t i g in th d t rm ination f th m otion f

e a o n e e e o e o

th fluid at any instant in t rm s f that f th soli d d th

e e o o e , an e

s con d or dynam ical p rt in th calcul tion f th ff ct o f th

e ,
a ,
e a o e e e e

fluid pr ssur s th surfac f th e latt r

e e on e e o e .

K i n e m a ti ca l I n v e sti g a ti o n s .

1 00us tak e a syst m o f r cta gular

. L et s 0 031 O e e n axe x, ,
z

fi e d in th bo dy
x d l t th m otion f th l tt r at any t im
e t , an e e o e a e e

b d fin d by th i s t t
e e i a gular v lociti s p q
e about e n an an e o rs n e e , , r ,

an d th translati onal v lociti s

e v w f th origin 0 p rall l e e u , ,
o e a e

to th instantan ous p ositio s f th s e a e s W m y th e n write

, e e n o e x . e a ,

as K irchho ff do s e ,

4
)
f
a c
t, m l
)
,
wd
f
) +p
, x1 9 x, r
x3
wh r as will im m diat ly app ar (l & x &
e e , e e e , ’
u
c .
, l , c .
,
ar e c rtai
e n

functions f y d p n d ing only on

o th sh p
x, ,
z e e e a e an d si ze of th e
soli d In f ct i f l m d not th dir ction -cosin s
. a , , ,
n e e e e e o f th e norm al
( dr w na th S i d f th onflui d) at any p oint ( y
e e o e x, ,
z
) of th sur e

fac e f th soli d th con diti n ( ) f A t 9 9 m y b

o e ,
e o a o r . a e wr itt n e

Z
f —
( u + qz —gw) u ;

1 5
an d e qu ting this to th v lu
a e a e of
225obtain e d f ro m ( 2 ) we fin d

dn

n
y m a, m a: lg
1 12 ON TH E M TI O ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

Th e functio s A & m st f cours e s parat ly sa tis fy

n d
( , c . u o e e an

hav th ir d riv tiv s ro at infinity ; th surfac -

e e con ditions ( 3)
e a e ze e e

th e r e n de r th m co m pl te ly d t rm inat e
n e e e e .

1 01 . Whe n
otion is in tw di m nsions ( ny ) w hav th e m o e a e e

only thr functions to d t rm in i

ee
6 X In th last e e e ,
v z .
2 , 3
. e

ch pt r (Arts 8 8 8 9 ) g n ral m tho ds f discov ring c s in

a e .
,
e e e or e as e

which e f th s functions is kno w n w r giv n In any cas

on o e e e e e . e

of a li q ui d filling a cavity in a m ovi g soli d it is pl in that th n a e

con ditions ( 3 ) s tisfi d by 5

1 p w y r s p ctiv
ar e ly in a e (
2 ,
(
a
:
, ,
z, e e e ,

oth r w ords that i f th soli d hav a m ti f transl ti n only th

e e e o on
'

o a o , e

enclos d flui d m ov s i f it form d a rigi d m ass W m y th e re

e e as e . e a

for r g r d th kin m atical p ar t f our p robl m as solv d f th

e e a e e o e e or e

cas s wh re th e cavi ty is in th form f an lliptic cylin d r or

e e e o e e ,

a triangul r pris m o a n qu ilate ral bas e fo which X h b n

a n e ,
r
:
as ee

In th m or di fficult probl m f a cylin drical bo dy m oving

e e e o

through an infinite m ass f li q ui d th co m pl t e s lution h b n o ,

e e o as ee

obtain d f th cas e wh r th s ction f th cylin de r is e lliptic

e or e e e e e o e ,

and f this cas only

or e .

1 02 . Th e nu m b e r
c a se s i thr dim e nsions f which th of n ee or e

functions 35 & 8 0 hav b n co l t ly d t r in d is v ry

X ( e
1 ,
m p c e
.
,
m I »
5 . e e e e e e e

s m l l W giv h r e th chi f f th e m
a . e e e e e o .

E a m p le 1
x A lli psoi dal cavity whos m i . nb e e se a xe s are a , , c .

I f th p rinci p
eal a e s f th lli p soi d b tak n as a xs f -or d i o e e e e xe o co

nate s d h b th p rpe n dicular from th e c ntr

,
an e th ta g e nt
e e e e on e n

p lan e at ( y ) w e hav x,th n ,

z ,
e e

h as hy hz
_ _
_
2 ? 2
a b 0

r e s p ctiv ly so that th last thre

e e ,
e e of con ditions ( )
3 giv e

dxi _
h y z, &c .
,
85 0 .

dn
Bu t also
dX1 dX1 dXI dX1
1+ 7,
”
dn d cc dy 701

Th e t
s u de nt wi ll fi d i Th n n o m so n an d Ta i t , N a tu r a l Phi l o s op h y , Ar t 7 08 , .

o th e r f or m s o f cyl i nd i c l c i ty f r a av or wh i h c so l u ti o ns ca n be ob ta i n e d .
1 00 SPE C I A L CASES OF M O TI ON . 1 13

Th s e e two valu s e o f
gg
E-agre e p rovi de d
i we p u t x, = Ayz ,
an d m ak e

1 1 1 1
A + "
P 2? a b
We hav th n finally e e , ,

I
( ) ux v
y wz

b
2
—c 2
c —a 2
a
2
b
2

+p 2 2
2x +r 2 2
x
y 4
b +c + b
z 2
c + a a

E x a m p le 2 c vity in th form f a r ctangular par ll l . A a e o e a e

e
p pi d I f t he a s f -or d in t s b tak n ral le l to t h d g s e e e e
.
p xe o co a e e e a

of th cavity it is pl in th t th con ditions ( 3 )

e ,
s tisfi d by a a e ar e a e

m king x a func t ion

a f y
only & so th t th p robl m b
,
o ,
z , c .
,
a e e e

com s ef tw d i m nsions
on e F th co m pl t solu t ion ff ct d
o o e . or e e e , e e e

by m ans f F ouri r s s ri s w r f r th stu d nt t o S tok s or

e o
“ e
’
e e e e e e e e
, ,

to Tho m son d T i t l an a
‘‘
.

E m p le 3 xaA e lli p soi d m ov s i an infinit e m ass f liqui d. n e n o

which is at r st at infi ity e n .

This p robl m th e only f its class which h e b n m,

on e o as ee co

p l t l
e
y work e d out was solv d by G r n ; in
e 1 8 3 3 f th p ,
e e e ,
or e ar

ti l
cu a r cas wh r th m otion f th lli p soid i e e f p ur e e o e e s on e o e

translation Th co m pl t solutio was p ublish d by Ol b h §

. e e e n e e sc ,

in 1 8 5 6 ; it is h e r r pro d c d m u h in th form giv n to it by e e u e c e e

K irchho ff II .

Th p rinci pal a s f th e llip soid b i g tak n a s f xe o e e e n e as xe o co

ordinat s l t th c m p on nt attractio s which w ul d b

e ,
e e rt d o e n o e e xe e

at th p int ( y ) by an lli psoi d f unit d nsity coinci d nt i

e o x, , z e o e ,
e n

shap S i ed p ositio with th giv n

,
ze , an b d ot d by X Y n e e on e , e en e , ,

Z It is kno wn that X is th p ot nti l f th

. l li psoi d w h n e e a o e e e

m agn ti e d uni for m ly with unit int nsity

e z arall l to n gativ e e x e e
p ,

an d th r for that it is th p ot ti l f
e e di t ib ti
e f m att r e en a o a a
s r u on o e ,

dX
o f sur fac - d nsity l ov r th e e f e ll e H nc is d iscon e su r a c e e
d
, .

C b Ph i l T a V l
m p p 1 3 1 409
. . rans .
, o . VI I I .
, .
, .

l N ' '
l Ph i l p h y A t 7 07 ( )
a tu r a o so , r . B .

V b ti n f P d l F l i d M di T
‘
I R ch th e s e ar i es on R S e i ra o o en u um s n u e a,
’
ra ns . .

E di 1 833
n R p ri nt d i M F r
. . di ti n f Gr n w k p p 3 1 5
e e q n r e r er s
’
e o o ee
’
s or s, . e t se .

C r e l le , tt 5 2 , 5 3 ( 1 8 5 6 .

Vo r le s u n g e n fi b e r M a th . Phy i k s . Me c h a n i k .
, c . 18 .

T
I Se e , as to th o se po i nt s, M a xwe ll , E l e c tr i c i ty an d M a g n e ti s m , Ar t 4 3 7 . .

L . 8
1 14 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SOL I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR v . .

ti n at th surf c
u ous e a e ; istinguishi g by
v iz d
. n

valu e s just outsi d e ,

an d just insi d r s p ctiv ly e , e e e ,
we hav e

Bu t at an int r e n al
p oint w h v ( T h e a e om s n o an d T ita ,
Ar t .

wh r e e
d7x
E d bc
o

b ing the e se m ia xe s ( if th e e llipsoid . He nc e

dX
dn
so that ( 5 ) giv s e

( 4 F) l
'

S inc X f cours e satisfi e s

e o an d has its de rivativ s z ro at
e e

infinity it is plain that all

,
th e con ditions of th e q stion
ue are

satisfi d by e

1
(
A —E X '

4 rr

Th e v lu a e of X at an ex e t rn al
p oint (
'

x,
y ,
z
) is ( Tho m son an d
Tait ,
l .

X 2 am bo m

w he r e th e low r lim it is th
e e p ositiv root e o f
9 2 2
x z
y
2
b + 7t
g
a + 7t

We hav in e ,
e x actly th sam e e w a y,

1 1
P2 Y’ ¢
(
4 7r —G 3
4 rr' -H

w he r e th e valu s f e o G H, ,
Y , Z m ay be writt n down fro m
e
( 7)
an d (9 ) by sy m m try e .
 M TI O ON OF AN E LL I PSO I D . 115

N e x le t t us consid r th func ti n e e o

U = —
Z zY
y
With th e sa m n tation as b for
e o e e we fin d

dZ dY
m Z —n Y+y e
dn a;
—H
n
y( 4 7r + G) mz ( 4 rr G+H ) ,

by f r m ulo ae o f th e sam type as e

( )
6 an d S inc e
7/ 2
.

5 9
6 5 ,

th e ratio of th e e xp e r ssion last w ritt n to e n

y me is
i
b ( 4 7r -
H G
+ ) — 0 ( 4 7r
2
G+H )

a constant . He nc all e th e con ditions of th e p robl e m are satisfi e d

by m aking 2 2
b c
X1 4sv 1 ( b
2
G H
2 ?
( ) 6
2
0 ) ( c )
'

w h re
e
‘

2 2
dA
C’
7r a
'

be ( b 0 )y e
2 5
7\) ( b
2
A ; 2 3
( ) ( 70
1
a 0

th e low r li m it b ing th sam as in

e e e e

Th v lu s f X X m y b writt n dow fro m sym m e try

e a e o
2, 3
a e e n .

Th stu d nt m y as an
e e rcis e p ro th
e quival nc o f th a ,
ex , v e e e e e e

abov form ul in th c s wh r
e f th a e s f th e e lli ps oi d
ae , e a e e e on e o e x o

is infinit to thos o f Arts 8 8 ( d) d 8 9

e ,
e . an

E m p le 4 xaIn th particular cas f a Sph e re we hav e

. e e o

a b 0 W th n fi d . e e n

( wh r e e r
2
x
2
y
2
an d th e r for e e

s
a x
¢ 1 3 T7 4
,

w ith si m ilar form ul f ae or qb g , p

c s
. Th e v lu e s
a of
xl x, 2, x
,
are ze ro ,

as i obvious a p i r i
s r o .
1 16 ON TH E M TI O ON O F SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHA R . v .

solution i this c s m y ho w v r b btain d b i i ti

Th e n a e a e e e o e a n o

by a si m pl r an lysis as f llo ws "

e a o
,

L t 0X b th dir cti n f m otion f th

e e c ntr 0 f th e e o o o e e e o e

s ph r at any instant d V i t v locity L t P b any p oint f

e e ,
an s e . e e o

th e flui d d l t OP ,
d th
an g l P O X 9 e It is vi d nt r ,
an e an e . e e

t h at gt will b function f 9 only ; d w kno w fro m th

e a o r , an e e

th ory f S ph ric l H rm nics th at y such func t ion which

e o e a a o an

satisfi s ( 1 ) d h its d riv tiv s ro t infini ty

e an b p n d
as d e a e ze a ca n e ex a e

in a s ri s f th form
e e o e

( 1 const Q + 2 9 — & ) .
9 1 ?
3
c .
,
r r r

wh r Q " is th
e e nal harm onic f ord r m ulti pli d by e
‘
zo
’
o e n , e

arbitr ry constant Th c on dition w hich 4 has t satis fy at th

a . e ) o e

surfac f th Sph r e is
e o e e

V cos -
9 ,

so that ,
i f a b e th e radius ,

Vco s 9
’
Q" 2 Q‘ 3Q ’
2 8 ‘
t
a a a.

He nc e Vc o s 9,

an d Q° = Q = Q = &c = 0 . .
2 3

We have th e n fi ally n
x
Va
t
g con t s .

1
3

It is e asy t v ri fy th fact th at this v lu f 93 r ll y satisfi s

o e e a e o ea e

all th con ditions f th p robl m

e o e e .

I f w i m p r ss th
e whol syst m —th m o ing S ph re d on e e e e v e e an

th fl i d— v locity
e u V in th dir ction 0X w hav th c s
a e , e e , e e e a e

of a uni for m str m f v l ocity V fl wi g p ast a fi d s ph rical

ea o e o n xe e

obstacl Th e -
v locity p ot n t ial is t h n g t by adding th t rm
. e e e e o e e

V 9 to
r co s that w w hav so e n o e

const . V
( r
i
Th i s so lu ti ge no n , e r a ll y a tt i b te d b y c ti n e nta l w i te
r u on r rs to D i i ch l e t ( M
r ona ts
b e r i c h te de r B e r t Aka d. . wa s g i v e n b y S to ke s C m b Tr , a . a ns . Vo l . VI I I .
1 02 , SO L I DS OF R EVO L U TI ON . 1 17

A m e tho d si m ilar to that o f Ar t 8 8 h a s be e n e m p loy e d

1 03 . .

’“
by Rankin e to disco v e r for m s o f solids o f re volution ( about x
sa
y) fo r w i h ch
is kn wn W h n such soli d m ov s parall l to o . e a e e

its is ax m ti n g n r t d in th
th e flui d t k s plac in s ri s
o o e e a e e a e e a e e

o f pl n s t hr ugh t h a t
a e is d is th sam in ach such plan
o ax an e e e e .

In all c s s f m o t i n f this kin d t h r is t s a str am -

a e o function o o e e ex e

an l g us to that f C hapt r I V I f w tak in y pl n

a o o o e . e e an a e

t hr ugh O tw p oints A
o d P A fi d x d P vari bl
o d an ,
xe an a e ,
an

consi d r th nnul r surf c g n r t d by th r volution bout

e e a a a e e e a e e e a x

o f y lin A
anP it is p l in t h t teh q uan t ity f flui d ,w h ich in a a e o

unit ti m cross s this sur f c is a func ti n f th position f P

e e a e o o e o ,

i . i t is a f nction f
6 . d wh r w d not s th d istanc f
u o x an 13 ,
e e e e e e o

P fr m O L t t his f nction b d not d by 2 d

o n . e Th curv s u e e e 7r . e e

const vi d n ly str -
li s so th t b c ll d h
J
«r t m . ar e
b m y ee t e ea n e ,
a « a a e e
‘
str am -functi n I f P b a p oint i nfinit ly clos to P i th
e o .
’ '
e e e n e

abov -m ntion d pl n w hav fr m th d finition f (

e e e a e ,
e e o e e o «r

flui d v l ocity norm l to P P

e a
’
M
PP
.

2 7r w

an d th nc e taki g P P
e ,
n
'

p a rall l first t e ,
o a ,
th n to e x,
-

1 dl ll ‘ 1 d dr
u — U
g gg ,
ar dx

W hr e e u , v ar e th e com pon nts e of flui d v locity p arall e l to e x an d m

r sp ctiv ly
e e e .

cas e
Fo r th e S ph e r e tr e at e d in A t re adily fi d
'

of th e ,
r . 1 02 , we n ,

by co m parison of ( )
1 2 a n d
( )
1 3

i f
l Va w a
s

S o fa r w e hav t assu m d th e n o e e m otion to be irrotational .

Th e con dition that it S houl d b so is e ,

da d
z
da r dx
which re duc s to e

d i dab 1
fl
;
«n
" 0
dx da y a w

Ph i l . Tr a n s . 1 87 1 .
1 18 ON O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [C HAR v
TH E M . .

Th e di ff r ntial quation satisfi d by I

e e w a su m s th f r m
e e ( ) n o s e e o

d d)
0
dm
z
da y
”
23 da y
'

This m a
y b e de riv e d by tr ns form tion from
a a by w riting
y 717 c o s 9 ,
z z w sin 9 ,

an d re m e m
f in d p n d nt berm g
f 9 by r p ating th t a ( ) is n e w e e e o , or e e

th inv stig tion f Ar t 1 2 t king inst d f th l m ntary

e e a o .
,
a , ea o e e e e

volu m d dy d t h r consi d r d th nnul r sp c g n r t d by

e x z e e e e ,
e a a a e e e a e

th r volu t i n ab t f th r c t ngl d dw It app rs th at g!

e e o ou x o e e a e x . ea )

an d b « t th y w r in C h pt r I V int rch ng abl

ar e n o ,
as e e e a e .
, e a e e .

nkin s p roc dur is th n as f ll ws S upposing th

1 04 . Ra e
’
e e e o o . e

soli d to m ov p ar ll l to its is w ith v locity V w h v t all

e a e ax e ,
e a e a

p oints f s ction f its

o surf c m a daby p lanee thr ugh O o a e e a o x ,

d xlr
v loci t y in dir cti n
e e o o f norm al
a ds

V -
ii S
”

de d e noting an l
e em e nt o f th e s i d s ction
a e .

In t gr t ing al ng th s c t ion
e a o e e ,
w e fin d

Va
?
r
c e n st .

If in this e quation w Sub titu t any v lu f 1 satisfying e s e a e o 1 1

w e b t in th q uation f th m ri dional s c t ion f s ri s f

o a e e o e e e o a e e o

soli ds f r volu t ion y

o f w h ic h w ul d wh n m ovin g p r ll l
e ,
an on e o o e a a e

t its a is p r duc th syst m

o x f str m -
lin s corr sp n ding t o th
o e e e o ea e e o e

a ssu m d lu f 1A
e v a e o 1

In th i s w a
y m ay be v rifie e d th e v lua e ( )
1 4 of h
«
,
fo r th e c s a e Of
a s ph r e e .

Dyn am i ca l I n v e s ti a ti o n s
’

g .

1 05 . Th e s c nd e o
p a rt of th e p robl em ro
p p s d in o e Ar t 9 9 .

i s th e d e t rm inat i n
e o o f th e e ffe ct of th e fl i d pr ssur
u e e on th e
1 03 P R ESSU R E ON M OV I NG SPHE R E . 1 19

sur f c f th soli d Th m st obvi us way

a e o e . e o o o f d oing th is is firs t ,

to calculat p fro m th form ul e e a

1
; gg
( i
const .

i
—

an d th n to fi d th r sultant forc d cou pl e d to th pr ssur

e n e e e an ue e e e

p ac t ing th vari us l m nts dS

on f th sur f c
e e by th or d inary o e e e o e a e

r l s f S t tics W w ill work out th r s lt f th si m pl cas

u e o a . e e e u or e e e

o f th s ph r e st rting fr m th val e f ( I giv n by

e , S inc
a o e ue o ; e e

th e rigin t w hich 4 is th r r f rr d is in m tion p r ll l t 0X

o o ) e e e e e o a a e o

w i t h v l city V w h r s in ( 1 8 ) th e origin is su ppos d fi

e o ,
d w e e a e xe ,
e

l
m ust w i t inst ad f Il?r e ,
e o
(

wh e r e x r co s 9 . No w

d gb d d)
It?
cos 9 ( co s
2
9 am
2

dx

( 9 i sin
2 2
ve l) ( co s
2

h l c r ssur vi d ntly r duc s to a forc

'

Th e w o e e ffe t of th e flu i d p e e e e e e e

in th e dir ction e OX . Th e v lua e o f p t th surf c f tha e a e o e

s ph r e e is

fZg
C
p
: const .
Cp a « —
— cos 9 &c .
,

th e r m aining t rm s b ing th sam f surf c - l m nts in th

e e e e e or a e e e e e

p ositions 9 d 9 d t h r f r not
an a ff cting t h fin l
7rr sult ,
an e e o e e e a e .

H nc if V b
e e c ns t nt th pr ssur s th various l m nts
e o a ,
e e e on e e e e

of th ant rior hal f f th

e sph r e bal nc d by qual pr ssur s o e e e are a e e e e

on th corr s p on ding l m n t s f th p st ri r hal f ; but w h n th

e e e e e o e o e o e e

m t ion
o f th sph r i b ing acc l r t d t h r is an c ss f
o e e e s e e e a e e e e x e o

p r ssur
e t h ant r i ore d d
on f ct f p r ssure th p st ri r e ,
an a e e o e e on e o e o

h lf Th r v rs h l ds w h n th m otion is b ing r tar d d Th

a . e e e e o e e e e e . e

tot l ff ct in th dir c t i n f V is
a e e e e o o ,

9 . a d9 p . co s 9 ,
1 20 ON TH E M TI O ON OF SOLI DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . V .

d V
W hich is r adily foun d to b qu l to g p d t e e e a n a
3

i f M d not e th m ss f flui d dis pl c d by th S ph r

’
e e a o a e e e e .

I f w su p p os that th Sph r start d fro m r st un d r th

e e e e e e e e e

action f a forc X constant in dir ction that th c ntr m ov s

o e e , so e e e e

in a straight lin th qua t ion is e ,

e e

—
X CM

dV
( M s - M
C ) X
dt

Th e S ph e r e
th r fore b hav s ctly e e e e e xa as if its in rtia w r i e e e n

cr as d by hal f tha t f th flui d dis pl ac

e e o e e d ,
an d th surroun ding e

fl i d w r an ihilat d
u e e n e .

av assu m d throughout th bov calc l tion that th e

We h e e e a e
'

u a

m otion f th s ph r is r cti lin r I t is t di ffi ult to t n d

o e e e e ea . n o c ex e

th r sult to th ca
e e W h r th m otion is f any kin d W hat v r e se e e e o e e .

This is ff ct d how v r m or e si m ply by th m tho d f th n t

e e e e e e e o e ex

articl e .

sa m m tho d can b a ppl d w ith v n gr at r as e to th

Th e e e e ie e e e e e e

cas f a l ng circul r cylin d r f whic h th valu f 1 w b

e o o a e ,
or e e o <) as o

d in A t 8 6 It pp ars th t th ff ct f th fl id pr ssur
'

t i
a n e r . . a e a e e e o e u e e

is in th t c s to incr as th in rti f th cylind r by that f

a a e e e e e a o e e o

th flui d dis p lac d

e actly e ex

ractical valu f th s r sults d f si m ilar m or g n ral

Th e p e o e e e ,
an o e e e

on s to obt in d b lo w is discuss d in not ( E )

e be a e e ,
e e .

1 06 r ct m tho d f c lcul ti g th forc s e rt e d

. Th e abov e di e e o a a n e e xe

by th flui d th m ovi g bo dy woul d ho w v r in m ost ca s

e on e n ,
e e , se

p rov c d ingly
e t di s This
e x d i fficul t y
ee m y b avoi d d by a e o u . a e e

m th d first us d by T h o m son
e o ,
d T it w hich c nsists in tr at e an a o e

ing th soli d d th fl i d as form i g tog th r

e dynam ic l
an e u n e e on e a

syst m into th q uat i ns f m o t i

e ,
f w hich th m utual e e o o on o e r e

actions f th e soli d d th flui d f cours d not nt r A a

o an e o e o e e . S

N a tu r a l Phi l o s op h y , Ar t 3 3 1 . .
1 05 M TI O ON OF A SPHE R E . 121

v ry S i m pl e am pl f this
e e x e o m e tho d w m y tak th cas f th e a e e e o e

r c tilin ar m otion f a s ph r
e e o e e ,
w hich has b e n l r ad y nv tigat d e a e I es e

o th r wis By th form ula

e e . e o f A t 6 5 th e kin tic e n rgy f th e
r .
,
e e o

flui d
d
hp 4 g ? 015 .

w h ich in our cas e

d d)
dr
2 7r a sin 9 a d9

"
a
9
2
V sin 9 d9
C ar
p a 00 8 ,

by or finally CM '
V
’
. He nc e th e total e n e rgy o f th e syst e m
is
M M
'

C(
”
C ) V .

Th e rat at which this is incr asing

e e ,
i . e .

dV
,
a

m ust b e qual to X V th e rat e at which th e i m p r ss d forc e X

e ,
e e

d o s work
e Discar ding th co m m on factor V w
. e l e d again to e e ar

th quatio
e e n

1 07 . In th eg ne r
cas th e m ot ion o f th e fl ui d at any e a l e

instant d p w in A t 1 00 only
e en ds as w
th e valu s f th e
,
e sa .
r .
, on e o

q nti t i s
ua w p q us d to e p r ss th m otion f th soli d ;
e u, v , , , ,
r e x e e o e

so that th whol dyn m ical syst m i virtuallye f i d gr s f e a e s on e o s x e ee o

fr dom althou g h i t di ff rs i so m r sp cts fro m th kin d f yst m

ee , e n e e e e o s e

ordinarily cont m pl t d in Dynam ics Tho m son d K i h h ff l

e a e .
*
an rc o
‘‘

hav in d p n d ntly sh w n h w syst m f th p culiar kin d h r

e e e e e o a e o e e e e

consi d r d m y b brought un d r th e ap plicatio f th ordinary

e e a e e n o e

m tho ds f t h t sci nc e
e W sh ll in w hat follows adop t Tho m
o a e . e a , ,

son s proc dur wi t h so m m o difications

’
e e ,
e .

What e v e r otio b e th e m n of flui d d soli d at any i stant

th e an n ,

we m ay su ppos it p ro duc e e d inst ntan ously fro m r st by th

a e e e

P hi l Ma g . . N ov e m be r , 187 1 .

t C r e l le ,
“
71 t . . Se e a lso Vo r l e s u n g e n ti b e r M a th . Phy i k s . M e ch a n i k . c . 19 .
122 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [C HAR . v .

action f a p rop rly chos n t f i m pulsiv forc s appli d to th

o e e se o e e e e

soli d This t w h r duc d ft r th m nn r f P i t to a

. se ,
en e e a e e a e o o n so

f orc d a c pl w hos
e an is is par ll l to th lin f ction f
ou e e ax a e e e o a o

th forc constitut w hat Tho m son calls th i m puls f th e m otion

‘ ’
e e ,
e e e o

at th inst nt n d r consi d r tion W p roc d to sh w th at

e a u e e a . e ee e

wh n no t rn l i m p r ss d f rc s t th i m puls is constant in
e ex e a e e o e ac e e

e v ry r sp ct t h r ug h out th
e em otion e o e .

o m nt f m o m ntu m f s ph rical p ortion f th

1 08 . Th e m e o e o a e
“

o e

flui d about y lin through its c n t r is ro ; f th i p rti nan e e e ze o r s o o

m y b a conc iv d m d p f circular rings f infinit ly s m all

e e e as a e u o o e

s ction having th is lin as a co m m on a is d th circul t i n in

e ~ e x ,
an e a o

each such ring is ro ze .

In th s m way th m m nt f m o m ntu m f a p ort i n f

e a e e o e o e o o o

th flui d boun d d by t w s ph ric l surf c s about th

e lin j ining e o e a a e e e o

th c t r s is ro
e en e ze .

o m nt f th e i m pul s e at any instant about any lin is

Th e m e o e

e qu l t th corr sp on ding m m t f m o m ntu m t t h t ins t nt

a o e e o en
'

o e a a a

o f th w hol m att r cont i d withi a s p h ric l sur f c having

e e e a n e n e a a e

i t c ntr in t h at lin
s e d closing th m vi g soli d ; fo if w
e e an en e o n r e

su ppos th m otion g r t d inst ntan ously fro m r st th only

e e en e a e a e ‘
e ,
e

forc s which b si de s thos constitutin g th i m puls

e , t th e e e e ,
ac on e

m ass in qu stion th i m pulsiv p r ssur e se th Sph ric l are e e e o n e e a

boun dary S inc th s t in lin s th r ugh th

. c ntr t h y d e e e ac e o .
e e e ,
e o

n o t aff ct th e m o m nt f m o m ntu m
e e o e .

It is w p int d t in A t
, 9 9
as i m m t rial wh th r
as w o e ou r .
,
a e e e e

si m ply su p pos th fl i d to t n d to infini ty d t b at r st e e u ex e an o e e

th r e w h th r w
e ,
su ppos i t c nt in d in an infinit ly l rg
or e e e e o a e e a e

fi d rigi d v ss l wh ich i infinit ly dist nt in l l d ir cti ns fr m

xe e e s e a a e o o

th m oving soli d
e Th m o t i n f th fl i d w ithin fini t dist nc . e o o e u a e a e

of th s li d d th r for th f rc s
e o rt d by it on th l tt r
,
an e e e e o e e xe e e a e ,

are th s m in th t w c s s I f w
e a w Su pp s th
e infini t e o a e . e n o o e e e

c ntaini g v ss l to b Sph ric l in s h p

o n d to h av i t c ntr
e e e e a a e ,
an e s e e

at any p oint P wi th i a finit d is tanc f th soli d th m o m nt n e e o e , e e

o f m o m ntu m f th inclu d d m ass ab ut any lin t h ro gh P i

e o e e o e u s,

as w hav j st s n q u l to th m o m nt f th i m p ls bou t
e e u e e ,
e a e e o e u e a

th s m lin
e Th s m a r soning sh ws th t i f t h r b no
e e . e a e ea e a e e e
 —
1 07 1 09 ] IM PU L SE . 1 23

ex et rn l i m pr ss d f rc s this m m nt f m o m ntu m is constant

a e e o e o e o e

t h roughout th m oti n H nc th m m nt f th i m puls about e o . e e e o e o e e

any lin through P is const nt S inc i this argu m nt P m y

e a . e n e a

b any p oint within

e fini t dis t anc f th solid it foll ws th t a e e o e , o a

th m o m nt
e f th i m puls b t y lin what v r is con tant
e o e e a ou an e e e s .

T h is c nn t b th cas unl ss th i m puls is its l f constant in

a o e e e e e e e

e v ry r sp ct
e e e .

in th sam w y th t i f y t rnal i m pr ss d f rc s
We se e e e a a an ex e e e o e

act th soli d th m m nt f th i m p l bout any lin is

on e ,
e o e o e u se a e

incr asing t y inst n t t a rat e q ual t th m o m nt f t h s

e a an a a e o e e o e e

f rc s bout th sa m lin
o e a e e e .

bo Th e so m what m o difi d p roofs f th or m s first

a v e are e e o e e

giv n by Tho m son

e I t Should b otic d th at th r asoning still e n e e e

hol ds wh n th si gl soli d is r p l c d by a gro p f soli ds which

e e n e e a e u o ,

m y m or ov r ( i f f inv ri bl v lu m ) b
a e fl ibl inst ad f rigi d
e o a a e o e e ex e e o ,

and v n wh n t h s s li ds
e e p l d b yp ortions f fluied m oving e e o are re a ce '
o

rotationally .

i m p uls e th vari s in cons q u nc e f th action

1 09 . Th e ‘ ’
en e e e o e

of th t rn l i m p r ss d forc s in actly th sam w y as th

e ex e a e e e ex e e a e

m m ntu m
o f any or d inary dynam ic l syst m d o s
e o To pr ss a e e . ex e

this r sult analyt ically l t C n C; 7x d not th com p on nts '

e e , , , a
, , v e e e e

of th forc d e -
cou pl constitu nt s f th i m p uls ; d l t
e an e e o e e an e

X Y Z ; L M N d sig at i th s m m nn r th syst m f
, , , ,
e n e n e a e a e e e o

t rnal i m pr ss d forc s Th whol variatio f g n C &

e x e
‘ e e e . e e n o
‘
, , , c .
,

d p
ue artly to th m tion f th a s to w h ich t h s q u ntiti s e o o e xe e e a e

are r f rr d d p rtly to th ac t ion f th forc s X Y Z &

e e e ,
an a e '
o e e , , ,
c .
,

is th n giv n by th f m l l
e e e or u ae
‘‘

m -
q CJ
r X ,
wn —v é d-w
'

dt

ug — -—
wg j p v f

14
”
0
E— + Z
dl q pn ,

On Vo r te x M o ti o n .

1 Se e
"
H a ywa rd , Ca m b . Tr a ns . Vo l . II .
124 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SOLI DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR v . .

Wh e n no ex et r al forc s act th e s e e quations hav

n e ,
e th e first
int grals
e

C
”
r)
”
C
2
const .
,

u
[ ] C v

u E+ n + v wC + r v 2T= const .
,

o f which th first d s c n d tog th r pr ss th f ct that th

e an e o e e ex e e a e

m a gnitu d s f th f rc d cou p l -
e c ns titu nts f th i m puls e
o e o e an e o e o e

are constant d th thir d th f ct that th W hol e n rgy f

,
an e e a e e e o

th e m otion is constant .

110 . It r m ains to p r ss C n C & i t rm s f

e ex e , , , c . n e o u, v,
'
w, & c .

In th e first p lac l e t Q1? de not th kin tic n rgy f

e
”
e e e e e o th e flui d
alon e ,
so that
as = —p
gi l de ,

w h e r th e int gration t n ds ov r th w hol surfac e f

e e ex e e e e o th e
m oving soli d S ubstituting i this for m ula th e valu ( 2) o f I
. n e ( ) , we

g te f 2 3 5
1 anor p r ssion f th for m ex e o e

Au 2An m
” 9 ” ' ’ '
2 35 Bv Cw 2 B wa 2O uv

Qg
'
2Q rp
2 2 '
Pp Br 2 P qr 2R pg
2 ’

2p ( L u Mu N w)
M N w)
' ' '
2 q (L u v
" "
M
”
2r (L u v N w)

wh r A B O &
e e c e rt in constant co ffici e nts whos valu s
, , ,
c . ar e a e e e

d p n d only on th for m f th soli d

e e d th p osition f th
e e o e ,
an on e o

a s f co -ordinat s r lativ to th sol d v i z w hav

xe o e e e e i . e e

—p 143 dS 1
p ( fil let/S
dn
,

0196
A 6
9 2 712 +
.
T ’
s
dS

d d) 3 d d) ,
ds P
an a
-
p ¢ n
2
dS ( t
s
m dS,

d
dS = -P —
P = "
P X1 3 % X1 ( y
n m z ds
) :

&c .
,
&c .
,
&c .
1 09 KI NETI C ENE R GY . 1 25

th e trans for mations b ing e ff ct d by th s f ( 3 ) d f e e e e u e o an o a

p ar t icular cas f G r n s th or m Th s p r ssions ef t ho ee

’
e e . e e e x e or e

co e ffici nts e d to K irchhoff e ar ue .

Th kin tic n rgy QL soli lon is also g v n by '

f h
’
e y t d e i e e , sa , o e a e e

a quadra t ic function f w & in which ho w v r A B O o u, v , ,

c .
, e e , ,
’
are

each q ual to th m ass f th soli d whilst A B O L Ill N &

e e o e ,
'

,
'

,
'

, , , , c .

all vanish Th to t al n rgy T.

y ) f th syst me is e e , sa ,
o e e

th r for giv n by a f r m ula f th s m form as

e e e e E c pt o o e a e x e

wh n oth r wis i n dic t d w shall s ppos A B O & to stan d

e e e a e e u e , , , c .

f thor fi i t in th e p r e ssion
co e f t wic t his total n
c en e rg y s e ex or e e .

111 . Th e only form soli d f which th co ffici nts in

o f or e e e

th e e xp e r ssion ( )
2 1 fo r 2 313 hav e b e n ac tually d t e r m in d is th e e e e

e lli psoid W r adily fi . e e n d

2
(6 b
4 7r ( b
2 2
H ) (b + ” '
f fl
p c’
a
(G
2
0 ) c )
w h r enotation is th sam as in Ar t 1 02 E 3 Th valu
e th e e e .
,
x . . e es

o f B 0 Q B m y b w i tt n d o w fro m sym m try ; thos e f th

, , ,
a e r e n e o e

r e m aining co e ffici nts all e ro S A t 1 1 6 ( d) S inc e e ar e z . ee r . .

4 7r ( F G)
—
A B g rr
p b c a
( E ) ( 4 71 G)
.
,
4 77

it app ars that e if a b> c, th e n A < B O ,

as m ight hav b e n e e

anticip at d e .

112 in any dyna m ic a l syst m th

. Wh e n
p r e ssion f th e e ex or e

kin tic n rgy in t e rm s f th v lociti s is kno wn th valu s f

e e e o e e e , e e o

th com p on nt m om nta can b d riv d by a p rf ctly g n ral

e e e e e e e e e e

p roc ss F or this
e w m ust f.r to bo ks on g n ral D yna m ics e r e e o e e

Appli d to our cas it giv s e e e

dT dT dT dT dT dT
E 2
7” C r
)»
du
}
dv
,
dw
,
dp
,
dg
,
dr
.

r sp ctiv ly Th s e form ul ae
e e r adily d duc d from thos
e . e ar e e e e e

which r e lat to a p rf c tly fr rigi d body by supposing th e e e e e e

S Th n d T i t N P h il A t 3 1 3 M w l l E l i i ty d
ee o m so an a , a t
. . r .
, or ax e , e c tr c an

M g ia P rt c 5 A tlin f th p c d pt d t
n e t sm , c i gi n i
a IV . . . n ou e o e ro e ss a a e o our a se s v e n

nt o e
126 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

m otion at
y nstant g n rat d i m p ulsiv ly fro
an m r st dI l e e e e e , an ca

l t i g th
cu a ff ct f th i m p lsiv flui d p r ssur s
n e e th sur f c
e o e u e e e on e a e

of th soli d F or instanc th r sultant i m pulsiv forc e p ar ll l

e . e , e e e a e

to d to this caus is
x ue e

q ld S , or p

i . e . by ( 2) an d
"
A O
'
Bw
'

( u v Lp L g ’
L r ) ,

( i f A B , ,
O &c b e
, . su ppos e d fo r a m o m nt to r
e e fe r to th e flui d
d eli
o ly)
n ,
or H e nc e

'
d QL
m om e ntu m of sol d parall l to
i e x,
( by or d nary Dyna mics ) i
du
total i m puls in sam e dir ction e e

d i ll;
da

d (a Q E)
’
dT
g da da

an d in th e sam way th r st
e e e of th e f or m ul ae ( 2 3 ) m ay be ve rifi e d .

113 . Th e e quations of m otion ( )

2 0 m a
y now be writt n in e

th e f orm
d dT dT dT
r X
dz; diff
’
di da
&c .
,
&c .
,

d dT Q dT
w 1) r
d t dp dc dw dg
&c .
,
&c .

We can at onc d riv s m int re sting conclusions from th se e e o e e e e

equations in th cas wh r no t r l f rc s act In th first

,
e e e e ex e n a o e . e

p l c e a K irc h ho ff has p int d out that ( )

2 4 th satisfi e d by o e ar e en

p q , r O a ,
d w constant p rovi
,
d d w
n e h av e u ,
v , ,
e

e r
A ?
dv dw
1 12
'

S TEADY MO TI ON OF SO L I D . 127

i p
.
r vi
e d.d th v e l cityo f which v w e c m pon e nts b ee o o n , ,
are th e o

in th dir ct ion f e f th princi p l a s e f th e lli psoi d o on e o e a xe o e ,

A By O 2A y 2B x20 y
2
const 2
z
2 '
z
'

zx
'
x .

Th r ist th n f
e e v ry body thr m utually p rp n dicular
ex e or e e ee e e

d ir cti ns f p r m n nt tr nsl t i n ; that is t say if th

e o o e bo dy a e a a o o ,
e

h t in m t i n p r ll l to
e se f th s dir ctions w ithout
o o a a e on e o e e e ,
ro

t tia d t h n l ft t o i t s l f it w ill con t inu

on ,
an to m v in this
e e e ,
e o e

m nn r aIt w ill b s n that th s d ir ctions

e . d t r m in d by e e e e e e ar e e e e

th r tio f th m n d nsity f th solid t th d nsity f th

e a o e ea e o e o e e o e

surro n ding fl i d d by th f m f th bo dy s surfac

u u Th an e or o e
’
e . e

i m p uls n c ssary t pro duc m otion in

e e f th s
e d ir e ctions o e on e o e e

d o s not in g en ral r d uc to a S ingl f rc e ; thus if th

e s e e e e o e a xe

o f -ordin t s b chos n f c v ni nc p r ll l to th s
cc a e e e ,
or on e e e ,
a a e e e

d ir ctions so that A B O = 0 w hav e corr spon ding to th

' ' '
e , , , ,
e e e

m otion alon u e

E Au = , n
= 0.

= 0, = 0;
a v

that th i m puls e consists o f a wr e nch

"of itch
so e p

abov although th S i m pl st
114 . Th e not th only e ,
e e , ar e e

st ady m otions f which th body is c p bl ( un d r th acti n

e o e a a e e e o

f no
o t rn l forc s) Th inst ntan ous m oti n f th body at
ex e a e . e a e o o e

any inst nt consis t s by a w ll -know n th or m f Ki n m tics f a

a e e e o e a o
-
, ,

twist about c rtain scr w f; d th con di t i n th t th is m tion a e e an e o a o

sh oul d b p r m an nt i that it sh oul d t aff ct th configurat i n

e e e s n o e e o

f th
o i m puls ( which is fi d in sp c ) r l tiv ly to th bo dy
e e xe a e e a e e ,

This r quir s that th a s f th scr w d f th corr spon ding

e e e xe o e e an o e e

i m pu lsiv wr nch Shou ld coin i d S inc th g n ral q u t ion

e e c e . e e e e e a s

f a str ight lin involv four in d p n d nt cons t n t s this giv s

o a e e e e e a , e

four r lations to b satisfi d by th fi

e r tios w p g e e e v e a u v r .

A w nch i y t ff c r e
pp d d c d ft th
’
nn f P i t
s a s s em o or e s su o se re u e a er e m a er o o n so

t f c d c pl h i ng i t i i th di cti n f th f c I t p i tch i ‘ ’
o a or e an a ou e av s ax s n e re o o e or e . s s

th l i wh i ch i th r
e n e l t f di i di ng th c p l b y th f rc s S B ll Th e e su o v e ou e e o e ee a e or
y .
,

o f S cr e ws .

A twi st i s th e
‘ ’
ti o n o f a r i gi d b o dy e qu i a l e nt to a tra n l a ti o n
m os t ge n er al m o , v s

p a r a l l e l to s o m e a i s c o m b i n e d wi th a
ta ti o n a b o u t th t a i s I ts p i tch i th e
x
‘ ro a x
’
. s

l i ne a r m a gni tu de wh i ch i s th e ra ti o o f th e t a n s l a ti o n to th e ro ta ti o n B a ll r .
,

Th e o r y of S c r e ws .
1 28 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

Th re e ists th n f v ry bo dy un d r th circu m stanc s h r e

e x e or e e , e e
'

e e

-
consi d r d a si ply i fi i t syst m f p ossibl st ady m oti ns
m e e ,
n n e e o e e o .

O f th s e th n t in i m p ort nc t th thr
e m tions f pe e ex a e o e ee o o r

m an nt translation
e t hos in which th i m p l s r d c s to a ar e e e u e e u e

cou pl only Th qu tions ( 2 0) ( 2 4)

e s tisfi d by C 7 C 0
. e e a or ar e a e ,
7 , ,

and A u constant provi d d

, , v ,
e

E v

r
P 9

I f th e a s xe of cc -
or din a te s h v a e th e sp ci l di r ctions ad pt d in
e a e o e

Ar t 1 1 3
.
,
th e con ditions if n, , C 0 giv us at onc e ew in t r m s u , v , e

of
p g , , r ,
v iz .

u :

S ubstituting th s valu s in
e e e th e ex
p r ssions e fo r A u , , v obtain e d
from w e fin d
dO dO
7k p '

dp
’ ’ ’
a
q
wh r e e
'

15 QBQ Q i flgr Q QB r p Q i fip q
2 Q ' '
26 19
’
n

th e co e fi c i e n ts in this e xp e r ssion b i g d t rm in e n e e e d by th e f rm ul o ae

J
f
M a ir?
A B O
"
M M
'
L L
' ’
N N
’

_
A B C
’

&c .
, &c .

Th s e form ul ae hol d f any cas in which th forc -constitu e nt

e or e e e

of th e i m puls is ro Intro ducing th e con ditions ( 2 5) f ste ady

e ze . or

m otion we h av e to d t r m in p
, q t h thr e e qu tions e e e r e e a

33 ? + QB r
'

aa p ra g
' ’

qs r

QBp + QBg ali r

' '

Th e f orm f ( 2 9 ) sh ws that o e th e lin whos e e d i ction -

re ratios ar e

p g r is parall e l to f th on e o e
p rinci p l a s a xe o f th llipsoi d
e e

O ( x,
y ,
z
) const .
1 1 4, SPEC I A L CASES OF M OTI ON . 1 29

Th r e th r f r thr e p r m n nt cr w-
e ar e m o t i ns such that th
e e o e e e a e s e o e

c rr sp on ding i m p lsiv wr nch in ach cas r duc s t a ou pl

o e u e e e e e e o c e

only Th a s f th s thr scr ws

. m utually at right angl s
e xe o e e ee e are e ,

but d not in g n ral int rs c t

o e e e e .

115 will w sh w th t in all cas s wh r th i m puls

. We n o e a e e e e e

consists f a cou pl only th m oti n o b co m p l t ly d t r m in e d e ,

e o ca n e e e e e .

I t is c nv ni nt r taining th sa m d ir cti ns f th a s
o e e b for
,
e e e e o o e xe as e e ,

to ch ng th posi tion f th origin To trans f r th o igi t

a e e o e . e e r n o

any p int ( y ) w m ust writ

o x, , z e e

u + ry — qz , v +pZ w + qx —Py
fo r r sp ctiv ly
u, v , w, e e e . We hav th e n in e th e ex
p r ssi n
e o fo r th e
kin tic n rgy
e e e

n e w M — Bx +M ,
n e w N =
'

so that i f w e m ak e

M N
i ,
L
I
N
I ,

2y
B C C A
we hav in e , th e n e w ex
p r ssio e n fo r 2 T,
"
M
'
N L L Jll
’
N
B C A A
'

C B

L et us note th v lu s f th s e p irs
de e a e o e a qual quantiti s by
of e e

a , B , q r r sp ctiv ly Th for m ul ( 2 6 ) m
e e e . e ae a
y th n b w ri t t een e

‘
Ai
( l
_
d I \’
w
d I’
dp dq dr
wh re e

A
——
B % —r 2 + 2 1 r
2
g + g + 2 Br p + 2 yp g ( )
3 3

Th e m oti n
body at y instant m y b conc iv d as m d
o of th e an a e e e a e

f tw arts - m otion f tr nslation qu l to t hat f th a o a e a

u
p p o o o e

origin d f rot tion about an i stantan ous a is p si ng

,
an on e o a n e x as

through th origin Th e latte r p rt is to b d t rm in e d b y th

e . a e e e e

equations
dA
r p q v &c .
,
&c
lt
,
a

d d® dO d (_
9
7
'

q dr &c &c
dt dp
. .
’ ,
1 1 11
1 30 ON TH E M OTI ON OF SOLI DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

Th s i d ntical in form with th quations f m otion f a rigi d

e e ar e e e e o o

bo dy about a fi d point that w m y m ak f P i t xe , so e a e u se o o n so

’
s

w ll -kno wn s luti n f th l tt r p robl m Th angul r m o t i

e o o o e a e e . e a on

of th b dy is th r for obtain d by m aking th

e o llipsoi d e e e e e e

which is fi d in th bo dy roll th plan xe e ,

on e e

M up const v z .
,

w hich is fi d i s pac with an angul r v locity p rop ortional to

xe n e ,
a e

th l ngth OIe f th r dius v ct r d raw n fr m th origin to th

e o e a e o o e e

p oint f contact I Th or p r e s ntation f th e actu l m otion is . e e e o a

th n com pl t d by i m p r ssing
e th wh l
e syst m f r lli g
e e on e o e e o o n

elli psoi d d plan a v locity who co m pon nts

an giv n by e e se e ar e e

Th dir ction f this v locity is that o f th nor m al OM to th e

e e o e e

ta ge nt plan to th qu dric
n e e a

‘
I’
( x,
y ,
z )
at th e
p oint P wh r e e OI m ee ts this quadric ,
an d its m agnitu d is e

X ang ular v locity e o f b dy o

OP . GM

I f OI do not m ee t b u t th e conj gat quadric obt in d by

u e a e

chang ng th i e S ign of e ,
th e s nse e o f th v locity ( 3 5 ) is r v rs d
e e e e e .

cours f r partic u lar vari ti s f th m oving soli d th e

1 16 . Of e o e e o e

e p x f 2 T b co m s gr atly S i m p lifi d
r e ss r o n or F instanc e e e e . or e

( ) l t us su ppos that th bo dy h a plan f sym m try

a e e e as e o e

as r gards both its f r m d th distribution f m att r in its i

e o an e o e n

t i er or d l t this p l n b t k n as tha t f y
,
an e It is pl in that a e e a e o x . a

th n rgy f th m oti n i unalt r d i f w r v rs th S ig s f w

e e e o e o s e e e e e e e n o ,

p g t,
h m otion b ing actly sim il r in th tw cas s This
, e e ex a e o e . re

qu i r s that A B P Q L M L M N Sh uld vanish O

e
’

,
’

,
’

,
’

, ,
’

,
’

,
”
o . n e

f th d ir ctions f p r m n nt translation is t h n p ar ll l t o
o e e o e a e e a e z .

Th thr scr ws f A t 1 1 4
e ee w p ur rot tio s ; th
e is f o r . ar e n o e a n e ax o

eon f t h m is p rall l to ; th s
o e f th o t h r tw at right a e z o e o e e o ar e

a gl s in th plan y b t d not in g n r l int rs ct th first

n e e e x ,
u o e e a e e e .

b
( ) I f th bo dy h v s con d pl n f sy m m try at ri ght
e a e a e a e o e ,

a gl s t th f r m r
n e l t this b
o tak n e th p l n f
o e , on e , e e e as e a e o e x .

W fi d in th sa m way th t in t h is cas th co ffici nts

e n e e a e e e e
1 1 5, H I N ETI C ENER GY IN SPEC I AL CAS E S . 131

O
’

, R
'

, N, L also m ust vanish so that , th e e x

p r ssion e fo r 2 T
assu m s e th e for m

2 T= Au ’
+ B v + Ow
’ ’
2
’

“
Pp er R:

2 N wq 2M
’ ”
v r

Th e d ir ctio s f p rm n nt translation e p arall l to th thr a s

e n o e a e ar e e ee xe

of - ordinat s Th
cc is o f is th a is fe . f th p r m an n t
e ax x e x o on e o e e e

scr ws ( w pur rot tions) f A t 1 1 4 ; d thos f th oth r

e n o e a o r . an e o e e

tw int rs c t it at right angl s ( b ing p ar ll l to y d

o e e e e a e an z re

s
p ti
e c ly ) t hough
v e not n c ssarily
,
i th s m p oint e e n e a e .

c
( ) I f furth r t h bo dy b
,
e f r ol t ione abo ,t say e e on o e v u ,
u x, ,

th valu e f 2 T giv n by ( 3 5 ) m ust b unal t r d wh

e o w w ri t
e e e e en e e

c, g w ,
— f w , g r s p ctivr ly ; f orth i s is m r ly
,
qui r ,
a, , e e e or e e e

v l nt to turning th a s f y through a righ t ngl H nc

a e e xe o ,
z a e . e e

w m ust hav e B
e 0 Q R M — N I f w fur t h r trans f , ,
”
r:
’
. e e e r

th eorigin to th p oint 0 f A t 1 1 5 w hav M N Th s e o r . e e

”
e e

con ditions can b e s tisfi d only by M 0 N 0 so that a e

”

,
’

Au ”
B (v
2
i v
?
)
+ Pp 4 0 0 5

in ( b ) th bo dy hav a third plan f sym m t ry a t

d
( ) If e e e o e

righ t ngl s to th tw for m r on s th n taking this p lan

a e that e o e e ,
e e as

of y we hav z vi d ntly e ,
e e ,

"
2 T= Au ’z
Bu
?
Cu )

Th e s f -or dinat s in th dir ctio n s f th e thr p r m an nt

a xe o cc e are e e o ee e e

transl ti ns ; th y a o lso th s f th thr p r m an nt scr w

e are a e a xe o e ee e e e

m otions ( w p ur rot tions) f A t 1 1 4

n o e a o r . .

( ) N tel t us c nsi d r anoth

ex r cl ss f ce s s L t p o e e a o a e . e us su

p os th t t
eh bo d y ahas a sort f sk w sy
e m m try about c rtain o e e a e

a is ( say that f ) i tha t it is i d n t ical w i t h its l f t rn d

x o x , V z . e e u e

t hrough t w right ngl s bout th is a is b t has no pl n f y m

o a e a x ,
u a e o s

m trye
" Th r ssion f 2 T m ust b unal t r d w h n w e e e e e
p . e ex e or

A two -
b l a de d s c re w-
p r o p e ll e r o f a sh ip is an e xa m pl e o f a b o dy o f hi t s ki n d .
1 32 ON TH E M TI O ON O F SOL I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR v . .

change th e signs f w q so that th c ffici nts B

o v , , , r ,
e oe e
'

, O
”

, Q
’

,
R
'

M N, L
’

,
L m ust all vanish
”
W h v th n . e a e e

2 T = Au 2A v w
” ’ ’ ’
Bv Ow

Th e a is o f is e f t h e dir ctions f p rm an nt transl tion ;

x x on o e o e e a

an d also th a is f e o f th ethr e scr ws f A t 1 1 4 th pi t c h

x o on e e e o r .
,
e

L
b ing A Th e a s o f th tw r m aining scr ws int rs ct it
e ' xe e o e e e e

at right a gl s but not in g n e ral in th e sam point

n e , e e .

(f ) I f fur t h r th bo dy,
b i d ntic l w i t h its
e l f turn
,
d e e e a e e

thr ugh e right ngl about th bov a is th

o on par ssion ( )
3 9 e e a e x
*
,
e ex e

m ust b unal t r d w h n q w
e writt n f w
e e
g e n, , ,
r are e or ,
r , n, ,

r sp ctiv ly This r quir s that B O A = O Q = B P 0

e e e . e e ,
'

, ,
’

l lI = N
/
’
N —M ”

,
I f w fur th r tr ns f r th ori gi n to th point
”
. e e a e e e

chose n in A t 1 1 5 w m ust hav N = M r . d th r for N e0 e

’
an e e e
’

M 0 H nc e ( 3 9 ) b co m e s
. e e

"
2 T = Au + B
2
(
2
v + 10 )

g) bo dy p oss es I f th e s th e sam prop rti s f sk w sym m e try

e e e o e

about an a is int rs cting x e e th e f rm ro at right angl s we

e on e e ,

e vi de tly m ust hav

n e

An y dir e ction i s rm an nt translation d any linn ow on e of p e e , an e

d rawn through th e origin is th is f a scr w f th kin d con e ax o e o e

Sid d in Ar t 1 1 4 o f p itch
ere
ii Th for m f ( 4 1 ) is un lt r d
.
, e o a e e

by any chang in th e dir c tions f th a s f - e ordina t s e o e xe o cc e .

S f - b l d d c w-
om e p p ll r o ur
p l f b d i f a c h f
e s re ro e e s a r e e xa m es o o es o su o rm s .
1 1 6, KI NETI C ENER GY IN SPEC I AL CASES . 1 33

In th cas ( ) f a soli d f r v olution th e c Om pl te

'

1 17 . e e 0 o o e , e

d t rm ination f th m otion ( wh n no
e e t rn l for s ac t) has b e n
o e e ex e a ce e

e
"
sh wn by K irchho ff to b r ducibl to a m att r f quadratur s e e e e o e .

Th p articular cas wh r th soli d m ov s w ithout rotatio

' '

e e e e e e n

about its a is f sy m m t ry d wi th t h is is l w ys in
x o p lan e ,
an ax a a on e e

( i 6.w h n p. 0 q h b e n a m in d t l ng t h by Th m s
, f as e e ex e a e o on
' ‘

an d K irchho ff i Th quations ( 2 4 ) th be co m e e en e

da dv
A TB ” , B T AIL
32 25
,

d
= A —B u v
r
R —
dt
( ) .

L et X Y b e th -
or dinat s at any instant f th m o i g origi n
, e cc e o e v n

r la t iv ly to a s fi d in spac in th pla e y th d ir ction f X

e e xe xe e e n x , e e o

b ing that f th r sultant i m p uls I f th m otion ; d l e t 9

e o e e e o e an

d not th angl ( m asur d in th p osi t iv dir ction ) which 3 :

e e e e e e e e e

m ak s with X e W hav th . e e en

A =I 9 B = — I si 9 u co s , v n , r

Th first tw e f quations which m r ly o o p r ss th e fi i ty f

e e e ex e x o
.

th e dir ction f th i m p uls in s p ac

e satisfi d i d nticall y ; th e
o e e e ,
ar e e e

thir d giv s e

A B
AB
I sin 9 cos 9 = O Q
,

or writing 2 9 S
, r,

( A B ) ?
sin 3
AB R
th e quatio n f m otio f a co m m on pe n dulu m W h n 3 has b e
e o n o . e en

de t rm in d so as to satisfy (4 3) d th initial con ditions X d Y

e e an e ,
an

ar e to b foun d fro m th quations

e e e

u co s 9 -v si n 9= % i + + 1
31

A B
th e s e con d o f which giv s e

Y —
_ E S
'

I
,

C r e l le , t . 71 . U b r die e e n n
B e we gu g e i e s Bo ta ti o n ko r pe r s i n e in e r Fl u s s i gke i t .

1" Th o m s
o n an d Ta i t , N a tu r a l P
h i lo s op h y , Ar t 33 2 . .

3: l . c.
1 34 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH ROUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

th e additiv constant b ing e ro i f th e is f X b t k n

e e z ax o e a e

c oinci d nt with ed t m r e ly p arall l to th a is f th

,
an n o e e ,
e x o e

i m p uls e I .

Th act solution f ( 4 3 ) involv s th

e ex f llip tic functions o e e u se o e .

Th eatur f th m otion in th v a ri us c s s that m y ris is

n e o e , e o a e a a e ,

how v r r a dily s n from th th ory f th si m pl p n dulu m

e e e ee e e o e e e .

F or a full d iscussio f it w r f r to Tho m son d Tait Arts 3 3 3 n o e e e an , .

,

e t se q .

It a pp ars fro m ( 4 3 ) th t th e m otion f th soli d p r l l l to its

e a o e a a e

a is is stabl
x or unstabl ccor ding as A 2 B S inc A d not s
e e a . e e e

twic th kin tic n e r gy f th soli d m oving with unit v loci ty

e e e e o e e

p arall l to its aeis d si m ilarly f r B i t is tol r bly ob ious th t

x , an o ,
e a v a

i f th soli d r s m bl e a p rolat
e lli psoi d f r voluti n A B whilst
e e e e o e o ,

th r v rs is th e ca e i f it r s m bl
e e e e an oblat llipsoi d C o m par s e e e e e . e

Ar t 1 1 1
. .

abov analysis appli s e qually w e ll to th som wh t m or

Th e e e e e a e

g e n ral ca ( b) f a bo dy with tw m utually p rp n dicul r p lan s

e se o o e e a e

o f sym m try w h n th m otio n is l tog th r p arall l to

e ,
ef e a e e e on e o

t h e s p lan s
e I f this p lan b that f y w m ust su ppos th
e . e e o x e e e

origin transfe rr e d to th e p oint 0 0 i f it b that o f , e xz,

to th e p o rn t

118 qu stion o f th e stability o f th e m t

, Th e f a body
e o Ion o

m oving p arall l to an a is f sy m m try is m or m pl y tr at d

e x o e e SI e e

by appro i m t m tho ds T h us i th cas ( d) f a body with

x a e e .
, n e e o

thr plan s f sy m m try d slightly disturb d from a stat f

ee e o e ,
an e e o

st e ady m otion p arall l to w h v writing a d e x, e a e , n

assum ing w p q to b all s m all

u
’

, v , , , , r e ,

da dv
’

A =
a E
dp dq _ dr _

He nc e
d
’
v ( A —B )
E — A a
” T cn
di R
1 1 7— 1 1 9 ] STAB I L I TY OF M O TI O N . 1 35

with a si m ilar e quation f or r ,

an d

d
—
w
’
( A O)
O A 0 w O
dz
g
R
,

w ith a si m ilar quation f g Th m otion is t h e r for stabl only e or . e e e e

i f A b gr at r than ith r B or 0
e It app ars fro m A t 1 1 1 that
e e e e . e r .

th eonly dir ction f st bl m otion f lli ps i d is th t f its

e o a e o an e o a o

l ast is F practical illustrations f this r sult

e ax . Tho m so
or o e se e n

an d T it A t 336 a ,
r . .

119 . If in rit ( )
2 4 w e w d s parat th t rm s e T --
QEl Q E
’

,
an e e e e

du e to an d Q 1? r s pe ctiv ly w obtain x pr ssions f th forc s

e e ,
e e e or e e

e xe rt d e on th m oving soli d by th
e p r ss r f th surroun d ing e e u e o e

flui d ; i v z .
,
w hav f e th total co m p on e nt ( x say ) f th e fl uid
e or e , ,
o

p r ssur
e e p a rall l to e x

d e er a ct as
all d a d z) 9 dw ’

an d fo r th e m o m nt ( i t)
e of th e sam e
p r ssures about e x,

d da da
Mdw e a
s M
r w fl aw
ar e) . dv dg

Th e f orm s f th s p r ssions b ing kno won it is n t d i ffi culteto e ex e e ,

o

v ri fy t h m by dir ct c l culat ion from th form ula

e e W sh oul d e a e e

thus ob t in in d p n d nt thou gh som what t dious p roof f th

a an e e e e e o e

g n ral quations f m otion

e e e o

I f th bo dy b constrain d to m ove with a un iform V locity f

e e e e o

tr nslation th com pon nts f which r l tiv ly to th

a , e s f e o , e a e e a xe o

A t 1 13
r . v w w hav x y z 0 so that th ff ct f
,
are u , , ,
e e , , ,
e e e o

th eflui d pr ssur is r pre s nt e d b y a co p l e whos com po n nts

e e e e u e e

are

=
3L ( B O) v w, ga r
( O —A) wu , 3a = ( A

Th e co ffici nts A B O i th e pr e s sion f 2 T di ff r from t h ose

e e , ,
'
n e x or e

in th p r ssion
e f 2
ex6 1
5 only by th ad d ition
e f th m ass f th or e o e o e

solid so that it is i m m at rial in ( 2 1 ) which e t f co ffi ci nts we

,
e s o e e

un d rstan d by th s sym bols

e e e .

I f we draw in th lli psoi d e e

A By C con st x
2 ” ’ 2
z
1 36 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO L I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

a radius-v ctor r in th dir ction f th e v l city (

e w) d e e o e o u ,
v ,
an

er ct th p rp e n dicul r h f om th c ntr to th tang nt pl n

e e e a r e e e e e a e

at th tr m i t y f th plan f th abov e cou pl is that f h

e ex e o r ,
e e o e e o
A
3

a d n a d its m gnitu d
r ,
is p rop rtional to i h dir ctly d
n a e o s n r e ,
an

to h inv rs ly Its t n d ncy is t turn th bo dy from to h L t

e e . e e o e r . e

us su ppos th t A B C in r d r f m ag itu d
e a d th t th , , ar e o e o n e ,
an a e

dir ction f th v l city (

e w ) d vi t s but slight ly fr m th t
o e e o u ,
'
v ,
e a e o a

of f th p rinci p l a s f
on e o I f this a is b
e th t f a xe o x e a o x,

th t n d ncy f th abov cou pl is to di m inish

e e e d i f th t f
o e e e ,
an a o

z, to incr as th d viati n whilst in th cas

e ef slight d viation e e o e e o a e

fro m th a is f y th t n d ncy Of th cou pl d p n ds

e x o th e e e e e e e on e

p sition
o f r l tiv to th p rinci
o p al circular
r s cti ns f
e a e e e o o

C om p r A t 1 1 8 a e r . .

f Ca s e o a P e rf o r a te d S o li d .

1 20 . av e m or ap rtur e s pe
I f th e m o v m g S oli d h e on or e e or r

f ti
ora o tha t t h spac
o n s, t rnal t it is m ulti ply-conn ct d
s e e ex e o e e ,

t h flui d m y hav e a m otion in d p n d nt f t h t

e a f th soli d i e e e o a o e ,
v z .

a cyclic m otion i which th circul tions in th v ri us non van s- n e a e a o e e

cibl e circuits which n b dr wn thr gh th p rtur s m y ca e a ou e a e e a

hav any valu s what v r W will bri fly in dic te h w th

e e e e . e e a o e

for going m tho ds m y b e a dapt d to this cas

e eL t a e e . e x
l ,
x
2

b th valu s f th circul tions in th abov -

e e m ntion d circuits
e o e a e e e e ,

an d l t d d be surf c -l m nts f th corr spon ding

o
”
a
g ,
e a e e e e o e e

barri rs n c ssary ( as plain d in A t 5 4 ) to r duc th r gion

e e e ex e r . e e e e

occu pi d by th flui d t a si m ply -conn ct d

e F urt h r l t e o e e on e . e ,
e

l m ,
d n t th dir ction -
,
n c sin s f th norm l draw n towards
e o e e e o e o e a

t h e flui d t any p oint f th sur f c f th

a s li d draw n o e a e o e o ,
or on

th p sitiv si d at
e o
y p int f a barri r W
e m y now writ e an o o e . e a e

w¢ 3 + p x. 9 x. + T
X. w

Th e uncti ns b X f d t rm in d by th sam e con ditions as

o ( ,
ar e e e e e

be for To d te rm in e . w hav th con ditio s e e co

,
e e e n

( ) t hat it m ust satis

a fy V w 0 through ut th flui d ;
f
,
o e

b
( ) that its d e rivativ e s m ust va i s h at infinity ; n

( c ) that E
g
g; 0 at th e s rf c u a e of th e soli d ; an d
1 19, PE R FO R ATED SO L I D . 1 37

that m ust b
d
( ) a m on cyclic functi n th cyclic a)
,
e o o , e

const nt b ing uni ty ; i th incr m n t f th func ti n m ust

a e v z . e e e o e o

b e uni ty wh n th p int t which it r f rs d scrib s circuit

e e o o e e e e a

cu t ting th first b rri r onc d onc onl y

e d r wh n th a e e an e , an ze o e e

p oin t d scrib s a circuit t

e cu tt ing this bar i re n o r e .

I t pp rs fr m A t 6 2 th t t h s c n dition co m pl t ly d
a ea o r . a e e o s e e e

t rm i
e s v t an a dditiv constant
n e a e as o e .

Th n rgy f m otion f th flui d is giv n by A t 6 7 i

e e e o o e e r .
,
V z .

w hav e e

—p d S + pK
g da l + px2

d d)
Su bstitu t ing th valu s f 96 d from ( 4 7 ) w btain a ho m o e e o ’
n
e o .

g p r
e n e ou s e x ssion f th s c n d d g i w e o e e o e ree n u , v , ,
x
1,
x
2,

This pr ssion c nsists f thr p rt s Th e firs t is a ho m og n ous

ex e o o ee a . e e

qu dra tic functi n f v w p g th co ffici n t s i w hich e

a o o u , , , , ,
r ,
e e e n ar

gi n by th sam for m ulae in A t 1 1 0 ; th s c n d part c nsis ts

v e e e as r . e e o o

o f p ro ducts f w nto w hilst th thir d part is a

o u,
'
v , ,
I x
v
1c
2
e

qu dratic function f th co ffici nts

a Th co ffici nts f th o e e e x . e e e o e

s con d part all vanish Thus th co ffici nt f w is

e . e e e o e
,

d d) ,
01 3
1
d.

an to t hat th e v lu f th is pr ssion is in fact ro we

d se e a e o ex e ze ,

h v only to com p ar ( 30)

a e d ( 3 1 ) f A t 6 6 writing e an o r .
,

d =wr d th r for =
c an —0
e e e K x x
2
’
x
’

W have
,

Th co ffici nts f th thir d p rt

e e foun d as follo w s
e o e a ar e . e

co e ff . o f If
,
”
p 1

21
6
co e ff o f . rc x
1
2 —
l

do ,
2p

by anoth e r si m pl appli ation e c of Th o m son s ’

ex e n t s ion o f G re n s e
’

t h or me e .
1 38 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SOL I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHA R . v .

He nc e th e total n rgy is obtain d by a dding to th e right -han d

e e e

si d e of ( )
2 1 an e p r ssion
x f th form
e o e

’I
2 K " re r
2 2 K m m ic a ,

w h r e e

i m pulsiv forc s n c ss ry t pr duc from r st

121 . Th e e e e e a o o e e

th actu l m otion at any instant w consist partly f i m pulsiv

e
-
a n o o e

forc s a ppli d to th soli d

e d p rtly (e p lain d in A t 6 1e
) ,
an a as e x e r .

o f i m p ulsiv p r ss r s p p & e uni form ove r th su v ral e a

l ,
lc
g , c . e e e e

m m bran s w hich
e su pp s d f a m o m nt to occu py th
e ar e o e or ,
e e

osi t ions f th barri rs abov -m ntion d Th co m on nts f

p o e
p e e e e . e e o

th forc
e d p l e l t t f
an t h e first t w
co u d not by $ e e r e su an s o se , e e e
1 ,

77 C1 ,
d 1p ,
r
an s p ctiv ly ; thos f th forc
l ,
d cou
v
1p l
, e e e e e o e e an

e quival nt to th s con d t by C 7 C d A a
e e By th e
e se
2 ,
7
2, 2 , an
, , s ,
v
,
.

‘
i m puls f th m o t i n at any i n st nt w sh all un d rstan d th e
e
’
o e o a e e

f rco d cou pl
e q uival n t to both th s s ts co m bin e d so that
an e e e e e e ,

if C n C; A ,
b its co m p on nts w e h av
, ,
a
, , u e e , e

&c .
,
&c .
,

&c .
, &c .

t r m i puls in this s ns e th r asoni g f

th e ‘m ’
I f we u se e e e ,
e e n o

A t 1 08r d cons qu ntly th

. q u tions f m otion ( 2 0) will still
an e e e e a o

hol d Th form ul . how v r co n ctin g g n C & with T

e ae e e ,
n e
’‘
, , , c .

r quir e corr ction

e e .

By th e s am e r asoning e , an d with th e sam e n otation as in

Ar t 1 1 2 , we . hav e
1 2 0, PE RFO R ATE D SO L I D . 139

A, p ( n
y m e
) dS

d
xl +
fi ds

rc
dp p

so th t a

if p m
,
as &c .
,

dT
’c
dp P r

We sa w a bov that
e

i?
( t
do “ & c .
,

m a y al so writ e
‘— —
jg - da -& c
’

lc
g, p , , ,

X,
35
—
p do ,
&c

Agai n ,
by S tatics ,

£ 2 P K
I
do ,
&CU

A, p ic
l
n
y m z
) do ,
&c , .

wh e nce finally ,

dT
X X1 4 “

w ith si m ilar pr ssions f th e r m i i ng com po e n ts

ex e or e a n n of th e
i m puls We hav h r writt n f shortn ss
e . e e e e or e

da 1 - &c .
,

mz do ,
&c .
1 40 ON TH E M OTI ON OF SO LI DS TH R OUGH A LI QU I D [CHA R . v .

It is pl in th t 5 C A na th com pon nts f th

a
0, 0, 0 , o ,
y e, ar e e e o e

i m puls f th cyclic flui d m tion which r m ins wh n th s lid is

e o e o e a e e o

( by forc s a pp li d t it l n
e ) br ught to r st e o a o e o e .

AS a S i m p l e
122 . am pl w m y tak th cas tr t d by e x e e a e e e ea e
"
T h o m son ; v i z w h e re
th solid i a circul r ring ( f y form f
. e s a o an o

s ction ) d has th r f r only

e ,
an
p rtur I f w t k th a is e e o e on e a e e . e a e e x

of th ri g eis f w nby th sam r asoning as in A t

as ax o x, e se e e e e r .

1 1 6 that if th si t u tion f th origi in t his is b p ro p rly

e a o e n ax e e

chos n w m y writ e
e e a

2T= AM Fo + w
r ’
)
Q
2 ”
Pp
’
(q + r )
K id .

He nc e Au Co , 77 Br ,

( L Q? »

Th e f
li
ourth f quations (2 0) th n giv s E 0 or p const as is
o e e e ,
.

obviously th e cas L t us su ppos that p 0 d that th ring e . e e , an e

is sligh tly di turb d from a stat f st dy m otion paral l l to i t s

s e e o ea e

a is In th b gin ing f th disturb d m o t ion w q

x . e esm all n o e e a, , ,
r are

quantiti s whos squar s d p ro d ucts w m y n gl ct Th first

e e e an e a e e . e

d— a
o f ( 2 0) th e n giv s 0 o const d th r m aini g quations
e r u an e e n e
dt ,
.
,

b com e e

ég
C
_ A
Q '

l( '

B =
EE Q dt
_

E li m i ati g
n n r ,
w e fin d

£3 ( Au $ 9 104 B) u an
Ex actly th e sam e quation satisfi d by w It is th r for
e Is e . e e e

n e c e ssary an d su ffici nt f stability that th e co ffici ent o f v

e or th e e on

P h i l M a g No v
. . . 18 7 1 .
121 C I RCU L A R RI NG . 141

right -h n d si d f ( 4 8 ) sh ul d b n g tiv
a e o o e e a e ; an d th e ti m e o f a s m ll a

o cillati n in th cas f disturb d s t bl

s o ,
e e o e a e m otion is ,

B Q
—B ) u + fl o

1 23 . Th e g e n r l quations
e a e o otion f th ring
f m also o e are

s tisfi
a e d by C , n C, A,,
u
,
. 0, an d v consta t W hav t h n n . e e e

g“ r co a s t .

Th e m otion of ring is th n
th e e on e o f uni f rm rotation about an
o

d at a dist nc —
a is i
x n th e p lan g p arall l to thet z e a o f y ,
Z
f
an a e

fro m it .

Ca s e o
f two or m or e m ov in g s o l i ds .

124 or going m tho ds f il wh e n w hav t w or m or

. Th e f e e a e e o e

m oving soli ds w h n th flui d d o s ,

t t n d in ll dir c ti ns
or e e e n o ex e a e o

to infinity b ing boun d d t rn lly by fi d rigid w lls In such

, e e ex e a xe a .

c s s w m y su ppos th p ositio at th ti m t f ch m oving

a e e a e e n e e o ea
‘ -
soli d t o b d fin d by m ns f i e e ordin t s in th m nn r
e ea o s x cc a e ,
’
e a e

ex p l in d ain t r atis
e s on K in m tics It is esy t t h t (6 e e a . ea o se e a

m ust b a lin ar functio f th rat s f vari tion f th s

e e n o e e o a o e e cc

or dinat s ( in th r w ords f th g n rali d v locity -co m p on nts

e
‘
o e ,
o e e e ze e e
’

o f th sys t m ) e d th nc t h t th e kin tic n rgy f th syst m

e ,
an e e a e e e o e e

is as in A t 1 1 0 a ho m og n ous qua dr tic f nction f th s

,
r .
, e e a u o e e

g r
en e li d v a l ci ti sze w ith ho w v r th
e o i m p rt n t ch ng that t he , e e e o a a e e

co ffici n t s in t h is function
e e t const n t s but th m s lv s func are n o a ,
e e e

tions f th o - ordin t s f th sy t m Th q uati ns f m t ion

e cc a e o e s e . e e o o o

are th n m ost conv ni ntly f r m d by L grang s m tho d th

e
" e e o e a e
’
e e
,

applicability f wh ich to syst m s f th p culi r kin d h r con

o e o e e a e e

sid d r q uir s ho w v r to b in th first p l c

ere e e t b li h d i e e e e a e es a s e
'

Th cco m p nying r f r nc s w ill b f s rvic to th r ad r

e a a e e e e e o e e e e e

wh wish s t o p ursu th stu dy f th g n r l p robl m in th

o e e e o e e e a e e

m ann r in dicat d e W cont nt ours lv s h r w i t h th discussio

e . e e e e e e e n

S Th een d T it A t 329 o m so an a , r . .

l S ' '
Th ee n P h i l M g M y 1 8 7 3 d Ki h h fi V l g b
o m so , . a . a , , an rc o , o r e su n en u er

M h Ph y i k M h i l c 1 9
a t . s 1 . ec a n c, .
, .
1 42 ON TH E M OTI ON OF SOL I DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHAR v .

of a v ry S i m pl cas in which th forc s acting

e e e e e on th e soli ds can
be r adily c lculat d by th dir ct m th d
e a e e e e o .

1 25 us su pp ose th t w hav tw ph
. L e ti m otion in a e e o s eres l n

th lin joining th ir c ntr s A B

e e L t b th v loci ty f th e e e ,
. e u e e e o e

first in th dir ction AB th at f th s c n d in th dir ction B A

e e , 1) o e e o e e .

F urth r P b ing any p oint f th flui d l t

e , e o e , e

A PB A = X;

also l t b b th r dii f th s ph r s d c th distanc AB f

e a , e e a o e e e an e e o

th ir c ntr s I f th sph r B w r abs nt d its pl c occupi d

e e e . e e e e e e ,
an a e e

by fluid th v locity -pot nti l $1 d to th Sp h r A alon woul d

,
e e e a 3
1
ue e e e e

b by A t 1 02
e, r .
,
3
ua
¢ l 27 ’

To fi n d th e valu e of in th e n ighbourhood e of B we h v a e

r
”
= c
’

r co s 9= c — s co s
x,
so that
1 2
f;cos x

” ’
s s 3 co s
x l
g 2
5
cos
x l “ "
3
0
2 o
2

Thi s giv e s a t th surfac e e o f B,

’
b 3 co s
x 1
co s
X 2 3
C 2

Th e r lation which ctu lly hol ds at th e surf c

e a a a e of B, v iz .

i f
(
n cos x ,

We r e co g n r z e th e c Oe ffici e n ts of 2
2 ,
3 &c .
, wi h i t n th e b r ck t
a e s, as th e

0
z o n al h ar m on i cs ’
o f or de r s 1 , 2 , & c . r e s pe cti v e ly . I n fa ct, r em em t t
b eri g h a n co s

1
4

t nt
i s th e po e i a l a t th e po i nt P
d u e to a Sm al l m a gn e o f u n i m o t t m e nt p l c e d a t A a

t
wi h i ts a x i s po i n i n g i n th e di r e i o t
AB, we r e ad il y fin d fr o m ct n th e d e fi n i ti o n o f
r
th e a fo e sa i d z o n a l h a r m o n i s Q 1 , Q 2 , & c , h a c . t t
2
d 1 s 3
1 2 4, Two SPHE R ES . 1 43

is th re for satisfi
e e e d by m aki g n

w h r e e

b 3
5 ’
—l
co s —Jz COS
X+ 2 —
"
co s
x
x 0s 2

Th e con dition at th surf c e e a of A ,

v iz .

d ab
n cos 9 ,
ds

is how ve r no l ng r s tisfi d ; b t it is pl i fro m th cours f

e o e a e u a n e e o

th abov inv stigati n th t th rror in th norm l v loci ty th r

e e e o a e e e a e e e
3 3
b a
w i ll b f th or d r e o d t h at i f this b r ctifi d by th add i
e e 6
an e e e e
0

tion f a prop e rly chos n t rm gb to th abov valu f 96 th

o e e
s
e e e o ,
e

”
a )
e ff ct f this at th surfac
e o f B w ill b f th or d r Ine th e o e o e e e
c

p rticular
a cas s a m in d b lo w w S hell su pp osex d b bo t h e e e a e a an

s m all in co m parison w i t h c d sh ll t tak int account s m ll ,

an a n o e o a

quantiti s f h igh an ord r as that last writt n W h v th n

e o so e e . e a e e

at th surfac f B e e o

d <l>
ds
n co s
x ,

d d)
+ 3u SI n
x+
L5
2
u srn
x co s
x + & c .

b dx

Th e tot l ff ct f th flui d pr ss r on th s ph r B vid ntly

a e e o e e u e e e e e e

r duc s to a forc in th dir c t ion AB th e m ount f w hich is

e e e e e ,
a o

. 2 7r b s i n x . bdx co s
x

w p h r
is to
e b f un
e d fro m In calcul ti g e w m ust
o te a n e

m m b r e in A t 1 02 t h t th origin B f th p olar -ord i

e ,
as r .
,
a e o e cc

n t s x is i t s l f in m o t ion with v locity i th d i r ction B A

a e s, e e v n e e .

Th rat s at which th valu e s o f

e e
x fo a fi d p oi t i e s, r xe n ar e n cr e a s
144 ON TH E M O TI ON OF SO LI DS TH R OUGH A L I QU I D [CHA R .
v .

In
g In cons q nc f this m o ti
e ue e o on are asily s n e e e to b e v co s
X ,

i X r sp ctiv ly that w m ust w rit f

3?
6
an d s n , e e e , so e e or

d 3
3
a
3

wh e r t rm s which b
e e o v r o u sl
y contribut nothing to e th e int gral e

( )
5 0 hav e b n o m itt d ee e . Ag in a

éf
’
f—
1
, + a b c
s
a
+ 1é —
4
c

si m ilar o m issions b ing m e a de . Now

3 ’
d S in
’
X co s
XX X co s d = 5
X X 15 ,

so that w hav finally f e e or th e r sultant fl ui d p r ssure

e e on B in th e
d ir e cti n AB o ,

{i rr
p b 3

g t

r sult i corr ct to
e s e th e or d r e i n cl u s r v e . S inc e

d
3 ;
( )
5 2 m a
y also b wr i tt n e e

dv
s
3a
b
(
3
§ 7r
p dt
+
a

We p roc d to m
e e in so m e xa e e
p a rticul r cas s k a e ,
ee
p ing only th e
m ost i m p r tant t r m s in
o ch e ea .

otio is sy m m trical w ith

'

L et b = = th a t th e m
( ) a a ,
c u, so n e

r s p ct to th pl bis c t i g AB t right a gl s d is th s m
e e e an e e n a n e ,
an e a e

as i f this pl n f r m d a rigi d boun d ry to th flui d n ith r

a e o e a e o e e

S i d f it W h v thus th s l t ion f th cas wh r a sph r

e o . e a e e o u o e e e e e e

m ov s d ir ctly to war ds
e w ay fro m
e fi d plan e w ll Th forc or a a xe a . e e

r p ll i ng th sph r fro m th w ll is
e e e
" e e e a

3
36
M :
r

5 +
7

S t o ke s , C a m b : Tr a n s . Vo l . VI I I .
 TWO SPHER ES . 1 45

w h r is th m ass f flui d di plac d by th e s ph r H nc

e e M e o s e e e . e e

th p rinci p l ff ct f th p l an boun d ry is t o incr as th in rtia

e a e e o e e a e e e e
3

of th sph r in th r tio e 1 c d noting d oubl e th e e a , e e e

d istanc f th c ntr f th s ph r fro m th p lan

e o e e e o e e e e e .

us su ppos ach sph r constrain d to m ov w ith

L e t e e e e e e

constant v locity Th forc which m ust b ppli d t B in ord r

e . e e e a e o e
8 8
6 b “
?
77
to m aintain this m otion is
5 a pp ro i m a t ly d i s i t h u x e ,
an n e

d ir e ction B A Th S ph r s th r for app ar to r pe l . anoth r e e e e e e e e on e e ,

Th forc s to b
e appli d to th tw sph re s
e not qual d
e e e o e are e an

opposit c pt wh n e ex e e I) u .

( ) L t 0 su pp os th t ach
e sp h r m
us k s s m ll p e rio d ic e a e e e . a e a

oscill tion s about a m an p osition th p rio d b ing th sam

a e ,
e e
k
e e e

f or ch Th v r g v lu f th firs t t rm f ( 5 2 ) is th n
ea . e a e a e a e o e e o e

ze ro d th m u t ual action f th tw s ph r s is quiv l nt to

, an e o e o e e e a e
3
6
3
6
2
7 1
a forc 5 W e urging t h m tog t h r wh r w d not s
,
t h e e e e ,
e e ) e e

m an valu
e f If v d i ff r in p has
e by l ss than a quart r
o us . u ,
e e e e

p e rio d t h is f orc e is f attractio i f by m or e t h a n a q u ar t e ron e o n ,

p e rio d it is f r p ulsion on e o e .

( )
d L t A p rfor m s m ll p
e rio d ic oscill a tions W hil B e is a e e .

h l d at r st Th m an forc
e e B is . w ro t our or d r f e e e on n o ze o e o

appro i m ation To carry th appro i m ation f rth r w r m ark

x . e x u e , e e

d
that th m an valu e o f z? at th surfac e f B is n e c ssarily r
e e e o e ze o ,

an d that th n e t i m p ortant t r m in th valu ( 5 1 ) f th s m i

e x e e e o e e

squar f th e v locity is wh e n
e o O i x X
e d , , u
f
s n
g
co s » an

6 3
6 7 r pa b
th e r e su l tm g t rme In ( )
50 IS fo u n d . on . 1n te g r a ti o n to be
0
7
u

wh r e e a
?
de not s e th e av r g v lu e a e a e of th e squ r a e of th e v loci ty
e

of A .

This r sult com s u d r a g n ral princi pl unciate d by

e e n e e e e en

Th om son I f w hav tw bo di s im m rs d in a fluid

. f e e o e e e ,
on e o

w hich A p r f r m s s m all vibrations w hil th oth r B i h ld

e o e e e s e

at r st th flui d v locity at th surfac f B will on th w hol

e , e e e e o e e

L . 10
1 46 ON TH E MO TI O N O F SOL I DS TH R OU G H A L I QU I D [CHAR . v .

be gre at e r o th si d n e ar r A tha on that which is m or

n e e e n e

r e m ot H e nc by ( 1 8 ) th av rag p r ssur
e . e
" th f rm e r e e e e e on e o

si de will b l ss th n that th l tt r so th t B will p ri nc

e e a on e a e ,
a ex e e e

on th whol
e an attraction t owar ds A As p ractic l ill ustrations
e . a

o f this p rinci pl w m y cit th app r nt attraction f a

e e a e e a e o

e -
d licat ly susp n d d car d by a vibrating tuni g -
e e e fork d oth r n ,
an e

sim ilar ph nom na stu di d p ri m nt lly by G th i l d

e e e ex e e a u r e
‘'
an ex

p lain e d in th abov m ann r by

e Tho m son § e e .

Th sam principl accounts f th in draught f a light

e e e or e o

p o w d r
e str e,w on a vibrati g p lat
n towar d s th e v e ntral s g m e nts n e , e .

Si n ce i s b y h yp o th e s i s a p e ri o di c fu ncti n o o f t, th e te rm in ( )
1 8 co n

tr i b u te s no th i ng to th e a v e r a g e e ffe ct .

Pr o c R S . . .

R ep r i n t, Ar t m . .
 VO RTE X M OTI ON .

J 126 . inv stigations have b e n confin d f th e

S o fa r our e e e or

m ost p art to th e cas f irrotation l m otion W now pro d e o a . e ce e

to th stu dy f rotation l
e
‘
vo t m otion oThis subj ct w a or r ex
’
. e as

first inv stigat d by H l m h olt in C ll J our al 1 8 5 8 ; oth r

e e e z, re
’
e s n , e

an d S i m p l r p ro fs f so m ef his th or m s w r ft rw ar d s giv n
o o e o e e e e a e e

by Thom son i th e pape r on vort m otio alr dy cit d i n ex n ea e n

C h pt r I I I
a e .

A li n draw n fro m p oint to p oint so that i t d ir ction is v ry

e s e e e

wh r e that f th nstantan ous a is f rota t ion f th fluid is

e o e I e x o o e

cal a vort lin

l de
‘ - Th di ff r ntial quations f th syst m o f
ex e .
’
e e e e o e e

-
vort lin s e
ex e ar

’
E n C
w hr
e e },
a 77, {I hav e ,
as throughout this chapt r e ,
th e m e a ings
n

a ssig nin A t 3 8
e d r . .

I f through v ry p oint o f a s m all clos d curv w dr w the e e e e a e

corr sp n ding vort -lin w bt in tub whi ch w call

e o ex e , e o a a e ,
e a
‘
vort tub- Th flui d cont in d within such
e x e .
’
tub c n t itute s e a e a e o s

what is call d a v rt -fil m t sim ply a v rt

e o ex a en ,
’
or o ex .
’

K in e m a ti c a l Th e o r e m s .

J 1 27 . L e t AB C, A B C
' ' ”
be any tw circuits drawn on th o e

surfac e of a vor t ex -
tub e an d e m bracing i t d l t AA b ,
an e
'
e a
1 48 V O R TE X M O TI ON .
[CHA R VI .

conn cti g lin e also draw on th

e n n e surfac e .
“
L et us apply th e
th e or e m o f Ar t 4 0 to th e circuit . an d th e p art
Fi g 1 0 . .

of surface f th tub e boun d d by it S inc

th e o e e . e lf + m n + n § is
ze ro at e v ry p oint f this surf c th lin e -
e int gral o a e ,
e e

K u dzu v dy wdz ) ,

t k n roun d
a e th e circuit , m ust vanish ; te . . in th e notation of

I ( AB CA) I AA A A
’ ’

(
’

) I ( ) 0,

which r e duc s to e

I ( AB OA) I

He nc e th circulation is th e sam e in all circuits e m bracing th e

e

sa m vort -tub
e ex e .

Ag in it app ars fro m A t 3 9 th t th circulation roun d th

a ,
e r . a e e

bou dary f any cross -s ction f th tub m ad norm al to i t

n o e o e e ,
e s

l ngth is 2 m wh r
e , C)
0 5 i t
,
h ngul r v locityef e (0
2
s e a a e o

th fluid at th e s ction d th e ( infinit ly s m all ) ar a f th

e e ,
an a
'

e e o e

s ction
e .

C o m bining th s r sults w that th pro duct f th ang lar

e e e e se e e o e u

v locity into th cross -s e ction is th sam at ll p ints f a v rt

e e e e a o o o ex .

This p roduct is c nv ni ntly t r m e d th S tr n gt h f th vort

‘
o e e e e e
’
o e ex .

Th for going pr o f i d e to Tho m son ; th

e e th or m its l f o s u e e e e

was first giv n by H lm holt who d duc d it fro m th r e l tion

e e z, e e e a

d dé
’

o
dx 3}
which follows at onc fro m e th e valu e s of f ,
7
7, giv n in A t 3 8
e r . .

In fact writi g in Ar t 6 4
,
n .
,
Co r . l , f ,
77, Q
”
fo r u ,
v ,
r sp ctiv ly e e e ,

we fin d
ff ? “ m ?) + n §) ds = o
1 2 7, PR OPE RTI ES OF VO RTE X-
L I NES . 1 49

w h e r th i nt gr tion t n ds ov r y clos d surface lyi g wholly

e e e a ex e e an e n

in th flui d Applying t h is to th clos d surfa fo m e d by two

e . e e ce r

-
cr ss s ctions f a vort t b
o e - d th p ortion
o f th tub e i ex u e ,
an e o e n

te r cep te d b e t w n th m w e fi d w w h
ee r w “ d not e e ,
n (0 0
1 1 2
a
'

2 ’ e e to
,
e

th angul r v lociti s at th s c t ions

e a e r s pe ctiv ly e e e 0
1 , 0
2 ,
e e .

Tho m son s pr of sh ws that th th or m is tru v n wh e n

’
o e e e e e e e

S 7 C
,
7 d iscon
, t inuous (
arein w hich cas t h r m y b e an abru p t e e e a

b n d at so m e point f a vort ) p rovid d only that " w

e o ex ,
e u, v, ar e

continuous .

A i m portant cons qu nc
n f th abov th or m is that a e e e o e e e e

vort -lin cannot b gin or d at any point in th i te rior f

ex e e en e n o

th flui de A y v rt - lin s which ist m ust ith r for m clos d

. n o ex e ex e e e

curv s or ls trav rs th fluid b ginning d e ndi g

e , e e its e e e ,
e an n on

bound ri s C m par A t 4 4 a e . o e r . .

Th th or m ( 6 )\ f A t 4 0 m y
e e w b e unci t d as follo ws o r . a n o e e n a e

Th circulation in any circuit is qual to t wic th

e m f th e e e su o e

str gths f all th e vortic s which it m brac s

en o e e e .

1 28 otion f th flui d occu pying any S im ply-conn ct d

. Th e m o e e e

r gion is d t rm inat wh n w kno w th v lu s f th

e e e p ansi n e e e e a e o e ex o

( 9 y )
, d sa f th co
,
m p n nt angular
an v l citi s
o f C t v rye o e e o e ,
a e e

p oint f th r gion O d th valu f the norm a l v locity ( 7x say )

e ,
an e e o e e , ,

at v ry point f th bo n dary
e e o e u .

I f p ossibl l t th r b tw s ts f valu s e ,
w e d e e e o e o e ,
u
l ,
7) an

u
p
w f th co m p on nt
v
2 , ,,
l m tio ch sat is fyi g th bov
e e v e o e s, ea n e a e

con ditions ; i ch t satis fying th di ff r n t ial qu tions

v z . ea se e e e e a

th e dv dw

dw dv da dw dv du
2 77,
dz dx dx dz
,

throughout th r gion e e , an d th e con di ti n o

In mv n w 7x

at th boun d ry e a . He nc e th e quantiti s e
 1 50 V o R TE x M TI O ON .
[CHAR VI .

will satisfy d ( 5 ) with 9 f (f X p t ach = 0 ; that an , , ,

u e

is t y o w
sa th e co m p on nts f th
u
’

, v
’
irrotational m tion
,
’
ar e e o e o

o f an inco m p r ssibl flui d occu p ying a si m p ly - e con ct d r gi n e n e e e o

w hos boun d ry is at r st H nc ( A t 4 7 ) th
e a
=
q ti ti e . e e r . e se u an es

a ll vanish ; d th r is only e p ssibl

an m otion satis fying th e e on o e e

giv n con ditions

e .

Th abov th or m —
e t nsion f e giv n in A t 4 9 — is
e e an ex e o on e e r .

e qually tru w h n th r gion t n ds to infinity d ( 5 ) is

e e e e ex e , an re

p lac d by et h con d ition th t th flui d iset h r t r st a e e e a e .

v 1 29 in th last -
. m ntion d cas
I f, all th vortic s pr s nt e e e e ,
e e e e

ar e w ithin a finit d ist nc f th origin th co m p l t d t r m ina e a e o e ,

e e e e e

tio n o f v w in t rm s f 9 E 7 C
u , ,
b ff ct d as follows e o , ,
7 ,
ca n e e e e ,
”

L et us assu m e

1 dN dM
u 25 +
dx dy dz
dP ( 113 ( UV
v = + ’
dy dz dx
dB dM dL
dx dy
an s k to det r m in P L
d ee e e , ,
M N ,
as t satis fy ( 3 ) d ( 4 )
so o an an d
m ak e w w ro at infini ty
, v ,
ze . W m ust h v in th first p lac
e a e e e

P = 9 2
V

dw dv
i E
C
§g fl
'

25 .

+ + ’
dy dz d ay d cc dy az

He nc e , p rovi d e d
dL di ll dN

we h v a e

V ] ;
2
2 5, V M
2
= 2 77, V N 2

Now 7
( ) an d ( )
9 ares ti fi d by m aking P L M N qual to
a s e , , ,
e

th e p ot tials en of d istrib t ions f m t t r wh os d nsiti s at th

u o a e e e e e

oint 9 E 1 ? r s ctiv ly This giv s 7

p ( y ) x, ,
z ar e
4 7:
p
27 27
,
e e e . e

Se e St k o e s, Ca m b . Tr a n s V o l . . I II . an d H e lm hol t
z, C r e l le , t . L V.
1 2 8, ANAL YTI CAL TR EA TM ENT or TH E EQUATI ONS . 1 51

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E
wh re th e acce nts attach d to
e e 9, E g ,
not
77, e th valu
de s f th e s e e e o

qua titi e s at th point ( w y d 7 stan ds f th e d i stan

'

)
’ ’
n e , z an
'
or ce
,

{ 193 (y ( Z

Th e int grations su ppos d to inclu d all parts

e are e e of sp c e at
a

which 9 E 7 hav valu s di ff r e nt fro m e ro

, ,
7 ,
e e e z .

We
ust now m exam in e wh th r th abov e val u e s f L e e e o ,
M,N
d l d 1
r ally sat sfy
e i S nc e i & c &c we hav ’ .
,
e
dz
,
dx
.

dL dM dN
+
da: dy dz

' ' '

dx dy dz

by v lu m -
Ar t int gral vanish e s by
. 64 . d
Th e o e e an

th surf c -int gral v nish s b caus by h y poth sis w hav

e a e e a e e e e e e

’
’

g 7 Q
,
7= 0
,
at ll
”

p in t s f th ( infinit )a s r f c ov r w hich
o it is o e e u a e e

t k n H nc ( 8 ) is sa t isfi d
a e . e d th valu s ( 6 ) f
e w sati fy e ,
an e e o u, v ,
s

( )
3 d an Th y also vi d ntly v nish at infi e ity e e a n .

Th abov r sults hol d v n w h n 9 g 7 r

e e ‘ e e discontinuous e e e ,
'

,
7 ,
ar

functions p rovi d d only th t ,

w b continuous A r gar ds
e a u , v ,
e . s e

9 t h is is obvi ous ; but a disc ntinuity in f 7 C w ill n ssitate a o ,

7 ,
e ce

m o dification in L t us su ppos that as w cross a c rtain e e e e

surf c 2 th v lu s f E 7 Q chang abru p t ly d l t us di

a e e a e o ,
7 ,
”

,
e ,
an e s

ti g i h th e valu
n u s on th tw si d s by fli Tw
e cas s e o e su xe s . o e
 V O RTE X O ON [CHA
"

M TI . R VI .

r s nt th m s lv e s th vort -
lines m y b tang ntial
e to E on e ex e a e e
p e e ;
both si d s th y m y cross th surfac
e , p
or ri nci g th r n e a e e ,
ex e e n e e a

abru pt chang f dir ction In th first cas w have e o e . e e e

l g, m 7) 1 t 0
”
a
,

at 2 ; an d in th e s con d w hav
e e e

15, 777 77
1
77 5 1
If, 77177
2
77 5 ,

In f ct i f dz b a s e ction f v rt t k n par ll l d i finit ly

a , e o a o e x, a e a e an n e

clos t S Si d f it th ro d uc t -
e o
p en j on e e o ,
e

m asur s th
e str gth f th vort which is (A t 1 2 7 ) th e s m
e e en o e e x, r . a e

on both Si des o f 2 N w in ( 1 2 ) th r gion through which th e . o e e

tri pl int gration t n ds is d ivi d d b y th surf c s 2 into a

e e ex e e e a e

c rt in nu m b r f distinct p ortions F or ach f th s tak n by

e a e o . e o e e , e

its l f th e q uality f th s con d d third m m b rs f ( 1 2 ) hol ds

e ,
e o e e an e e o

an d i f we dd th r sults thus btain d w

a that t m k ( 1 0) e e o e ,
e se e o a e

tr f th r gion tak n a s a w hol w m ust dd to th th i rd

ue
'

or e e e e
»

e a e

m e m b r te rm s f th
e for m o e

-an 01 2
(a

du e to th e two si d s f ch f th surf c s 2 Th r l tions 1 3 ) e o ea o e a e . e e a

a d ( 1 4 ) sh w ho w v r that th s
n t m s l l vanish th t ( 8 ) is
e e e e e er a ,
so a

still s tisfi e d a .

1 30 us a m in th r sult O btain d in A t 1 2 9
. Let ex e e e e r . an d
t us su p p os first that th flui d i i m p b l
'

le e th t 9 e s n co r e SS I e ,
so a 0,
an d th f P 0 D e noti g by 8 ;
ere ore Ow th p ortions f . n u e o u, v , w
a r I SI n
g fro m th l m nt d dy d i th int gr ls we fi d e e e z
’ '
z
’
n *
e e a e n

1 d 1 d
"

,
" “
’7 dx dy dz
a; dy r dz
’

dze dy dz
' ' '

1 x — ay '

d x dy dz
'

2
27 W
1
2
27 W

It appe ars fro m th e f orm of th e se e xp e r ssions th at th e r sultant

e
1 29 F LUI D L I MI TE D BY
’

F I N I TE SUR FACE . 1 53

o f 8a is pe p n dicu l r to th pl an con t ining th dir tio

,
870 r e a e e a e ec n

f th v rt - lin t ( y ) d th lin d also t hat its

’ ' ’
o e o ex e a x , ,
z an e e r ,
an

s ns is th t in which th point ( y ) w oul d m ov i f it w e r rigi dly

e e a e x, ,
z e e

att ch d to a bo dy rotating w i t h th fluid e l m e nt at ( y

a e e e x
’

,
'

Th m agnitu d
e f th r s l t nt is e o e e u a

s in
W
w x dw d dz ’

( a ) ( 3
? ' '
70
y
“

”
‘7
2 7r 7

( y
b an l m ntary f rm ula e e e o of soli d g o m try) wh r e e ,
e e
x i s th e

angl which m ak s with

e r e th d ir cti
e f th e vort e on o ex -
lin e at
’

( ,y
'
w ,

r l tion f actly th sa m for m as that h r d v l p d

A e a o ex e e .
e e e e o e

obtai s b t w n th m gn tic forc

n ed th l ctric curr n t s i
ee e a e e an e e e e n

-
any l ctro m agn t ic fi l d I f w su ppos a syst m f l c t ric
e e e e . e e e o e e

curr nts arr g d in

e ctly th sa m m a n r th v rt -fil
an e e xa e e n e as e o ex a

m e nts th co m p on nts f th curr nt t ( y ) b ing 5 7 C th ’ ' ’

,
e e o e e a x , ,
z e ,
7 , , e

co m pon n t s f th m agn tic forc at ( y ) d to th s curr nts

e o e e e x, ,
z ue e e e

w ill b w e u , v , .

In th g n ral cas ( i wh n 9 is not v rywh re ro) w

e e e e . e . e e e e ze e

m ust dd to th valu s f a w obtain d by int grati g ( 1 5 ) e e o u ,

v , e e n

dP d P d P
th e t rm s e" r s p c tiv ly wh r P has th v lu e e e e e e a e
d d? d
,
a; z

Th s e th com pon nts f th forc at ( y ) p ro duc d by

e are e e o e e as, ,
z e a

d istri bu t ion f i m gin ry m gn t ic m t t r wi th d nsi ty 9

o a a a e a e e .

131 . i v stig tion f A t 1 2 9 w ith a V i w

L e t us r vis
e e th e n e a o r . e

to d pting i t t th c s wh r th r gion occupi d by th flui d

a a o e a e e e e e e e

i t infini t bu t i li m it d b y surf c s t w hich th V lu f th

'

s n o e ,
s e a e a e a e o e

norm al v locity 7x is giv n Th q u ti ns to b satisfi d by

e w e . e e a o e e u ,
v ,

are ( )
4 d Th int gr ls ( )
1 0 dan( )
1 1 b ing su pp os d e e a an e e

t r f r t th is li m it d r gion th
o e e o surf c -int gral in th l st e e ,
e a e e e a

m m b r e f ( 1 2 ) w ill no t in g
e r l v nish unl ss ll th vor t ic s
o en e a a e a e e

p r s en t f r
e m clos d fil m nts lying
o w holly in t h r gion I f
e on a e e e .

th ot h r h n d th v r t -lin s tr v rs th r gi n b gi n ing d
e e a e o e x e a e e e e o ,
e n an

e n ding th bo n dary w m y su pp s th m c n tinu d o tsid

on e
- u ,
e a o e e o e u e

th r gi n
e al ng i t s surf c in such a m nn r th t t h y f r m
e o ,
or o a e ,
a e a e o

clos d curv s W thus Obt in a l rg r r gion in wh ich ll th

e e . e a a e e a e

vort fil m t- ex clos d d i f w
a w su ppos th
en s int gr ls
are e , an e n o e e e a

in ( ) d r r this n r gi n sur c - in
1 0 ( )
1 1 t f t an t d d th f t o e e o ex e e e o ,
e a e e
154 V o RTEx M TI O ON .
[CHA R VI .

gral in qu e stio will still vanish O this u d rstan ding th n

n . n n e e

th e r lation ( 8) is satisfi d
e d th valu s f w thus d riv d e , an e e o u, e e

( which w e shall now d istinguish by a w su ffi ) w ill satis fy ( )

3 n e x

an d

Th y will t ho w v r in g n ral satisfy th boun dary -co di

e n o e e e e e n

tion L t b th valu f th nor m al v l city which th

e e e e o e e o e

form ul ( 6 ) w oul d giv

ae i e ,
v z .

lu o m uo m oo,
an d le t us writ e

u = u + u v = v + v
o o

wh r e e u
l ,
v
1 , 70
1
r em ain to be f oun d . S ubstituting in ( )
4 an d
( )
5 w e obtain
du1 dv , dw l
+ -
i h

d z: df e 7 5

d w1 E
( du 1 dw 1
dy dz dz dx

boun dary con dition

lu --
l mv + 77 70 =a
l , 1

He nc e we m a y w rit e

dQ dQ
dx dy

w hr
e e Q is a singl -valu e e d f unction s tisfying a

’
v Q 0

throughout th e ( s i m ply -conn ct e e d) r gion

e ,
an d m aking
a
a ? x x, ( )
1 8

at th b un dary
e o . Th e p robl e m fin ding Q
o f to satisfy th s so a s e e

con ditions w sh as e w n in A t r . 49 to b d t r m in t e e e a e .

Vo r te x -
S h e e ts .

assu m d
We h v
w to b continuous W
’

1 32 . a e so fa r e a ,
v ,
e . e

w ill w s h w h w c s s wh r t h s func ti ns
n o e discon tinuous o a e e e e e o ar e

m y ba brought w i thin th scop f

e th r m s e e o our eo e .

L t us su pp os that w hav a s ri s
e f -
vort fil m t ar e e e e e o ex a en s

rang d i a t hin film ov r a surfac S d l t b th angular

e n e e ,
an e (0 e e
1 3 1 , 1 32 ] V o RTEx
.
-
SHEETS . 1 55

v locity a d th thickn ss at any p oint o f such a film L e t us

e ,
n e e e , .

e x am in th f r m which our pr vious r sult assu m w h n w is

e e o e e s e e

incr s d d di m inish d w ith o t li m it y e t in such a w y th t

ea e ,
an e e ,
u ,
a a

th p ro
e d uct w w say ) r m ains finit T h in
e,fi it e ly thin
'

, ,
e e . e n

fil m is th n call d a vort -sh t ’

e e e x ee .

Th functions L M N w ill
e w consist i p art f p ot e ntials , ,
n o n o

o f m att r d istrib t d w ith sur f c d nsiti s

e
S " C? ovu er S a e e e
e e
e .

2 2 2 7r 7r 7r

W kno w fro m th th ory f Attractions th t L M N

e con e e o a , ,
are

ti n uousv n wh n th p oint to which th y r f r cross s S but

e e e e e e e e ,

t h t th ir d rivativ s
a e discontinuous ; i th d riv tiv tak n
e e ar e V z . e e a e e

in th dir ction f th nor m al (dr wn in th dir c t ion f crossing)

e e O e a e e o

ri nc s an a b ru t d cr s f a
e m ount 4 m x sur f c - d nsity e e
e xp e
p
e e ea o a e .

dL dL dL
H nc e th ch ng s ( d i m inutions ) in th valu s f
e e a e e e o
d dy d x z

w ill b 2m g‘ e2 5 if I m b th dir ction - cosin s f '

s, 77 s, , 77, e e e e o
,

th nor m al d ra wn as j ust p l in d Th valu s f

e w h ex a e . e e o u , v ,
o

t i d from ( 6 ) w ill th r f r b d iscontinuous at S th co m p on nts

a n e e e o e e ,
e e

o f th r lativ v e locity o f th e p ortions f flui d

e e e opposite si d s o on e

o f S b ing e

2 ( g m )
77 77 e , 2 07 5 K) e, 2 (Z
7
7 m §) e

r sp ctiv ly Th s
e e th a m ounts by which th co m p on nts
e . e e ar e e e e

on th S i d to war ds w hich th e nor m l ( l m

e e ) is d r w n f ll short a , ,
77 a a

of thos th oth r T h is r l tiv v loci t y is tang n t ial to S

e on e e . e a e e e ,

an d p rp n i ul r to t
d e h -
vor t lin s Its m ount is 2 w or 2 m
e c a e ex e . a e,

an d its d ir c tion i t h at d to a r t t ion f th s m Sign as

e s ue o a o e a e a)

about t h v rt lin s in th dj c nt p rt f S
- e o ex e e a a e a o .

H nc surf c f discontinui ty at w hich th r l tion

e e a a e o e e a

la l 7m ;
l
m ul la 2 m s, mu
,
6)

o s tisfi d m y b t r t d
f Ar t 1 0] i s -
vor te x sh e e t i n
v ry wh r p rp n dicul r t th di -
. a e a e ea e as a ,

w hic h th vort -lin s e ex e are e e e e e e a o e '

re c r

t i n f r la t iv m t i n f th fl i d
o o e th tw si d s f th su r f c
e o o o e u on e o e O e a e ,

an d th p r d uct w f t
e h ( infini t ) angul
o r v l ci ty in t th
'
o e e a e o o e

( infinit ly s m ll ) t hickn ess is q l to h l f th a m oun t f t h is e e ua a e a o

r l tiv v l ci ty
e a e e o .

I th s m w y n discontinuity f
e m l v l city is O bt in d
a e a ,
a o n or a e o a e

by s pp si g 9 t b infinit throughout thin fil m but in such

u o n o e e a ,
 M O TI O N CH
‘

1 56 Vo RTE x .
[ AR VI .

a way that th e pro duct ( 9 y) f 9 into th e thickn ss is finit ’

sa o e 6 e .

Th nor m al v lociti s at a dj c nt p oints

e opposit si de s f th
e e a e on e o e

film will th n di ff r by e e

Ve l o ci ty -
P o te n ti a l du e to a Vo r te x .

1 33 . At p oints
t rn l to th vortic s th r ists f cours ex e a e e e e e x o e

a v locity p ot nti l wh os valu m y b foun d by int g r t io

e- e a , e e a e e a n

o f as follo ws Taking f shor tn ss th c s f singl .

,
or e , e a e o a
'

clos d vort w writ d is an l m nt

i

'
e e x,wh e e ere s e e e

o f th l ngth f th fil m nt its s ction Also w m y writ

e e
"
o e a e ,
0 e . e a e

' ' ’
dz
' '
dx
'
m w dy , w

( S Z
,
ds
’ C ds
’

"
d o ( 1 1 d 1
so that ’ dy '
2 1l
2 7r dz r dy r

wh r th p ro duct
e e th str e gth f th vort b ing const ntco a
' ’

,
e en O e e x, e a ,

is pl c d outsid th S ign f in t gr tion which is tak n right

a e e e o e a ,
e

roun d th filam nt N w th n lytic l th ore m ( 7 ) f A t 4 0

e e . o e a a a e o r .

e nabl s us to r plac a lin e -int g al t k n roun d a clos d curv

e e e e r a e e e

by a surfac -int gral t k n ov r any surf c boun d d by that

e e a e e a e e

curv To apply this to our cas w writ in th for m ula cit d

e . e , e e ,
e e ,

d 1
1)

which giv e

He nc e

d?
'
dx 7
'

or, sinc e
13 2 — 1 3 A] 1
VELOCI TY -
PO TENTI AL DUE To A V o RTE x . 1 57

wh r e e
"
d o
a+m a "
d
1
2 7r as dy a; '
7

He r l m ed not th , or m al to th ,
n e e e n e l
e em e nt dS
'

boun d d by th vort -fil m t

e e ex a e n .

Th quati n ( 2 2) m y b oth rwis

e e o a e e e w rit t e n

w he r not s th angl b t w n
e 3 de d th norm al l m
e e e e e e
'
7 an e , , 71 .

db
a
00 8
S inc , is h l ntary soli d ngl subt n d d by d S at
'
e t m e e e e a e e e

( y )
x, w ,
that
z th ,v locity - ot ntial at
p e se e
y p oint d to e e e an ue

a singl - ntrant vort is e qual to th p ro duct f

e re e into ex e o

th soli d angl which any sur fac boun d d by th vort

e e subt n ds e e e ex e

at that point .

S inc this soli d angl cha g s by 4

e w h n th p oint i e n e 71 e e n

qu stion d i b
e circuit e m bracing t h vort th valu f 4
e s cr es a
’

e e x, e e o )

giv n by ( 2 3) is cycl ic th cyclic constant b ing twi c e th stre ngth

e ,
e e e

of th vort e C o m p ar A t 1 2 7 ex . e r . .

Dy n a m i ca l Th e o r e m s .

1 34 . In
th or m s which fol lo w we assu m t hat th
th e e e ,
e e

e x e -
t rnal i m pr ss d forc s h v a singl valu d pot ntial V d
e e e a e e e e ,
an

that p is ith r a const nt a function f 7) only

e e a or o .

W first consi d r any t r m inat d lin AB dr w n in th fl i d

e e e e e a e u ,

1 su pp os
( v ry p oint f th is lin to m ov w i th th v locity
e e e o e e e e

of th flui d t that p oint

e In oth r word s th lin m ov s so
a . e e e e as

to consist always f th sam chai f particl s W proc e d o e e n o e . e e

to calcul t th rat e at which th flow alo g this lin from A

a e e e n e ,

to B is incr asing I f d dy d b th p roj ction

,
e th a s . z , ,
z e e e s on e xe

of ordinate s f an l m nt f th e lin w have with our

-co o e e e o e ,
e ,

p r vious
e otation n ,

6 8—
u
( u dx ) — -d a + a
& ét
1 58 Vo RTE x M O TI ON .
[CHA R VI .

ads
Now rat at which d is incr e asing in cons q u nc f
th e e x e e e o
at
.

th e m otion f th flui d is i d ntly qual t tho d i ff r nc f e ,

ev e e o e e e e o

th v lociti s p rall l to at its tw n ds i e t d ; d th

e e e a e a: o e ,
. . o a an e

5’
2
valu f at is giv n in A t 6 H nc
e o d by si m ilar con e r . . e e ,
an

si de rations w fi d ,
e n

i
% f
(
( ud + vd
y
x + w dz
) “ "
d Vl '
a du v d v + w dw .

Int grating alo g th e lin e fro m

e n ,
A to B ,
we g e t

+ v dy + wdz ) —V + %q 2

or, rat at which th fl w fro m A to B is incr ing is qual to

th e e e o e as e

l
th e e c ss f th e valu e which A
x e g
— Vo Ef h a s at B ov e r that
e

w hich it h at A as .

This th or m which is d to Tho m son com pr h n ds th

e e ,
ue , e e e

w hol f th dyna m ics f

e o p rf ct flui
e d in th g n ral cas o a e e e e e e ,
as

e quation ( 3 ) f A t 2 5 do s f th particular cas f irrotational

o r . e or e e o

m otion F instanc . qu tions ( 2 6 ) f C h pt r I m y b

or e ,
e a o a e . a e

d riv d fro m it by taking

e e th lin AB th infinit ly short as e e e e

lin e w hos proj ctions w r original ly d d b d

e e d e quating e e a , , c, an

s parat ly to ro th co fficie nts f th e s i fi i t i m l

e e ze e e o e n n es a s .

Th p r e ssion weithin brack

ex ts on t h right -han d si d e f ( )
2 4 e e o

is a si gl -valu d function f y n e It follows that i f th i

e o x, ,
z . e n

t g ti
e ra th l t han d si d b tak n roun d a clos e d curv ?
f -on on e e e e e es “

( so that B coinci d s w ith A ) w hav e , e e

u dy wdz ) 0,
'

or th circulation in any circuit m m g W th th flui d do s not

,
e ov i e e

alt e r with th e ti m S A t 59 e . ee r . .

Applying this th e or m to a circuit m bracing a vort e -tub w e e x e e

fi d that th str e gth f any vort

n is constant
e n o ex .

Al so r m e m b ring th e for m ula giv n in A t 3 9 f th cir

,
e e e r . or e

culation in an infinit e si m al circuit w se e that i f throughout y , e an

 1 3 4, M TI O ON or V o RTE x -
L I NES . 1 59

p ortion f a flui d m ass in m otionoth e con d itions 5 0 7 0 ,

7 ,

obtai at any n instant th s m is tru f th e s m po tio on e , e a e e or a e r n

of th m ass at e v y oth r instant which i s th

e th e or m f er e , e e o

Ar t 2 3 . .

It f llo ws that rotational m otion cannot b e p roduc d i a y

o e n n

p art f a flui d moass by th action f forc s w hich hav a singl e o e e e

v lu d p ot ntial
a e d that such a m otion i f alr ady e ist e nt
e , an , e x ,

cannot b d stroy d by th e action f such forc s

e e e o e .

I f w tak at any ins t ant a surf c co m pos d w holly f vort

e e a e e o ex

lin e s th circulation in any circuit dra wn on it is ro by A t 4 0

, e ze , r .
,

f w e hav l § + m ) + §
or 0 at v ry p oint f th sur fac
e Th 7 77 e e o e e . e

p r c ding
e articl
e sh w s that i f th sur fac b now su pp os
e d to e e e e e

m ov w ith th e fl ui d th e circul tion w ill al ways b

e e ro in any ,
a e z

circuit draw i t d th r for th surfac w ill al ways consi t

n on ,
an e e e e e s

o f vort - lin e s Again consi d ring two such surfac s it is plai

ex .
, e e , n

that th ir int rs ction m ust al way s b e a vort -

e lin e wh nc e we
e e ex ,
e

d riv e th e th or e m that th e vort

e -lin e s m ove with th fluid
e ex e .

This r e m arkabl th or e m w first giv e by He l m holt f “ e e as n z

’
or

th cas f liqui ds ; th pre c e ding p roo f by Tho m son sh ws i t

e e o e , , e

t o b applicabl to all flui ds satis fying th conditions state d at

e e e

th b ginning f this articl

e e o e .

K i n e ti c E n e r gy .

1 35 . Th e f orm ula f or th e kin tic e n e rgy

e , Vi z .

m @ b e into s v ral re m arkabl d us ful form s W confin

p ut e e e an e . e e

ours lv se e si m plicity to th cas wh r th flui d ( supp ose d i

fo r , , e e e e e n

co m p r ssibl ) t e n ds to infinity d is at r st th r
e e d wh re
ex an e e e ,
an e

furth r all th e vortic e s pr s nt

e within a finit e dista ce f th e e ar e n o e

origin .

W hav e i this cas e 9 = O P = 0 p const so that ( 2 5 )

e n , , ,
.
,

b e com e s substitution fro m on

3 2 T= p dwdy dz .

Se e n t (D )
o e .
 1 60 V o R TE x M TI O ON .
[CHA R VI .

This tripl int gral m y actly as in

e e a ,
ex Ar t 1 2 9 . be r plac
e e d
by th e m f a s rfac -int gral
su o u e e

pff{L ( 7w —m w) + M ( lw — n u ) N ( mu le ) }d S

an d a volu m -int gral e e

dx dy dz

Now it appe ars fro m ( 1 1 ) that at an infinit e d istanc R from e th e

O rigin L M N, ,
"
at m st f th ord r
,
ar e o o e e
L t
’
an d t h r for e e e a ,
v ,
w
l
ost f th ord r fag wh r as w h n th
at m o e t r al boun ding
e , e e e e e x e n sur

fac is incr s d i
e ll its di m nsions without li m it th sur fac
ea e n a e e e

l m nts d S incr as p rop ortionat ly to R only Th surfac

e e e e e e
2
. e e

int gral ( 2 6) is th e r e for f an ord r not high r than 1

e e o e e ,

th e r for e v nish s in th li m it H nc
e a e e . e e

dx dy dz

I f we substitute th e valu s e of L , M N fro m this b com s e e

T=
2 7r r
n x dy d z

. wh r e e ea ch of th e volu m e int grations e ex en t d s ov r all e th e vortic s e .

1 36 . U de n r th e sam circu m stanc s e e we h v a oth r us ful

a e n e e

ex
p r ssion
e f or T; V z i .

T 2pfff{u (y § 2 7) v ee a t) we n

To ve rify this w tak th m mb r ,

d trans form it
e e e -
right h an d e e ,
an

by th p roc ss alr dy so o ft
e m p loy d o m itting th
e surfac ea en e e ,
e e

i t grals f th sam r e ason in th e pr c ding articl Th firs t

n e or e e as e e e . e

f th e thr e t r m s giv s
o e e e

Th e y ar e i n fa ct o f th e o r de r l a s m ay be se e n (f pl
o r e xa m e ) by ca lcu l a ting
?
Il
th e vl a ue o f L fo r a si ngl
cl o se d v te a d e p e s s e or x, n x r i ng i t b y th ,
e m eth o d of Ar t .

1 33 a s a s u rfa ce -
, i nte gra l ta ke n o e r a r fa ce b v su ou nd d b y th
e e v o r te x. Co n se

1
q u e ntl y th e v e l o c i ti e s a w a r e re a ll y o,
f th e o r de r
v ,
I?
“
1 35 KI NE TI C ENE R GY . 1 61

i;
i
dx dy dz
”
p ( v
y ra d u .

Trans for m ing th r m aining t rm s in th e sa m e way a ddi g

e e e ,
n ,
an d
m aking e f th e e quation f continuity
us o o

we ob tain
2 ’Z d
——
a d?)
a + 71 + w + + yv zw doc dy dz
q LE dy
,

or , finally on again tra s form i g th e last thr e e t e r m s

, n n ,

p fff(
2 2 ?
u v w ) dwdy dz ,

Th e valu e ( 3 0) f T m ust f cours e b e unalt r e d b y any di s

o o e

p lac e m e nt f th a s f O -ordinat s This consi d rati n giv s

o e xe o c e . e o e

ffft n
w 7 g) dwdy dz o

fff( § dwdy dz '

u 0

fff ( v § u 77 C x) l dyd z o

r lations which
e of cours adm it e of in d e
p e n d nt
e Ve rification . Thus
dx dy dz

dw do dw
u
“
dx dy dz

an d si m ilarly f or th e oth e rs .

1 37 rat at which
. Th e e th e en e rgy of any m ass of liqui d
incr asing at any instant is
e

dT 8a 517 aw
“w _
dx dy dz
P + ”
f +
"

dt 7
3 s at

— dx dy dz
p u +
g5
—
ff( p —
l p V ) ( lu +m v + n w) d S
1 62 V o R TE x M O TI ON [CHA R VI .

if l ,
mir ction cosin s f th
,
n b e th e d norm l e e o e -
i n war dly dire ct e d a

to any e l e m e nt dS f th boun dary Th part f this pr ssion O e . e o ex e

w hich contains p giv s th rat at which th t rn l p r ssur e e e e ex e a e e

w orks th r m aining p art r ss s rat at ass is

'

, p th
e ew h i h th m ex e e e e c e

losing p ot ntial e n rgy I f th m ass b nclos d within fi d rigi d

e e . e e e e xe

w lls w hav
a , e e

la 777 1) me 0

1
,

at th bou ndary d th r for dt 0 or T const Th sam

e ,
an e e e £1 ,
. e e

r sult hol ds f th cas f an unl i m it d m ass f li qui d subj ct to

e or
'

e e o e o e

th e con ditions f A t 1 2 9 W th n h v b yon d th vortic s o r . . e e a e , e e e

an it app ars fro m C hapt r I I I that at an infinite distanc fro m

d e e . e

dd )
th origin
e d th r for also
77
constant with r
an s p ct to e e e
1
.

IS e e

y
a) , U ,
n d r zth s circu
. m stanc s th surfac int
e gral in ( )
3 2 is e e e e e e

ze ro C o m p ar e A t 6 5
. r . .

1 38
p roc e d to a pp ly th
. We e e f or going g n e ral th e ory to
e e th e

d iscussion f so m si m pl c s s o e e a e .

1 . R e cti li n ea r Vo r ti ce s .

u os hat w hav “
infinit m ass f li q ui d in m oti n in
S pp e t e e an e o o

two d m e i nsions ( y ) so that v functi ns f y only d

an ,
a ,
are o o x, , an

w 0 .
‘
W h v th n g 0 7 0 v ry wh re d th r for also
a e e
’

7 e e e e an e e e
,

L 0 M ,
0 Th e valu o f N is . e

1
2 77 '

an d if w e p e f r orm th int e gration w ith r e spe ct to

e z
'
b twe e en th e
li m its i y ,
an d th n m ak infinite w fi d
e e ,
e n

1 1
——l o 4 —
7 ff
2 I I I

c d d ll
I I
l d d
I

2 7T g w y ,
§ o
g r w y ,

wh r ew ( d e r n o an as fa r as A t 1 4 0) st n ds f {( r
) (y . a or x
’
as
2

Th first t e rm in
e th e valu e O f N though infinit is constant ,
e , ,
an d
1 3 7, R ECTI L I N EA R VO RTI CES .

si cn e we are conc rn e e d only with th e d ffe i r ntial co e e ffi ci ntse of N ,

we m . a
y w ri t e

N = i ffg l o g r dx dy
'

j
’

7r

Th e f orm ul ae ( )
6 th n giv
e e

d lv
,
1 [ y y dan d I I

dy W
C y ,

1
dd 71
“

We th t N is i d ntical with th functio ] f C hapt r I V

se e a e e n a; o e .

A vort - fil m t w hos -ordinat s S r ngth ’ '

ex m a
y d t
en e co e are ,
an e

m
’
contribute s to th m otion at ( y) a v loci ty whos co m pon nts
e x, e e e

are

m
’
x —x
7r

This v locity is p e rp n dicular to th e l i

e e n e joining th e p oi tsn
( as,
y)
l
m
( d its am ount is
’
x a , n
7r r

us calculat th e int grals Jf

L e t e e
'

a d
C y
x d ,
an d fv dwdy ,
wh e r e

th int grations inclu d all p ortions

e e e of th e p lan e my fo r which C
do s not vanish
e W hav e . e

y ? dx d de cr
“

y,
'

y
7

wh r ach doubl int gration inclu de s th

e e e e e e se ctions of all th e
vortic s N w corr sp on di g to any t r m
e . o ,
e n e

_
’ 3/ y
‘
da dy da dy
' '

CC

of this int gr l e a ,
we hav anoth r t rm
e e e

' '

dwdy dae dy
'

CC ,

an d th s t rm s n utrali
e e e e ze on e anoth r e . He nc e

an d ,
by th sam e r asoning
e e ,

11 — 2
1 64 V o R TE x M O TI ON .
[CHA R VI .

I f we de not as b for e
e e th e str gth en of a vort ex by m th s e r sults , e e

m ay be writt n e

Em u 0, 2 7m f 0

We av e s e e n abov that th str ngth o f e ach vort

h e e e ex is co stant n

with r gard to th e ti m e He nc e ( 3 6) p r e s s that th

e . ex e
p oint whos e

co-ordinat e s are

Em a: Em y
3/
2m
7 7
2m

is fi throughout th m otion This p oint which coinci de s with

xe d e .
,

th e c ntre f in rtia o f a m ass distribut d ov r th plan e y with

e o e e e e cr

th surfac d
e - sity C m y b call d th c ntr o f th syst m f
e en ,
a e e e e e e e o

vortic s d th strai gh t lin parall l to f which it is th p o

e ,
an e e e z o e r

je c ti m y b e call
on e d th a is f th e
a syst m e x o e .

1 39
p roc e d to
. d iscuss We
so m e p articular cas es e .

( a ) F irst l t us su pp os that w hav,

e only e vort - fil m t e e on e ex a en

p r se nt del t C hav t
,
h sa
an m S i g n throughout
e its infi n i te ly s m all e e e

S ction Its c ntr e as just d fin d will li ith r within th

e . e , b e e ,
e e e e su

st nc f th fil m nt at all nts infinit ly clos to it S inc e

a e o e a e , or e v e e e .

this c ntre m ains t r s t th fil m nt a wh ol will b statio

e r e a e ,
e a e a s e e n

ary though i t parts m y p ri nc r lative m otions d i t c ntre

,
s a ex e e e e , an s e

w ill not n c ss rily l i al ways in th e sam e e l m nt f flui d A y

a e e e e e o . n

p articl at a fini t d istanc

e fro m t h c ntr f t h efil m nt w ill e r e e e o e a e

d scrib
e circl about th latt r as a is w ith constant v locity
e a e e e x , e

m
Th r gion t rn l to th filam nt is doubl y-con ct d ;
e e ex e a e e n e e

an d th circulatio in any ( si m p l ) circuit m bracing th filam nt

e n e e e e

is 2 m Th irr t tional m tion f th fluid t rnal to th fil

. e o a o o e ex e e a

m e nt is th e sam in A t 3 5 e as r . .

t supp os th a t w have tw vortic s f str e ngths m

b
( ) Nex e e o e ,
o
l ,

m 2
r sp cti ly L t A B b th ir c ntr s 0 th e c ntr f
,
e e v e . e , e e e e , e e o

th syst m Th m otion f ach fil m nt is ntir ly d to

e e . e o e a e e e ue

th eoth r fil m nt d is th r for
e l w y s p rp n dicul r to
a e , an e e e a a e e a

AB H nc .th tw fil m nts r m ai al ways at th s m

e e e o a e e n e a e

d ist nc fro m a a oth r ed rotat w i th uni for m angul r

on e n e ,
an e a

v locity about 0 which i fi d This a gular v locity i asily

e ,
s xe . n e s e
1 3 8 , 1 3 51 ] R EC TI L I NEAR V o RTI C Es . 165

foun d ; we hav e only to divi de th e v e locity of A ( say ) ,

v iz .

m ?
by th e distance AO wh e re
AB
,
7r .

m
an d so obtain ,
777
,
fo r th e valu e r quir e e d .

7r AB 2

If m
, ,
sam sig i e i f th dire ctions f rotatio
m 2
be of th e e n ,
. . e o n

i n th e tw filam nts b
o th sam 0 li s b t w A d B ; but
e e e e ,
e e een an

i f th e d ir ctions b f o posit signs 0 li s in AB or B A e e

e
p e o , , ,

p ro d uc ed .

If m, = —m
is at infinity ; i this cas e it is e as i ly s 0 n een
2,

m
that A B m ov with uni form v locity A
,
B p e rp n d eicular to e e
r

AB which r m ains fi d i dir ction Th m otion

,
e t rnal to xe n e . e ex e

th filam nts at any inst n t is giv n by th for m ul ae o f C h ap t r I V

e e a e e e ,

E am pl 3
x e .

Th m otion at l l p oints f th e p lan e bis e cting AB at right

. e a o

a ngl s is tang ntial to that p lan e W m y th e r for supp os e

e e : e a e e

th is pl n to for m a fi d ri gi d boun dary f th fluid on ith r

a e xe o e e e

sid f it ; d e oobtai th solutio f th cas wh r w e an so n e n o

'

e e e e

hav e a singl e r ctilin ar vo t i th n ig hbourhoo d f a fi d e e r ex n e e o xe

p lan e wall to which it is p arall l Th fila m nt m ov e s p aral l l e . e e e

77
to th e plan e with th e v locity 2 :d whe r e d is th distanc e o f e ’
e
7

th e vort fro m th wal l ex e .

In th last cas [ the str am -

e lin s all circl s e 777
1
e e ar e e .

W can h nc d riv th e solutio

e f th e cas wh e r w hav a
e e e e n o e e e e

singl vort -fil m t in a m ass f fl ui d which is boun d d ith r

e ex a en o e ,
e e

int e rnal ly or e t e rnally by a fi d circular cyli d r Thus in x ,

xe n e .
,

Fi g 1 1. .

th e figur e ,
l e t DP E b e th e s ction
e of th e cy li n de r ,
A th e p osi ti o n
1 66 V o R TEx M TI O ON .
[ HAR
C VI .

of th e vort s
( pp
ex os d in
u this cas t r al ) e e ex e n ,
an d l e t B b e th e
‘
im g a e
’
of A with r s p ct to th circl DFB e e e e ,
v iz . 0 ’
b ing
e th e
c ntr e
e ,
le t

w h r e e c is th radius e Of th e circl e . If P be any p oint on th e

circl e ,
we hav e

AP AE AD
'

BP BE
co st n .

so that th circl occu pi s th p o t on o f a str m -lin d t

e e e e si i ea e ue o

a pair f vortic s whos str ngthso qu l d opposit e S gn,

e e are e a an e In i ,

S ituat d t A B in an unli m i t d m ass f flui d S inc th m otion

e a ,
e o . e e

o f t h vort A wo l d th n b p r p n dicular to AB it is p lain

e ex u e e e e ,

t h at l l th con ditions f th probl m s

a e satisfi d i f w su ppos o e e are e e e

A to d scrib a circl about th a is f th cylin d r w i th uni form

e e e e x o e e

v l city
e o

m m . CA
—c ) 2
°

In th s m w y a singl vort
e a e a e ex of str ngth m si tuat d wi t hin
e , e

a fi d circular cylin d r y at
xe e , sa B, w oul d d scrib a circl with e e e

m CB
uni f r m v locity
o e
.

CB 71
"

( c
2 ?
)
( ) chav four p arall l r ctili
I f we ar vortic s w hos c ntr s e e e n e e e e e

for m a r ct ngl ABB A th str gths b i g m f th vortic s

’ ’
e a e ,
e en e n or e e

A B
’

,
d —m f th
,
vort ic s A B it is vi d nt th t th
an or e e ,
'

, e e a e

c e ntr s will al ways form a r ctangl F ur th r i f th v rious

e e e . e , e a

rot tions hav th dir ctions in dic t d in th figur w

a e th t
e e a e e e ,
e se e a

Fi g 1 2 . .

th e e ffe ct of r s nc f th pair A B
th e p A B is to s p arat
e e e o e
’
on ,
e e

th em ,
an d at sa m ti m to di m inish th ir v locity p p
th e e e e e er en

d ic u l a r to th e lin j oining th e m Th plan s which bis ct AB

e . e e e ,
1 3 9, CIR CU L A R VO RTI CES . 167

AA at right angl s m y ( i t h r or bo th ) b t k n as fi d rigi d

’
e a e e e a e xe

boun dari s W thus g t th cas wh r a p air f vo tic s f

e . e e e e e e o r e ,
o

equ l d opp sit str ng ths m ov to wards ( or fro m ) pl n e

a an o e e ,
e a a

w all or w h r
,
singl vort m ov s in the angl b t w n tw
e e a e e x e e e e e o

p pre n dicul r walls

e a .

Fo r oth r int r sting c s s e e e a e of m otio n o f r ctilin ar vortic e s

e e

we r f r to a p p r by P ro f ssor
e e a e e

2 . Ci r cu la r Vo r ti ce s .

1 40 t l t us t k th cas wh r all th vo tic e s p r s nt

. Ne x e a e e e e e e r e e

i th flui d ( su ppos d unli m it d as b for )

n e circular having e e e e ar e ,

th a is f as a com m on a i L t d not th distanc f

e x o a; x s . e a e e e e o

an
y p oint P f ro m this a is 9 th ng l w hich m k s wi t h x , : e a e a a e

th p l
e n y tha v locity
e in th d
acir cti
,
n f wv
“
d th e e e e e o o ,
an a)

angular v locity f th l m nt at P It is vi d nt th t
e o e e e e . e e a a ,
v ,
or

are functions f d on l y d th t th o is f is p rp n
a: an a ,
an a e ax o a)
;

e a

di l to
cu a r W hav th n 90, a . e e e

= w S
y co s
'

'
v v co s 8 , w v ein 5 ,

77 = —w si n % , C 60 00 8 5

I f we k e th s substitutio
m a e e n s, w riting d d f th e V olu m za or e

el m nt i
e e d p rform
,
n an e th int gration w ith r sp ct to S
e e e e r,

w obt ine a

T : 4 7r p ff(w u xv ) w w dx dw .

Th e s con d e an d thir d of e quation s( 3 1 ) are satisfi e d i d ntically ; e

th e first giv s e

I f w e de not by e m str ngt h

th e e a dm i t : o f th e vorte x w hos e

co -
ordinat e s ar e x, w, th s r sults m
e e e a
y b e w ritt n e

2 m (a m mu ) m

Q u a r te r fy J ourn a l o f Ma th e m a ti cs , 18 77 .
1 68 V o RTE x M O TI ON .
[CHA R VI .

w h r th e su m m ations e m brac all th vortic s pr s nt i th

e e e e e e e n e

flui d I f in th s quations w su pp os e
. w al way s to r f r e e e e 50, e e

to th sam e vorte w m y writ

e x, e a e

da: da
dl
’
dt

S inc e
constant f th sam e vort m is or e e x, th e e quation ( 3 9 )
is at onc int grabl with r sp ct t t wh n c
e e e .
e e o ,
e e

2m const m
2

A qua tity d fin e d by th e quatio

n 0
0 e e n .

Em a -
2

2m
m ay be an ra dius f th vort -rings Th
call e d th e
‘
m e
’
o e ex . e

equation ( 4 0) sh e ws that this m an radius is constant thro gho t e u u

th m otioe n .

I f we intro duc in a ddition a m agnitu d such that e e (s o

Em
2 2
wQ w = 2m w x

it is pl ain that th p osition f th e circl whos - ordinat s e o e e co e are

d o, d p n ds only
”
57
0
the str gths d th configuratio f
e ,
on e en an e n o

th e vortic s d t th p osi tion f th origin f

e ,
an -or dinat s n o on e o e o co e .

This circl m y b cal l d th circular a is f th wh l syst m

‘
e a e e e x
’
o e o e e

of vort - rings It r m ains constant in r dius ; d its m otio

ex . e a an n

p arall l to is O btain
e e d by d i ff r ntiating
a; i w e hav e e v z . e

da: 0 ‘ da: dz:

S 2
Em u — 22 mm ;
dl cl t dt
or, by ( 3 8 ) an d ( 41 )
dx o T dra
E’W
dr
wh r w hav a dd
e e e e e d to th e right -han d si d a t e rm which e

vanish s virtu f e In e o

1 41 . Th e or m ul
f ae
( )
1 1 b e com e, on m aki g n th e su b s ti tu
tions

'

N w dS
 1 40, C I RCULAR VO RTI CES . 1 69

wh re e
’ a 2
)
’
d “
57 w Qmm r CO S (Sr

N o w if

we h a v e S= —M s i n S +N co s %

an d, since th e int gral

e

is i de ntically e ro z ,

0= M co s S +N sin §r

C o m bining ( 4 5) an d w e fin d

M = —S s i n 9r ,
N =S co s §r

I f th e variabl e o f int gration in ( 4 4) b chang

e e e d from S
’
to e,

wh r e e e =S
"
—S ‘
,
th e li m its f int gratio f o e n or e ar e 0 an d 2 7r ;
an d S inc e '

COS 6

l r

r 2a m

we m a y writ e ( 44) in th e form

s 1 w as

He r e F1 , E 1 de not e th e
com pl t lli ptic int grals e e e e of th e first
an d s e con d kin ds with r sp ct to th m o dulus e e e
1 70 V o R TE x M TI O ON .
[CHA R VI .

kin ds f flui d m otion w un d r consi d ration

1 42 . Th e o n o e e

co m un d r th cl ss f which a str am -f nction l w sh wn

e e e a or e u Nr as e ,

in A t 1 03 to ist By th d finition f t hat articl w h v

r .
, e x . e e o e , e a e

2 1 = tot l fl
7r xr through th circl whos -ordin t s
a w ux e e e co a e a r e x, ,

ff( l u me n w) d S ,

wh r th int gration e t n ds ov r y surfac boun d d by that

e e e e x e e an e e

circl R calli g th
e .
p r ssions ( 6 )
e f fro m which P is n e ex e or a ,
v ,
70 ,

n ow to b o m itt d w hav by th th or m
e f A t 40 e , e e e e e o r .
,

- M dy
2 71 9 3 I( d N dz) ,

th e int gra t ion h r b i g tak n roun d th circl or by

e e e e n e e e , ,

«f
I G S
Th e f orm ula ( )
2 8 fo r th e kin tic n rgy m e e e a
y n o w be w ri tt n e

T 2 7r p f)
2 7r p

us tak e th ca
1 43 . f a singl
L et circular vort f e se o e ex o

str ngth m At all p oints f its infini t ly s m ll s ctio th

e . o e a e n e

m o dulus k f th lli ptic int grals in th valu f S is n e arly

o e e e e e o

equal to unity In th is cas w hav . e e e

*

F1 = l g2
o E1 = J
2 7r ,

a
pp ro i m at ly wxh r e , e e k
’
de not s e th e co m p l e m e nt ry a m o dulus
( Kl — I ) that i d
,
so n our c sea

2
8 2
’ z
(
’

( a: se ) a w )
2 ' 2 2
(
’

( a: x
) m w ) 40

n ea rly ,
i f 8 de not
istanc b t w n th i finit ly n ar p oints e th e d e e ee e n e e

( x, ) ( e r H ,
nc at p oints
az ,
'
w it h in th subs t anc f th e e e e o e

vort th valu f S d th r for by ( 5 0) lso f [ is f th

ex e e o ,
an e e e a o \r ,
o e

ord r m l g wh r
e is a s m ll li ar m gnitu d co m par bl
o e, e e e a n e a e a e

w ith th di m nsio s f the s ction Th v loci ty t th s m

e n o e e . e e a e a e

p oint d p n d ing
, ( A t 1 03
e
) th d
e i ff r ntial co ffici nt f r . on e e e e e o

will b f th or d r e o e e

Se e C a yl e y , E l l ip ti c Fu n c ti o n s , Ar t . 72, an d M a x we l l , E l e c tr i c i ty an d
M a g n e ti s m , At r s 7 04 , 7 05
. .
1 42 C I RCU L A R VO RTI CES . 17 1

We can w m ak f n o e u se o ( 3)
4 to sti m at th m gnitud f e e e a e o

v locity 4 2 f transl tion

th e
5 Of th vort By ( 5 1 ) T is f th
°
e o a e ex . o e

d c: m
ord r e m as log
w h v s n f th or d r
e Also an d I s, e a e ee ,
o e e
dl
,
e

x —m is f th ord r H nc th s con d t r m on th ri ght

o e e e . e e e e e e
o

l d si d
i an f ( 4 3) i in this cas s m all co m p r d wi t h th
e o first s, e ,
a e e ,

an d th v lo city f transl tion f th ri g is f th o d r m log

e e o a o e n O e r e e,

an d pp ro i m at ly co stant
a x e n .

A iso l t d vort -ring m ov s th n w ithout s nsibl chang e

n a e ex e e ,
e e

o f si p rall l
ze to i,t ( r c t ilin r ) is
a w ith ar l y cons t nt
e s e ea ax ,
n e a

v locity This v l city is s m all c m p r e d with that f th flui d

e . e o o a o e
'

in th e i m m di t n ighbourhoo d f its circular a is but l rg e a e e o x , a e

2 m 7r
co m p ar d with th
e v locity f th fluid at th c ntr f 67
e e o e e e e o

th e ring with w hich it agr s in dir ction

, e e e .

A dra w ing f th str a m - lin s d to a singl circular vort o e e e ue e ex

i giv n by Tho m son

s e
" ‘

1 44 hav y nu m b r f circular vort -rings coa ial

. I f we e an e o ex , x

or not th m otion f y , f th s m y b conc e iv d

e m ad o an on e o e e a e e as e

u
p f t w o
p arts d to th ring its
o l f th oth r d to th ,
on e ue e e ,
e e ue e

infl nc f th r m aining rings Th pr c di g co sid ra t i ns

ue e o e e . e e e n n e o

sh w th t th s con d p rt is insignific nt com par d w i t h th first

e a e e a a e e ,

ex c p t wh n tw
e m or ri gs ap proach within v ry s m ll
e o or e n a e a

dist nc f
a anoth r H nc
e ch ri g will m ov without
o on e e . e e ea n e ,

s nsibl ch ng f sh p
e e Si w ith n rly uni for m v l ci ty i
a e o a e or ze , ea e o n

th dir cti n f i t ( r ctilin r)

e e is until it p ss e s w it h in a short
o o s e ea ax ,
a

dist nc f a s con d ring

a e A g n r l otion f th r sult f th e
o e . e e a n o e e o

e ncount r f tw rings m y in p rticul r c s s b g th r d fro m

e o o a ,
a a a e ,
e a e e .

t h th or m
e f A t 130
e e o r . .

Thus l t us su pp os that w hav tw circular vortic s h ving

,
e e e e o e a

th sa m r ctilin ar a is I f th s ns f th rot tion b th

e e e e x . e e e o e a e e
'

sam i both th tw rings w ill a dvanc in th sam dir c t io

e n ,
e o e e e e n .

O e e ff ct f th ir m utu l influ nc will b to incr as th ra dius

n e o e a e e e e e e

On V or te x -
M o ti o n , Tr a n s . R S E din
. . . 1 8 69 . C o pi e d i n M a xwe ll E le c tr i c i ty ,

an d M a g n e ti s m , p l a te xv m .
172 V o RTEx M TI O ON .
[CHA R VI .

o f th e on e in adva c
to contract th r dius O f th inn e ,
an d e a e on e

th r ar
e e f th
. I f th r d ius
in fr t b co m l rg r t h n
e a o e on e on e e a e a

th t f th
a oi th r r th m tion f th f rm r ing w ill
e on e n e ea , e o o e o e r

b er t rd d wh ilst that f th lat t r is acc l r t d: H nc i f

e a e ,
o e e e e a e e e

th con ditions as to th r lat iv S i

e d str ng t h f th tw e e e ze an e o e o

rings b f vourabl it m y happ n that th s con d ring will

e a e , a e e e

ov rt k e d p ass through th first

a e an Th p arts play d by th e . e e e

tw rings will th n b r v rs d ; th
o w hich is w in th
e .
e e e e e on e
’

n o e

r r w ill in turn ov rt k d p ss th ro gh th oth r d

ea e a e an a u e e ,
an so on ,

th rings alt e rnat ly p assi g

e through th oth r e n on e e e .

I f th rotations in th t w rings b
e o pp os d d such that e o e e , an

th ri gs a pproach
e n anoth r th m utual influ nc w ill b to on e e , e : e e e

e l arg
n th r d iu s o f ach ring
e e a e .

I f th e tw ri gs b m or e ov e r qu al i si
o d str gth th e
n e e n '
ze an en ,

v locity f ap pro ch will continu lly di m inish In this cas th

e o a a . e e

m otion at all p oints f th p l n w hich is p r ll l to th tw o e a e a a e e o

rings d h l f-
,
w y b t w n th m is tang nt ial to t his plan
an a a e ee e ,
e e .

W m y th r for if w p l as r gar d this pla

e a e e a fi d
e ,
e e e ,
e n e as xe

boun dary to th e fluid i t h r si d f it d so obtai th on e e e o , an n e

solution f th cas wh r e si gl vort ring m o v e s dir ctly

o - e e e a n e ex e

to war ds a fi e d rigi d wall x .

On th e Co n di ti o n s f or S te a dy M o ti on

1 45 . In st ady m otion
e ,
i . 6 . wh en

da dw
de dz

th e e quations ( 2) of Ar t 6 . m ay be writt n e

da dv dw dV 1 dp
u + v + w -2 ( v C—wn ) —
fl fi % dx p

He nc e i f we m ak e
V+ 29 1 2
7

2 ( v § —w7) , f
i; so —
ws n a ,
ff —z
em —v a
1 44 ,
S TEADY V o RTE x M TI O ON . 173

It follows that
5
“
45
, v + w 4
dd: dy dz

l H dP
ae C dz
g da '
, n
dy
I

so tha t ach f th surf c s e contains both o e a e P = c o n st .

-
stre am lin e s
an d vort - lin s I f fur th r d d not eex e l e m nt f e . e n e an e o th e norm al
at any point f such a surface we hav o , e

l
Ef ou s n i 9
da y

wh r g is th curr e nt -v locity
e e e e , w th e angular v locity d 9 th e e ,
an

a gl b tw n t str am lin
n h e - e e e e e e an d th e -
vort e l i n at that poi t
x e n .

nc th con ditions that a giv n stat f m otion f a fl uid

He e e e e o o

m y b a a possibl stat f st ady m oti on

e as follows It m ust e e o e are .

b p
e ossibl t o d ra w in th flui d an infinit
e syst m f surf c s e e e o a e

e ach f which is cov r e d by a n twork o f str am -lin s d vort

o e e e e an ex

lin s ; d th p ro duct f gm i 9 d m ust b constant ov r ach

e an e o s n a e e e

such surf c d d noting th e l ngth O f th e norm al drawn to a

a e , a e e

cons cutiv surfac f th syst m

e e e o e e .

Th s e con ditions m y al so b d du e d fro m th e consi d rations

e a e e c e

that th str am lin e s

- ein st ady m otion th actual paths o f
e ar e ,
e , e

th pearticl s that th e p o d uct f the angular

, v locity into th e r o e e
-
cross s cti n is th s m at all p oints f a vort
e o d that this
e a e o e x, an

p ro d uct i f th sa m vort s, constant with r gard to th

or e e e x, e e

ti m e .

Th e th e or e m that th e quantity P d fin e d by is constant ,

e

ov r ach surfac f th e abov kin d is an e t nsio f that f

e e e o e x e n O o

Ar t 2 8 wh r e it w
. sh e wn that P is constant along a str am
, e as e

lin e .

Th abov con di tio s e satisfi d i de ntically i all case s f

e n ar e e n o

irrotational m otion .

In th m otion f a liqui d in tw di m nsions th p ro duct

e o o e ,
e

d is con tant
n lo g str a m - lin t h s con d i t ions th n r d c e e
q ; a n a e e e u e

t this t hat w (
o C i f th e a, e s f - or d in t s b thor sa m e as , x o co a e e e
1 74 V o R TE x M O TI ON .
[ CHA R VI .

in C h pt r a e IV .
) m ust be constant along a str e am - lin e ,
i . e . by
Ar t 6 9 .

2 a
d l
\,
‘
d g ,

z
Cl ] ; dy

w h r f ( ] ) is an arbitrary function
e e i r of « :
l
A p articular s lution f ( 5 4 ) is o o

«f
i g ( Ar;
2
2 Bxy

in which cas th str m -lin s ea syst m f si m ilar d co i l

e ea e ar e e o an ax a

conic s ctions Th v loci t i s at corr sp on ding p oints

e .
p
e e e e are ro

p ortional to t h lin ar d i m nsions f t h c rves ; th angul r

e e O e u e e a

v locity at any p oint is A 0 d i th r e for uni for m

e ,
an s e e .

In th c s f m otion sy m m tric l about an a is ( y that

e a e o e a x sa

o as ,
-
f ) consi d r d in A t 1 03 w hav 2 m d g constant along
e e r .
,
e e 7 n

-
a str a lin e Th c n ditions f st a dy m oti n r duc th n to
m e . e o or e o e e e

this th t th ratio
,
a m ust be constant alo g a str a m -lin a) a e n e e .

« -
I f If h th e str e a m function w hav e
e , e

d xlr
g 2
d xr l d l
xr 1
a) :
” + g
dx da

so that th con dition is e

dl r d
2
1
1r I dxlr
+
( l a; da y
2 ?
a dc:

wh r f N ) is an arbitrary fu ction
e e ” n of i
h .

C nditi n
o o s ( ) e
5 6 w r e gi v e n b y St k o e s, C a m b Tr a n s Vo l
. . . VI I .
 C HAP T ER VI I .

WAVES IN L I QU I DS .

1 46 . An y disturb a nc e
ich is p ro p gat d fro m e p art f a wh a e on o

m diu m to anoth r w hilst th

e
p rticl s f th m e d iu m,
d not e a e o e e o

th m s lv s shar in th p rogr ssiv m o t ion f th disturba c

e e e e e e e o e n e ,

but only d viat slightly fro m th ir original p ositio s is cal l d a

e e e n ,
e

wav
‘ ’
e .

In th cas o f a l iqui d un d r th action f gravity th disturb

e e e e o ,
e

anc e m ani f sts its lf by th p ro ducti n f l va t ions d d

e e e o o e e an e

p r ssions
e w hich trav l ov r th s r fac ( origi ally f cours e p l n e e u e n ,
o e, a e

an d hori ontal ) Th t th p articl s f the flui d d not follow th

z . a e e o o e

m otion f th w av s b t al ways r m i in th n igh bourhoo d f

o e e ,
u e a n e e o

th ir un disturb d p ositions m y i this cas b r adily asc rtain d

e e ,
a n e e e e e

by watching th m otion f a m all floating body e o s .

Th p r s nt chap t r is d vot d t th stu dy f wav e s in liqui ds

e e e e e e o e o .

W s h all su pp os e f th m ost p art that th li qui d is uni for m i

e or e e n

d pth that it is unli m it d hori ont lly

e , d that th m otion tak s e z a ,
an e e

p lac i t
e w d i m n
e nsions ( e hori ontal
o th e oth r v rtical ) on z ,
e e ,
so

that th l vations d d p r ssions f th surfac e p r e s nt th

e e e an e e o e e e

app aranc o f a s ri e s f p arall l st aight ri dg s d furro ws

e e e o e r e an .

Wa v e s of S m a l l Ve r ti ca l Di sp l a ce m en t “ ’

1 47 . We tak first th cas e wh r th m a i m u m hori ontal

e e e e e x z

m otion is so la g co m p r d with th m a i m u m v rtical m otion

r e a e e x e ,

Sto ke s , Ca m b . an d D u b l i n M a th . J our n a l, Vo l . I V.
 1 76 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

that th e v rtic l m otio m y b ltog th r n e gl ct d W shall

e a n a e a e e e e . e

l arn fro m
e r sul t s in w h t c s s t h is assu m ption i l gi ti m at
our e a a e s e e .

L t th or i gin b tak n in th b tto m

e e f th flui d th a is f
e e e o o e ,
e x o a

hori ont l that f y v rtic l d u pw r ds ; d l et us su ppos

z a ,
o e a an a an e

t h at th m tion tak s p lac in th s t w di m nsio s y L t h

e o e e e e o e n a
'

,
. e

b th d p th f th flui d i th e un disturb d s t at h
e e e o 7 th e ordi n e e ,
7 e

n at f th surfac corr s pon ding to th abscissa at th e ti m t

e o e e e e as, e .

S inc th v r t ical m otion is n gl ct d th p r ssur at any p oint

e e e e e e , e e e

( y)a w
,
ill b si m p ly t h at d to t h d e
p th b lo w th sur fac i ue e e e e e , v z.

p
=
gp ( h 7
— y) + const 7 .

H e nc e

dr

w hich is in d e
p ned nt f y e so that th o hori ontal acc l,ra ti g forc e e z e e n

is th sam e e for all p ar t icl s in a p lan p r p n dicul r to e It e e e a a .

fql l w th to s a a ll rticl s wh i h qn g e l ii ip s gh a w n al w ys d
a e c i g
u c
e a o

od ( Ar t .

abscissa
a ; we
.

Win d n d t —v a ia
that }
a is in fact a f nction f only F urth r l t t h u o a: . e e e

p e m
e en d 7 7 r f r l w ays
r to th s m p ortio an e e a e a e n

f flui d ; in which c s ( 1 ) still hol ds

o Th v lu m e f flui d corr a e . e o o ,
e

p s d i gonto unit br n d t h origin lly contain d b t w n th

ea t w a e e ee e o

p l n s a d e d i h d
x an ; at t h ti m a: t d t th s m
x strat
s m x e e e a e u

f flui d h
o a thickn e ss dz + g as
g d d its h e ight is h 7 Th e z, an 7 .

quation f continuity th r f r is
e o e e o e

Th e e quation of m otion of th e stratu m is

doc ( h

W ith th e h e lp of
( )
1 an d this b co m s e e

’
d g
?
a
z
di
z
g h
1 47 , WAVES IN CANALS . 77 .

S o fa r th e only assu m ption m ad is that th e v e rtical m otion is e

s m all co m par d with th e hori ont l I f w o w assu m i ad di

e z a . e n e n

on
ig
ti t h t g is lso s m all quanti ty in oth r w or ds that th r l a
a
(
a a ,
e e e

tiv displ c m nt f th tw n ighbouring l e m nts o f flui d n e v r

e a e e o e o e e e e

a m ounts to m or th n a s m all fraction f th d is tanc be tw n

e a o e e ee

t h m ( 2 ) m y b w ritt n
e ,
a e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

an d ( 3) b e co m s e

Th e e e l vatio n 77 t h n satisfi s
e e an e quation o f e xa ctly '

th e sam e

abov i v stigati s app ly to a straight ca al f ctangul r

Th e e n e on n o r e a

s ction W can h o w v r asily t n d t h m to th c s f a

e . e e e e
'

ex e e e a e o

canal whos s ction is any what v r provi d d it b unifor m Thus

e e e e , e e .
,

i f A b e th ar a f th s e ction b th br a dth f th ca al t th
a e e o e , e e o e n a e

un disturb e d l ve l we hav inst a d f ( 2 )

e ,
e e o

1 +

A ds
wh e nc e

J? 95 1 d
’
i ’

1 48 . I f fo r S . hortn e ss w e w rit e

w —ct = x
1 ,
w+ ct =w
2 ,

an d trans for m ( )
5 by m aking w 50
1 , ,
th e i nd e
p e n de nt varia b l s e

inst e ad f t o x, ,
th e e quati n b co m s
o e e
1 78 W AVES IN L I QU I DS .
[ HACR VI I .

so that th co m pl t solution e e e o f ( 5) is
=F x
§ ( ct )
wh e r f not
e arbi
F,t rary functions
de e .

Th int rp r tation f ( 8 ) is si m p l
e e T k first th m otion
e o e . a e e re

p r s nt
e d bye th first t
e r m lon S inc F ( c t) is
e unal t r d e a e . e x e e

wh t i incr as d by
en s d by o i t is p l in th t th dist rb
e e T, a n
'
x r ,
a a e u

a nc f th p rticl at th t i m t h b n co m m unicat d t th
e o e a e 70 e e as ee e ,
a e

ti m 75 + to th p rticl
e 7 0 so th t th disturb nc a dv nc s
e a e x 7 ,
a e a e a e

as a whol wi th uni f r m v lo ity r l tiv t th fl i d Th firs t

e o e c 0 e a e o e u . e

t rm f ( 8 ) d not s th n wav tr v lling in th p osi t iv dir c t ion

e o e e e a e a e e e e ,

w it h out chang f f r m w ith v l city Th s con d t r m d not s

e o o ,
e o 0 . e e e e e

in lik m nn r a w v trav lling w i t h th sa m v locity in th

e a e a e e e e e e

d ir ction fe g tiv A y m o ti n wh at v r f th flui d s bj ct

o
"
a n e a e . n o e e O e ,
u e

to th r strictions f th p r c di g articl m y b r gar d d

e e o e e e n e ,
a e e e as

m ad p f w
e av s u f th s tow kin d s e o e e o .

Th v locity f p rop gation i by that d e to hal f th

‘
e e o a c s, u e

de p th f th un disturb d flui d
o e e .

1 49 in e th. otion
L et sur c articl as a
us e xa m e m of a fa e -
p e

w av p ass s ov r i t
e To fi th i d a w sh ll su pp os th wav
e e . x e e s e a e e e

t b
o f l v tion
e on e th at 7 is v ry wh r p ositiv
o e d to b
e a ,
so 7 e e e e e ,
an e

trav lling in th p ositiv d ir c t ion th t

e e e e , so a

= F (x — Ct
S )
We sh ll also s ppos th l gth
a u e e en A of th e w av to b finit
e e e . By
d i ff r e nti tion f ( 9 ) w fi d
e a o e n

(i d ‘
f
’

g
0
dt dx
or, by
dg c
’7
all 7
1 ,

r icl r m ins at r s t until it is r ch d by th w v ;

Th e p a t e e a e ea e e a e

it t n ov s for w rds w i t h h ori nt l v locity p rop rtional t

he m e a a zo a e o o

it l vati n ab v th m an l v l Also
s e e o o e e e e e .

1
=
f 7i f 7
7 a ll,

so th at th t t l hori ontal displac

e o a z em e nt at any t i m i q ual e s e to
th e wh l volu m e ( p uni t br dth )
o e er ea of e l vat d flui d wh ich h
e e as up

Q
1 48 W AVES IN CANALS . 1 79

to that ti m e pass d ov r th particl divi d d by th e d pth f th e e e e , e e o e

fluid Th hori ont l m otion is th r for at first infini t ly s m all

. e z a e e e e

co m p r d w i th th v r tic l m o ti n so th t th p rt icl m ov s t
a e e e a o , a e a e e a

firs t p w rds ; its hori ntal v loci ty gr dually incr s s d t

u a zo e a ea e ,
an a

t ins m a i m u m wh n th h igh st p rt f th w v is p ssing i t

a a x e e e a o e a e a ,

th v rtical m otion b ing th

e e ro Th p a ti l th n b gins to e e n ze . e r c e e e

f ll its hori nt l m t i n at th e s m
a ,
ti m sl ck ning until it
zo a o o a e e a e ,

fin lly co m s t r st t its original l v l but i ad vanc f its

a e o e a e e ,
n e o

for m r p si t ion by
e d istanc o a e

t t l volu m f l v tion p ni t br dt h o a e o e e a , er u ea

d pt h f flui d e o .

I f th wav b e f d p re ssion th m otion is i m ply r v rs d in

e e on e o e ,
'
e s e e e

e v ry r sp ct
e e e .

I f w h v a s ri s f w av s f lt rnat
e al v tion d d p
e e e o e o a e e e e a an e res

sion th l v tions d d p r ssions b ing q al in v ry r s p ct

, e e e a an e e e e u e e e e ,

th m otion
e f s rfac -p rti l t k s plac in a clos d curv a
o a u e a c e a e e e e ,

com pl t r volu t ion b ing p r form d d ring th tr nsit f an l

e e e e e e u e a o e e

vation d th follo wing d pr ssion C o m p r A t 1 5 7

an e e e . a e r . .

Th hori nt l m otion i e in all c s s th sam f particl s

zo a s, a e , e e or e

in th s m v rtic l ; th v r t ical m o t i n is v rywh r sm l l d

e a e e a e . e o e e e e a , an

m y ( sinc
a it is ro t th bot t o m ) b tak n as proportion l to
e ze a e , e e a

th un dist rb d h igh t f th p arti l abov th b d

e u Th m otion
e e o e c e e e e . e

o f a p articl at h ight y fro m th botto m m y th r for b h

e a e e a e e e e O

t i d ro m th t
a n e f f a sur c p rti le by m r ly r ducing th e
f - a o a e a c ,
e e e

v rtic l com pon nt in th tio y h

e a e . e ra .

1 50 . in un d r what circu m stanc s th

We can n o w «
e xa m e e e e

assu m ptio s f A t 1 4 7 justifi d Th tim which a wav ( f

n o r . are e . e e e o

7
e l vatio
e y) f l gth A tak
n s,
to p ass
sa any p articl is 5
, so
o that en e e ,

i f th S lop f the -
w av p fil b gr dual th v rtical v locity f
e o e e ro e e a ,
e e e o

a surf c -particl is f th or d r i 2 wh r k is th m a i m u m
a e e o e e s ,
e e e x

e l vatio abov th un disturb d l v l Th hori ontal v l city is

e n e e e e e . e z e o ,

7
15
0
by f th e or d r —
; th ratio
o f th v rtic l to th hori e e o e e a e

h
zo n ta l v loci ty is th r
e e e fo r e of th e ord r i e Th e assum p tion m a de

1 2—2
1 80 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

at th b ginning f A t 1 47 r q ir s th n that th sl p f th
e e o r . e u e e e o e o e

wav -p fil e shoul d b gr du l d that th l g th f

e ro l v ti n e a a ,
an e en o an e e a o

or d pr ssion Shoul d b larg com p ar d with th un disturb d d pth

e e e e e e e e

o f th flui d W av s which fulfil th s c n ditions

e . c ll d long
‘
e e e o ar e a e

wav s Th m otion f wav s f which th con di t ions

e . e t o e or e are n o

satisfi d is discuss d b low A t 1 5 6

e e »
e ,
r . .

d
Th s con d assu m ption f A t 1 4 7
e ei th t
i is s m all o r .
,
v z . a ,
re

quir s by e th at th m i m u m h igh t f th wav sh uld b

,
e ax e o e e o e

s m all com p ar d w ith th d pth f th fl i d e e e o e u .

1 51ot ntial e n rgy f a wav

. syst m f wav s d
Th e p e e o e ,
or e o e ,
ue

to th l vation d pr ssion f th flui d abov th m an l v l h

e e e or e e o e e e e e e

is pe unit br adth y pffy d dy wh r th int grat on with r sp ct

,
r e ,
x ,
e e e e i e e

to y is to b tak n b t w n th l i m its 0 d 7 d th t wi t h
e e e ee e an 7 ,
an a

r sp ct to ov r th whol l ngth f th wav s P rfor m ing th

e e x e e e e o e e . e e

form r int gration w g t

e e ,
e e

4g p fn dfc
2

Th e kin tic e n e rgy ise , in th e cas e of Ar t 1 4 7 .

,

dd

In a syst e m of w av s tra lling in

e v e on e d ir ction only we hav e
e

d§ _
di
“

h
" ’

so that ( 1 1 ) d ( 1 2 ) an ar e e qual ; or th total e n e rgy is half pot n e e

ti l d hal f kin tic

a ,
an e .

in any ca f wav s tr v lling in e dir ction o l y

152 . If se o e a e on e n ,

w ithout chang f form w i m p r ss th w hol m ass a v loci t y

e o ,
e e on e e e

equ l d opp osit to that f p ro p g ti n th m oti n b co m s

a an e o a a o ,
e o e e

t dy w hils t th forc s acti g any p rticl r m in th s m as

'

s ea , e e n on a e e a e a e

b for Wi th th h lp f this rtific th l s

e e . w f w v p p
- e e o a e ,
e a o a e ro a

grea t _
ti h ti t d w i t h s " T h us in th cas e f e a e
l
e o
g a on
g ca n e luv e s a e
n
.
,

A t 1 4 7 w hav at th fr sur fac i ‘

}
e A e e ee e 0
r .
, ,
n a .

1)
const —é 2
g
9
.

Se e L or d R a y l e i gh , “
On W av es, Phil . Ma g .
, Ap il r , 1 8 76 .
150 WAVES IN CANALS . 181

wh r q is th e v locity
e e slop f th ve ry e . I f th e e o e w -
ave pr o file b e e

wh r g radual d th d pth h s m ll co m par d w ith th l e ngth

e e ,
an e e a e e

of a w av th hori ontal v locity m y b t k n

e ,
uni form thr ugh
e z e a e a e as o

out th d pth d ppro i m at ly qual to g H nc th quation

e e ,
an a x e e . e e e e

of c ntinuity is
o

g( h 77
) ch ,

0 b ing th v locity in th st dy m otion wh re

e e e , e ea ,
e th e de p th is uni
for m d qual to h S ubstituting f q in
an e . or we e hav

const .
— kc f
’l
1 —g h

If s m all th con dition f a fr e e surf c

be ,
e or a e ,
Vi z .

p
= const is .
,

sa t isfi d a ppro i m at ly p rovid d

e x e , e

c yh 2
,

w hich is i d ntical w ith qua t ion e e

tak account f th s con d p ow e r f hQ

I f we e o e e o

p art f th str a
o m wh r th e av rag l vation
e e e e e e e e

f a fr
or surf c is b t t e r satisfi d by
ee a e e e

2
= h 1 +
6 g

—
c = Jy h

Th e high r portio s f a wav th r fore a dvanc f st r than th

e n o e e e e a e e

lo w r th t th f rm f w
e ,
so continu lly c h ang s as it p
a e o o a av e a e ro

ce ed T h us in th c s f a w av f l vation nly th slop

s .
,
e a e o e o e e o , e e

b c m s gr d ually st p r in front d m or g n tl b hin d un til

e o e a ee e , an e e e e

fi lly th con di t ions

n a wh ic h e inv s tig tions b s d f il on our e a ar e a e a

alt g th r to hol d Th f rm ula ( 1 4 ) s m s d to Airy I t is

o e e . e o ee ue
*
.

oth r wis obvious fro m ( 4 ) t h at th accuracy f th

e e qua t ion e o e e

" “
dt dd

E n c yc l o p a d i a M c tm p o l i l a n a
'

,
Vo l . v .
, Ti de s an d W av e s, Ar t 2 08 . .
182 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

as a r pr e s ntative o f ( 3 ) at any particular p oint

e e of th e canal is
i m prov d by m aking e

2
c y h 1

wh r k is th e l e vation in th e n ighbourhoo d f that point

e e e e o . If

w n gl ct th e squar
e e f ii th is will agr wi th
e e o , ee

1 53 .We proc e e d to inve stiga t e o n th e sa m e assu m ptions as ,

b for
e e ,
th e e q u a tions o f m oti o n o f long w av e s in a uni fo r m c a n a l
wh n e ,
in a ddi tion to gravi ty s m a ll disturbing force s wh o s e h o ri ,

zo n ta l a n d v e rtical co m p on e nts a r e X a n d Y act o n th e flui d We .

hav in this cas e e ,

—y) Ydy + c o n s t , .

so t hat th e e quation of hori ont l z a m o t ion of a particl e in th e

p osition ( r
.
, .
y) ,
v iz .

b co m e s
e

h ’
dY d 77
‘

dy + Y+X .

dac dx

If X an d Y be sam ord r o f th e e e ,
an d th ir r t s f vari tion
e a e o a

s m ll th a ,
e s con d d t hird t r m s
e an e on th e right h n d si d f th is
- a e o

e qu ti a on m y b n gl ct d in m p
a e e e e co a r i so n wi th th o t h r t w W e e o . e

th n have e

’
d E Tl
’

da:

w h r e f th sa m r son X m y b su pp os d a functi n f
e , or e e ea ,
a e e o o a:

only T h is q u t ion b ing in d p n d nt f y th p rticl s which

. e a e e e e o ,
e a e

at y inst nt li in pl n p rp n dic l r to l i l w ys in s ch
an a e a a e e e u a a; e a a u

a
p l n T h qu ti n f con t inui ty ( 4 ) th n appli s ; d ( 1 5 )
a e . e e a o o e e an

b co m s
e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

wh e re 0
2
h
g , as b e for e .
152 TI D E s IN EQUA TO RI AL CANA L . 183

inc ( 1 6 ) d s t c nt i Y i t a pp a s that th hori onta l

S e oe n o o a n , e r e z

d i turbing forc is m uch m r

s ff c t iv t h th v e rtical
e i o e e e e an e on e n

p ro d ucing wav s T h is m ight b an t ici p t d froem t h. hy d ro e a e e

sta tic l th or m th t a liquid is in q uilibriu m wh n d only

a e e a e e ,
an

w h n th sur f c s f qual p r ssur coinci d w i t h thos

e , e a e f qual o e e e e e o e

p o t nti l
e T h latt r b aing v ry .wh r p p r n d icular
e to th lin s e e e e e e e e e e

Of forc it is plai that th addi t ion f a s m ll hori ontal forc

e ,
n e o a z e

woul d m ak th m d viat fr m th ir origin l hori on tal arrang

e e e e o e a z e

m nt f e m or th n th ar addition f a sm al l v rtical forc

e a e o e e .

p g 1 54 ill f llo w Airy

. applying qu tion ( 1 6 ) to i llus
We w o
’l ‘i n
e a

trat th t h ry f th t i d s L t us inv stigat th e ti d s which

e e eo o e e . e e e e

woul d b p ro d uc d in a uni feor m q uatorial c n l th m

e oon b ing e a a ,
e e

su ppos d to d e scrib a circl in th p l n f th quator L t

e e e e a e o e e . e 9:

d not th
e un disturb d distanc m asur d alo g th quator f
e e e e , e e n e e ,
o

a p ar ticl f wat r fro m so m e fi d m ri dian w C th valu f

e o e xe e , e e o

th sam e q u ntity f th sam p rt icl

e a t th ti m t I f b e ,
or e e a e , a e e . n

th angular v locity f th ar th s rot tion th act al dis pl ac

e e o e e
’
a , e u e

m nt f th
e p articl ot t h ti m t is C e t ; so t hat t h t ng ntial
e a e e n e a e

d f
’

acc l r tio will b dt“ I f w su p pos th c n tr ifugal f rc to

e e a n e ’
e e e e o e

b as usual llo w d f
e in th valu f y th proc ss s f th e
a e or e e o , e e e o

p r vi us
e rticl s
o w ill pp ly wit h out
a fur t h r alt
e ration Al so w a e e .
,
e

h v l appro i m at ly
a e
' ‘
,
x e

X [A sin 2 9 :
,

wh r e e

3
Ma
u.
2
D 3
, 7

M h
t e m ass f th m o n in strono m ic l units
o e o a a ,

a th e radius f th ar th o e e ,

D = th e dis t nc b t w n th e c ntr s f th
a e arth e ee e e o e e

th e m oo n ,

9 th e hour-angl f th m oon at th station e o e e r ,

(I)

S e ct . VL ,
“
Tide s an d W av e s .

1 Th o m
'
so n an d Ta i t , Ar t 8 04 . .
1 84 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

p rovi d d p e n n
’
,
n
’
b ing th a gular v locity f th e m oon in
e e n e o

her orbit , an d a so m e constant Th e quation ( 1 6 ) th n b e co m s. e e e

d d
’ ’
f f u
+ sm 2 t — -
l
a:

di
z
333 2 ,
g
Th e solution f this quation consists f tw parts Th first part
o e o o . e ,

or
‘
com pl m ntary function is th solution f ( 1 7 ) w ith th last
e e ,
’
e o e

t rm o m itt d d pr ss s th fr wav e s wh ich coul d ist

e e ,
an ex e e e ee ex

in d p d ntly f th m oon s ction Th s con d p art f th solu

e en e o e
’
a . e e o e

tion ‘
p ,
rtic lar
orint gral gi s th forc
a d w av s u ti d s p e ,
’
v e e e e or e ro

du ce d by th m oon d is e , an

2
n a
s in 2
,
t

Th e corr sp onding l vation 7 is give n by

e e e 7

a a h
. .

yc —,

i ’
cos 2 t
p a

Th eti d is th r fore s m idiurnal d is dir ct

e inv rte e e ,
an
‘
e
’
or
‘
e e d, i . e .

th r is high l w wat r b n ath th m oon accor ding

e e or o
'

e e e e , as c is
g at r l s than p a N w
r e e or e s . o

c
Z
h
2
g
e arly 2 89 ’ ” g
n ,

p a n a a

in th e actual cas f th arth e o e e . U nl ss th r for th d pt h

e e e e e e of th e
c n l w r m uch gr at r t h an
a a e e e e th e ac tual d p t h f th e o e se a , th e
t i d s woul d b inv rt d
e e e e .

Fo r th e cas f a circular canal parall l to

e o e th e e quator i lati n

tud e A, we shoul d fi d n

X u
,
c o s Xs i n 2 9 ,

a:
wh r e e 9 =p i
a co s x

Substitu t ing in an d s lving o as b for

e e ,
w e fin d fo r th e f orc e d
w av s e

n ah
i c
2 "2
cos a cos 2 ’ t
p a

I f th e latitu d e o f th e c nal a be high r th n e a ar e co s th e ti d s e

w ill b e dir ct e .
154 TI D Es I N EQUATO R I A L C AN A L . 185

1 55 tak th e cas e f a canal coinci ding w i th

. Ne x t le t us e o a

m ri d ian
e L t 9 d not th h ur ngl - .
f th m on fro m this e e e e o a e o e o

m ri d i n
e p i + y ad th d istanc
,
f any p oi t on th a, sa ,
an a: e e o n e

canal fr m th q ator By an asy pplication f S ph ic l

o e e u . e a O er a

Trigono m try w fi d f th hori ontal disturbing forc e i th e

e ,
e n or e z n

d ir ction f th e l ngth f th can l

e o e o e a ,

X= —p sin 2 2 cos °
9

tw in s
; {1 + cos 2

Th e quation f m otion is e asily s n t b

e o ee o» e of th e sam e f orm ,

as b for S ubstituting th e n d solvi g

e e . an n ,
w e fin d

ar
7
7 i ,
cos 2 ’
— ” °
cos 2 (1 cos 2 ( p t a ) ( )
2 0 0

0 a c p a .

Th e first r r pr s nts a p r m a nt d viation f th surfa

te m e e e e n e e o e ce

rom
f th e circular form ; th e q uation f th m an l v l b ing now e o e e e e e

m h x
=
n t 0
2
a

Th e fluctu tions ab v d b lo w this m an l v l a giv n by th o e an e e e e ar e e e

s con d t m f
e If in th a tu l cas f th e arth 0 b e
er l o , as e c a e o e ,

l ss than p th r will b high w t r in latitu d s abov

e a , d e e e .
a e e e an

low wat r in latitu d s b lo w w h n th m oon is in th e m ri

e e e e e e

d ian f th c n l o d ic e s wh th m oon is 9 0 fro m that

e a a ,
an v e v r a en e
°

m ri dian
e Th circu m s tanc s l l r v rs d w h
. is g r at r e e are a e e e en 0 e e

t ha p n a .

F or a furth e r d v lo p m nt f th canal th ory f th e ti de s th e e e e o e e o ,

stu d nt is r f rr e d to Airy l c te
e e e , . . an .

Wa v e s i n d e ep wa te r .

K 15
6 . Wh e n we ab an d o n th e a ssu m ption th t th d pth h f a e e o

th efluid is s m ll c m p r d w ith th a o a e e l ngth f a wav th E ul ri n

e o e ,
e e a

m tho d b co m s m or
e ro
pp p ri t e e e a a e .

L t th origi b i th un disturb d surfac

e th e f n e n e e e ,
e a x 1s o a:

hori ontal that f y v rtical d its p ositiv d ir c t ion u p w rds

z ,
o e an e e a .

W e su ppos th m otion t t k pl c ntir l y in th s two di m e e o a e a e e e e e en

186 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[ CHA R VI I .

sions y ; d to b such as m y hav b n g n rat d fro m r st

x, an e a e ee e e e e ,

so that th r ists a singl -valu d v locity -p ot nti l I W

e e ex e e e e a ( ) . e

r tain f a first appro i m tion th assu m pti n t h t th squar s

e , or x a ,
e o a e e

an d p ro ducts f th v lociti s d r lativ dis pl c m nts m y b

o e e e an e e a e e a e

n gl ct d O quations t h n
e e e . ur e e ar e

w ith th e boun dary con ditions

dp d c1> dp ( 14> dp
+ + 0
dc 0151; da dy d y
”

at th e f r ee surfac e Ar t . an d

d <i>
da
wh n e y h .

Now ( )
2 1 is sati fi s e d by th e su m of any nu m b r e of t rm s
e of

th e f orm

each m ulti pli d by arbitrary f nc t ion f t provi d d j k 0

e an u o ,
e
2 ?
.

N w j m st in
o cas b w holly i m ginary f o t h r wis w
u our e e a , or e e e

d qs
shoul d hav infinit f ith r e — or — He c e or e e az 00 ,
50 cc . n e

w m ust hav k r al
e d j i il W writ th r for
e e an c . e e e e e

1
9 2 { ( A> k B i kw ) e ( A cos
ki’l
kw B si n k
co s
» x s n e
‘
kg ' ’
er ,

th co ffici nts b ing funct ions f t y t un d t r m n d Th

e e e e o as e e e i e . e

con dition ( 2 4 ) giv s e

fi e
— h " A e kh :
’

,
Be
—kh
B
'

e
kh
,

so that th assu m e e d v lua e of <)

1 tak s e th e f or m
4 ) 2 { e
k
( P c o s le a: Q si n lax )

our work is rigorous I f w w gl ct s q u r s

S o fa r . e n o n e e a e an d pr o
d ucts f s m all q uantiti s, ( 2 3) b co m e s
o substitutio fro m e e on n
( )
2 2

i f
(
F ( t)
’
 WAVES IN DE E P WA TE R . 187

an in this we m y su ppos e y e quat d to e o f th e rror in th

d a e z r ,
or e e

v lu f y will only intro duc an rror f th s on d ord r in this

a e o e e o e ec e

con dition S ubstituting th v lu ( 2 5 ) f gb w fi d that in ord

. e a e o , e n e r

that ( 2 6 ) m y hol d f all valu s f w m ust hav e F ( t) O d

a or e o a: e
'

, an

dP
°
’d ‘ lm -kh =
( e
dt
’
1
9 (
. e e ) P 0

with an e quation of th e sam e for m fo r Q . Th e solution of

( 7)
2 is
P =A 0 08 fe e t B sin ko t ,

w h re
e

kh kh
9 e
.

6
kh -kh
ke e

an d A, B now d not e absolut constants

e e . C o m bining our r sults e

w e g e t fo r a s ri s f t r s f h for
’

]; c me t m
e o e o e

{
74 1/ 1 t
a 6 k ( x 31: ct )
wh re e a is a constant .

us am in th m otion r e pre s nt d by e o f th s e t r m s
L e t ex e e e e on e e

alon taking y in th last f ctor th cosin with th m inus Sig

e , , sa ,
e a e e e n

in its arg m nt Th form f th fr surf c ( p const ) is giv n

u e . e o e ee a e . e

by i it is v z .

d¢
y const — 1
dt
.

w h r in th l st t rm w su ppos y q u t d to ro f th
e e e a e e e e a e ze , or e

r so alr ady giv n H c i f t h origi n b tak n at th m an

ea n e e . en e e e e e e

l v l th q uation f th fr surfac is
e e , e e o e ee e

y S in t) a c

wh r e e

k"
J kh
( e e
g
Th e w av is th r for th curv f S in s
-
e p r o fil e e e e e e o e ,
an d it dv nc s a a e

W i th out ch ng f for m in th d ir ction f p osi t iv

a e o e e o a: e ,
w ith uni for m
v l city 0 giv n by w av -
l gth i e d istanc
‘
Th th
’
e o e e e en e e
, . .

b tw n tw succ ssiv cr sts or hollo w s i

e ee o e e e s

2
1
k
1 88 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[ HA
C R VI I .

It app ars that th v locity f propag tion is not in d p n d nt f

e e e o a e e e o

th e wav -
l ngth but that it incr as s continuously with th valu e
e e , e e e

o f th e ratio fi
— b ing,Jfi ( as in e Ar t 1 4 8 ) . w h e n this rati is o in

fin i te s i m a l , wh n it is infinit an d e e . To any giv n valu e e of

0 th r corr spon ds only o v lu f 7x

e e e n e a e o ,
an d v i ce v e r sa .

$ 1 57 us . m in th
L etatur f th m oti n f th e xa e e n e o e o o e

i divi dual p articl s f flui d as a syst m o f w v s f th b v

n e o e a e o e a o e

kin d p ss s ov r th m I f f 7 b th co m p on t displac
a e e e . ,
7 e e e n e

m nts at ti m
e t f th p articl W hos m an p siti n is (
e y) o e e e e o o a , ,

w e hav e

”
4 411 44 1
2:
kg 6 S l Il IC C
? Ct ) ,

c o s Ic x
( ct ) .

We ought in strictn ss to h v on
, si d f th s e ,
a e th e -
right han d e o e e

equations E f d y ; f y
a b t th r sul t ing corr ction
or as, a n 7 or ,
u e e e

w oul d b rd r w hich w h v gr d t n gl t Int 2

f th e o e o e a e a e a ee o e ec . e

grating th n th ab v qu tions th s p posi t ion th t y

e e o e e a on e u a a , ar e

constant d r m m b ring th for m ul

,
an ( )
3 1 f e c d w e e e ae or an a , e

fin d

E ach particl th r f r d scrib s llip s wh os m jor is is

e e e o e e e an e e e a ax

h ori ont l ; th l w f d scri p ti n b i g th sa m

z a f ea p rticl a o e o e n e e as or a e

attract d to a fi d p int by f rc varying as th distanc Th

e xe o a o e e e . e

ratio f th m inor to th m aj r a is f th llips i

o e e o x o e e e , v z .

mm ) -u y w
6 e

d i m inish s fro m e th e surfac e to th e b tto m wh r i t vanish s

o ,
e e e .
1 56 WAVES IN DE E P WA TE R . 189

co m par ( 3 2 ) w ith
I f we w s that a surf c -par t icl e e ee a e e

m v s in th
o e dir ction f th w v s w h n it coinci d s w i t h a
e e o e a e e e

cr st d in th o pposit dir ction wh n it coincid s with a

e ,
an e e e e e

trough .

h
I f th e ratio 31 b infinit e e ,
th e ex
p r ssions
e
( )
3 2 b e co m e

5 co s k(x ct ) ,
77 sin I ( w c ct ) ,

so that ach particl d scrib s a v r tic l circl w ith uni f r m angu

e e e e e a e o

lar v loci ty Th r dii f th s circl s giv n by th f r m ula a w

e . e a o e e e ,
e e o e
’
,

di m inish ra p i dly w ith incr asing At a d p th b lo w th e e e e

surf c qual t th wav -l ngth th m otion is to th at f th sur

a e e o e e e e o e

f c i th ratio 6
a e n 1 or 1 5 3 5 n arly
e
4 ”
,
e .

K 1 58 n rgy f a syst m f wav s f th kin d w un d r

. Th e e e o e o e o e n o e

e xam ination is foun d as f llo w s S u pp os tw v rtical plan s o . e o e e

dr w n p rp n dicular to th ri dg s f th w av s at unit distanc

a e e e e o e e , e

ap rt Th p ot ntial e n e rgy f th e flui d b tw n th s pl a s is

a . e e o e ee e e n e

&g p fy l w h r y s
is th
c x, e l vatio abov th m an
e l v e l e t th e e n e e e e a e

p oin t S ubsti t u t ing

a} fro
. m d int grating w fi d i gp k an e ,
e n a
z

for th p ot nti l n rgy p

e w av l ngth
- e a e e er e e .

Th e kin tic n rgy ise e e

2 cos 2 k( a
'
ct ) }da dy .

This giv s w h n int grat d w ith r sp ct to ov r a

e e e e e e a: e -
w av e l e ngth ,

and w ith r s p ct t y b tw n th li m its h d Oe e o e ee e an ,

—2 kh
1 s
1
0
,
“ ( e
2 kh
e ) ,

or by, ( )
2 8 an d i gp afi .

Th e kin tic e an d po t e ntial n rgi s e e e a re th e r e for e e q u a l .

1 59 long . So as we confin ours lv s to a firs t appro m t n e e e xi a io

a ll our qu tions e a are lin ar ; that i f d) & b th v loci ty

e so
”
c . e e e

Th r lt e se e su s w r gi
e e b y Gr n C b T
v en V l 1 8 39 ee , o m . r a n s. o . VI I . .
190 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[ CHA R VI I .

p ot ntials f
e d istinct syst o em s of w av s e of th e p articular kin d abov e

consi d r d th n e e , e

w ill b e th e f a ossibl f r m -
v e locity ot e nti a l f wa v -m oti
p p o e o o e on ,

w i t h a fr surf c S inc w h n a is d t r m in d
ee a e . e e e e e th e qu tion
e a o f
th fr e surf c is giv n by
ee a e e

1513
6

dt

th e l v ti n bov th m n l v l t any point f th s rf c in

e e a o a e e ea e e a o e u a e ,

th m oti o
e giv n by w ill b q u l to th
n lg br ic m f e e e a e a e a su o

th l vations d to th s p r t syst m f w av s (f gb 8
e e e ue e e a a e e s o e ;
2 ,
5 0.

H nc e ach f th l tt r syst m s is p rop g t d

e e c tly i f th
o e a e e
fi
a a e e xa as e

oth rs w r abs nt d p ro duc s its w l vation d p Si

e e e e ,
an e o n e e or e res on

at ch p oint f th sur f c
ea o e a e .

W m y this w y by dding tog th r t r m s f th form

e a In a a e e e o e

w ith p ro p rly chos n v l u s f buil d p th soluti n f th

e e a e o a ,
u e o o e

g n r l probl m f A t 1 5 6 in th c s w h r th ini t i l con di tions

e e a e o r . e a e e e e a

a re any w h t v r Th us l t su pp os t h t wh n t = O th
a e e .
,
e us e a ,
e , e

equation f th fr surf c is o e e e a e

y =f (-
r
) .

an d th at th orm l v locity at th t surf c

e n a e a a e is th n F ( ) or to
e x , ,

our or d r f ap pro i m tion

e o x a ,

Th e v lua e o f ( )
I i s fo u d n to b e

w
dk g
kh —kh d k FOx) c o s 10
0 » a ) co s kct
o 7 1 kc e e

d xf ( A) cos MK a
) si n kc

an d th e e quation of th e f r ee surf c is a e

dA f A
( ) cos k OV co s kct

d k F O» ) c o s 70 0 » a
) si n ke t
 WAVES IN DEEP W T R A E . 191

T h s for m ul in which 0 is a functi n f k giv n by

e e ae , m y o o e a

b r dily v rifi d by m ans f F ie s r ssion f an arbi rary ’

e ea p e t e e o o ur r ex e or

f nction as a d finit int gr l

u i e e e a ,
v z .

d ( )
7t co s k ( 7t —x )

Wh e n initial con di t ions rbi tr ry th subse qu nt

th e are a a ,
e e

m o t i o n is
m ad p f syst m s f wav s f all p ossibl
e l ng thsu o e o e ,
o e e ,

trav lling in i th r dir ction ach wi t h th v locity p p t

e e e e ,
e e e rO er o

its w wav -l ngth as giv n by

o n H nc e in g ral th
e ,
e e e ,
en e ,
e

f r m f th fr
o sur f c is continu lly alt ring th e only c ption
o e ee a e a e , e x e

b ing wh n th w v -l ngth f v ry co m pon nt syst m which

e e e a e e o e e e e

is pr s nt in s nsibl m p litu d is l rg co m p r d wi th th d pt h
e e e e a e a e a e e e

o f th flui d I this cas th v loci ty f p ro p g ti n Jfi‘ is

e . n e e e o a a o

in d p n d nt f th wav -l ng th so th t i f w hav w v s
e e e o e e e ,
a e e a e

trav lling in o dir ction on ly th w av -p fil r m ains

e n e e , e e ro e e un

chang d i for m as it advanc s C o m p ar A t 1 48

e n e . e r . .

A curious
r sult f th d p n d nc f th v locity f p ropagae o e e e e e o e e o

tion on th w v -l ng th occurs wh n w h v t w syst m s f

e a e e e e a e o e o

w av s f th same a m plitu d
o d f n arly but not q it
e q ual e e ,
an o e u e e

w av l ngth s tr v lling in th
- e e sa m e d ir ction Th quati n
,
a e e e . e e o

of th fr surf c i th n f th for m
e ee a e s e o e

y
= a si n k (w —c t) '

kc — k c
2a co s
2

If k k be v ry n rly qual th cosin in th is pr ssion vari s

,
’

e ea e ,
e e ex e e

v ry slo wly wi t h
e d t; th at th w av -p fil a t any inst t a an so e e ro e an

is in th form f a curv f S in s in which th a m pli t u d alt rnat s

e o e o e e e e e

slo wly b t w n th v l s 0 d 2 Th surf c th r f r

e ee e a ue an a . . e a e e e o e

p r s nts
e th a pp
e aranc f s ri s f grou
e
p s f w av s s p r t d
e e o a e e o o e e a a e

at q ual int rv ls by ban ds f n rly s m ooth w t r Th in t rv l

e e a o ea a e . e e a

2 77
b tw n th c ntr s f t w
e ee w grou ps k — l
e e d th e o o s u cce s s e 18
”
an e
o

—
kc k c
’ '

d kc .
1 92 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

F ro m ( 2 8 ) we fin d

d "
f
'

ol
5 0 1 +

Th e ratio f this v locity f prop g ti n to that f th w

o i e o a a o o e a v es n

cr s s kh di m inish s b ing wh n th d p th i infin i t

ea e as d e , e e e e s e ,
an

unity h n it is s all co m par e d with th wave l ngth

w m e - e e
*
.

1 60 -
R a kin r has b y a syn th t ic proc s arri v d at th
. n e e es e e

follo w ing e ct q uations p r ssing a

xa
p ssibl for m f w av e ,
ex e o e o e

m otion w h n th e d p th f th flui d is infinit

e i e o e e ,
ev z

y
:
b

He r at th
th e ti m t f th -
c o ordinat e s
ar ticl d fin d e
‘
e e e
e a , y ar e p e o e

by th e p raam t rs b w hilst
e k ebsolu t const nts
a Th , , ,
c are a e a . e

a x 1 s o f a: is hori onta l that f y rtical d d o wn w ar ds

z ,
o v e an .

We fin d at onc e

d( a) ,
y) 4 155
1
d ( a , b)

so that th L agrangian quation f c nti u i ty [

e e o o n se e Ar t . 1 7]
is s tisfi d Also substi t u ti ng fro m
a e in th
.
,
k e La gr gia
an n

equations f m otion w hav o , e e

i
° bb
kc sin [c ( a )
‘

e ct ,
( t

d co s k ( a + ct)
db
w h nc sinc
e e ,
e V= gy ,

p — —c °
36
° ‘
kb
e
g 7

P
Now at th e f r ee surfac e p m ust b in d e e p e n d nt e of t, so that
g
g ke ,

St k S o e s, m i h t ’
s Pi r ze E xa m i n ti n 1 8 7 6 S
a o , . ee a ls o Pf O Re yn o l d s , O n
ro . .

W av e s,
’
N a tu r e , Vo l p 3 4 3.
; a n
xv r .
, . d L rd R yl i gho a e , Th e o r y of S o u n d , Ar t 1 9 1 , .

an d P L roc . en d M a th S o c N o v 8 , 1 8 7 7
. . . . .

1 Phi l T r a ns 1 86 3
'
. . .
15 9 1 09 , ] WAv ES I N D EE P WATE R .
193

§
= w’
gb + i
‘

c e

Th per ssur abouteany p articl is th er f r e constant dur i ng th e e e o e

m otion Th e for m
. f any surfac f qu l p r ssur o e o e a e e

1
13 obtain d by rolling a circl e
e f ra dius on th e un d r si de f o e o
E

th e straight li n e
31 b A p oint fi xe d r lativ ly to this circl
e e e ,

1
at a distanc 756 fro m its c tr
e W ill trac e out
4 6” en e ,
th e p rofil e of

th e surfac e in qu e stio Th e w av e l ngt h i

- n . e s

2 7r
0
k

an d th e v locity of propagation is
e

i r e ntiat ( 3 4) w ith re sp ct t o
I f we d ffe e e t, we ge t fo r th e
co m p on e t e lociti e s f a p articl e
n V o

e
m
cos 7a ( a ct) c
‘
’ ’

-kb
sin [c ( a
v cc ct ) ,

an d th e nc e
u dx + v dy
= d e
‘
g‘
b
sin k ( a + + ce
‘
2kb
da ,

w hi ch is not an act diff r e nti al so th at th m otion r e pr e s e nte d

ex e ,
e

by ( 3 4) is rotational d cannot th r e for hav b n g n rate d , an e e e e e e e

fro m r st by th e ction f ordi na y nat r l forc s Th ci

e a o r u a e . e r cu

lation in th e boun dary f th p arall logram whos angular p oint o e e e s

coinci d with th parti cl s

e e e

( a : b) , ( a l dd , b ) ,
" "
( a, b db ) , ( a da , b db)

d
__ a s
( cc da d b
db
,

an d th e are a of thi s parall e l ogram is

d ( w; v ) 2kb
da db _ ( 1 ) da ab,
w
e
d (a b) .
194 WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

so that th e angular v e locity of th e l

e em e nt ( a , b)

This is gr at st at e e th e surfac e ,
an d d i m inish e s rapi dly with
cr asing d pth
e e .

P r op a g a ti o n i n Two D i m e n si o n s .

In th cas s alr ady co si d r d th p rop agation f th

1 61 . e e e n e e e o e

w av s ov r th
e surf c f th fl i d h b e n su ppos d to tak
e e a e o e u as e e e

p lac in ed i m nsion ( ) only

on e W w ill w sk tch t h m t
e h o d a . e n o e e e

to b p ursu d in tr ating ca s w h r th propagation is in tw

e e e se e e e o

di m e sions n .

or g n b t k n in th un disturb d sur f c th e a s
L e t th e i i e a e e e a e ,
xe

f w d y h ori on t l that f v rtic l d u p wards ; d l t

'

o an z a ,
o 2 e a an an e

h b th ( uni form ) d pth f th flui d

e e Th e v locity -
p ot ntial b
g e o e . e e

m ust sa t is fy
°
v ¢ O

an d th e con dition
d <f>
0, w h n e z h
dz

F urth e r at th ,
e r e surf c e
f e a we m ust h v a e ,
m aki g n th e sam e

a
pp r i m ati s
o x on as in A t 1 5 6 r .

w h r e e
P const .

f
l
?
C
=0
ai
9 d 0, [ 2
] O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

satisfi e d by th e su m of any u m b r n e of te rm s of
160 WAV ES I N Two D I M ENS I ONS . 195

W h e re th k e
’
s are constants y e t to be de t e r m in e d ,
an d d os e

n o t contain 2 . S ubstituting in ( )
3 7 w e fin d

-
’ ’
d d )
( m
n
e e ) dt
’1
0.

d )
’
5
9, cos k t c t
qg s i n kc t

wh r e e c is give n by
-kh
e

d q ‘ unctions
f f nly to b e de t in d f rom
an ;
j
( )
,
are o x,
y o ,
e rm e

( )
3 5 w hich n ow gi v s e

with a si m ilar qu tion f Th solution f wh n

e a or e o e

adapt d to suit th con d itions to b satisfi e d at th surfac s i f

e e e e e ,

any which li m i t th flui d hori o tally giv s th p ossibl val e s

, e z n ,
e e e u

of k By add ing tog th r t r m s f th e f r m

. in w hich I e e e o o s

has th e valu e s thus fo n d w m y build p a solu t ion s t isfyi ng u , e a u a

any arbitrary ini t ial co ditio s n n .

Os ci l la ti o n s i n a R e cta n g u l a r Ta n k .

162 apply th m thod j st plain d to th e cas wh r

. We e e u ex e e e e

th e flui d is contain d in r ctangul r tank w hos side s v rti e a e a e ar e e

cal L t th e origin b t k n in
. e corn e r f th tank d th e a e on e o e ,
an e

a e s f 3/ along tw f its si d s d l t th e quatio s f th

x o x, o o e ,
an e e n o e

oth r tw si d s b
e y b r s p ctiv l y Th f nctions T 96
o e e a :
a , ,
e e e . e u
1, ,

m ust now satis fy th con ditions e

égf z
o, w h n e x O, an d w h n e x a ,

d d) 1
dy
0 w ,
h ny e :
0, an d wh e ny
Th e ge n e ral valu f 1 subj c t t th s con di ti ns i giv n by th
e o <) l
e o e e o s e e

d oubl F ouri r s s ri s
’
e e e e

m m v
Sb BEA cos ; M .

1 3— 2
1 96
”

WAVES IN L I QU I DS .
[ C HAR VI f .

h e re th e su mm ations inclu d all int gr l valu e s of m n from 1

'

w
'

e e a ,

to co S ubstituting in w fi d e n

lc = v r
2 2

gre at e r f th tw q antiti s b
I f a b e th e o e o u e a , ,
th e co m p on nt e o s c il

lation f lo g st p riod is got by m aking m

o n e e 1, n O w h e nc ,
e

th e otion is th n p arall l to th lo g r si d f th tank

m e e e n e e o e ,
, an d
consists f tw syst m s f wave s f th kin d consi d r d in A t
o o e o o e e e r . 156 ,

trav e lli g in oppo it dir ctions th w ave -l ngth b ing 2 a

n s e e , e e e .

C i r cu l a r Ta n k .

In th e c as e f a circular tank W hos a is is ve rtical it

1 63 . o , e x ,

is conve ni nt to tak e th e origin in th e a is d to tra sform to

e x ,
an n

p olar co -
or dinat s b y w riti g e n

= r cos ! = i 9 a
'

r s n
y , .

Th e quati e( )
4 0 th e n b e co m s
o n e

H = O
dr
“
r dr dd
“ + Q W A W .

Now what v r h th valu e e e e e of b

g
’
it can be e xp an de d by Fouri e r s ’

th or m in th for m
e e e

cos X“ i 9) gb
'
2 ( fig ,
s n n ,

w h r th esu m m ation m brac s all int gral alu s f

e e e e e v e o n , an d t“
a ,

e functions f on y S ubstituting in hav to te r

X ”
ar
l w o r . e e , de
m in i e ar
” ,

d s 1 dc» ,
d
? 7
‘
r dr
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

with an quation e of th e sam e form fo r X“ .

Th e solution of subj ct to e th e con dition that 1

k ”
is finit e

wh n 0 is
e r ,

a r
i " 2 4 a ( kr )
1
1 6 2 —1 6 4 5
] WAVES I N Two DI M N I E S ONS . 19 7

wh e r e an arbi t r ry cons t ant d J ( kr ) d not s th

u A is n
‘

a ,
an
u
e e e Be ss l s e
’

F unction f th th ord r f th variabl kr i o

‘ e n e o e e v z .
,

“
He r ) Ur ) ( f ?
”
o r

21 2 ( 2n + 2)
33 .

Th e su m m ati n in ( 4 3 ) is su ppos d to inclu d all adm issibl val u e s

o e e e

O f k to b d t r m in d by th
,
quati n
e e e e e e o

dr
0 w h n e r = a ,

th e acc nt d noting th first d rive d function d b ing th

e e e e ,
an a e e

radius f th e t ank It m y b sh wn tha t th valu s Of k satisfy

O . a e e e e

ing ( 4 4 ) infinit in nu m b r d all r al F or th p a ticular

are e e an e . e r

cas = 0 wh n th m otion is sy m m e t i al about th c e ntre th e

e n , e e r c e ,

low e st r oots giv n by ar e e

"
Z
f 2 2 3 3 0, 3 2 3 8 3, & c .

a discussion O f th e vario s kin ds f m otio r e pr e s nt e d by

F or u o n e

th e abov for m ul th r a d r s r f rr e d to L or d R y l i gh r ’
e ae e e e 1 e e s
p p a e a e

on W v s alr ady i t d f whi h cont ins b si d s a com parison

a e e c e
' ‘
, c a e e

with th e ory f so m p i m t l m m to f th p rio d s f e ex er en a . e a su r e en s o e e o

oscillation in r ctangular d circular tanks m d by Guthri e an a e e

Fr e e o s ci l l a ti o n s o
f an Oce a n o f un
if or m Dep th .

1 64 clos th is chapt r with th discussion f th follo w

. We e e e
“

o e

ing probl e m w hich is O f so m int rest i conn ion W t h th

,
e e n e x i e

th f th ti de s — T d t r m in th
e fr oscillations f an oc an O e e e e e e o e
e or
y o

O f uni form d p th co m p l t e ly nv l ping a s ph ical arth

e Th e e e o e r e . e

m tho d m pl oy d is d e to Tho m son

e e e u

L t d not th e distanc
e r f any p oint fro m th ce ntr
e e f th e O e e o e

s ph r e e d b th valu s f at th sur fac f th soli d s ph r

, an a , e e O r e e o e e e ,

an d at th m an l v l f th e oc e a e r sp ctiv ly Th g n ral
e e e o n ,
e e e . e e e

T dh nt o F i u
f L pl &
er A t 37 0
,
un ct o n s o a a ce , c .
, r . .

S l Th y f S
e e a so d 9 b y th th r Th
eor l f th r t
o o un ,
0 .
, e sa m e au o . e v a ue s o e oo s

o f ( 44) f th c or o t k fr th i
e rc
a se n z ar e a en om s so u e .

1 P hi l l il g 1 8 7 5 . a . .

Phil T 1 8 6 3 p 6 08
. rans. , . .
 1 98 WAV ES IN L I QUI DS .
[CHAR VI I .

solutio O f th e n e quation o f continuity V 95

2
0, subj e ct to th e

c on ditio that n 0 wh n a is e r ,

( n 1 S n.

w h r S is
e the g e ral surf c e -
harm o ic f or d r
e Th e 2 n 1
n e a n O e n .
n

a rbitrary constants which th g n ral p r ssi n f S contains e e e ex e o

'

or
”

are functions f t to b d t r m in d Th f r m ula f th p r e ssur

o ,
e e e e . e o or e e

is if we n gl e ct squar s d pro ducts f s m all quantiti s

,
e e an O e ,

a :

w h e re p i th d nsity f th fl id s e e o e u , V th e p ote ntial d u e to th e joint

a ttraction f th e arth d th e o e an e s a. I f we ass u m e as th e e quation
o f th fr e e surfac e at t i m e t
e

w h r e e T, is a sph rical harm onic e of or de r n , we have ”

,
at this
surfac e ,

E T
V=
”

He re E de not s th total m ass

e e of th e e arth an d se a , v iz .

s
( 6
°
E 3 7 a )p ,

if a
'

b e th e m e an d nsity f th arth S ubstituting in

e O e e . e x

p a n di g n , an d o m itti g b for e th squar e s o f s m ll quantiti s w

n as e e a e e

fin d at th
,
e fr e e surfac e ,

p _ T
—C 2 2T + 4 7r p 5 2
p 2n + 1

Bu t at th e fr surfac ee e
p
= c o n s t. I f w e pu t this con
si d ration give s
e

3
3 p 6
3 °
+ p (b
3
2n 1 a a a )

( n + 1) + n
(
P ra tt , Fi g u r e f
o th e E a r th , c . 3 . I t is a s su m e d o f co u r s e th a t E , p, a ar e a ll

r
e xp e s s e d in ‘
as tro no m i c al un i ts .
’
1 64 ] F R EE OSC I L LA TI ONS I N AN OCEA N OF U N I F O RM DEPTH . 1 99

We hav still to pr s th con diti that ( 4 7 ) shoul d b

e ex e s e o n e th e
equation f a boun ding surf c e This con dition
o Ar t a . .

be co m e s in th e p r s nt cas e e e

wh nc e e

dT ( 1)
,
n n
9
dt a a

El i m inating 3 b e tw n ( 4 8 ) ,
ee an d ( 4 9) we fin d

"
dt
p rovi d e d

n 1 n
g
°

_
3 pb
n ( n + l)
2n + 1 a a
3
+ p(b
°
—a ) °

( )
s o .

Th e otion consists th e r for in g e n e ral f a s ri e s f sup e rp ose d

m e e o e O

oscillations th pe rio ds f w hich , O btain d by p utting

e 1 7 o ar e e n ,

2 3 &
,
in ,
c .
,

Th e long e st p rio d is that f which 1 i w h ich cas e e or n ,

n

3 3 s
2 71 5 2 6 a.

g b
°
—a °

oo as w e shoul d e x
p e ct . In fact

( infinit ly sm all) is th q uation f a sph r f radius 6 W hos

TI e e e o e e o e

c ntr i n ar th origin Th flui d d soli d

e e s e th e quiv l nt e
'

. e an ar e en a e

to a singl sph rical m ass f uniform d nsity

e that th e r is
e o e , so e

always quilibriu m wh n th surfac i s f th for m

e e e e O e

If p is i m aginary th valu f giv n by ( 5 1 ) b ing

a , 7
1 , e e o 7
1
°
e e

th n n gativ This in dicat s th at th quilibrium o f th oc an

e e e . e e e e e ,

wh n in th form f a sph r conc ntric with th arth is

e e o e e e e e ,
un

stabl Th oc an w oul d i f ct i f disturb d t n d to h ap its e l f

e . e e n a ,
e ,
e e

on si d “
u p on e e

S e e Th o m so n an d Ta i t
, Na t . Ph i l . Ar t 8 1 6 . .
2 00 W AVES IN L I QU I DS .
[CHA R VI I .

If acas tr at d by Thom son i th c s in

0 w e g e t th e
,
e e e ,
v z . e a e

w hich a ass li ui oscillat s ab ut th s ph ric l f rm un d r

m of q d e o e e a o e

th e m utual gravitation f its p rts Th for m ula ( 5 0) b e co m s o a . e e

2
47 6 2n + 1

9 ! 2n ( n

It is w th y f r m ark that th p rio d f V ibration thus l

or
’
o e e e O c a cu

lat d is th sam e f th sam e d nsi ty f liqui d what v r h th

e e or e e o ,
e e e e

di m ns o s f th glob
e i n o e e .

F th cas f or 2 an lli ps i dal d form ation th l ngth

e e O n , or e o e ,
e e

o f th isochronous S i m pl p n dulu m b co m s {fl

e d e e e e }, or on e an a

q uart r ti m s th arth s radius f a ho mog n ous liqui d glob f

e e e e
’

,
or e e e o

t h sam e m ass d dia m t r as th

e arth ; d th r for f this
an e e e e an e e e or

cas fe any ho m og n ous li q ui d gl b f about 5 } ti m s th

,
or or e e o e o 1 e e

d nsity f w at r th e hal f-
e
p rio
O d is 4 7 e , e
m

“
A st l glob f th sa m di m nsi ns without m utual gravi
ee e O e e e o ,

t tia f its p arts coul d sc r ce ly oscill t

on o rapi dly sinc th ,
a a e so , e e

v locity f pl n w ave s f distortion in st l is only about

e O a e o e e

f et p e s con d at w hich rat a s p c qual to th arth s diam te r ’

e r e , e a e e e e e

w oul d t h trav ll d in l ss than 1 8 4 0 1 11 m 8 ”

n o e e e e

If th oth r han d th d p th h f th oc an b s m ll co m par d

on e e e e o e e e a e

w ith th radius f th arth W hav wri ting in ( 5 0) b

e oh d e e ,
e e ,
a ,
an

h
n gl cting squar s & c f a
e e e ,
. O

2 2
47 66
n ( n + 1) I
g h
a r sult d to L plac e 1
e ue a .

F l rg v lu s f th distanc from cr st to cr st in th
or a e a e o n e e e e e

surf c r p r s nt d by ( 4 7 ) is s m ll c m p ar d wi th th r dius f
a e e e e e a o e e a o

th rth Th p rop gation f th dist rb nc th n t k s pl c

e ea . e a O e u a e e a e a e

cording to th laws inv stigat d in A t 1 4 7 Th f rm ul ( 5 3 )

e e e r . . e o a

th b com s appro i m t ly
en e e ,
x a e ,

a r sult which th stu d nt wh is f m ili r w i t h th p rop rti s

e e e o a a e e e o f
sph e rical harm onics will asily t o b consis t nt with e se e e e

Ph i l . Tr a n s . 1 8 6 3, p 6 1 0 . .

t Ph i l
'
. Tr a n s . 1863, p 57 3 . .

3: M e ca n i q u e C e l e s te ,
'
Li v re i n “
,
Ar t 1 . .
 C H AP E R V T III .

WAVES IN AI R "
F

inv stigat in this chapt r th ge n ral laws f the

1 65 . We e e e e e O

ro
p p gation f s m all d isturbanc s p ro duc d i
a a
o m ass f air ( or e e n O

ot h r g ) origin lly at r st at
e as uni for m t m p ratur avoi dinga e a e e e ,

such d t ils as m or p ro p rly tr e at d in books s pe cially de vot d

e a ar e e e e e

to th th ory f S oun d
e e O .

P la n e wa v e s .

tak first th cas wh r th m otion is in

We e di m nsion e e e e e on e e a:

only L t E b th displ c m nt t ti m t f th p articl s whic h

. e e e a e e a e o e e

i th un disturb d stat occu py t h p si t ion str t m f

l

n e Th e e e o a . e a u o

i origin lly boun d d by th plan s

a r d
a +d is at th e ti m t e e e v
. an a: a: e

boun d d by th pl n s f
e d -
l f 1
Eli) l so that
e th a e a: ,
an x ( av , e

equation f continuity is o

a; p,

w h r p is th d nsity in
e e
0
e e th e un disturb e d stat e . Th e e qu tio a n

O f m o t ion f th str tu m is o e a

p0 d
fg
d 0 ?
3
—
7
2
E
ia ‘

an su ppo s e th con d ns tions d rar f ct ions to succ d

d i f we e e a an e a ee

on e noth r rapi dly th t th r is s ns i bl g in or l ss f h at

a e so a e e n o e e a o o e

in y strat m by con duction radiation th r lation b t w p

an u or ,
e e e een

and p is

Th i s ch a pt er wa s w i r tt n ind p nd ntly f th c p ndi g p rti n f L rd

e e e e o e orr e s o n o o o o

R a y l e i gh
’
s Th e o r y o f S d th
o un ,
c nd l f wh i c h di d
e se t c
o i t th v o um e o n o om e n o e

au th o r s
’
h a ds n u ntil a ft r th M S
e f th i tr ti
e h d b n d p tch d t Eng l nd
. o s ea se a ee es a e o a

( O ct b e o r
2 02 WAVES I N AI R .
[CHAR VI I I .

li m inating p
.

E , p we fin d

w h re
e

2
0 [mpg
-
1
7
P
=
Po PO

1 66 . us d not by th con d nsation i

L e t e e s e
‘
e ,
’
. e . th e val ue of

P Po
at any point I f this b s m all w e hav by. e , e ,

l l;
a

da:

n e arly ; d i f as in all or di ary cas e s f so d th e con d nsation

an n o un e ,

an d its rat f variation fro m p oint t p oint b both s m all quan

e o o ,
e

ti t i s whos e squar s & m y b n gl ct d th e quation ( 4) b e

e e ,
c .
,
a e e e e , e

co m e s
2 d?
0
dt
2 g
da

Th e co m pl te solu tion
e o f this is
=F w
§ (
which not s two syste m s f wav e s trav lling with v locity 0 o
de e o e e ,
n e

i th p ositiv th oth r in th
n e gativ dire ction f w C m
e ,
e e e n e e o . o

p aring ( )
5 w ith th e or dinary p r ssion f th laws f B oyl e a d ex e O e o n

C harl s i e ,
V z.

=h d)
p p( 1 a ,

w e fin d
ky ( 1
r
ad ) ,

so that th v locity f p ropag tion 0 d p n ds

e e O a e e ,
fo r th e sa m e gas ,

only th e t m p r tur 0
on e e a e .

F or a w av e trav e lling in dir ction only on e e ,

sa
y that of a
p osi
tiv we hav e
e ,
 PLAN E AN D SPHE RI CAL WAVES .

u cs

F or a wav e trav e lli g i n n th e d ir e ction o f a: n e gative we shoul d hav e

u

It wi ll b e notic d that th re is an act co r e p on d nc e b tw e e n

e e ex r s e e

th e abov app ro i m ate th ory d that f long w av s in wat r

‘ ’
e x e ,
an o e e

( A t r 1 4 7.
) By th substitution f th wor ds ‘
con d nsation
e f air o e e o
’

for
‘
l vat on f w at r d rar e factio fo de p r ssion th two
e e
‘
i o
‘
e ,
’
an n
’
r e ,
’
e

q u stions b e co m i d ntical
e e e .

Th analogy b co m s how e v e r l e ss clos wh e

e w e p roc e e d to
e e e n

a high r de gr e e f appro i m ation

e O x .

Sp he r i ca l wa v e s .

1 67us supp os that th e disturbanc e is sym m trical with

. L et e e

r sp ct to a fi d p oint which w tak as origin Th m otion is

e e xe , e e . e

th n n c ssarily irrotational so that a v locity -pot nti l oS ists

e e e ,
e e a ex ,

which is a f nction f th e dis ta c e f any p oint fro m th origin

u o r ,
n o e ,

an d 1 o ly I f as b e for e we n gl ct th e squar e s o f s m all quan

1, n . e e

titi e s we have ,

dp _ d vb
p
d
-k '
1
p m
_1 .
p

writing p p0 ( 1 an d n gl e cting
e th e squar e

d fib
dt

W h re has th sa m e valu e as in
e c e

To form th e quation f continuity we r m ark that o wing to

e o e ,

th e di ff r nc ffl across its i n r a d out r surfac s th sp ac

e e e o ux n e n e e , e e

boun de d by th e s ph r s r d r d is g ini g m atte r at th e rat e e an r a n .

e

Th e sam rat e b e ing also

e e xp e r ss e d by
2 04 WAVES I N AI R .
[ CH AR VI I i .

we hav e

ci p l
+ 1 c
-
p O
ll
r

dt
u
2
r

a r sult which m ight also hav b n arriv d at by dir ct trans

e e ee e e

for m ation f th g n r l quation f continuity

o T O ord r f
e e e a e o . O ur e o

appr im ation ( 1 1 ) giv s

ox ,
e

ds 1 d
2
dl r dr

an d e li m i ating b tw n this
n 3 e ee an d w e fin d
2
d qb l
’
0 c
2
tl i.
g ’
r a r

’ ’
d . r
d ) d . r c b
’ " ’
a t dr

This is of th e sa m e f or m as so that th e solution is

r b
g
=F r
( —ct)
He nc th e e motio i m d p f tw syst m s f s ph rical wav s
n s a e u O o e o e e

tr v lling
a e ,
on e ut wards th oth r in wards wi t h v locity 0 C
o , e e ,
e . on

s id e r i n g fo r a m o m nt th first syst m alon w hav

e e e e ,
e e

C
—Ct) ,

w hich sh ws that a con d nsation is prop gat d outwar ds w ith

e e a e

v l city but di m inish s

e o it proc ds its a m ount varying
0, e as ee ,

inv rs ly as th d i stanc e fro m th origin Th v lo city d t

e e e e . e e ue o

th sa m
e train f wav s is e o e

As incr as s th s con d t r m b co m s l ss d l ss i m p ort nt

r e e e e e e e e an e a

co m p r d wi t h th first
a e t hat ul t i m t ly th v loci ty is pe , so a e e e ro

p g
a t da ccor dei g t th sa m al w as t h con d ns tion
n o e e a e e a .

1 68 us su pp os th t th initi l distributions
. L e t e a e a Of v l city
e o

an d con d nsati on giv n by th form ul

e ar e e e ae

—
X(
‘
7
dl

wh e r e «
p X ,
ar e any arbitr ry functions a . Th e v lu a e of 4 ; at any
1 07 , 1 6 8 ] SP H ER I CA L WAVES .

s bs q u nt ti m
u e e e t is th n e to b e f oun d as ol
f lo w s . C o m paring ( )
1 4
w ith ( 1 3 ) w fi e n d
F (r ) + f ( ) r
a ( ) r ,

Fi r ) =
§ x( r )
‘
1

Int grating th e latt e r e quation

e ,
an d p utting r
x( r
) d r
X1 ( ) r , we
0

O b tain
0 ,

W h e re 0 is an arbitrary cons tant . This giv s e ,

in conj unctio with n

1
F (r ) —
§ 5x ( ) 5 0 1
r

Th e co m pl e t e v l u e ( 1 3) a of
d
) is th en f oun d by writing ,
fo r r »

r —cl . d ct in an r v ia .

r
¢ =
s< r —ct>s
h e —c t)

It is obvi o s fro m u th e sy m m e tr y
'

of th e m .
ot o i n Wi th r e spe ct to
th e origi n that

M ) f
r
54 ( ja ) r
'

an d th e r for e e

:
p( ) XI T )
’
« r “
r

shal l r quir shortly th e valu f 4 at th e origin This

We e e e o ; .

m y b afoun d by d ivi ding both si d s f ( 1 8 ) by r

e d v l uating e o ,
an e a

th in et
d e r m inat forem w hich th -right -
han d m m b r assu m e s f
e e e e or

r = 0 ; or m or e si m ply by d i ff r ntiating both si d s f ( 1 8 ) with e e e o

r sp ct to
e e d th n m aking r = 0 Th r e sult is i f we tak
r an e . e ,
e

account O f th r e lations ( 1 9 ) d e an

E
lf i
i- txlr ( )
ct i x ct ( )
206 WAVES I N AI R .
[CHA R V I I I .

Ge n er a l E qu a ti o n s o
f S ou n d Wa v e s .

1 69 . We proc e e d to th e ge n e ral cas e Of ro

p p g ation f air a o

wav s e . We n e gl e ct as b e for e th e squar e s

, ,
O f s m ll q u nti t i s so
a a e ,

that th e dynam ical quation is e

dz

Also ,
writi g
p n =
po ( 1 + 3 ) in th e ge n ral e quation f continuity
e O ,

( )
8 O f Ar t 8 , w e . hav to th sa me ,
e e ord r f appro i m ation
e o x

Th e e li m ination of 3 b twe n ( 1 0)
e e an d (2 2) give s
1 95
lit
9
£ f
"
dt dy
”

or with our form e r notation

, ,

d qb
’
2 2

m
"

y C V ( b

1 70 us su ppos a Sph e r f radius d scrib d about any

. L et e e o r e e

p oint ( y ) as c e ntr
a M
,
ulti p lyi
, g
2 both si d s f ( )
2 3 by d dy d e . n e o x z,

an d int grati g throu ghout th volu m

e nf th Sp h r w fi d e e o e e e ,
e n

dt
" b
g dcc d dz
y c
2
v f d
’
fc dy d
ci z c
’

or w riting
, dS = r
”
da ,
so th at da de not s an e l e em e ntary soli d
an gl e,

d a d dz d
” 2
’ b
g y
'
e r p
c w .

dt

Let us di ff re ntiat both si d s

e e e Of this quation wi th r spe ct to
e e r .

Th e l e ft han d side giv s

- e

’ 1
( )d S
di
’

so that i f w e w rit e
dGJ '

m e an val ue o f I
( ) ov r th
e e S p h e re ,
1 69, G ENE RAL EQUATI ONS or SOUND WAVES . 2 07

we hav e
an
dt
”
Md r

’
d . r d>
ooooooo
dt
z
dr
z

th e solution of which is
r c
t =F
( r ct ) +f ( r + c t) .

an valu f p ov r a sp h r havi ng any point P f

Th e m e e o ( e e e o

th m deiu m c ntr is
e th r for ro
p p agat d accor
as d ing to eth e e e e e e

s m law s a sy m m trical s ph ric l dis t urbanc f th air W

a e as e e a e O e . e

se e t onc th t th a valu f d at P t th e ti m t d p n ds on
e a e e o ) a e e e

th m e ane initial v l u s f 4 d
f] ?
i ov r a s p h r e f ra d ius c t d a e o ; an e e o e

scrib d about P as c ntr so th at th disturbanc e is prop g te d

e e e ,
e a a

in all dir ctions with uni f r m v locity 0 I f th dis t urb nc

e o e . e a e

b confin d origi ally to a fi it p ortion 2 f s pac th disturb

e e n n e o e ,
e

ance at any p oint P t rnal to 2 w ill b gin aft r a ti m ex e e e e

1 wil l last f a ti m e
1
,
d w ill th e n c a or altog e th r ; an e se e
0

r
l
d oting th e ra dii f th e s ph r s d scrib d with P as c e tr e
,
r
,
en o e e e e n ,

th just clu ding th e oth e r just inclu ding 2

e on e ex ,
.

To pr ss th e solutio f ex e n o r ady virtually O btain e d

al e ,
in

d?
C
an analytical for m l e t th valu s ,
e e o f4 d wh
) ann t= 0 be e ,

Th i s r e s ul t wa s nn r b y P i n J d l E l
Ob a i t nd e , in a di ff e r nte m a e , o sso , . e
’
co e

P ly h i q 1 4 c h i
o te c n ue pp
, 3 3 4— m
33 8 Th r
a rk th t i t l d t nc
er . . e em a a ea s a o e

t th c pl t l ti n f fi t gi n b y P i n M é d l A d d S ci ’
o e om e e so u o o rs v e o s so , m . e ca . es e n ce s,

t 3 ( 18 18
. i d t L i i ll J d M h 1 8 56 p p 1— 6 Th b
s ue o o uv e , . e a t .
,
. . e a ov e

r f r nc
e e et k n fr L i i ll p p r
e s ar e a e om o uv e s
’
a e .

Th q ti n ( 24 ) e e y b p
ua o d l f ll w S pp
m a in fi i t n
e b r r ov e a so as o o s . u o se an n e um e

o f y t s f r ct ng l
s em s o a r ng d ni f r l y b t y p int P f th fl i d
e a u ar xe s a ra e u o m a ou an o O e u as

ori gi n d l t ¢ ,
an
95 ¢ & eb th l ci1ty p t nti l
-
, 2 , f ti n whi ch
3 , c th . e e v e o o e a s o m o o s ar e e

sa m e wi th p ct t th res y t e th ri gi l ti n at i wi th r p ct t th
o e se s s e m s as e o n a m o o s es e o e

y t
s s emy I f th n 5 d n t th m n
ac, , z
. l f th f ncti n ¢
e ¢ ¢ &e o e e ea v a ue o e u o s 1 , 2 , 3 . c .
,

y p t nti l f ti n y t i c l wi th r p ct t th p int P
5
< w i ll b th l c i t
e - e v e o o e a o a m o o s mm e r a es e o e o ,

an d wi ll th f ti fy Th
er e ore l f 6 sa t di t c
s fr P wi l l e v a ue o a a s an e r om

i d ntl y b
ev th
e th i n g
e th e n l f t r ph
s am e f r di as e m ea v a ue o q ov e a s er e o a us r

d cri b d b
es t P e c nta ou as e re .
2 08 WAVES I N AI R .
[CHA R V I II .

a m
i n e,
if xt c.
y ,
z )

Th e a initial valu s f th s quantiti s ov r a sphe r

m e n e o e e e e e of radius
r de scrib d about ( y ) as c ntr e
e as, ,
z e e ar
'

-
+ Z JG
(
p 47
( a r , y + m r, z +n r
) ,

5c
1
az l—
-
(
X ( l r p + w r z + ur
) da
1 7;
, , ,

wh e r l m d note th dir cti n -cosin s f y radius f this

e , ,
n e e e o e o an o .

Sp h e r a d d th corr sp on di g l m ntary soli d ngl

e ,
n ay C m e e n e e e a e . o

p ari g w ith
n A t 1 6 8 w e se e that th e valu e f b
g a t any
r subs
. e qu e nt ,
O

ti m t is e

1 d
c; ] y + m ct,
z + n ct) dm
4”

( a + l c t, y + m ct, z + n ct) d w

W171 hav e so f . assu m e d h

t e v loci t
ey d th e d J ar e an e on en

sation to b sm all that th ir squar s d p ro du ts m y _b

e so e e an c a .
e

n g l ct d Th r sults Ob t ain d O this su pposition

e e e . e in d d e e n are ee

su ffici ntly accurat f m ost p urp os e s ; but it is worth whil to

e e or e

notic bri fly th solutions f th

e e act quations f m otion f e o e ex e o o

p lan wav s wehic h hav b n obtain ed in d p e d ntly a d by e ee e , e n e n

di ff r nt m e tho ds by E arnshaw " d Ri m l

' '
e e an e an n .

M e th o d
’
Ri e m a n n s .

R i
ann starts from th ordinary E ul rian form
em e e of th e e qua
tions o f m otion a d continuity which m y b writt n ,
a e en

d d dp d log p a a

dt 8; dp da:

dt d oc da:

Ph i l . Tr a n s 1 8 6 0 . .

'
I G o tt Ab k
‘
. . c . 8 , 1 8 60 . Re p i r nt d i e n Wer ke , p 145
. .
1 70 ,
RI EMANN S M ETHOD ’
. 2 09

Multi plying ( 2 8 ) adding to an d writing fo r

shortn ss e

we O btain

wh e nc e

val u e s f r d s can b fou d thos e O f

I f th e O an e n ,
u an dp f ollow at
onc from e N w ( 3 0) d ( 3 1 ) sh w that e an e con stant fo r

a g o m trical point m oving with v locity

e e e

da:
. dt

whilst is constant f a p oint m oving with v locity

s or e

dac
.

dl

He nc e an
y giv n valu f trav e ls forwar d wi th
e e O r

u, an d any giv e n val e f back war ds with u o s

Th e s r sults nabl us i f not to c l culat still to u n de rsta d

e e e e ,
a e ,
n

th charact r f th m otion in any giv e n c s Thus l t us

e e o e a e . e

su ppos th t th initial disturbanc is confin d to th spac

e a e e e e e

b tw n th valu s
e ee d b f ; so
e that w hav e
e initia l
a ly f
anr o or e o

m < m r = =
r s
a ,

x > b, r = r s = s ,
,
2 10 WAVES IN AI R .
[CHA R V I I I .

wh e r re 3 e const nt Th r gion with i which is

2 , 1 : 3
2
ar a . e e n r

vari bl e d va c s t hat wi t hin which is v riabl r c d s th t

a a n e , 3 a e e e e ,
so a

aft r a ti m th s r gi ns s par t
e e d l v b t w n th m
e e e o e a e ,
an ea e e ee e

a Sp ac i which = e n d wh ich is th fd fr r fr m r an ere re ee o

d is t urbanc Th original disturb nc is thus s pli t p into t w

e . e a e u o

wav s tr v lling in o pposit dir ctions In th dv ncing wav

e a e e e . e a a e

d th r f r an f (p) - 2 t het both d nsi

e ot y d
e u s so a e an

p artic l -Ve locity

e d anc t t h rat Thisa v loci
v t y e a e e u . e

of p rop g tion is gr at r th
a a gr t r th valu f p Th l w e e ,
e ea e e e o . e a

of p rogr ss f th w v m y b illustr t d by d r wing a curv

e o e a e a e a e a e

w it h bscissa d p as or di t
a; a s a d m aking v ry p int f an n a e ,
an e e o O

th is cur m v forw r d w i t h th bov v l ci ty It pp rs

v e o e a e a e e o . a ea

th t thos p arts m v fast s t f w hich th or din t s

a e gr t st
o e e or e a e are ea e ,

so t h at finally p oints wi t h larg r v rtak p oints wi th s m all r e o e e e

ordinat s d th e curv b co m s at so m p oin t p rp n dicular

,
an e e e e e e e

to a Th functi ns
.

32 35 e th n infinit d th o abov ar e e e ,
an e e

for m ul no long r applicabl W hav in f ct a bor or ‘ ’

ae ar e e e . e e a e ,

w ave f d isconti n uity

o C m par A t 1 5 2 . o e r . .

E a r n s h a w s M e th o d
’
.

sam e r sults f llo w fro m E h w inv stigat ion ;

1 72 . Th e e o arn s a
’
s e

w hich is ho w v r so m what l ss g n ral in that it m brac s w v s

e e e e e e e e a e

trav lling i e e dir e ction only If fn si m plicity w su ppos p

on . or e e

d p to b e conn ct d by B oyl s l w
’
an e e e a

’
C
P p,
th e e quation ( )
4 is r pl c
e a e d by

or wri ting
,
so th t a
y d e not s e th e absol ut e
p o sition a t
t i m e t f th o e
p articl e x,
17 1 ,
EARN S H AW S
’
M T E HOD . 2 11

This is s tis fi d b y a e

p r vi
o d e d

so th a t a first int gr l e a o f (32) is

dx
l
0 i C 10 g —
dt 7
6 .B
”

To ob tain th co m pl t solution f ( 3 2 ) e e e o m us t *
e li m in t a e or

b t w n th q uati ns
e ee e e o

g
= w+ 0 i
( l g ) a c o a

l
fie a
dx p

so th t a th e v locity
e Of th e pa r ticl e x, we

def
— O C lo g p.
at p
ar -C
qt
wh nc e e
p po
e

In th e p a rts Of th e flui d n o t ye t r ch
ea ed b y th e w av e we
h v p p
a e o ,
u 0 . He nc e we h v
a e C = 0, an t r
d h e e fo e r

aw i at

Th e fu
\
ncti n o
f
( ; is de t rm in
e e d f rom th e initi l circu m stanc s by
a e

th e u a ti o n
e q
= —
x
p

Obta in
r s lts in d p n d nt f th for m f th w v
TO e u e e e o e o e a e le t
us t k t w p r ticl s which w dis ting ish by su ffi s
a e o a e , e u xe ,
so te

l t d th t th v lu f p w h ich Ob t ins f th firs t p rti cl

a e a e a e o a or e a e a t
th ti m l i foun d at th s c n d p r ticl at th t i m
e e
x
s e e o a e e e t, .

B o o l e , D iffe r e n ti a l E q u a ti o n s , 0 . 14 .

1 4— 2
212 WAVES IN AI R .
[CHA R V I II .

Th e valu f e o a is th e sam e fo r both th s e e

p articl s e , so that
we hav e by ( 36 ) ,
an d

— = —t )
y; y1 a
( x
2
x
1 ) + c lo g a
(2
t 1 ,

0= a
( 517
2
—33 ) i 1

Th e latt e r quat on e i m a
y b e w ritt n e

58 —x
2 l P
c 38
t2 tl po

w hich sh e ws th at any valu p f th e O e de nsity is prop g t d fro m a a e

p rticl
a e to p art icl w ith th v loci t y e e e 0
f 0
. Th rat f p rop gation
e e O a

in Sp ac e is giv by y’ Vi z it is l o Oo 9
en i c v
a l F or
t? tl a

p
c u
Po

Fo r a wav trav lling in th p osi tiv dir ction w m st tak th

e e e e e e u e e

lo w r signs throughout I f it b
e f c n d nsation ( i p p) . e on e O o e . e .
o ,

u is by , p ositiv W b for th t th d ns r p rts f e . e see as e e a e e e a o

th w v gain continually
e a eth rar r d at l ngth v rtak e on e e ,
an e o e

th m wh n a h is for m d d th subs qu n t m otion is b yon d

e , e ere e ,
an e e e e

th sco p
e f th is analysis e o .

li m inating
E as b tw n
e e e ( 3 6) an d an d writing fo r c lo g a

its valu w e u, e fin d fo r a w av tr v lli g in

e a e n th e p ositiv e d ir ction
e ,

9
:
( 0 +

which m ay, in V ir tu e Of be w rit te n

W} u =
f ly ( c .

This form ula i d to P oisson Its int rp r tation l ading

s ue
*
. e e ,
e of

cour to th sam r sults as b for was discuss d d illustrat

se e e e e e ,
e an e d
by S tok s d Airy in th P h i l p hi l M g i in 1 8 4 8 9
e an -
,
e o so ca a a z n e, .

Th e th or tical r sult that V iol nt soun ds

e e e e are ro
p p ag t a e d fa st r
e

Jo ur n .
’
d e l E co l e P o l y t . t . 12 , ca h i e r 14, p 31 9 . . Q uo e t d by E a rnsh a w an d
R a n ki n e .
1 7 2, C H ANG E OF TYPE IN ADVAN C I NG WAVES . 213

t h an g ntl on s is confir m d by th r m arkabl e

e e e e e e e x pe ri m e nts o f
R gn ulte
“ th m otio f soun d in pi p s
a
’
on e n o e .

1 73 bov inv stig tions sh w tha t a plan wav f air

. Th e a e e a e e e o

e x
p ri nc sein g n r l ea gra d u l chang
e f ty p as it p roc e d
e s e a a e o e e .

I t i w ort h whil to inquir un d r what circu m st nc s a w av

s e e e a e e

co l d b p ro p g t d w i thou t chang L t A B b t w p oints f

u e a a e e . e , e o O

an i d al t ub f u it s cti n dra wn in th dir ctio f prop gation

e e O n e o e e n o a ,

an d l t th valu s f th p r ssur th e d nsity

e e d th p rticl e o e e e ,
e ,
an e a e

v loci ty at A d B b d not d by p P
e dp p
an p e e e e
l , u
u
l ,
an
2 , g , u
g , res c

ti lyv e I f as in A t 1 5 2 w i m p r ss on v rything a v locity 0

. r . e e e e e

e qual d opposit to that f th wav s w r duc th p robl m t o

an e o e e e e e e e

on e f st a dy m otio
o S inc th s m e am ount f m tt e r w n . e e a e o a n o

cross e s in unit ti m ach s ction f th t b w e hav e e e o e u e, e

p ( c ) p fc ) const m y l
u
l 2
u
2
.
,
sa .

Th quantity m d noting th m ass s w p t p ast in unit ti m by a

e ,
e e e e

p l n a m g with
e th w av in th
O VI n origin l m otion is call d by e e ,
e a , e

m ass - v locity so m atic v locity f th w av

‘ ’
th e e or e o e e .

Ag in th total f rc acting th m ass inclu d d b t w e n A

,
e o e a on e e e e

an d B is p p d th gain p uni t ti
2
m f m o m
l
ntu m , f this
an e er e o e o

m ass is
m ( c u
l ) m ( c

He nc e p2 p1 m (u 2
U
1 )
C o m bin e d w ith ( 4 0) this giv s e

’ ’
p1 en s
; p en s
, ( 4 2
"
wh r still follo wing R ankin w d not by
e e , b l ki e ,
e e e s
p ] th e
‘
u

n ss i th volu m p unit m ass f th s bs t anc H nc th

e ,
’
. e . e e er ,
o e u e . e e e

variations in pr ssur d bulk p ri nc d by any s m all p ortion e e an ex e e e

Of th m diu m as th wav p ass s ov r it m ust b such that

e e e e e e e

p const
This con dition i not fulfill d by any kno wn subs tanc wh th r at s e e ,
e e
'

constant t m p ratur or wh n fr fro m gain l ss f h at by

e e e ,
e ee or o o e

Mé m . de l Ac a d
’
. t . 37 . Q td i uo e n W u ll n e r ’
E xp e r i m e n ta l p h y s i k,
s 1, t .

p . 68 5 . An ab s r at ct o f th e ex p ri nt i
e m e s s pr i nt e d a t th e e n d o f th e s e o d e d i i o n c n t
’
Of Tyn da ll s S o u n d .

P
h i l Tr a n s 1 8 7 0 . . .
2 14 WAVES IN AI R .
[ CHA R V I I I .

con duct ion d radiati on In ord r th n th t p r m an ncy f typ

an . e e a e e O e

m y b a p os s ibl in
e a wav f longitu d inal d isturbanc et h r m us t e o e ,
e e

b both chang
e f t m p r tur d con duction f h at d u ing th
e o e e a e an o e r e

disturbanc
”
e .

R nkin in th p ap r r f rr d to consi d rs it unlik ly th a t

a e , e e e e e ,
e e

th con d uctio n
e f h at v r t k s p lac in such w y occ r t ly e e e a e e a a as a u a e

t o m i n tain th r e lati n
a c p t in th ca f w v f d e o ex e e se o a a e o su

d disturb a nc wh e r w h ve adj c nt p ortions f th m diu m

e n e ,
e e a a e o e e

a t finit inte rval f t m p r tur

a e o e e a e .

T hi s l tt r kin d f w v is f int r st b caus

a e w h v o a e O e e e e ,
as e a e

s n y disturb nc ho w v r st rt d t n ds ulti m t ly to b com

e e ,
an a e e e a e e a e e e

d iscontinuous Th si m p l st c s is t h t in which th r
. i e e a e a e e s n o

v riat ion i n th p r p r ti s f th m diu m c p t t th p lan f

a e o e e O e e ex e a e e O

d iscontinui ty If p d no t th valu s f th p r ssur

. th ,
s, u e e e e o e e e ,
e

e -
bulk i n ss a d th p rticl v locity b hin d P S U thos in fr n t
,
n e a e e e , , , e o

o f th discont i nuity th con d i t i ons to b satisfi d

e e O bt in d by ,
e e e ar a e

m aking p d =P S U r s ctiv ly in
p lp , 31 : u 1 p ,
s, u , a n
g ,
3
2 ,
u
2 , , ,
e e e ,

t e ab o v fo r m ul
h -
W fin d
e ai . e

—P
p
S —s
’

an d if f urth e r U 0 so that th e m e d iu m is at r st in fr nt e o o f th e
w av e ,

c z rn S —S r

an d

r or low r S ign b i g t ak n acc rding as S i gre t r or

t h e u p pe e e n e o s a e

l ss than i e accor ding as th wav i

e 3, . f su dd n co m p r ssion
. e e s on e O e e

or f su dd n rar f c ti n
O e e a o .

Th m ath m atic l p ossibility f

e d th con ditions f
e a wav a o ,
an e or , e

of d isconti n ui ty w e r e first p oint d t by S tok s e ou e .

 C H AP T E R I X .

V I SCOS I TY .

. WE
now proc d to tak account o f th e r sistance to
1 74 ee e e

d istortion known as viscosi t y or int rnal friction which ( Ar t 2 )

‘ ‘ ’ ’
,
e , .

is hibit d by all ctu l flui ds in m otion but which w hav

ex e a a , e e

hith rto n gl ct d Th m tho ds w shall m ploy

e e e f n c ssity
e . e e e e are O e e

th sam
e app licabl to th r sist nc to distortio know
e as ar e e e e a e n ,
n

as l stici ty w hich is p ri nc d in th cas f solid bo di s

‘
e a ,
’
ex e e e e e o e .

Th tw cl ss s f p h n m na
e o f cours p hysic lly d istinct
a e o e o e ar e O e a ,

th l tt r d p n d i g on th actu l ch ng s f sh ap p ro duc d th
e a e e e n e a a e o e e , e

for m r th e rat f ch g f sh p but th m ath m atical

on e e O an e o a e , e e

m t h o ds pp ro p riat e to th m
e to a gr t t nt i d ntical
a e are ea ex e e .

1 75 p p . not th co m Lp onee nts

t pm
p arall l to ,y r y , x,
de e e e x, ,
z,

r sp c t iv ly f th forc p unit ar
e e e rt d at th e p oint P ( y )
,
o e e er e a e xe e ec, ,
2

across a p l n p rp n dicular t b t w n th tw p ortions f flui d

a e e e o as , e ee e o o

on o pp osit si d s f it ; d l t p p w p e d p“ e p hav o an e yx , , m,
an , ,,
e

si m il r m nings w ith r sp ct to p lan s p r p n dicul r to y d

a ea e e e e e a an 2

r e sp c t iv ly It is sh wn in th th ory f E last ic S oli ds that th s

e e e e e o e e

nin quantiti s which co m pl t ly sp ci fy th e sta te f str e ss at th

e e ,
e e e o e

p oint P not all in d p d nt

,
but that
ar e e en e ,

= P ar
Pm Pw z Pm P a m P r u ”

We n d not h r r p ro duc
ee e e e e th e p roo f ,
of th s r l tions
e e e a ,
as th ir e

truth will app ar fro m th e e ex

pr ssions e fo r p 8 to m
b , 50 . e giv n e

b lo w
e .

As i s u su a l i n th e th e o r y o f E l a sti ci ty we re cko n a te n si o n po s i i v e , t a p r e ssu r e

n e ga ti v e . Th u s i n th e ca s e o f a fl u i d i n e qui li b ri u m we h av e

P u
z =
pw p n
“
P 0
216 V I SCOSI TY .
[CHAR Ix .

TO fo rm
quations f m otion l t us tak as in A t 6 n th e e O e e, r .
,
a

l m nt d dy d having its c ntr at P

e e e d r solv th e forc s
v e e e ,
an e e e

acting on it p arall l t Taking first th p i r f fac s p p e o re . e a o e er en

di l to th e di ff r nc f th t nsions on th s e parall l t
cu a r v
.
,
e e e o e e e e o

1
5;
(
a: will b e d dy d F rom th oth e r two pairs w obtain az . z . e e

l
JZ -
g;
(
dz dcc an d dx dy , r sp ctiv ly
e e e . He nc e ,
w ith our usu l a

n otation ,

an dp m , dp w dp “
p pX + + +
, .

ill dx dy dz
an d, S i m ila rly ,

E 3 de w
P at

aw dp " dp y ,
dp u

p d
I

l
It app ars fro m Arts 2 3 that th d viation f th
176 . e .
, e e O e

stat e f tr ss d not d byo

p“ s & fro m e f uni for m p r
e s e ,
c . on e O e

sur i ll dir ctions d p n ds ntir ly

e n a th m o t ion f dist rtion
e e e e e on e o o

Of th flui d i th n ighb urh od f P i e on th quantiti s

e n e e o o O ,
. . e e

a b ,f g h by
,
which
c, this d istortion
,
w , in A t 3 8 sh w n to b as r . e e

sp cifi d Be f r n d av uring to p r ss
e e . & ofunc t io s
e e e o ex e c . as n

of th s quan t iti s it is conv n i nt to st blish c rtain for m ul

e e e , e e e a e ae

of trans f r m ation o .

L e t us draw P d ir ctions f th p rinci p al

' ' ’
Py P i th ce , , z n e e o e

a s f distortion at P d l t b c b th rat s f t nsion

xe o ,
an e a
'

,
'

,
’
e e e o ex e

l g th s lin s F urth r l t th m utual c nfig uration f th

a on e e e . e e e o O e

tw s ts f a s s cifi d in h usual ’ ' '

o e
y d y O b p xe t e ,
a , , z an x , ,
a ,
e e e

m a n e r by th e ann
n d s h m f d ir ctio - c sin s e xe c e e o e n o e .

a: y z

x l m n

y l, , 972 n

la ,
’
z m n
,

We hav th n e ,
e

d
32
r
ls l
( l u lav law )
a
!
?

dw
'
1 75 GEN ERAL EQUATI ONS . 2 17

l3
° '
l2 h
° ' ’ '
a l, a c .

i ,
'
’
b d
’ '
b m ,
a m ,
ra
’ '

fl
’ ’ ’
0 n a n ) n c .
, s

We notic that e

i t Shoul d be . S e e Ar t 8 . . Aga in

d d
+ n 3w )
r r
n u + n
2
v

d
u
1 2
F ;
E ( m u
l

'
m zv m sw ) ,

h
' '

f m l
n
l
a
'
m z
u
z
'
m n c
a a
'
.

g n l
, 1
a n l
2 2
6 n l
a s
c ,

lam ac
' '
l nm lzm g b
'
h l
a
f
.

177 . F ro m
sy m m try f th circu m stanc s it is pl inth e e o e e a
"
th t th str ss s
a rt d at P across th plan s y
e e e e xe
y e e e
'
z
’

,
z a
'

,
x
' '
ar e

W holly p rp n dicular to th s e p lan se L t us d not th m by e e e . e e e e

P p P
I »
r s p ctiv
g ,
ly In
a
th
:
figur ef A t 3 l t eAB C b a e . e e O r . e e

p lan d r w n p p
e r n d ic lar
a t infinit ly clos to P
e m ti ng
e th u o as, e e ,
ee e

a s f p
xe in A B C r sp ctiv ly ; d l t A d no t th
o a
'

,
’

,
z
’

, ,
'
,
e e e an e e e e

ar a AB C Th r as f th r m ining f c s f th t tr h dro
e . e a e o e e a a e o e e a e n

P AB C w ill th n b l A lA IA R solving p rall l to

e th e
l , 2 , S
. e a e a: e

forc s acting
e th t trah d ron w fi d on e e e e n

pm A = l
pl 1 A Z
I
l
p2 2 A 72
l
p3 3 A l a ;

th e t rnal m pr ss d forc s d th r sistanc s to cc l ration

ex e i e e e an e e e a e e

b ing o m itt d f th sam r ason as i A t 3 H nc

e e or e e e n r . . e e

+ p 3 73
’
n . + 19. ,

from w hich we writ e d w o n by sy m m try , e

2 2
pw pi m p2 m 2 ps m
i s
2 ’
1923
pi n
t + p 3n 3 .
J

We notic th t e a

Pu r
—
l PW p 1 +p 2 + p 3
= —3p ,

so that p de n t s th e a r g
o e ve a e p r ssur about
e th e e p oint P .
218 V I SCOS I TY .
[
C I I AR Ix .

Ag a in , r s lvi g p rall l
e o n a e to y w e fin d

M
1
m
. 3,

w h nce e we w rit e d w o n by sy m m t ry e
l
, ,

Pm =
Pi m n + 19 2 7" + p s7n ”

= 7
i

n 2 +
i g a a ?
I
p l l p1 n
1 1
+ p2 2 2 p3 3
77 J

t u t h f th r l tions ( 1 ) follo ws fro m ( 8 ) by sy m m try

Th e r o e e a e .

Th s t d nt sho l d no t ic th
e u an logy f ( 3 ) d ( 5 ) wi t h ( 6 )
e u e e a o an

an d ( 8 ) r s p c t iv ly e e e .

I f i th s m fig r ( A t 3 ) w s pp s P A P B P C to b
n e a e u e r . e u o e , ,
e

d ra w p ll l to y r s p ctiv ly d AB C t b
n a ra e y p lan x, ,
z, e e e , an o e an e

n r P whos dir ction -cosin s

ea l m w fi d ine ctly th e e ar e , ,
n , e n ,
e xa e

s m m ann r f th co m p n nts f th str ss e rt e d across

a e e ,
or e o e o e e ex

t his pl n th v lu s a e ,
e a e

m m. ”
Pm la .
mm n
ew

r sp cti ly
e e v e .

1 78 i r f o m p by q uantiti s d p n ding
. d ffe r e e e

th m t i n f dis t or t ion w hich th r f r functions f b ' ' '

o n e o o o ,
are e e o e o a , , c

only ; d i f b c b s m all w m y su pp os th s func t ions to

an a
'

,
’

,
’
e e a e e e

b lin ar
e W w rit t h r for
e . e e e e e

p1
pg
p,

wh r A e e c nstants t h is b ing plainly th m os t g n r l

, ,
u. a r e o ,
e e e e a as

s u m p t io consist nt w i th th a bov su ppositi ns d w i t h ym

n e e e o , an s

m t ry e S ubs titu t ing t h s valu s f p p p in ( 6 )

. d d e e e o
, , , , 3
an an

m aking f ( 3) d w fi d
u se O an e n

—p + 78 .
( a b c ) 2n d ,
&c .
,
&c .
,

p ”,
2 ,uf,. &c , & c . .

Bu t f ro m th e d e fi n iti on ( 7) of
p w e m ust hav e

3X 2p . 0,

wh e nc finally intro duci g th valu e s

e , ,
n e Of a , b, c, &c f . ro m Ar t 3 8 .
,

we hav e
1 77, GENE RA L EQUATI ONS . 2 19

da dv dw
—
gfl

Th e q u a n t i ty
is c ll d th ffi i t f visc si ty a
,
I ts a e e
‘
co e c e n O o .
’

p h y ic l m ning
s is as
a f ll w s I f we aconc iv t h fl ui d to b o o . e e e e e

m vi ng in a s ri s
o f h ori nt l pl n s th v l city b ing in e e O zo a a e ,
e e o e

dir c t ion v ry wh r th s m
e e d in m agnitu d p r p ort ion l to
e e e e a e ,
an e o a

th d ist nc fro m s m
e fi d hori ont l plan ach stratu m f flui d
a e o e xe z a e ,
e O

w ill th n rt th e ab v it a t ng nti l r tardi g f rc

e xe on e on e o e a e a e n o e

w h s am o nt p u it ar a i ti m s th u p ward rat f v riation

e ou er n e s u.
,
e e e o a

o f th v l ci ty e e o .

I f [ M ] [L ] [ T ] d not th uni t s f m ss l ngth d ti m

, ,
e e e o a ,
e , an e ,
-
di m nsi ns f th p M th s ’ 2
th [ L T
1
] d f b &
'

e e o o e s a re ,
an o e o a , , c, c .

are so that th di m nsions f [M L e e o u

,
. a r e
'

Th ff ct f V iscosity in m o di fyi g th m otion f

e e e o flui d d n e o a e

p n
e d s ho w v r as w ill pp ar f roem th ea m p l s g
,
i v n b lo w not a e e e x e e e ,

m uch on th valu f as on that f

g say Th quantity ’
so e e o ,
u. o , u , . e
,

p i
.
’
call d sby M w l l th ekin m tic co ffici nt f viscosi t
axy Its e e e a e e o .
’

di m nsions
2
e [ L ar e

It is b yond p rovinc t ed iscuss th various p ri

ourm nts e o e ex e e

w hic h h v b n ins t itu t d w i t h a V i w to d t r m ining th

a e ee v lu s e e e e e a e

di ff r nt subst nc s W m y st t ho w v r
’
o f p f ,
f or o u
, ,
or e e a e . e a a e ,
e e ,

t h at is foun d in g s s to b in d p n d nt f th d nsity
u
,
. d toa e e e e e o e e , an

incr as with th t m p ratur its valu b ing accordi g t M

e e e e e e ,
e e ,
n o ax

w ll p ro p ortion l to th
e , t m p r tur m asur d fro m th a ro f e e e a e e e e ze o

th i -th rm om t r g M a w ll finds f air

e a r e e e , e . x e or

0001 8 7 8 ( 1 003 6 6 e )
' '

u ,

th euni ts f l ngth m ass d ti m b ing th c nti m te r gr m m

o e , ,
an e e e e e , a e ,

and s con d d th t m p r tur 0 b ing e p r ss d in th c nti

e , an e e e a e e x e e e e .

gr d sc l a e a e .

Th v lu f p f w t r i
e according t o th
a
pe ri m n
e ts f o . or a e s, e e x e o

H l m h lt e d P iotro w sk i o z an ,

u = 01 4 06 1 ’

,
2 20 V I SCOS I TY .
[CHA R ix .

at a t m p ratur f 2 4 5 C th units b ing th sam

e e b fr e o
°
,
e e e e as e o e .

Th V iscosity f liqui ds d i m inish s rap i dly w ith th incr s

e O e e ea e Of

t m p r tur
e e a e .

us calcul t th r t at which th str ss s c t ing

1 79 . L e t a e e a e e e e a on

a r ct ngul r l m nt d dy d h ving i t c n t r t ( y )
e a a e e e a z a s e e a a , ,
e do
work i ch nging i t s sh p d v l m
n a
-
Th t w y fac s giv a e an o u e . e o z e e

+pw
dx ekc
an co m bining with this
d th e si m il r a e xp e r ssions d ue to th oth r e e

p airs f f c s w Oobt in a e e a

(a n +pa c 219 .. e 2133 5) dx 69 dz ;

or , by
p ( a b c) d x dy dz

§u ( a b c )
2
2p ( a
’
+b +
’
c ’
2f + 2g +
’ ’

Th e first lin in this f rm ula p r ss s th r t at which a uni form

e o e x e e e a e

p r ssur
e
p w orks in ch
e nging t h v lu m f th l m nt t t h a e o e o e e e e a e

r t a b
e S i c t his t r m ch ng
a si g n w ith b i t f ll ws
0
. n e e a e s a , , c, o o

that i f p b a function f th d nsity ( d t h r f r f th volu m

e O e e ,
an e e o e o e e

Of th l m nt ) th work don by p during a c m pr ssion is

e e e e ,
e e o e re

stor d d uri g an p nsi n d i e s l Th

e n
p r ssion i ex a o ,
an v ce v r a
‘‘
. e e x e n

th s con d lin
e ef h w v r do s t ch ng S ign w ith be O o e e ,
e n o a e a , ,
c,

an d r p r s nts er al l ss f n rg y Th int rn l friction th r

e e a e o O e e . e e a e e

for involv se dissi pation f n rgy at th r t F p

e a unit volu m o e e e a e er e ,

wh r e e

F=
2
0 +

F m ay be call it is by L ord
e d, as R a yl e i g h i , th e ‘
d issip tion a

f unction .
’
W notic th te e a

F
—
p + 3
»

i
Z a
&c .
,
&c .
,

dF
—
pw i df
,

St ko e s, Ca m b . Tr a n s . Vo l . Ix .
p 58 . .

Th e a s s um p ti on th a t th e i n t r i n s ic en e rgy of an e le m e nt f ( p o e r fe ct) flu i d
d e p e n ds o nly on i ts v o lu m e i s th e b a s i s o f L a gr a n ge s
’
tr e a tm e nt f H y d o r o dy n a m i cs
i n th e M e c a n i q u e An a l y ti qu e
’

P
1 r o c L e n d M a th S o c
"
. . . . Jn u e 12 , 18 73
1 7 8— 1 8 0 ] WO R K DONE IN CHANGE OF VO L U M E . 221

1 80 . I f we substit t fro m ( 1 1 ) in th u e e e qu tions a of m o tion

w e fin d that th e l tt r m y b w ritt n
a e a e e

d
’
d
’
d
’
Bu dp d da dv a a a

Pa PX ‘

afi tf‘
af
" L
“fi + +
fl
n
c ar) fi
&c .
,
&c .

Whe n th e flui d is inco m pr ssibl th s be co m e e e e e

Bu d
X
f;
2’
Pa p FV ll
? i
'
,

’
av a
p

w h r v has its usual m aning

e e
’
e .

In th c s f com pr ssibl flui ds ( gas e s)

e a e O e e we m a
y by w riting
dw
P P
‘ 1
“ "

s ,
( a a;
r duc ( 14) t o th for m ( 1 5 ) but sinc i all probability th laws
e e e e n e

f B yl d C harl e s hol d with r gar d to p but not to p th r is

’
o o e an e e e
,

no r al g i f si m p licity
e a n o .

Th quations ( 1 4 ) or ( 1 5 ) hav b n Obtain d by N avi r

e e e ee e e ,

C auchy P oisson d oth rs on v rious consi d rations to th e

'

*
, ,
an e ,
a e as

natur d m utu l action f th ulti m at m ol cul s f fluids Th

e an a O e e e e o . e

m tho d a d op t d abov
e w hich m s d i p rinci p l to d S aint
e e ,
se e ue n e e

V nant e d S tok s is in d p n d nt f all hyp oth s s f this kin d

an e e e e o e e O ,

but it m ust b r m m b r d that it involv s th assu m p tion that e e e e e e e

p m p p . & l i e ,
functions f thm
fl i,
i t f d istortion
e . are n ar o e co e c en s o .

H nc el t hough ( 1 4 ) d ( 1 5 ) m y apply w ith gr e at accuracy to

e a an a

cas s f slo w m otion w hav no assuranc o f th ir validi ty i

e o
”

,
e e e e n

oth r cas s e e .

It m y h r m ark d ho w v r th t th calculati ns f M
a e e e ,
e e ,
a e o o ax

w ll § who has inv stigat d th V iscosity f gas s th

e , mp e e e o e on e a s su

F f c St k B A R p 1 8 46 d O E M y r C ll t 5 9
or r e er en e s se e o es . . e o r ts , , an . . e e , re e , . .

1 C a m b Tr a n s V o l
'
. . . VI I I . 1 84 5 .

I Th a t th e y d o so i s i n fa ct sh e wn b y th e e xp e ri nt m e s of M a xwe ll an d Of H e lm

h ol t z an Pi trd o o w s ki .

P h i l Tr . an s . 18 67 .
2 22 V I SCOS I TY .
[ C HAR Ix .

ti ns f th kin tic th ory p int t th v li di ty f th f r m ul

o o e e e ,
o o e a o e o ae ( )
1 1
w ithin v ry w i d li m its t th v lu s f b & S i nc
e e as o e a e O a , ,
c, c . e th e

p stul
o t s f this t h ary in th e m in h i g hOly p r b b l w e o ar e e a o a e ,
e are

w rr n t d in r g rd i g th
a a q tions ( 1 4 )
e s nsi b ly cc rate a n e e ua as e a u e fo r
all ordinary c s f m ti n f g s s a se O o o o a e .

hav s t ill to co si d r th c n di t ions t b sat isfi d

1 81 . We e n e e o o e e

at boun d ry ; t th c m m n surf c f inst nc f th fluid

a a a e o o a e ,
or a e ,
o e

an d f a s li d wi t h w h ich it is in c nt c t
O oI t is f n d th t i o a . ou a n

m ny c s s
a th p rticl s f flui d in con t ct wi t h th
a e
*
s lid m v e a e O a e o o e

w i t h th l tt r th t i f w d n t th co m p n n t
’
d
' '
e w a e ,
so a u, v ,
an u ,
v ,
e o e e o e

v l citi s
e f c ntig ous l m nts f th flui d
o e O d th s li d o
p u e e e o e an e o res ec

ti ly w h v
v e ,
e a e

' '
v v , w w

In o t h r c s i t pp rs t h t t h r is a fini t sli pping f th

e a e s a e a a e e e o e

flui d p t th surf c f th s li d Th b und ry -con di t i n m y

as e a e O e o . e o a o a

t h n b O bt in d
e f llo ws
e C ns i d ri g th m t i n f
a e sm l l as o . o e n e o o O a a

fil m f flui d f thickn s infini t ly s m ll c m p r d wi t h i t l t r l

o ,
O es e a o a e s a e a

d i m nsi n in cont c t w ith th s li d w

e o s, t h t th t ng n t i l a e o ,
e se e a e a e a

s tr ss e its inn r sur f c m ust ul t i m at ly b l nc th f rc

on e a e e a a e e o e

e xe rt d i t s out r sur f by th soli d Th f rm r str ss m y

e on e ac e e . e o e e a

b c lcul t d fr m ( 9 )
e a th l tt r m y b t k
a e dir c t ly o pp s
o e a e a e a e n as e o

i g th v loci t y f th flui d r l t iv ly to th s li d
n e e d pp O i e e a e e o ,
an as a rox

m t ly p ro p
a e t i n l t t h is r l tiv v loci ty p i d d i t be m ll
or o a o e a e e ,
r ov e s a .

Th c nsta t e o y) w hich p r ss s thn r t io f t h t g nti

sa l ,
e x e e e a o e an e a

f rc r la t iv v locity m y b c ll d th ‘
o t th e o e e ffi i t f e e a e a e e co e c en O

sli ding fric t ion .

’

Th con d i t i n t b s ti fi d t th e c m m on sur f c
e o f tws o e a s e a o a e O o

d i ff r n t fl i ds
e e f t w p r t i s f th s m flui d s p r t d by
u ,
or o o o on o e a e e a a e a

surf c f discon t inu i t y m y b O bt in d in th s m w y

a e o ,
a e a e e a e a .

Th boun d ary -c n ditions h e r giv n

e dyn m ic l ; th p ur ly o e e are a a e e

kin m atical con di tion f A t 1 0 f c urs O b t ins h r

e l w ys o r . o o e a e e as a a .

St k ( C b T o V l ) d M w ll ( P h i l T
es am 1 8 6 6 ) fi d th i t b
. r a n s. o . ix . an a it e . ran s . n s o e

tr f i i c t ct wi th l wl y i b ti g b di
ue o a r n H l h l t d Pi tr w ki i f r
on a s o V ra n o e s. e m o z an o o s n e

fr o m th e ir e xp e r i m e n ts ( Wi
t 4 0 1 8 6 0) th a t th i l i ttl
e n er l i pp i g
S i tz B . . .
,
er e s e or n o s n

fo r th eca e s s o f e th a d l c h l i c o ta ct wi th a p l i h d a d g i lt m t l
er n a o f c
o n n o s e n e a su r a e .

O th n th e e o r h a d th e y f
n d th a t i th c e O f w a t
, a d
oun f m t th l i q i d s n e as er ,
n o os o er u

wh i ch th y e e pe im e t d u p
x r a a pp ci a b l e a m t f l i pp i g t k p l c
n e o n ,
n re oun o s n oo a e .
1 80 F RI C TI ON IN S TRA I GH T P I PE . 2 23

1 82
p roc d t pp.ly We
q t i ns t th tr t m ee n t f o a our e ua o o e e a e o

a f w p rticul r pr bl m s
e a a o e .

E m l 1
p W xat k first th fl w ef a li q ui
. d in s t r eigh t a e e o o a a

i
p p f unief r m circulo r s cti n n gl c t ing o t rn l i m p r ss d a e o , e e ex e a e e

f rc s
o I f w t k th
e . is f th pi p t h a is fe a d ssu m
e e ax o e e as e x O a
'

,
an a e

v 0 w 0 th s con d
,
d third quations f ( 1 5 ) giv
,
e e an e o e

dr da
dz
0, an d th e e quation Of continuity b co m s d e e
d:
0 . I f we

furth r ssu m th t is function f ( =

e a e a u a o r an only
d t ,

th first q
e t i n f ( 1 5 ) b co m s trans f r m tion
e ua o o e e on o a O f co -
ordinat s e

1 dp
’
da d a 1
_ +u
all ( l a: dr
P

If a b e th e radius o f th e p p e i ,
th e s u r fa c con di tion is
e -
,
Ar t 1 8 1 .
,

da
a Cu
,
( tr
,

w h n e r a .

2:
( 2
In st ady m tion e o 0 , so that ( 1 7 ) b co m e e s

1 da
2
d a 1
”
dr
'
'
r ar ,
a
p d a:

Th e l
han d si d f this qu tion do s t involv
e ft- d th e o e a e n o e a ,
an e

righ t -h n d si d do s not inv lv

a that ch m ust b const n t e e o e r ,
so ea e a ,

A y This
,
giv
sa s . e

Th e solution of ( )
1 9 is

wh r B C e arbitr ry const n t s
e ,
are a a . S inc v locity at th
e th e e e

c n t r f th pi p is n c ss rily finite
e e o e e e e a ,
we m ust hav B = 0 ; C is e

th d t rm in d by
e n th at
e e e so

—a
)
’
2 24 V I SCOS I TY .
[ CHA R Ix .

Th e total flu x across any s ction e of th e p p e i is

’
"
i

— 1-v r a A — 7Tn a
u 2 7r r dr = 7
C A B
A .

If in a l ngth
n e w e l Of th e p p e th e p i r ssur fall fro m
e e

hav by e ,

an d th e flu x is

I f ,8 = th r e is no sli pping at
00 e th e boun dary ,
an d ( 2 2) th ne re

d uc e s to its first t rm e

oise uill e foun d in his p i m t on th fl w f wat r

P ex er en s
’IE
e o o e

through capillary tub s that th ti m e f fflu f a giv n quantity e e o e x o e

Of w t r w a d ir ctly
e th l ngth o f th tub inv rs ly as th
as e as e e e e ,
e e e

d i ff r nc
e f p r ssur at th tw
e e n ds d inv rs ly as th fourth
o e e e o e , an e e e

p ow e r f th d ia
o m t r Th s r sults agr
e w i t h ( 2 2 ) e e . e e e ee a .

A com parison f th form ula ( 2 2 ) with e p i m nts f this o e a x er e O

kin d woul d giv th m ans f d t e r m ini g u e e e O e n .

1 83 inv stigat th e ff ct f int rnal friction

. E x a m p le 2 . TO e e e e o e

on th m otion f p l n wav s f soun d

e If in A t 1 6 6 w g
o a e e O . as r . e n e

l ct th squar s d pro ducts f s m all quantiti s th e quation f

e e e an o e ,
e o

m otion is
’
d _1
dp d u a

dl d 3 “ de a
'
’
p

or writi g
,
n u
g ,
an d e li m inating p as b e fore by m ea ns of th e

r e lation p oc
p7
£
a
d
i s d g
dl
’
dx
"4
.

4p .

dai dt
’

To fi th i d as l t us s pp os th at at
x e e e u e th e p lan e a =o a si m pl e

3 t at
’

V ibration rio — h
'

f p d k p t p o e s e u ,
SO
2

E A S i n 2 7r n t

M ém . de s Sa v . E tr a n g e r s , t . 9 , 1 84 6 . Q uo ed t by W u ll n e r , E xp e r i m e n ta l
h
p y s i k,
t . 1 , p 32 9 . .
 EFFEC T ON SOUND WAVES IN AI R . 2 25

w h n e as : 0 . No w ( )
2 3 is satisfi e d by th e su m Of a n
y n u m be r o f
te rm s of th e f orm

p rovi d e d
2 2 g
6 fip fi
’
6 a

To Obtain a solution consiste nt with we write a

’ ’ '
4 7r n
g n u n i) ,

( cos 2 s i sin
He r e a
2
1 n
’
a
m z
n ,

an d 2c is th l e ast positiv solutio

e e n of

tan 2 g s 7r ,a n
'
.

II e n ce

2
—i
Z
Z
Z
=
B i C
( co s e SI n

S u bstituting ,
an d p utting ( )
2 5 in a r e al form , we fin d
a:
1 a
f Ac 5
Si n 27 m -
c

1 27 77.
W h r e e
l o do
d
'
an c o d or se c 6 .

In ( 2 7) w m ust tak th u pp r or th e low e r S ign according as

e e e e

we consi d r th wav s p rop agat d in th d ir ction f

e e gativ e e e e o as n e e,

or positiv W
a: that th v locity f p rop ag tion is incr as d
e . e se e e e o a e e

by th friction th incr as b ing gr at r f high r not s than

e ,
e e e e e e or e e

for lo w r on s Th am plitu d f th wav s di m inish s

e e . th y e e o e e e as e

p roc d t heed i m inution

,
b ing th m
e or r p i d th high r th not e e e e a e e e .

Th e chang i th v locity f p ro pagation de p n ds ultim at ly on

e n e e o e e

th esquar o f th t f th am plitu d on th first p o w r f u

e a
, ,
a o e e e e O ,
so

that th latt e r ff ct is m uch m or i m p ort nt than th form r

e e e e a e e .

"
S tok s how v r h
e sh wn that in all ordinary cas s th di m i
e e as e e e n u

tion f am p litu d d to friction i s insignificant com par d with

o e ue e

that d to Sp h rical div rg nc e

ue e e e .

quation ( 2 7) do s
Th e e e n ot constitut e th e c om p l e tesolution f o

( )
2 3 subj e ct to th e co d ition n In fact w m e a
y a dd any u m b r n e

C a m b P h i l Tr a n s Vo l
. . . . Ix .
p 94. .
22 6 V I SCOSI TY .
[CHA R Ix .

of t rm s e of th e f or m p rovi d e d th e co e ffici nts b e e so chos n e as

to m ak e
5 : 0, fo r a: 0 .

Th s writing
u , 8
,
ki in an d solving with r sp c t to e e a, we fin d

a i hO l , ‘ ’

wh e r e

= 6
’
1 —t u

S ubstituting aking e f inw O btain th solution an d m us O e e

g E ( P cos kc t Q S in k’
’

c t) S in kw e
’ ’

wh r th e su m m ation e m brac s l l valu s f k Th co ffici nts

e e e a e o . e e e

P Q m y b d t rm in d by F ouri r s m tho d as to m k th ’

, a e e e e e e so a e e
“

sum f ( 2 7) d ( 30) s tis fy any arbitrary initial con ditions

o an W a . e

se ethat th ff ct f th initial circu m st nc s gr dually dis pp rs

e e e O e a e a a ea ,

until finally th only s nsibl p art f th disturbanc is th at d

e e e o e e ue

to th forc d V ibration m intain d at

e e 0 a e a .

It app ars fro m ( 3 0) that th ff ct f friction is to di m inish

e e e e o

th v locity f p rop agat i on f a fr e wav e

e e O o e .

1 84 . ov s W ith uniform v locity in

E x a m p le 3 . A s ph e r e m e e

an incom pr ssibl V iscous flui d ; to fi d th forc which m ust b

e e . n e e e

appli d to th sph r in or d r to m aintain t h is

e e e e e

Tak th c ntr f th Sph r as origin th dir ction f m otio

e e e e O e e e ,
e e o n

as a is f x I f w i m p r ss
O x th flui d
. d th soli d a v locity V e e on e an e e

equal d opposit to t hat f th S p h r th p r bl m is r duc d

an e O e e e ,
e o e e e

to f st a dy m otion
on e o F urth r assu m ing th m otion to b e
e . e , e

sy m m trical about th a is f w m y wr it with th sam e

e e x O a ,
e a e , e

notation as in A t 1 03 r .

u = v =

wh e c e n we hav e ,
fo r th e angular v locity e to o f a flui d l e em e nt ,

dv da 1
’
i r
l d \lr
2
l dxlr
+ 2
dx dy a
”

t eri 6 dc?

I f we su pp os e th e m otion to b e SO slow that th squ ar s e e an d pr o

St k o e s, Ca m b . Phi l . Tr a n s . Vo l . Ix .
p . 48 .
1 8 3, 1 8 4 ] UN I FO RM M TI O ON OE SPHER E . 2 27

du
ducts f w o u, v ,
dz
,
&c . m ay be n gl ct
e e e d we , O b tain by e lim i a n

tion f p fro m O
’ ’
V n 0, v § 0

I f, as in Ar t 1 4 0 we
.
,
w rit e

7) —w s i n 3, é
“
00 00 8 3 ,

we on trans f rm at ion
fin d o of co -
ordinate s that th e e quat ion ( 3 2 )
s

r duc to th
e e quation e on e e
’ ’
dw dw 1 dw a)
+ 2 +
as dw w da y in

’
de r a dc ?
wh e nc substituting th valu
e ,
e e of w
'

fr o m we Obtain
2
d 1
- ar
i O
de n
2
w da
I f we writ e
= r co s t9, = i 9
x
y r s n ,

this b e co m s e
2

cot 0
'

I
«f 0 ,

I f R 6) de , note th e co m p on nt v lociti e s at any point f th flui d

e e o e

along d p r ,
an e rp n dicular to in th plan e f 9 r sp ctiv ly w
e r e o ,
e e e ,
e

hav fro m th
e , e d finition f i
e o «f ,

1 dxlr
r sin 6 r d0

Th e con ditions to b satisfi e e d at infinity ar e

R= Vco s 9, Vs i n d
I f we assu m e
« f
i
w e fin d that (3 4 ) .
is satisfi e d p rovi d e d
228 VI SCOS I TY .
[CHA R Ix .

To solve this e quation we assu m e

"
f( ) EA r r .

—2 ) ( n —l ) ( n

Th e con ditio s ( 3 5) n ar e th e n satisfi e d by

. D = O, 2 C = —V .

We have still to intro duc e th e con ditions to b satisfi d at e e th e

surfac o f th Sph e r O
e e e . n th e hyp oth sis f no sli pp ing th se
e o ,
e are

B 0, C 0

wh e n r a ( th e radi us) or ,

C o m bin e d with th s give

e e

A 1 Va
’
,
B § Va

but w r e tain f th p r s nt th e sym bols A B Th r sulting

e or e e e ,
. e e

valu f ‘ le is S iom plifi d i f

’ w r stor th p robl m to its original e e e e e e

form by r e m oving th i m p r ss d v e locity V i th e dir ction f (ve e e n e O ,

i e if w
. . dd to l th e te rm
e a xr

A W sin 9 ;
2
.

R =2 00 8 9,

Th e r e sistanc p ri nc d by th sph e r e is m ost r adily calculat d

e ex e e e e e e

by m ans f th dissipation -functio F f A t 1 7 9 L t us t k

e O e n o r . . e a e

at any p oint a subsi diary syst m f r ct ng lar a s in th di c e o e a u xe ,

e r e

ti ns f B C d f a norm al to th plan f 9 r sp ctiv ly ; d

o O , ,
an o e e o ,
e e e an

l t [ ] [b] [c] [f ] [g ] [h ] hav th e sam

e a , , ,
m anings with r e sp ct
, ,
e e e e

to t h s a s that b c j; g h have with r e sp e ct to y

e e xe a , We , , ,
x, ,
e .

fi d by S im pl calculations
n e

dR d® R R (9
[ ]
a b
[] +
7 l9 ta n 9
’ ’
dr 7 r r

d® dB (9
_ h
2 [f ] $
4"
+
7 1 50 7
“ i [9 ] O) [ ] O»
 UN I FO RM MO TI ON OF SPHE RE 2 29

wh e nce
[ ] a 2

cos 9 ,

He nce
A 2

F=1 cos ’
9 T? r
si n
’
9 .

To fi d th tot l r t f dissipation f e rgy we m ust

n e a a e o o n e

this by 2 sin 9 d9 d d int grat with r s p ct to 9 b tw n

7r r r r ,
an e e e e e ee

th e li m its 0 d d with r e sp e ct to r b e tw n th l i m its

an qr ,
d
an ee e a an

co Th final r sult ise e

1 67 m

I f we substitut e from this b co m s e e

e
(i n /wa v .

N o w i f P b e th e f orce which m ust act on th e sph e re i orde r to n

m aintai n th e m otion th rat at which this forc e works is P V

,
e e ,

wh e nc e

P V = 6 7r ,u a V ,

P 67 n d V .

In th cas f a sph r f m an d nsity falling un de r

e e o e e o e e a th e
action f gravity P i th e c ss f th e w ight g g ove r
o ,
s e x e o e n a a
s
th e
buoyancy g pa g s that th e t rm inal v locity is give by
n
’
,
o e e n

p .

F or a globul e of wat e r ,
of 001
‘
in radius falling
.
,
in air , S tok e s
*
fin ds ,

V= inch e s pe s e con d r .

Th e v al u e of u. pl o y e d i n
em th i c l c l ti n w
s a u a o as de d u ce d fr o m Ba il y s ’

nt n gr t th a t fo u nd b y M a x
,

e xp e r i m e s on pe du l u m s, a n d i s a b t h lf
ou a as ea as

we ll ( Ar t . I f we a cc e pt th i s l tt r v l
a e th b a ue , e a ov e val u e o f V m u s t b e
h al v e d .
2 30 V I SCOS I TY .
[CHA R Ix .

F or a s ph e r e -
o f o n e t e nth
this S i th valu e f V w l d b e ze ,
e o ou e on

hun dr d ti m s l e ss Th viscosity f th air is th r for am ply

e e . e o e e e e

su ffici nt to account f th e pp ar nt suspe nsion o f clou ds &

e or a e ,
c .

1 85 su ppos that th re is a finit a m ount f S lipping

. I f we e e
‘

e o

at th surf c f th e sph r th con ditions ( 3 7) m ust b m o difi d

e a e o e e ,
e e e .

R gar di g th sph r as in m otion

e n d th flui d at r st at infi ity
e e e ,
an e e n ,

th con d itions to b satisfi d wh n

e e e e r a ar e

B Vc o s 9, an d 2p .
[f ]
w h e r e B is th co e ffici nt e e o f sli ding friction . Th s giv e e e

A A
§
B B
”
-6 n .
= B
a a Cl

— 3; V 1

Su bstituting th s valu s in e e e we O btain fo r th e r sistanc

e e

ex p rienc d byeth e s ph r e
e e

a
—
1 +3
Ba
thi s r duc e s to e What e ve r th e valu e o f B m ay

li s b t w n 4 ua V
e e ee 7r an d 6 7r p a V .
 N O TE S .

N O TE A . A RT 1 . .

W HEN ,
as in th e p r n t
e se su b j e ct ,
an d in th e co g n a e t th e o ry o f
E l a s ti c S o l i d s , w e t n
dy th e ch a g e s o f Sh a p e w hi ch a m a s s
s u o f m a tt e r

n r
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e m a ss a s m a d e u
p o f a

r n
la ge umb e of r e
y s mvr
a ll
p a ts, o r
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e le m e trs, a n d e
’
d e a o u i g to n n v rn
n n
ta k e a cc o u t O f th e m o ti o , o r th e di s pl a c e m e t , o f e a ch o f th e s e n .

I f we i nq i r
u e h w v r t wh
o e e o a t e nt th i s i de a l s u b di vi si o n i s to b e
t ex

c a rri e d w e a r e a o e o u
,
t nc b r g h t fa c e to fa c e w i th q u e s t i o n s a s to th e
u l t i m a t e s t ru ctu e a n r d p r p rt i
o e e s o f m a tt e r W e h a v e i n th e t e x t
.
, ,

a d o t e d th e h y o th e s i s o f a c o nti nu o u s s t ru ct u r e i n w hi ch ca s e th e
p p ,

s u b di vi s i o n i s w i th o u t li m i t .

Th e t r u th th i s h yp o th e s i s i s h o w e ve r n o t p ro b a b l e I t i s n o w
Of , ,
.

g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t a ll s u b s t a n c e s a r e u l t i m a t e l y o f a h e t e r o e n e o u s o r
g
c o a rs e g r a i ne d s t ru ct u re ; th a t th e y a r e i n fa ct b u i l t u p O f di s c re te
- *

s e a ra t e d o re
‘ m o l e cu l e s
’
b b l
b o di e s o r p,
i t m a
y e , y m or e s s w i,d e

i n t e rva l s . Th e s e b o di e s a r e fa r to o m i n u t e to a dm i t O f d i re ct o b s e r
v a t i o n S O t h a t w e a r e a l m o s t w h o l l y i g n o ra n t o f t h e i r n a t u r e a n d o f
,

th e m a nn e r i n wh i ch th e y a c t o n o n e a n o th e r I t w o u l d th e r e fo r e b e .

fu ti l e to a tt e m p t to fo rm th e e qu a ti o n s O f m o t i o n O f i n di vi du a l m o l e c u l e s ,

a n d e v e n i f th e e q u a t i o n s c o u l d b e fo r m e d a n d i n t e r a t e d th e r e s u l t s
g
w o u l d n o t b e di r e ctl y c o m p a ra b l e w i th Ob s e rv a t i o n n o r w o u l d th e y e v e n ,

b e o f i n t e r e s t fr o m th e p o i nt o f V i e w o f o u r p r e s e n t s u b j e ct Fo r o u r .

Ob j e ct i s n o t to fo ll o w th e ca r e e rs O f i ndi v i du a l m o l e c u l e s w h i ch ca nn o t ,

b e t ra c e d o r i d e n ti fi e d b u t to s t u dy th e m o ti o n s O f p o rt i o n s O f m a tte r
,

w h i ch t h o u g h ve r y s m a l l a r e s t i ll l a rg e e n o u g h t o b e o b s e rv e d a n d
, , ,

Th o m so n an d Ta i t , N a tu r a l Ph i l o s op h y , Ar t 6 7 5
. .
 232 NO TES .

wh i h c th e re fo re n c s ri ly
e e sa co nsi s t ea ch of an im m e n se n um be r o f
m o le u lec s .

In o rd r
th e n to e s t a b li s h th e fu n da m e nta l e qu a ti o ns i n a m a nn e r
e

fre e fro m s p e c i a l h yp o th e s i s a s to th e s t ru ct u r e o f m a tte r w e a do p t th e

fo l l o w i ng c o nv e n ti o n s .

W e s u ppo s e th e e l e m e n ts a b o v e s p o k e n o f to b e s u ch th a t e a ch o f
th e i r di m e n s i o n s i s a l a rg e m u l ti pl e o f t h e a ve ra g e di s ta n c e ( d sa y ) , ,

b e t w e e n th e c e n t r e s o f i n e rt i a o f n e i g h b o u ri ng m o l e c u l e s a n d a l s o o f ,

th e a v e ra g e d i s t a n c e ( 8 sa y ) b e y o n d w h i c h t h e d i r e ct a cti o n o f o n e
, ,

m o l e c u l e o n a n o th e r b e c o m e s i ns e n s i b l e
" Th e l a tte r p r o v i s o i s n e c e s .

s a ry i n o r d e r t h a t th e m u t u a l fo r c e s e x e rt e d b e t w e e n a dj a c e n t e l e m e n t s

s h a l l b e s e n s i b l y p r o p o rt i o n a l to th e s u rfa c e s a c r o s s w h i c h th e y a c t .

O b s e rva t i o n s h e w s th a t w e m a
y su
pp o s e th e d i m e n s i o n s o f a n e l e m e nt

to b e a t th e sa m e t i m e s o s m a l l t h a t th e a ve ra g e p r o p e rt i e s o f th e
c o n s ti t u e nt m o l e c u l e s va ry re g u l a rl y a n d c o nti nu o u s l y a s w e pa s s fr o m
o n e e l e m e n t to a n o t h e r W e s h a ll i n w h a t fo ll o w s u n de rs ta n d b y th e
.
, ,

w o rd p a rt i cl e e l e m e nt a p o rt i o n o f m a tte r w h o s e di m e ns i o n s l i e
‘ ‘ ’ ’
or

w i t h i n th e li m i t s h e r e i n di ca te d Th e p r o p e rt i e s o f a n e l e m e n t s u r
.

r o u n di ng a n y po i n t P m a y th e n b e t re a te d a s c o nti nu o u s fu n cti o ns o f
th e p o s i t i o n o f P .

Th e ‘d e n i ty
s
’
at an y p o i nt o f th e flu i d is n ow to b e de fi n d th e as e

r ati o o f th e m a ss to th e v o lu m e o f an e l em e n t ry p
a o rti n rr ndi ng
o su ou

th a t p o i n t .

Th e v
‘ e l o ci t y at a p o i nt
c i ty o f th e c e nt re o f
’
i s de fi n e d as th e v e lo

i n e rt i a o f a n e l e m e n ta ry p o rt i o n ta k e n a b o u t t h a t p o i n t Th i s i s o f .

c o u rs e qu i te di s ti n ct fr o m th e ve l o c i ti e s o f th e i n di vi d u a l m o l e c u l e s ,

w h i c h m a y a n d i n a l l p r o b a b ili ty d o v a r y qu i t e i rr e gu l a rl y fr o m o n e
, ,

m o l e c u l e to a n o t h e r .

B y th e c r o s s a n i de a l s u rfa c e s i tu a t e a t a n y p o i nt o f th e
‘flu x ’
a

fl u i d w e s h a l l u n de rs t a nd th e m a s s o f m a tte r w h i ch i n u ni t ti m e c r o s s e s
u n i t a re a o f th e s u r fa c e fr o m o n e s i d e to th e o th e r M a tte r c r o s s i ng .
,

i n th e di r e cti o n o pp o s i t e to th a t i n w h i c h th e flu x i s e s ti m a t e d i s h e r e
r e ck o ne d a s ne g a ti ve .

Th e flu x c ro s s a n y s u rfa c e a t a n y po i n t i s e qu a l to th e p ro du ct o f
a

th e d e n s i ty ( p) i n t o th e v e l o c i ty ( 9 sa y e s ti m a t e d i n th e d i r e ct i o n o f th e
) , ,

no rm a l to th e s u rfa c e Thi s i s s u fli c i e n tly o b vi o u s i f th e fl u i d b e

.

su
pp o s e d c o n t i nu o u s o r e v e n i f i t b e m o l e c u l a r p r o vi d e d th a t i n th e
, ,

I t is s u pp o s e d th a t in ga se s d i s la r ge c o m p ar e d wi h 6 t th e r r ev e se is
p r o b a b l y th e ca se i n l i qu i d s a n d s o l i ds .
 NO TES . 2 33

l tte r ca s e
a we l c l s w i th i n
a ssu m e th e v e lo c i ti e s o f a ll th e mo e u e an

e l e m e n t tog r i m g ni t d d di r
a ct i n T
ee p r v n t h t t am nt u e an e o . o o e e s a e e

w h n th e v l c i ty i ppe d t ye q i
o t i rr g l r l y f
sr m su o se o v ar u e e u a o on e

m l c l o e t n th r w h v nly t pp th m l c l c nt i n d
u e o a o e ,
e a e o o su o se e o e u es o a e

in l m n t ry p c t b
an e e g r pe d cc ar d i n g t t h s i r va l c iet i o e ou e a o o e e o e s , so

th t th v l c i t i
a f ll th m m b r
e e o f y g r
es op h ll b a s n ib l y e e e s o an on e ou s a e e s

th m
e i m gn i t d
sa e d d i r ct i n
n L t P g b th v l
a u e f th
an e o . e
u ,
e e a ues o e

d n i ty
e s d f th v l c i ty i th d i r ct i n f th n rm l t th gi v n
,
an o e e o n e e o o e o a o e e

su rf c c rr p ndi ng t th fi r t gr p l n p 9 th c r p ndi ng
a e ,
o es o o e s ou a o e , g, ,
e or es o

v l f th c n d g r p d
a ues or Th p t f th fl
e se o d t th ou ,
an so on . e ar o e ux ue o e

fi r t g r p i p q th t d t th
s ou c nd i p g
s
l
d
l ,
a th t th ue o e se o s
, ,, an so on ,
so a e

t t l fl i th gi v n di r cti n i
o a ux n e e e o s

p1 9 , pg 9 2

c
w hi h i s , b y th e d e fini t i o n of th e s
y m b o l s, pq .

He nc e th e flu x a cro s s an
y p o rt i n o o f a su rf a ce e v ry p i nt
e o o f w hi ch
m o v es wi th th e flu i d is r ze o .

Th e fo r e g o ng n id r
ti o ns a n d d e fi ni ti o ns a pply a li k e to s o li ds
i co s e a

a n d to fl u i d s B u t i f w e a tt e m p t to fo l l o w th e m o ti o n o f a n e l e m e n t
.

w e a r e m e t b y a di ffic u l ty p e c u li a r to o u r p r e s e n t s u b j e ct W e ca nn o t .

a s s u m e t h a t th e m o l e c u l e s w h i c h a t a n y i n s t a n t c o ns t i tu t e a n e l e m e n t

c o nti n u e to fo rm a c o m pa ct g r o u p th r o u gh o u t th e m o ti o n O n th e .

c o n t ra ry th e ph e n o m e na o f di ffu s i o n s h e w th a t s u ch a n a s s o ci a ti o n o f
m o l e c ul e s i s g ra du a l l y di s o rga ni ze d s o m e m o l e c u l e s b e i n g c o n ti n u a ll
y ,

d e ta ch e d fro m th e m a i n b o dy w h i l s t o th e rs fin d th e i r w a y i n t o i t fr o m ,

wi th o u t Th u s a l th o u g h th e m a tte r i n c l u de d b y a s m a ll cl o s e d s u r fa ce
.

m o vi ng w i th th e fl u i d i s c o n s t a n t i n a m o u n t i ts c o m p o s i t i o n i s c o n t i n ,

u a ll c h a n i ng I t i s t ru e th a t i n l i q i d t h i r c i c di n l y
y g u . s s p o e s s s e x e e g
slo w a n d m i gh t fa i rl y b e n e g l e ct e d w h e n r e ga r d e d fr o m
,
o u r p re s e n t

p o i n t o f vi e w In t h e ca se o f g a se s i t m u s t h o w e ve r b e ta k e n i n t o
.

a cc o u n t i n c o ns e qu e n c e o f th e m u c h g r e a t e r m o b i li ty o f th e i r m o l e c u l e s
, .

Th e ph r a se p a th o f a
p a ti c e , o ft e u s e
‘
d i n th e te x t , m u s t th e e r l ’
n r
r n r
fo e n o w b e u d e s t o o d to m e a th e pa th o f a g e o m e t i ca l p o i t w h i c h n r n
v
m o e s a l w a y s w i t h th e e l o ci t
y o f t h e fl u i d w r
h e e i t h n
a p e s to b e
p v I n .

th c
e f li q i d th i w ill r p r nt wi th c n i d ab l cc r cy th
a se o a u s e e se o s er e a u a e

p t
a h f th c not r f i n r t i f
e d fi i t e
p t i n e f m tt r
o e a o a e n e or o o a e .

Th ff ct f the f r g i ng d fini t i n i t r pl c th
e e o e ri gi n l
o e o e o s s o e a e e o a

m l c l r) fl i d b y m d l m d f d l c n ti n b t n c i
( o e u a u i a o e ,
a e o an ea o u o u s su s a e ,
n

w h i ch nl y th m i n f t ro f th m ti n e p ra rv d Th ea rr u es o e o o ar e e se e . e co e

s d
on f t h m d l t
e n ce t h ri
o g i n l i h ew v r o
y t m el y o e o a s o e e as e ere
p
2 34 NO TES .

k i n e m a ti ca l th u s w e ca nn o t a s s e rt th a t th e mo de l w i ll , w i th th e sa m e

i n t e rn a l fo rce s w o rk s i m i l a rl y to th e o ri g i n a l
,
.

L e t u ,
'
v ,
w be th e c o m po n e n t v e lo c i ti e s of th e flu i d ,
as ab o v e

de fi n e d, (at th e p o i 7 t nt
h o se o f a
p a rt i c u l a r
x, y z
),
u ,
a
,
0 + 8
, ,
w
m o l e c u l e o f m a s s m i n th e n e i g h b o u rh o o d o f t h a t p o i n t L e t th e s ym b o l .

2 d e n o t e a s u m m a ti o n e x t e n di ng t h r o u g h u n i t v o l u m e m o r e p r e c i s e l y ,

l e t 2 d e n o t e th e r e s u l t o f a s u m m a t i o n t h r o u g h u n i t v o l u m e o n th e
o s i t i o n th a t th e r r t i e s o f th e m e di u m a r e u n i fo rm t h r o u h o u t
su
pp p po e
g
t h i s vo l u m e a n d th e sa m e a s a t ( cc 9 z ) W e h a v e th e n i n vi rt u e o f
, , ,
.
, ,

th e d e fi n i t i o n s a b o v e g i v e n

2 m =p l( ) ,

Em a 0, Em fl O, Em y 0

I f we c o n s i de r a s m a ll cl o s e d su rf a ce m o vi ng w i th th e flu i d ,
th e
8— d d d d
sym b l t o
£17 a; pp l d t y f n ct n F _ a ie o an u io ex
é
, ’ ,
d 1: z

p r t h
e s se s r t f v ri t i n f eF c n i d r
a d e r
p po r t y f at h a o o o s e e as a o e o e

i n cl d d p c u O e cc n t f th c n ti n l
s a e . c h ng f n l c l
a ou o e o ua e x a e o m o e u e s

b t w n th i
e ee
p c d t h rr n di n g
s r g i
s n t h i
a i e t n anc ri l y e su ou e o ,
s s n o e e s sa

th e th i ng th r t f v ri ti n f F c n i d r d
sa m e as r
p p e r t y a f e o a a o o o s e e as a o e o

th m tt r w h i c h h pp n t
e a e cc py th i p c t th i n t n t i q a e s o o u s s a e a e s a n ue s

t i n H n c w c nn t
o . ei A t 6 cc pt
e e a o ,
as n r .
,
a e

as a n
c o m pl e te rt n cr ex
p r nt m f
e ss i o fo r th e a e of i e a se o f th e x-
m om e u o a

m vi ng l m n t
o A c rr ct i n
e e r n d r d n c ry b y th p g t
e . o e o i s e e e e e ssa e a s sa e o

an d f f m l c l ro c rry i n g th i r m
o n t m w i t h t h m c r th
o e u es a e om e u e a o ss e

w ll a f th s l nt T f rm th q ti n f m ti n i t i b tt r
o e e em e . o o e e ua o s o o o s e e ,

th n t he r c r t th c n d th d pl i n d i A t 1 2 i
,
o a v e e ou se o e se o m e o ,
ex a e n r .
,
v z .

t fi
o tt n t i n
x our p r t i c l r r g
a i n fe p c od t d y t h
on a a u a e o o s a e ,
an s u e

c h n g p r d c d i i t p r p rt i
a es w ll b y th
o u fl w f m tt r c r
e n s o e es as e e o o a e a o ss

it bs n d ri oub y th cti n f t rn l f r c
a es as e a o o ex e a o es .

L t t k th n r ct ng l r l m nt f p c d dy d h i g i t
e us a e e a e a u a e e e o s a e r z, av n s

c nt r t ( y ) L t Q d n t
e e a y p p
x, r r t y ,
f z m l
. c l w h i c h ei t e o e an o e o a o e u e

ca n c rry w i th i t i i t m ti n
a Th t t l r t f i ncr n f th s o o
*
. e o a a e o e a se o e

a m n t f Q i th b v p c i pr d b y
ou o n e a o e s a e s ex e sse

d
' Ed dy d z
dt

Th e fo l l o wi n g i n v es ti g a ti on is su b s a n t ti a lly th a t gi v e n b y M a x we l l ,
Ar t 1 2 . .
 No r ss . 235

O f th i s th e pa rt d ue to th e flo w o f ma tte r a c ro ss th e y z fa ce - n r st th
ea e e

ori i
g i s n
so ( u a
) so ( u a
) da: dy dz,

an d t h a t d u e to th e o
pp o s i e t fa c e i s

( u + a
) dx d y dz .

Ca l c l t i ng
u a in th e sa m e w a y th e p a r ts d u e to th e r e m a in n
i g pa i r s o f
fa c e s , w e fin d fo r th e t o ta l va r i a t i o n i n th e a m o u nt o f Q in th e e l e m e nt ,

d u e to flo w o f m a tt e r a c r o s s i ts w a ll s th e e x p r e s si o n ,

l
Q —-2 Q
EQ
z
( to

Inth i s l e t u s fi rs t pu t Q m th e ,
m a ss o f a m o le c u l e Th e n .

e q u a ti n a n d ta k i n a cc o u n t r ti o ns
g ( )3 an d g o f th e e la
( )
1 an d
( )
2 w e

fin d
dp 03 .
p a 03 .
p12 d pw .

a dx dy dz

th e e qu a ti o n of c o n t i n u i ty .

Ne x t le t us put Q =
=m th e x-
m om e nt um o f a m o le cu le .

n
C h a g e i n th e a m o u t o f m o m e t u m c o ta i n n n n e d i n th e s
p a ce d x dy dz i s

p r o du c e d n o t o l b y th e fl o w ny
o f m a tt e ac r r o ss nd ry b
th e b o u a u t a lso

b y th e a cti o n
o f fo c e f o m w i th o u t Th e r r . ex t rn l i m p r
e d a e sse fo rc es

X, Y, Z i nc r e a se th e m om e nt um
p a r a lle l to as a t th rt e a e

an d th e e ffe ct of th e i nt rn e al fo rc es i n th e sa m e di r e cti o n is

wh e r e we h a v i n tr d
e o u ce d th e g e nr e al s e
p c i fic a ti o n of th e s a t te o f s tr e s s
at
( x, y ,
z
) fr A
om t r . 175 E q u a ti g
. n th e n ( 3 ) to th e su m o f
an d an d m k i ng a u se of
( )
l an d
( )
2 as b e fo r e ,
w e fin d

2
(I p l L d p u d .
ma y (I pu w
( It d d) ( lg z
2 36 NO TES .

I f w e w i te r
Em a
”
=p m , ,
&c .
,
&c .
,

p g,
Em fly , &c .
,
&c .
,

th i s b e co m e s ,
in v i rt ue o f th e e qu a ti o n o f c o n t i nu i ty ,

3“
'
d] ? dp J}?
p p X +
y,

67
'
6

dz dy dz

wh i h c a
g r ees rm wi th i n fo ( )
2 of Ar t 1 7 5
. .

Th e q n ti ti s
ua e rm i n th pp t s t r s f th &c . de te e e a a r en es o e

m di m e u at th p i n t ( )y e di ot i n g i h d x, fr m th ,
ct z l ,
t t i
as c l s u s e o e a ua s a a

str p c i fi
e ss s d b e
y p p “ e& Th pp m
r n t ,
t r ,
i w h t i r c l.l y e a a e s e ss s a s ea

ob rv d i
se ell p r i m
n n t ia fl i d
ex I et i i f ct
e t h t rs w hn i c h u s. s n a e s e ss

m st h l d
u t o
y p i n t af th cann t i n o m d l b ov p k n fe i o uous o e a o e s o e o ,
n

ord r th t th m d l m y w rk i m il rly t th ri gi n l
e a e o e a o s a o e o a .

In y c w h r w c l d m th t th b l i q c m p n n t f th
an a se e e e ou a ssu e a e o ue o o e o e

str cr e ss a y p l n i
o ss a n m l l n g h t
a b ne
g l ct
s s d w h a l d fi d e ou o e e e e ,
e s ou n ,

c l c l t i ng th r t f ch ng f th m m nt m c nt i n d i
a u a e a e o a et tr o e o e u o a e n a e a

h d l p c
e ra ch
s th t i th fig r f A t 3
a e su as a n e u e o r .
,

’
=P — sa y .
1 9 s » a

Th e e qu a t i o ns of m o ti o n th e n a ss um e th e fo m r ( )
2 o f Ar t 6 . .
 N O TE B AE r s 5 3, 5 4
'

'
. . .

L em m a . I f, i n an y r e gi o n ,
a ci rcu i t *
or sy t m s e of c i r c u i ts A i s
r e co n c il e a b l e w i th a s yt s em B, an d a s lo wi th a ytm
s s e C, th e sys te m s
13 a n d C ’
are r e c o n ci l e a b l e .

Fo r i t i s p o s s ib l e to c o n n e ct ,
in th e firs t p l a ce A an d B, in th e
n
s e c o d A a n d 0, b
y c o t i n n
s rf c l yi ng w h ll y wi th i n th r g i n uous u a es o e e o

an d c m pl t l y bo nd d b y th li n A B d A C r p ct i v ly Th
e e ou e e es ,
an ,
es e e . e se

tw o su rf c dj i n a es a n th r l ng th li n A d if th li n b
o on e a o e a o e es ,
an e se es e

o b li t r t d we a b t ine c n ti n e o rf c b n d d b y B d 0 w hi ch
a a o u o u s su a e ou e an ,

ar e th r f r e e il b l
o e r e co n c ea e .

S pp u w th t w h v i
o se n o
y r g i n y
a t m f e i n d p nad n t e n an e o a s s e o 71. e e e

ci rc i t u s a
n
ch th t v ry th r c i r c i t dr w n i th
a
, ,
a
” ,
su a e e o e u a n e

r gi n i
e o il b l wi th
s r e co n c m r eaf th s e W h ll p r v th t on e or o e o e e . e s a o e a

an y t h r
o t f e i n d p n d n t ci r c i t b b
se o 71. b w hi che e b dr w n e u s
u s , ”
ca n e a

i th r gi n p
n e e s th m pr p rty
o o sse s e sa e o e .

L t d n t
e ac y t h e r ci r c i t dr w n i th r gi n By h yp th i s
o e an o e u a n e e o . o es

1 i
9 i l b l w i th
s r e co n c eam r f the ytm on e w i t
or h o e o e s s e a a a sa
1 y ,, ” n ,

a
,,
c m b i n d (i f n c
o ry) w i th th r f th y t m ; d i l
e e e ssa o e s o e s s e an a: s a so

r e co n c il b l w i th ea m r
e f th sy t m on e or Fi r tl y l t o e o e s e ca a a s e us
l ,
.
2 , n

su pp t h
o se t i i n c l ad d i t ha
,
t w ist h w hi c h i u il e b l n e se so s r e co n c ea e .

W h v th n
e a e il b l e w i th a, m rr e co n c f th ytm ea e on e or o e o e s s e

6 a a d l w i th a ,
m ran f th a so
y t m on e or o e o e s s e 90, a a a
, , s , s , s,
.
1 ” n

H nc e b y th
e ,
b v L mm it m
e t b p i b l t f rm m t ll y
a o e e a, us e o ss e o o a u ua

r e co n c il b l t fr m th
ea e ytm 6 se o F r t h r f t hi
e s s e x
, 1 ,
a
s ,
a
n
. u e , o s

se t m so tb us ; f t h r w i
e on e w sh l d h v 6 or o il b l wi th e se e ou a e
1
r e co n c ea e

m r f th sys t m w i th c m b in d it
on e or o e o ed l e
( a
9 ,
a
3 ,
a
n ,
an a so a
,
o e ,

m y b a w i th th r
e, f th y t m
)
o H n ec bs o
y t h L m m i t w
e s l d b s e . e e ,
e e a, ou e

p o ssib l t f rm e o il o b l t fr m th
a r e co n c
y t m ea e se o e s s e a
”
a
s,
a
n ,
co n

t rar
y t h yp t ho i s H n c o m st b es il
. b l w i t he m e fa: u e r e co n c ea e on e or ore o

th ey t m bi
s s e If :
b t i n cl d d th t f a wi t h a e n o u e in e se o a s
’

w hi ch i a: i l b l thi r s l t
s r e co n c b vi s H n i
ea e y c ws e u IS o ou . e ce ,
n an a se , e

E y ci c i t p k n f i th i n t i
v er r u s pp od t b e i m plo d n s o e s su o se o e s e, an n on

ev a n ci b les e .
2 38 NO TES .

ca n ,
ytm in th e s s e a
, ,
a
s ,
a
n ,
r e
p l a ce a
l
by b an d s til l o b ta i n a
s
y t m fs e c i r c i t w i t h o n u s on e or m o r e of wh i h c e v rye o th e r c i r cu i t d ra w n
i th r gi n i
n e il e o s r e co n c e a b le .

In p rti c l r I i a u a ,
)
,
s r e c o n ci l e a b l e w i th on e or m o e r o f th e y ts s em

bu a
2 ,
a
3 ,
a
n ; d i t i s an
,
b y h p o t h e s i s ,
n o t r e c o n c il e a b l e y w i th 6 1
a lo n e . If th e n “9 b e o n e o f th e s e t w i th w h i ch i t i s r e c o n c il e a b l e ,
i t fo l l o w s b y e x a ctl th e sa m e y ‘

a rg um e nt '

as b e fo r e th a t we m a
y r e
p l a ce

a
,
b y 6 2 , s o t h a t an
y c i c u it d r r wna in th e r e
g i o n is r e c o n ci l e a b l e wi h t
on e r f th y t m b 6
or m o e o e s s e
u 2 ,
a
s ,
a
n

Th i p r c s f r pl c i ng o e ssby b m y b
o c ti n d n til w
e a a s
’ ’
s a e on ue ,
u e

fin lly rri v t th r l t th t v ry c i r c i t d r w n i th r gi n i
a a e a e e su a e e u a n e e o s

r e co n c i l b l w i th ea m re f th y t m b b
on e b or o e o e s s e
u e ,
.
”

Th rd r f c nn cti n f r gi n i th r f r p f tly d fini t

e o e o o e o o a e o s e e o e a ,
er ec e e

n m b r F l t th r b tw t
u e . or e e d b 6 e b ef o se s, a
, ,
a 2,
a
m ,
an
u 2, a )
o

i nd p n d n t ci r c i t
e e e ch t h t y th r c i r c i t d r w n i th r gi n i
u s, s u a an o e u a n e e o s

r e co n c il b l w i th ea m re f i th r t d if p
on e ib l l t m
or b o e o e e se
. an o ss e e ,
n e

u nq l y
e ua m,
saTh b v n rg m nt h w th t v ry c i rc i t. e a o e a u e s e s a e e u

dr w n i a th r gi n i n il b l w i th
e e o m r f th s y t m
r e co n c ea e on e or o e o e s s e

6 6 1 2,
b c n t r ry t th pp i t
o i n t h t t h r
a m i od p d e su os o a e e are n n e en

en t ci rc i t b u b w h i ch
s
m +1 ,
t il b l ”
are n o r e co n c ea e .

I t i p i b l t d r w b rri r m ti ng y
s o ss e o f th ci rc i t
a a a e ee an on e o e u s

a
l
a 2 ,
i p i n ta n”
l y Fn i f
on ev ry b rr i r t h
o r g h p i n t P
o . or e e a e ou a o

o f on e f th c i r c i t m t th c i r c i t g i n i t m t b p i b l t
o e se u s ee s e u a a ,
us e o ss e o

c nn ct P w i th l l th r p i nt f th c i rc i t b y c nt i n
o e a o e ri f o s o e u a o u o u s se es o

l i n dr w n c h
es a b rri r ea d t h r f r t fil l p th c i r c i t b y
on a a e ,
an e e o e o u e u a

c n ti n
o rf c lyi ng w h l ly wi thi n th r g i n c nt r ry t th p
u o u s su a e o e e o ,
o a o e su

p osi t i n t h to th c isr c i t i a i m p l d e - v n c i b l u s s e an n on e a es e .

F rt h r i t i p u i b l t d w th b rri r
e ,
s o ss t t m t y f
e o ra e a e so as n o o ee an o

th er m i ni ng ci r c i t F i f v ry b rri r w h i ch m t
e a u s . f th or e e a e ee s on e o e

Ci rc i t y u n c ri ly i n t r ct
s, sa a t l
e t f c rt i n t
e s sa f e se s on e a e as o a e a se a o

th e r m i n i n g c i r c i t t h n i f w c n i d r th i n fi i t
e a u s, ri ty f e , e o s e e n e v a e o

b rri r w h i c h
a e
s b d r w n i t pp r th t w
ca n e c nn ct th
so a ,
a ea s a e ca n o e e

v ri p i n t f w i t h t h
a ous o f
s o by c n ti n
a
1
w b f lin dr w n o se o a a o u ou s e o es a

ea ch b rri r
on d th r f r w
a a e c nn ct “ d b y c nti n
,
an e e o e e ca n o e
1
an a a o u ou s

su rf c l y i ng w h l ly W i thi n th r gi n Th t i
a e o d r c n cil e e o . a s, a 1 an a ar e e o e

a b l c n t r ry t h y p th i
e o a o o es s .

Th b v d m n t r ti n
e a o e li g h tly m d i fi d fr m R i m nn
e o s a d o s ar e s o e o e a an

K o n i g sb e r g e r

l . c. Ar t 6 3 . .

Th e o r i e d e r e l l ip ti s c h e n Fu n c ti o n e n , c . 5 .
 N O TE O . ART 1 1 2 . .

L et an i nfini t el
y g r ea t fo rc e X a ct fo r an i n fini t e ly rt ti m s ho e Ton
th e s o li d i n th e di r e cti o n o f a
'

,
so as c h a ng e
to th e x c m p n nt
- o o
'

e of th e
i m pu l s e - r
f o m f to 6 85 . Th e t o ta l w o rk d o n e by thi f r i
s o ce s

If a
l ,
a ,
b e th e g r ea te s t an d l eas t v a lu e s of u rn
d u i g th e ti m e T,
th i s li e s b e t w e e n
T

a
,
j o
t ,
an d a ,
t ,

t . e . b e tw e e n nfi i t ly m ll an ch
d I f 85 b e i n e s a ,
a n
a , ar e ea

sen i b ly q l ts d th w r k d n i
e ua In th
o a w y w
,
an e o o e s e sa m e a e

m y c l c l t th
a w rk n c
a ry t i n c r
u a e th r m i ni n g c m p n n t
e o e e ssa o e a se e e a o o e s

of th i m p l b y th i nfi i t l y m ll m
e u se nt 8 7 BC 8A 8 S i n c the n e s a a ou s 7 , , ,
50 . e e

w rk d no i q l t th o d di ti n l k i n ti c
e s e n rgy g n r t d w
ua o e a o a e e e e e a e ,
e

h v a e

8$ 1 8“ a + + 9

lT
-— <3 +
p
JP

N o w i f th e m o ti o n o f th e s o li d be t re d i n a n y
al e r a ti o ,
th e i m p u l s e
wi ll b e al e t r e d i n th e sa m e r a ti o . L e t u s t h e n t ak e

310
p

an d th e rfr e o e
2 40 NO TES .

We h av e ,
fr om

16 5+ + p k +

2T

si n c e T is a
‘
h o m o g e n e o u s qu a dr a ti c fu ct i o n n . P e for rm i ng th e a rb i t r y
ar

v ri
a a ti o n 8 o n b o th s i de s o f ( 2 ) w e fin d
'

14 85 + +p 8k +

+ $ 8a + + A8p

an d th e nc e, m a ki ng u se o f

681 6 + + A8p +

gg-819
7
i
dp

Si nc e th e v ri
a a ti o ns 8a , 8p , & c . ar e he r i nd
e e pe nd nt
e ,
we h a v e

dT
5
da

r
th e fo m ul ae to b e p rv
o e d .
 N O TE D . ART 1 3 4 . .

n
Th e dy a m i c a l e qu a t i o n s o f Ar t . 6 m ay b e w i tte r n , a fo rc e

p o t e t n
i a l V e x i s t s , i n th e fo rm
3:
(
2 11 2 2m ]

{
cl 2 1 05+ Q u Z

dw
2m ] 2 1) 5

61
wh e r e P
[5 + V+ il

r nti ti ng th
D i ffe e a e th i r d q u a t i o n s ( 1 ) w i th
o f e r es
pe ct to y , th e

se co nd w i th r p ct t es e o z, a n d s u b t r a ct i n
g w e fi n d ,

df

§
df
+ v + w
dt d tfi
Re m em rn
b e i g th e r e la ti o n ( 1 ) o f Ar t . 1 2 7, an d m a ki ng u se of th e

e qu a t i o n n n y
o f co ti u i t o f Ar t .

39
p 0=0
55 ,

we m a
y p t u
( )
2 i n th e fo m r
85
f i l l/
+ 7
7
( la
+ §
d
+ i 3p
’
at dz p 06
a f f du
+
” 6116
+ g du
( )
3
at p d d p dz
n qu a t i o n s
.

In th e sa m e wa y w e o b ta i two si m i la i e ,
w h i ch m a
y b e

r
w i tt en d w n fr m y m m t ry
o o s e .

L t th p r j cti n
e eth o e o s on e co -
o di r nt a e a xe s of th e li n e j o i n in g tw o
n i gh b ri ng p rti cl
e ou th a es on e sa m e v rt -li n
o ex e be

$ 77 5
p p p
2 42 NOTES
r spe e cti ve ly . Th e rt a e at w h i ch th e p r j o e cti o n on x is i ncr e a si ng
e qu a l to th e di ff r n c
e e e of th e v a lu e s o f a at th e tw o e nd s, i . e . to

£6 d a ’
776 da { 6 da
p dx p dy p dz
or, by to
6 S
at p
He nc e th e p rj
o e cti o ns of th e li n e in q u e s ti o n wil l at th e

t dt b e

8 5 7
7 8 7) O Z

r es
p e cti ve ly th a t ,
i s , th e li e n
til l fo rm s s p a rt o fv rta o e x-
li n e .

Al s o , if ds b e th e l e ng th o f th i s li n e a t an
y i n t n t s a ,
we h a v e

1
p
wh e r w i th ng l r v l ci ty f th fl i d B t if b th cti f
e s e a u a e o o e u . u a e e se on o

a v rt -fil m t h vi ng
o ex ai th p r d ct
en
p d i c n tan t wi th ’
as as ax s, e o u o s s o s a

r g rd t th ti m H n c th t r ng th
e a o e f th v rt e i c n t nt
. e e e s e (n o o e o ex s o s a .

Th i t n i n f H l m h l t pr f w hi ch i li m i t d t th p rt i c l r
s ex e s o o e o z
’
oo ,
s e o e a u a

c s 0 O i d t Pr f N n n
a e , s ue o o . a so .

Th c nn cti n b t w n th
e o b v pr f e d th t b y Th m s n gi v n
o e ee e a o e oo an a o o e

i th t t m y b
n e h wn
ex f ll w a e s e as o o s
*
.

I f A B 0 b th pr j ct i n
, , th -r di n t pl e s f th r f e o e o s on e co o a e an e o e a ea o

a ci r c i t m vi ng wi th th fl i d w h v
u o e u ,
e a e

8A
at
I( v dz w dy ) ’

wh e r e th e i nt g e ra ti o n is ta k e n ri gh t r n d th ou e ci r cu i t . I f th e c ir cu i t b e
i nfi n i t e ly s m a l l, th i s g i vs e

8A
at

A9 _ A ’
ax

wh e r e 0 h a s th e sa m e m ea n i ng as in th e te x t . Bu t ( Ar t . 3 9 ) th e
c i r c u l a t io n i n th e c i r cu i t is e qu a l to 2 ( 5A n B Z
0) ,
an d si nc e thi s is
c o ns ta n t w i th r e
g a rd t o th e ti m e we h a v e

a
at

M e sse n g e r f
o M a th e m a ti c s ,
J lyu ,
1877 .
 NO TES . 2 43

i . e . by ( )
4 an d s i m il a r e qu a tio n s

(Sf

n r
Thi s b e i g t u e fo r a n y s m a l l c i c u i t w h a te r vr e ,
th e c o e ffic i e n ts o f
A, B , C o n th e l e ft - n
h a d s i d e m u s t s e pa a te l r h y v ni a s . Th e e qu a ti o n s
t h u s O b ta in d e q i v l nt t
are e u a e o

I f we i n t r d c th L g r n gi n n t t i n f A rt
o u e e a 16 &
a a o a o o s .
,
c .
,
an d a l
pp y
( )
5 t o th e c i r c i t w hi ch i i ti lly b n d d th r ct ngl db d
u n a ou e e e a e c, we h a v e

d (y , z
)
A d b d c, &c
c) ,
.

d ( b,
an d th e rfr e o e

d ( a, z
) d ( z , 90
) 01 6 a)
13,
5 ” “
5“
d (b, c) ub
c ,
d (b c ) ,

wh e r e $ 0 is th e n
i i ti a l v a lu e o f f at
( a ,
b, c) . Th i s an d tw o si m i lr
a

e qu a ti o ns w h i ch m a y b e w ri tt e n d o w n fro m s y m m e try a r e C a u ch y s ’

i n te g r a l s o f th e La g ra n g i a n e qu a t i o n s Th e s e i n t e g ral s c o n t a i n a s .
,

S to k e s p o i n te d o u t th e fir s t ri g o r o u s p r o o f o f La g r a n g e s th e o r e m
’

,
Se e .

Ar t 2 3 . Th e r e m a r k t h a t th e y fo ll o w i n th e a b o v e m a nn e r fr o m
.

Th o m s o n s c i r c u l a ti o n-
th e o r e m i s du e to P ro f Na ns o n
’
. .

I f we e li m i n a e t 39 b e tw e e n th e qu a ti o ns o f m o ti o n o f a
e vi c
s o us

li q uid of Ar t . we o b ta i n th re e e qu a ti o ns o f th e fo rm
85 el se da
— -
da
+ Z + Mv f
&Z
.

a, y
Th e firs t th re e t e rm s o n th e ri g h t- h a n d s i d e e x pr e ss a s w e h a ve s e e n , ,

th e ra t e a t w h i c h 5 va ri e s fo r a a rt i c u l a r pa rt i cl e w h e n th e v o rt e x - li n es
p
mo v e w i th th e fl u i d a n d th e s tr e ng th s o f a l l th e v o rt i c e s r e m a i n c o n s ta n t .

Th e a ddi ti o n a l v a r i a t i o n o f 5 d u e t o vi s c o s i ty i s gi v e n b y th e l a s t t e rm
of a n d fo ll o w s th e sa m e l a w a s th e v a r i a t i o n o f t e m e ra t u r e d u e to
p
c o n du cti o n o f h e a t i n a m e di u m o f u n i fo rm c o nd u cti v i ty I t a ppe a rs .

fro m th i s a n a l o gy th a t v o rt e x - m o t i o n c a nn o t o ri g i na t e i n th e i n te ri o r O f

a vi s c o u s fl u i d b u t m u s t b e diffu s e d i n w a r ds fr o m th e b o u n da ry
, .

1 6— 2
 N O TE E .

On the R e s i s ta n ce of Flu id s .

On e o f th e t i m p o r ta n t b u t a t th e s a m e ti m e m o s t diffic u l t pra cti c a l

m os

u e s t i o n s c o nn e ct e d w i t h th e s u b j e ct o f t h i s b o o k i s th e d e te r m i n a t i o n
q
o f th e r e s i s t a n c e e x e r i e n c e d b y a s o l i d m o v i n g th r o u g h a fl u i d e g b y
p ,
. .

a sh i
p m o v i n g t h r o u h th e w a t e r o r b y a p r o j e cti l e t h r o u g h th e a i r
g , .

Th e e ffe ct O f a l i q u i d o n th e m o t i o n o f a s o l i d t h r o u gh i t h a s b e e n
d i s c u s s e d o n c e rt a i n a s s u m p t i o n s i n A rt s 1 05 — 1 1 9
, ,
I t w a s th e re
. .

fo u n d th a t th e w h o l e e ffe ct w a s s i m pl y e qu i v a l e n t to a n i n c r e a s e i n th e
i n e r ti a o f th e s o l i d Th e l a tt e r y i e l d s m o r e s l u gg i s h l y to th e a cti o n o f
.

fo r c e th a n i t w o u ld d o i f th e fl u i d w e r e r e m o v e d w h e th e r th e t e n de n cy ,

o f th e fo r c e b e to i n c r e a s e o r t o d i m i ni s h th e m o t i o n w h i c h th e b o d
y
a l re a d h b u t t h e r e i s n o te n d e n c t a t o ta l t r a n s fe r o f e n e r
y as y o
gy o f
m o ti o n fr o m th e s o l i d to th e fl u i d o r in
.
an
y,
o t h e r w a
y t o r e d u ce th e
s o l i d to r e s t . Th u s a s ph e re i m m e r s e d i n a l i qu i d w i l l m o v e u n de r th e
a ct i o n o f a n y fo r c e s e x a ct l y a s i f i ts i n e rt i a w e r e i n c r e a s e d b h a l f th a t
y
o f th e fl u i d d i s l a c e d a n d th e fl u i d t h e n a nni hi l a t e d F o r i n s ta n c e i f
p , .
,

s e t i n m o t i o n a n d t h e n l e ft t o i t s e l f i t w i l l d e s c r i b e a s t r a i h t a th w i t h
, g p
u n i fo rm v e l o c i t
y .

Th e s e th e o re ti ca l c o n cl u s i o n s do n o t a t a l l c o rr e s po n d w i th w h a t i s
o b s e rv e d i n a ct u a l c a s e s As a m a tt e r o f fa ct a b o dy m o vi ng th r o u g h a
.

fl u i d re qu i re s a c o n ti n u a l a ppl i c a ti o n o f fo rc e to m a i n ta i n th e m o ti o n ,

a n d i f thi s b e n o t s u
pp li e d th e b od
y i s qu i ck l y b r o u g h t to r e s t .

Th i s di s c r e p a n cy b e t w e e n th e o ry a n d Ob s e rv a ti o n m u s t b e d u e to
u nr e a l i t i n o n e o r m o r e o f th e f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m t i o n w h i c h t h
y p s o n e

i nv e s ti g a ti o n s r e fe rr e d to w e r e b a s e d Th e s e a s s u m p ti o n s a r e
.

A Th a t th e flu i d i s p e rfe ct i e t h a t th e re i s n o ta n g e n ti a l a ct i o n
’
.
,
. .

b e t w e e n a dj a c e n t p o rt i o n s o f fl u i d o r b e tw e e n th e fl u i d a n d th e s o l i d
,

B. Th a t th e m o t i o n i s c o n ti n u o u s i e th a t th e v e l o ci ti e s a v w
,
. .
, ,

a r e e v e r y w h e r e c o n ti n u o u s fu n cti o n s o f th e c o - o r di n a t e s an d

O. Th a t th e fl u i d i s u nl i m i te d e x c e pt b y th e s u r fa c e o f th e s o l i d .
 O ES
N T . 24 5

L e ta k e th e s e i n o rde r
t us .

A Th e e ffe ct s o f i m p e r fe ct fl u i di ty o r v i s c o s i ty h a ve b e e n t re a te d
.
, ,

o f in C h a te r I X Th e r e s i s t a n c e d u e to t h i s c a u s e i s p r o o r t i o n a l to
p
p .

th e v e l o c i ty o f th e s o l i d a n d fo r a b o dy o f g i v e n s h a pe to i ts l i n e a r
, , ,

d i m e n s i o ns Th i s h a s b e e n p r o v e d in th e t e x t fo r th e c a se o f th e
.

s p h e re d i m e n s i o n s to e x t e n d th e
‘
a n d i t i s e a s y b y th e m e th o d o f
’

, , ,

re s u l t to th e ge ne ra l c a s e Th u s i f I L t T a U p P b e c o rre .
, , , , , , ,

s p o n d in g l e n g th s t i m e s v e l o c i ti e s a n d pre ss u re s i n two g e o m e tr i ca ll y
, , ,

s i m i l a r c a s e s o f m o ti o n i t a e a r s fr o m e qu a t i o n s A t t
pp , ( )
1 4 o f r t 1 80 h a .

w e m u s t h a ve

p
'

P p m {L U p u p U
Z L l
2
L
2
t T
‘ ”
l L
He nc e
t T

Za L U
i
"
10 1 PL 2

t T

Th a t i s , th e r e sul a t n ts of th e p r e s s ur es
( n r m l
o a an dta nge nti a l) o n
an y c o rr e s p o ndi ng a re a s a r e p ro po r ti o na l to e o u th p r d ct s o f c o rr e s o n di n
p g
l i n e s a n d ve l o c i t i e s .

I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d h o w e ve r th a t th e i nve s ti g a ti o ns o f Ch a p
te r I X p r o c e e d o n th e a ss u m p ti o n th a t th e m o ti o n i s s l o w
. Th u s i t i s .

ve ry do u b tful w h e th e r th e e qu a ti o n s o f Ar t 1 80 o r th e b o u nda ry
.

,
.

c o n di ti o n s o f Ar t 1 8 1 w o u l d b e a p pl i c a b l e to th e m o ti o n o f th e s tra tu m
.
,

o f w a t e r i n c o n t a c t w i t h th e s i de o f a s h i i n r a i d m o ti o n
p p .

B .
pp It a ea r frs om Ar t 3 0 th a t . c e r t a i n l i m th e r e i s
i t t o t h e a

ve l o ci ty o f a s o li d o f gi ve n s h a p e i f b e c o n ti n u o u s th e m o t i o n
Whe n .

th i s li m i t i s r e a ch e d th e p r e s s u re a t s o m e p o i n t o f th e s u rfa c e o f th e
,

s o li d s i n k s to z e r o a n d if th e li m i t b e e x c e e d e d a s u r fa c e o f di s c o n t i n u i ty
, ,

i s fo r m e d S e e Ar t 9 4
. I f th e s u rfa c e o f th e s o l i d h a v e a s h a rp
. .

p r o j e ct i n
g e d g e o r a n g l e t h i s l i m i t i n g v ,
e l o c i t y i s v e r y s m a l l ( z e r o i f th e

e dg e b e o f
p e r fe ct g e o m e t r i c a l s h a r p n e s s
) w h i l s t f o r b o di e s o f f a i r
,
e a sy
’

s h a pe i t m a
y b e c o n s i d e r a b le .

W h e n th e m o t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f m o m e n t u m i s
e x p e n de d i n e a c h u n i t o f t i m e i n s t a r t i n th e e l e m e n t a ry s t r e a m s w h i c h
g
d i ve rg e fr o m th e b o dy i n fro n t b u t th i s m o m e n t u m i s r e s to re d a g a i n to ,

th e b o dy b y th e s tr e a m s a s t h e y c l o s e i n b e h i n d B u t w h e n a s u rfa c e .

o f d i s c o n t i n u i ty i s fo r m e d th e s tre a m s d o n o t cl o s e i n a ai n ; o n
g t h e

c o n tra ry w e h a ve a m a s s o f d e a d w a t e r fo ll o w i n g th e b o dy a n d
,
‘ ’

p r e s s i n g o n i ts r e a r w i th m e r e l
y t h e g e n e r a l p r e s s u re w h i c h o b t a i n s i n
2 46 NO TES .

th e p a rt s o f th e fl u i d w h i ch a r e at r es t . He nc e th e r es o t r a ti o n o f
m om e nt m u n o l o n g e r t a k e s pl a c e ,
an d a fo rc e qu a l to th e l o s s pe r
e u ni t
tim e m us t be a
ppli e d t o th e s o li d in o rd r t e o m a i n t a i n i ts m o ti o n .

Th e o nl y
c a s e o f th i s ki n d w h i ch h a s a s y e t b e e n m a th e m a ti ca lly
w o rk e d o u t i s th a t i n w h i c h th e s o li d i s a l o n g pl a n e l a m i n a w i th ,

p r
a a lle l s t r ai h
g t ed es
g I f t h e l a m i n a m o v e b r o a d s i d e -
on th e m o ti o n i s
.
,

Ob ta i n e d fro m Ar t 9 8 b y c o n s i d e ri n g a v e l o c i ty g p a r a l l e l to y i m pre s s e d
.
o

o n e v e ry th i n g Th e r e s i s t a n c e to th e m o ti o n o f th e l a m i n a w i th v e l o c i ty
.

g, i s th e n
4
77

+ 7r
pa i ,
l w h e r e zi s th e b r ea d th of th e l a m i n a . Th e r e si s a t n ce
e x pe ri n c
d b y a la m i
e e n a vi ng
m o o b li qu e l y h a s b e e n c a l c u l a te d by Lo rd
R a y l e i g h ( l 0 Ar t . . . Th r e e su l t is

77 00 8 0 .

4 + 7r C O S a .

wh e r e a i s th e a ng l e w h i h th e di c r e cti o n o f m o ti o n o f th e l a m i n a m a ke s
w i th th e n rm l t i t pl n o a o s a e .

G n r l l y th e r i t n c d t th i c
e a e i pr p r t i n l t th
es s a e ue o s a u se s o o o a o e

sq r f th v l c i ty
ua e o l ng e w e o m th t th m t i n f th
,
so o as e ca n a ssu e a e o o s o e

fl i d c rr p nd i ng t d i fl
u o es t v l c i ti
o f th li d o g t i c l
erenl y e o es o e so are eom e r a

sim i l r a .

Th f rm ti n f th w k w h i ch i b rv d t f ll w v li ’
e o a o o e a e s o se e o o o a e s se n

m ti n ho o b n tt i b t d b y as mee w ri t r t th fri cti n b tw n th

a r u e so e e s o e o e ee e

su rf c f th h i p d th w t r I t i pp d th t th t n d n cy f
a e o e s an e a e . s su o se a e e e o

th i fri cti n i t d r g m
s o f w t r b di ly ft r th
s o a h ip a Th i ass o a e o a e e s . s

ex p l t i n
an a i f rr ct oh w t
,
h t th l w
co f fl i d e fr i ct i ,
n s l i d de w n i
s a e a s o u o a o n

Ch pt r I X d
a e t h ld f . ch r pi d m ti n
o n o o h r i q orti n su a o o s as ar e e e n ues o .

I t m p i b l h w v r th t th w k m y b i g r t m
se e s o ss e o e r
e a e a e a e n a ea e a su e

d ue t th c o t pr e nt n d r c n i d r ti n I t i t ll v n t
au se a e se u e o s e a o . s a a e e s

a d i tt d th t th
m e w k i g r tl y i n c r
a d b y d i c n t i n i ty i
e a e sth ea e a se s o u n e

li n f th v
e s o l t t f th i ng f v r b l
e e sse ,
a w h vs a n t th
e o s a ou a e as e a e se e o e

f r o ti n f
m a rf c f di c nti n i ty i th fl i d Ag i i t i
o o a su a e o s o u n e u . a n
*
s

p o ssi b l t h t t h eb tt m af h i p ( p cei l l y w h no f l )
o i t b o a s es e a e ou s o e re

g r
a d d te
g n ot r i c l r
as af c b t me om e f p r j ct i n a c h su f a e ,
u as a a ss o o e o s ea o

w h i ch t b li h es a rf c f di c nti n i ty w i th d d w t r i i t r r
s es a su a e o s o u ,
ea a e n s ea ,

on it w s occ nt Th g g r g t f th
n a ou m . f d d w t rw e a ld e a e o e se a ss e s o ea a e ou

t h n b i l d p th w k
e u W h l d th
u el h v a e
p l. n t i n f e s ou u s a so a e an ex a a o o

th el w l id d wn b y
a , a m w ri t r th i
o b j ct t h t th so
‘ ki n e e s on s su e ,
a e s

r i t n c i pr p rti n l t th q r f th v l ci ty
es s a e
’
s o o o a o e s ua e o e e o .

C f St k G l T l p 3 01
. o e s, a m f . rans .
, v o . v m , . .
 NO TES . 2 47

Ofc o u rs e th e r e i s n o t pra ct i ca lly i n a n y o f th e se case s a bs o l u te , ,

di s c o n ti n u i ty o f m o ti o n I t w a s s h e w n i n Ar t 1 3 2 th a t a s u r fa ce o f . .

d i s c o n t i n u i ty m a y b e r e g a r de d a s m a de u p o f a s y s te m o f v o r ti ce s
di s t r i b u te d i n a c e r ta i n w a y O w i n g to fl u i d fr i ct i o n th e v o r te x -m o ti o n .

d o e s n o t r e m a i n c o n c e n t ra te d i n thi s s u r fa c e b u t i s d i ffu se d th r o u g h th e
'

fl u i d o n e a c h s i de Th u s th e b o u n da ry o f th e de a d w a te r i s m a r ke d b y .

a ba d n of e ddi e s .

C . Th e e fle c t
'

of a r igi d b o u da y to th e fl u i d n r m ay be es ti m a t e d
f r om Ar t 1 2 5 .
( ) a . It a
pp e r
a s th a t i f th e di m e sio n n s o f th e so li d be
s m a ll c o m pa r e d w i th i ts di s t nca e f r om th e b ou nd y ar ,
th e i nfl n ue ce of

th e l a tt e r m a y b e n e g l e cte d .

A fre e su rf c
n c fr m i t l h li ttl ff t
a e at a
g r t ea di s ta e o a so as e e ec on

a so li d Th c i
. h w e r w h n th li d i nly p rti l ly
a se s o th rwi e se o ev e e e so s o a a

b m rg d h i O ff ct f t h m t i n i t m k th p r r o a e e s su e
u
s e e e n e e e e o o s e
g p ,
. . a s . o

d vi t fr m i t
e a t ti c l v l
e o t i n cr it fs s a i n t nc t th b ws a a ue o e a se ,
or s a e ,
a e o

an d t th t ma d t di m i ni h i t m i d h i p
e s e H n c th l v l f th
,
an o s a s s e e e e e o e

fl i d i di t rb d th r i
u s s u l v ti n f th e w t r t ,
c h f th e e s an e e a o o e a e a ea o e

f rm r p i n t
o e d d pr o i n b tw n s, A w v l i k th i
an c m a e e ss o e ee . a e e s, ae o

n
a
p y g i n th hi p w l d f c r e c s l f n r gy
,
b y n d w h
ou t o ou se a u se n o o ss o e e e o a

i n c
s e ry t m i n t i n i t g i n t vi c i ty B t w h v l w v
e s sa o a a a a s s os . u e a e a so a es

p r d o c d w h iuc h t r v
e l v r t h r f c d c rr y ff n r gay t t h
e o e e su a e ,
an a o e e o e

di t n t p rt
s a f th fl i d Th n rgy th
a s o di p r d m t f c r e u . e e e us s e se us o o u se

c m di r ctly i n di r ctly fr m th h i p ;
o e e or d th l fr m thi s c e o e s an e o ss o a u se

c n ti t t
o s
p c i ul f r m f
es a s r i t n c c l l d w e v a o o es s a e ,
a e a e

A b dy m vi n g th r gh i w il l i li k m n r
o o
p r i n c r i t ou a r n e a n e ex e e e a es s

an c d t th di p r i n f n rgy b y i -w v I t pp r h w v r
e ue o e s e s o o e e a r a es . a ea s, o e e ,

th t i f th m ti n b t dy d th v l c i ty f th b dy m l l c m p r d
a e o o e s ea ,
an e e o o e o s a o a e

w i t h th t f nd th r i t n c d t th i c
a o so u i i n p pr c i b l,
e es s a e ue o s a u se s a e a e .

F w h v
or w i th th
e m a n t ti n i A t 1 6 9
e, e sa e o a o as n r .
,

ds
dt

n b y i pr i g
Th i s i s ryth i g l ci ty q l d pp it
e a sily s e e m e ss n on ev e n a v e o e ua an o os e

t th t f th
o h ipa d or d ci g th c t e sf t dy ti n , an so e u n e a se o on e o s ea m o o .

F di c i n f th
or a i ki d fw pr d c d b y
s hi p
uss o d f th o e v ar o u s n s o av e s o u e a s , an o e

p b
ro b l l w a f w r it c w
- e a t frt s
p p b y R ki n
o i th av e e s s an e , e m us re e o a a er an e ,
n e

Phil T f . 1871 Th t d nt y l c n l t
rans . th
or g n l q ti n . e s u e m a a so o su , on e e era ue s o ,

R ki n
an
“
O St -L i i c nn cti n wi th N l Archi t ct
e n N r e am n es n o e o av a e ur e ,
”
a tu r e
l
v o . d Fr d11, an
“
O Str -L in i R l ti n t th R i t nc f Shi p
ou e n eam es n e a o o e es s a e o s,
”

N a tu r e , v ol . 111 .
2 48 NO TE S .

an d w 1 i ti 11 g qS : o
ut,
w h e r e a i s th e vl
e o c i ty o f th e s o l i d, we ha v e ,
as in
l l
A rt s . 8 6 , 1 05 , to w i t e r fo r
I ”
,
a
i
c r
’
wh e n th e q u an t1 t1 e s to be

d i ffe r n ti e a te d ar e r f rr
e e e d to axe s fix e d i n th e s o li d . On th i s su
pp o si ti o n
th e ab v o e fo rm u l ae b e co m e

an d th e rfr
e o e
?
a ( Pi p
d oc

i . h
v fe ) .i s o f th e se co nd o rd re o f s m a ll qu a n t i t i e s . He nc e to a fi rs t
a
pp o r
x i m a ti o n
2
V ¢ 2 O)

i . e . th e flu i d m o v e s se n sib l y as if i t we r i n c om pr
e e ss ib e l .
 L I S T O F M E M O I R S AN D TR E ATI S E S .

M EM O RS I .

E UL E R ,
L . P i r nc ip es
g éné raux du m ou v em e nt d e s flu i de s . H is t d e .

l Aca d l B e r li n 1755
’
. c e . .

De p ri n c i p ii s m o u t s flu i d o r u m . N oni Co m m . Ac a d . P e tr op .

t
1 4, p 1
. . . 175 9 .

L AG R AN G E , J L . . r
M é m o i e s u r l a th é o i e d u r m ou v em e nt de s flu i de s .

Nou n . Af em .ale l Ac a tl d e B e r l i n
’
1 78 1 . . .

P O I SSON, S D . . S u r l e s e qu a ti o n s g a l e s d e l e u il i b r e e t d u m o u e
q énér v
m e nt d es r é
c o ps s o l i de s l a s t i qu e s e t de s flu i de s J e a r n ol e ZE c o l e
’
. .

P o ly t . t . 13 . 1819 .

G R EE N, G . R e se a r ch es on th e vi b r a ti o n s of p e nd u lu m s in flu i d m e di a .

Tr a n s . R S . . E di n . Vol . 13 . 1 8 33 .

O n th e m o ti o n of wa v es in a v ria ab le c a na l of sm a l l d e p th an d
wid ht . Ca m b Tr a n s .
,
v o l. 6, 1 8 37 .

N o te on th e m o ti o n of wa v es in c a na l s . C a m b Tr a n s .
,
v ol . 7 .

1 8 39 .

S TO KES ,
G G . . O n th e t
s e a dy m o ti o n of i nc om
pr e s si b l e fl u i ds . Ca m b .

Tr a n s ,
v ol . 7 . 1 842 .

On fl u i d m o t i o n C a m b Tr a n s v o l 8 1 8 4 3
so m e ca s e s o f . .
, . . .

S C O TT R U SS E LL J R e p o r t o n w a ve s B A R ep o r ts
,
1 844. . . . . .

A I RY G B ,
Ti d e s a n d w a v e s
. . E n cy c M e tr 0p v o l 5 1 8 45 . . .
, . . .

S TO K E S G G ,
O n th e th e o ri e s o f th e i n te rn a l fr i cti o n o f flu i ds i n
. .

m o tio n a n d o f th e e qu ili b r i u m a n d m o ti o n
, o f e l a s t i c s o li d s .

C a m b Ti a n .
'

s ,
v o l 8
. . 1 8 45 .

R e po rt 0 11 r c nt r
e e e se a rch es in h d y r o dy n am i cs . B A R ep o r ts
. . .

1 846 .

S u ppl e m e nt t o a m em oi r on so m e ca s e s of fl ui d m o ti o n . Ca m b .

Tr a n s , v o l 8 . . 1 846 .

On th e th e o ry o f os c i ll a to ry wa v es . Ca m b . Tr a n s ,
v o l. 8 .

1 8 47 .
250 L I ST OF M EM O I R S
TH O M SO N , W . No te s on h d y r dyn o am i cs . Ca m b . an d Da b . . Ma th J . .
,

v ol . 4 . 1 8 49 .

S TO K E S ,
G G . . O n wa v es . Ca m b . an d D a b M a th J . . .
,
v ol . 4 . 1 8 49 .

O n th e e ffe ct of th e i nt rn e al r
f i cti o n o f fl u i ds on
‘
th e m o ti o n of

p e nd u lu m s . Ca m b Tr a n s .
,
v ol . 9 . 1851 .

CL E BS C H ,
A . Uebe r di B e w e g u n g e i e s E l l i ps o i ds i n e i
e n nr e tr 0 pfb a r e n
Fl us s i g k e i t . Cr e l le , t 5 2 1 85 6 ; a n d t 5 3 1 8 5 7
. . . . .

H E L M HO L TZ, H . Ueb e r I n t g r l d h y dr dy n m i ch n Gl i ch ng n
e a e er o a s e e u e

w e l ch e de n W i rb lb w g ng n n t p r ch n e C ll t 55 e e u e e s e e . r e e, . .

1 85 8 .

R I E MA NN, B . Ueb e r di Fo r t pfla n z u n g

e eb e nrL e u ftw e l l e n v on e ndl i ch r e

S ch wi g u n n g s w e i t e G
’
ott A hh , .
’

. . t . 8 . 1860 .

DI R I C H L E T, P L E—
J . . U nt r e su ch u ng e n ub e r e in P r blo em de r H y d r o

dy n am ik . Go tt Ahh . .
,
t . 8 . 1 860 .

EA R N SH A W ,
S . On th e m a t h e m a ti c a l th e o ry o f so u nd . P hi l . Tr a n s .

1 860 .

H E L M HO LTZ an d P I OT R OW S K I . U e be rR e n
i b u g tr o p fb a r e r Fl u s s i gk e i te n .

Wi e n . S i tz B . . t . 40 . 1860 .

M EY E R ,
O . E . Ueb e r di e n
R e i b u g d e r Fl u s s i g k e i te n . Cr e lle , t . 59 .

186 1 .

R I E M ANN, B . Be i t g r a zu de n U nt r e su ch u n g e n ub e r di e B e w e gu g n e i n es

flii s s i g e n g l e i ch a rt i g n E ll i p e s o i ds . Ge n . Ahh .
,
t . 9 186 1
. .

R AN K NEI ,
W . J M . . On th e e xa ct fo rm o f wa v n r th
es ea e su rf a ce of

d e e p w a te r . P h il Tr a n . s . 1863 .

S TE FA N , M J . . Uebe r d ie Be w e g u g flii ss i g e r K o r pe r n . Wi e n . S i tz B . .

t 46 . . 1863 .

R AN K I N E W ,
. J . M . On pl a n e wa t e r-
li ne s in tw o di m e nin s o s . P hi l .

f r an s 1864 .

Su m m a ry o f th e p r o pe rt i s e of c e r ta i n s t r e a m -
l in e s . P hil M ag . .

1864 .

M A XW E LL , J C . . O n th e vi s c o s i ty or i nt rn e al r
f i cti o n o f a ir an d o th e r
g a se s . P h i l Tr . an s . 1866 .

THO M SON , W . On v rt o ex a to m s . Phil Mag 1867

. .

R AN KI N E W ,
. J M . . O n wa v es in li qu i d s Pr oc R S . . . . 1868 .

H E L M HO L TZ ,
H . Ueb e r d i s c o n ti n u ir l i ch e Fl u s s i g ke i ts b e w e g un
g e n .

B e r l M 0n . a ts b . 1868 .

WE B E R ,
H . Uebe r in e e T r n f rm
a s o a ti o n de r h y d r dyn o am i s ch e n Gl e i ch
u ng n e . Cr e l le , t . 68 . 1868 .

RA N K NE
I ,
W th e rm o dy na m i c th e o ry o f
. J M . . O n th e wa v es of fini t e
l o ng i tu di n a l di s tu r b a n c e P h i l Tr a n s 1 870 . . . .

TH O MSON W O n vo rt e x m o ti o n Tr a n s R S E di n
,
. . . .
,
v o l . 25 . 1869 .
 AND TR EATI SES . 251

KI R C HHO FF ,
G . Zu r Th e o i e f r rir e e Fl us s i g ke i ts s tr a h l e n . Cr e lle , t . 70
.

186 9 .

Uebe r di e Be w e g u g n e i n es R o ta ti o n s ko r pe r s i n e i n r Fl fi
e ss i g ke it .

Or e l l e , t . 71 1870 . .

Uebe r di e K r a fte , w e l c h e zw e i u n n d l i ch
e du nn e ,
s a t rr e R i ge in n
e i n r Fl ue ssi
g k e it s ch e i nb a r au f e i n nd r
a e a u s ii b e n kOn
'

n en C r e fle ,.

t 71 . . 1 870 .

M AXWE LL J ,
O n th e di s pl a c e m e t i n
. C . n a ca s e o f flu i d m o ti o n . Pr oc .

L an d M a th S e a , v o l 3
. 1 87 0 . . . .

M E YE R ,
O E . . Ueb e r di p n d l n d B w
e e e e e e gu ng i n r e e K u ge l u nt r d e em

E i n flu s s e de r i nn r n R ib ng e e e u de s u m g e b e nd n e M e di u m s .

Cr e lle ,
t . 73 . 187 1 .

R AN K NEI ,
W . th e m a ti c a l th e o r
J M . r . ne s e s
On th e m a y o f s t e a m -
l i ,

i ll t h w i t h f u r fo c i a n d u p w a r d s 1 8 7 1 P h i l Tr cm s
p e c a
y o s e o . . . .

THO M SON W Hy d ro k i n e ti c s o l u t i o n s a n d o b s e rva t i o n s P h i l M a g 1 8 7 1

, . . . . .

O n th e u l t ra - m u n da n e c o rp u s c l e s o f L e S a g e a l s o o n th e m o ti o n
'

o f r i g i d s o li ds i n a l i qu i d c i r c u l a t i n g i rr o t a t i o n a lly t h r o u g h pe r

fo r a ti o n s i n th e m o r i n a fix e d s o li d Phil Mag 1 87 3 . . . .

R AY L E I G H L O RD O n w a ve s
,
P hi l M a g 1 876 . . . . .

O n th e r e s i s t a n c e o f fl u i d s P h i l Al a g 1877 . . .

N o t e s o n h y dr o dyn a m i c s P h i l M a g 1 8 7 7 . . . .

G R EE NH I LL A G
P l a n e v o r t e x m o ti o n
, .
Q u a r t J of M a th v o l 1 5
. . . .
, . .

1877 .

TR E AT SE S I .

L AG R A N G E , J . L . M é c ni q a ue a n l y ti q a u e . E d 1 8 15 , P a
. rt 2 ,
S e ct 1 0, .

1 1, 12 .

P O I SSON, S . D . T r ai té de m é c ni q a ue . 2m e éd . r
P a i s , 1 833 . T 2, .

li v . 6 .

THO M SON , W . an d TA I T, P G . . T r ea t is e on n t r l ph il a u a o so h
p y . Ox
r
fo d , 1 8 6 7 . 3 3 1 — 33 6 . New e di ti n C m b ri dg o : a e, 1 87 9 .

3 2 0— 3 3 0 .

R I E M A NN , B . r ti
Di fle r e n ti a l g l e i c h u n g e n
Pa e ll e
'

un d de r n Anw nd ng
e e u

auf
ph s i k a li s ch ey F a
g e H s
g r n . r . v . H a tte n d ff B r nn
or . a

s ch w e i g ,
1 869 . 9 8 — 109 .

R ES AL , H . T r i té a de m é ca i q u e n g énér a le . P a i s, 1 87 4 r . T 2, . cc .

1 3, 1 4 .

KI R C HHO FF ,
G . V o le su g e r n n u be r m a th e m a t i s ch e Ph y ik s . Le i pz ig ,

1 8 7 4— 6 . C c 1 5— 2 6
. .

B E S A N T, W . H . T r ea ti s e O 11 H d y r om e ch a n i c s . 3r d e di ti o n ,
C a m b i dg e , r
187 7 . C c 1 0— 1 5 . .
 E XER C I S E S .

1 . I f th e m o ti o n of a fl u id in tw o d i m n i ns b r f rr d t p l r
e s o e e e e o o a

co -
or di n t 0 d if
a es r , ,
an a ,
1) de n o te th e c m p n n t v l c i ti
o o l ng
e d e o es a o an

r
p p e n d i c ler t th r d i u a o e a us v e ct o r ,
th e c m p n n t cc l r ti n i th
o o e a e e a o s n e

s m di r cti n
a e e o s ar e

( la da da
dt ’
ar r dfl r

dv cl tl v
+ p+
b _ v _
_ +
n v

dt e r dfl r
’

r es
p e cti ve ly .

2 . I f i n th e so lu ti o n o f th e e qu a t i o n s

wh e r e a ,
v ,
w ar e g i v n f nct i n
e u o s o f ac, g , z, t, sa t i s fyi n g th e c o ndi ti o n
th e l
( v dw
( l a: alg dz

at, g , z be p r ex e sse d as fu n ct i n o s o f t, an d th e a rb i tr ry c n t nt
a o s a s a ,
b, c,

th e d e te rm i n n t a
(xcl , g, z ) i nd e e nd nt e o f t
c
1s
p .

(
(l a ,
b, )

3 . If F ( ee ,
g ,
z,
)
t = O b e the e qu a t i o n o f a m o v i ng su rf a ce ,
th e

v e l o c i ty o f th e su rf a ce nr
o m al to i ts e l f a t an
y p oi nt i s

l dF
R dt
’ wh e r e R
2

He nc ’

e de du c e th e s ur fa c e -
c o di ti o n n of Ar t 1 0 . .
[ Th om so n
]
 E XE RC I SES . 253

4 . I n th e ca s e o fm o ti o n i n t w o di m e n i ns f
s o o r whi h c
5 (g
’
a tlas v tl g d

a
pp y (
l 1 0) o f Ar t 10 to o b t a i th e g e e a l e q u a t i o o f li e s m a de u
.
p o f n nr n n
th e s a m e p a r t i c l e s ; a n d th e c e s h e w t h a t th e pa t i c l e s w h i c h o ce li e in n r n
a c u r v e o f th e n th o de c o t i u e to l i e i n a c u e o f th e n th o d e r r r n n rv r .

[S to ke s
]
5 .
Inv es t i g a te an e xp e ss io r n f th c h n g i or e a e n an n
i de fi i te ly n Sh o r t
t im e i n th e m a ss o f flu id co n t i n d w i th i n ph ri c
a e a s e al s u r fa c e o f s m a ll

r a di u s .

r v th t th
P o e a e m om e nt um o f th e m a ss i n th e d i r cti n
e o o f th e a xi s of

x i g r t r th n i t w
s ea e a ou ld b e i f th e w h o l e we r e m ov i n g w i th th e v e l o c i ty
a t th c n t r b ye e e

1 Al a d p ( ln
?
dp cl a lp d a
{
(

5 dm d m
+
d y dy
+
d z ol z
+
%p al s. dy
’z
f
p

[ H . M Ta y l o
. r ,
M a th Tr ip .
,

6 . A ci s te rn di s c h a rg e s
t m o s p h e r e t h r o u g h a v e rt i wa te r i nt o th e a

ca l p i p e o f u o nif rm s e ct i o n
Sh e w t h a t a i r w o u l d b e s u ck e d i n t h ro u g h .

a s m a l l h o l e i n th e u p e r a r t o f th e i e n d e x p l a i n h o w th i s r e s u l t
p p p p a ,
,

i s c o n s i s t e n t w i th a n a t m o s ph e ri c p re s s u r e i n th e c i s t e r n .

Lo r d R a y l e i g h M a th Tr ip
[ , .
,

7 ri c l p rt i n f i n fi i t q i c n t li q i d b p r t d
. L e t a s he
p a o o o an n e u es e u e se a a e

fr m th l i q i d r n d i t b y
o e i n fin i t l y t h i n fl i b l m m b r n
u ou d l t an e ex e e a e , an e

th i m m b r n b
s dd l y
e t i m ti n a v ry p rt f i t i th di ~
e e su en se n o o ,
e e a o n e rec

ti n f th r di
o o d w i t h v l c i ty q l t S
e a h rm n i c f n cti n f
us an e o e ua o , ,
a a o u o o

p i
os t i n th r f c
o F i n d t
on h v l c i t y p r dec d tsu
y t rn la e . e e o o u e a an ex e a or

i n t rn l p i t f th l i q i d
e a o n o
[ T h m e
] u . o so n

rv 8 . P o e th a t th e e n rg y
t ti o n a l m o ti o n o f a li qu i d i n a
e o f th e i rr o a

g i v n r g i
e n i e o s l e s s th a n t h a t o f a n
y o t h e r c on t i n u o u s m o t i o n c o ns i s t e n t

t s a m e m o t i o n o f th e b o u n da r
w i h th e y [ Th o m s o n
] .

r v th t i f th r
9 . n t i l V ti
P o e a e fo c e -
p o te a sa sf
y th e rl e a ti o n v
’
V z O
th p r e r c nn t i i rr t ti n l m t i n b
e s su e a o , n o a o a o o , e a m i imn um at an
y p i o nt
i th i n t r i r f
n ei n c m pr i bl fl id e o o an o e ss e u .

In th i rr t ti n
10 . e o a o al m o ti o n o f a flu i d i n tw o di m e n i ns pr v
s o o e

th t i f th v l c i ty b
a e e o e ev eiy wh e r e th e sa m e in m ag ni t u de i t i s so in
di r ct i n e o .
[M a th Tr ip ,
18
254 E XE R CI SES .

11 rv
. Pd i n t rp r t th f l l w i ng f rm l f
o e ,
an th e n rgy f e ,
e o o o u a or e e e o a

l i q i d m vi ng i rr t ti n lly i tw di m n i n
u o o a 2 T p f¢ d p th i n t
o a n o e s o s : , e e

g rat i on t n di nexg r n ed th b n d ry ou e ou a .

12 W h n li q i d m v i rr t ti n l l y i tw di m n i n r n d
. e a u ~ o es o a o a n o e s o s ou a

co rn r wh r tw b r nch s f th b n d ry m t t
e e e o
'

a ngl e o e ou a ee a an a e a

( m e a sur d t h
e i d onf th l i q i d ) w eh i c hs i e h w t h t th
o e u s s e a e

p ar t i c l t th e a c rn r i i ep i t i n f
o p r m en n t i n st n t n n s r t a os o o e a e or s a a eou es

a cc rdi ng
o fly 90 as a
0
or

W h t t k pl c w h n > 1 8 0 l
a a es a e
[S tek ] a
° '
o es

13 A t r m f n if r m d p th
. s ea d f n i f rm w i dth 2 fl w
o u o e an o u o a o s

s ol w ly th r gh b ri dg c n i ti n g f tw q l r h r ti ng
ou a e o s s o o e ua a c es es on a

r ct ng l r pi r f w i dth 2 6 th b ri dg b i ng b r d th t nd r i t th
e a u a e o ,
e e e so oa a u e e

fl id m v
u i f rm ly w i th v l c i ty U
o es un o Sh w th t ft r th tr m e o . e a ,
a e e s ea

h as
p s d
as et h r g h t h b r i d g th ouv l c i t -
y p t n t i l f
e th m ti n i e ,
e e o o e a o e o o s
m rx
—6 é
f jg
za f
06
sm n re
f a
'

z
a.
,
“
a If n a a

th e a x i s o f a: b e i g i n th e fo w a d di n r r r e cti o n o f th e st r e am ,
an d th e o ri gi n
i ddl e p o i n 6 o f th e p i e r
'
at th e m .

Fi d th en e qu a t i o n
y r t i c l f th w t r of th e pa h t o f an
pa e o e a e .

[C N i v n M th T i p 1 8 78 ] . e , a . r ,

14 . Th tr n v r s cti n f
e if rm p ri m ti c c l
a s e d v
se l i e o o a un o s a o se e sse s

o f th e fo rm b nd d b y tw i n t r cti ng h y p rb l r pr nt d b y th
ou e o e se e o as e e se e e

e qu a t i o ns J2 ( sa ,
g
J (g
2
z

I f th e v e sse l be fill e d wi h wa t te r a n d b e m a de to r o ta te w i th a ng u la r
,

vl e o c i ty ( I) ab ou t i ts a xi s ,
p r v o e th a t th e i n i ti a l c o m po ne nt v e l o ci ti e s o f
an y p o i nt ( x,
g) o f th e w a t r wi ll
e be
0)
2 2 s

z
’
J (
2
“ Gr y 2 a h
e
) } a
b ,

r e s pe c ti ve l y .
[ Fe rr e r s, M a th Tr ip .
,
187

15 . W o rk ou t b y th e m e th o d of Ar t . 9 5 th e s o lu ti o n i n th e 0a

wh e r e a s tre a m o f l i qu i d, o f gi v n br
e ead th ,
n
i m pi g e s pe pe di c u l a l y o n r n r
in fi ni te p l a n l m ine a a .
[K i c h h o ff
] r
16 . An a n ch r-ri ng
r ll l t it i i o i n fin i t i s in m o ti o n p a a e o s ax s n an e

m a ss o f li q i d Sh w b y u di g r m th rr ng m n t f th tr m -
. e li n a a a e a a e e o e s ea es

an d e q i p t n ti l rf c fi r tly wh n th r i
u o e d s c n dl y w h n t h
a su a e s, s e e e s, a n e o e en

is n o , t cy c l i c m o ti n th r g h th r i ng o ou e .
 E XE RC I SES . 2 55

17 l rg cl d v s l f i n c m pr si b l li q id wi th m ti nl
. A a e o se es e o o es e u a o o e ss

so l i d gl b i m r d i i t t di t nc fr m th n r t p t f th
o e m e se n a a s a e o e ea es ar o e

o u t r b nd ry v ry g r t i c m p ri n w i th th r di
e ou a f th gl b
e ea n o a so e a us o e o e ,

is su dd nl y t i m t i n w i th
e g i v n t r n l
se t i n l v l cni t y V Fi n d o o a e a s a o a e o .

th i n t n t n
e m ti n
s a f th li q i d a d f th eous g l b P r v t h t o o o e u an o e . o e . o e a

a cc rd i ng th m n d n i ty f th g l b i g r t r
o as e l s th n th ea e s o e o e s ea e or es a e

d n i ty f th l i q i d i t v l c i ty i l
e s o g r et r t h n V u
( A m ,
s e o s e ss or ea e a . ss u e

th c e tr f i n r ti f th gl b t b i i t c nt r f fi g r )
en e o e a o e o e o e n s e e o u e .

[Th om so n
]
r v th t nd r th c i r c m t n c s f Art 1 07 1 08 th
18 . P o e a u e e u s a e o s .
,
e

li n r m m n t m
ea f th w h l o m tt r c n t i n d w i th i n
e u S ph i c l o e o e a e o a e a e r a

su rf c ncl i ng th w h l f th m vi ng li d i q l t tw -th i rd
a e e os e o e o e o so s s e ua o o s

o f th i m p l e l th t th li n r m m nt m f th m tt r c nt i d
u se a so a e ea o e u o e a e o a n e

w i th i n p h ri c l rf c a t n c
s l i n g y fet h l i d i tha m su a e n o e os an o e so s s e sa e as

i f t h i s m tt r w r ri gi d d m vi n g w i th th v l c i ty t th c n t r
a e e e an o e e o a e e e .

[Th om so n
]
19 . V e if r y th e fo rm r e o f th e t t
s a em e nt s i n th e p r e c e din g e x e r ci s e in
th e ca s e of th e s ph e r e
( A rt .

20 . A s ph e r e i s i n t i o n i n a m a s s o f l i qu i d e n cl o s e d i n a fix e d
m o

sph ri c e al ca s e . Fin d th e m o ti o n o f th e l i qu i d a t th e i n s t a n t w h e n th e
c ntr
e e of th e s ph e r e c o i n ci de s w i th th a t o f th e ca s e [S to ke s
] .

21 . A l so wo rk o u t, b y th e m e th o d o f Ar t 1 2 5 .
,
an a
pp e i m a te so u l
t i o n fo r th e c a s e i n w h i c h th e d i s ta n c e b e t w e e n th e c e n tr e s is sm al l
c o m p a re d w i th th e ra di u s o f th e c o n ta i ni ng ve s s e l .

22 . Int g r e a e t th e e qu a ti o ns of m o ti o n o f a s o li d t h r o u g h a li q u i d i n
th e ca s e of A r t 1 1 6 (g ) . .
[Th o m son
]
23 . W o rk t th e p o b l e m
ou r of Ar t 1 2 5 , . su pp o s i ng th e s ph e r ste o be
m o vi ng p rp n r e n f th i r c n t r
e di cu l a l y to th e l i e o e e es .

24 P r v ( b y th m th d f i m g ) th t
. o t r i gh tv rti c l v rt
e e e o o a es a a s a e a o ex

fil m n t m vi n g i w t r b
a e nd d b y tw v r ti c l w ll t ri g h t ng l
o n a e ou e o e a a s a a es

w i ll d c ri b th r ct nn r ’
C t
es p i l i e2 0 i l y t
eh m mo es s s a r s n : a n e xa e sa e a e

as
p rt
a i c l d r t h a ct i n f r e
p l i n v
un r i
y g n i nv r l
e
y t h e a o o a e u s o a e se as e

c b f th di t n c
u e o e s a e .

Pr v l by h o m m th d th t if th v rt i c l p l n
e a so b i n c li d
t e sa e e o a e e a a es e n e

ngl — ct b m l ti pl f tw ri gh t ngl v rt
'
71
at an a e ,
an th exa su u e o o a e s, e o ex
92

fil m a t w il l d s ri b si m i l rl y th C t
en spi l in-d e c e a e o es s
’
ra r s n a .

[ G r n h ill ] ee
25 6 E XE RC I SES .

25 . If ( r
, , ( r
g ,
b e th e po l a r co -
o rdi n a te s at ti m e t o f a
s
y s te m o f r e cti li n e a r v o rti c e s w h o s e s t e gth s rn ar e m
l ,
m
2 ,
re spe cti ve ly ,

p r v o e th a t
c o ns t .
,

°
1 2

rch h ff ] [K i o

26 A ri f l ng w v
. i pr p g t d l n g
se ni f r m c n l
es o o a es s o a a e a o a u o a a ,

ari i g fr m s l l di t rb n c
n t th
o m t h w h i ch v ri
a sm a
g i n s u a e a e ou a es as a v e

f n ct i n f th t i
u o i n g th t th
o ff ct f fri ct i n m y b
e m e a ss u m a e e e o o a e r e re
p
sen t d i g n r l w y b y r t rdi ng f r c v ry i n g th v l ci ty
e n a e e a a a e a o e a as e e o ,

d t rm i n th m ti n [ k
e e e e S t o
] o . o es

27 . P rv o e th a t th e fo m r u la

”
t ( f
)( c o s lo
( )
y ”
g a e a e a: ct ,

h
wh e j 2
r re p r n t p i b l f rm f w v m ti n i en if rm e se s a o ss e o o a e o o n a u o
7
c n l wh
a a ct i n i ri g h t-n gl d i c l tri ngl h vi ng i t i d
o se se o s a a e so s e e s a e a s s es

eq ll y i ncl i n d t th v rt i c l ( Th
ua i f i th b tt m l i n
e f th
o e e a . e ax s o a: s e o o e o e

c n l
a d th t f g i v r t i l )
a ,
an a o s e ca .

Fi n d th v l c i ty f p r p g t i n i t rm f th w v l n gth ; d
e e o o o a a o n e s o e a e e an

m i n th f rm f th fr rf c n
exa e e o
[ K ll d ] o e ee su a e . e a

28 . P rv o e th e fo m r ul a

c
p
5411 3 co s h ( ac ct
) ,

g i i g vn
th e m o ti o n o f a se ri es of wa vs e p a r a ll e l to th e e dg e of a sh o r e

n
sl o pi g a t an a ng l e 3
,
.

Fi d th e n v e lo ci ty o fp r o
p a
g a ti o n ,
an d th e fo rm of th e f r e e su rf a ce .

[S t o ke s
]

29 . C a l cu l a t e th e c o n ta i n e d i n a t i da l m o ti o n o f a hea vy li qu i d
s qu a r e ve s s e l o f u ni fo r m de p th du e to a s m a l l h o ri zo nta l di s t u rb i ng ,

fo r c e a ct i n g u n ifo rm l y t h r o u g h o u t th e m a s s w h o s e m a gn i t u d e i s c o n ,

s ta nt an d ,
wh o se di r e ct i o n r e vo l v e s u ni fo r m l y i n th e h o ri z o n t a l

p l a n e .

H ow co u ld th e fo rc s h r e e e i m a gi n db r e e e a l i ze d e x pe ri m n t e a ll
y ?

[L r d R y l
o a e i gh , Af a th Tr ip .
,
 EXE RC I SES . 2 57

30 . n i ti p If li q u id s o f de s es an d pd de pth s h a n d h b e c o ta i e d
’
an
’
n n
b tw n tw fi d h ri n t l pl n c e h h , p o e th a t th e n rv
’

e ee o xe o zo a a e s a t a di s ta

v l c i ty f p r p g t i n f w v
e o v o o a a o o a e s o f s m a l l d i s pla e m e t o f l e n g t h A a t c n
th c m m n
e rf c i gi v n b y
o o su a e s e

?
g?
? gi
21
( v Vo o s a
) p
’
c o t h ( v
’
V co s c o th — (p p)
'
0,

wh e r e Va d V n c i ti e s o f th e cu r r e n ts i n th e li qu i ds
’
ar e th e m ea nvl e o
,

a r e th e a n g l e s th e c u r r e n t s m a k e w i th t h e d i r e ct i o n o f
f
a n d a an d r o
o
p
a a ti o n o f th e w a v e s th e c u rr e nt s s l i pp in g o v e r e a c h o th e r
p g , .

[ G r e e n hi ll M a th Tr i
p 1 8 7 8 ] , .
,

31 . A wi n d o f vl e o c i ty V i s bl w i ng
o h o i zo r nt a ll y o vr e th e s u r fa ce
o f de e p w a t e r ; prov e th a t th e v l c i ty
e o o f pr p o a ga ti n o of wa vs
e o f
l n g th
e Ai s

wh e r e
{gi vl e o c i ty wi th o u t wi d, n
a = s p e c i fic g r vi ty
a o f air ,
an d th e u
pp e r l w r Si g n
or o e is to be ta ke n
a cco rdi ng as th e w a v s t r v l wi th
e a e or a
g a i ns t th w i n d e .

[Th o m son
]
32 . He n ce sh ew th a t th e v e l o c i ty o f w a ve s t ra ve lli n g wi th th e
n r r
wi d i s g e a te or le ss th a n th e ve l o ci ty o f th e s a m e w a ve s wi th ou t
n r n
w i d, a c c o di g a s V or 2 c ; a n d t h a t w a ve s o f l e ng th A ca nno t
r v l a ns
t a e a g i t th e w i d if n
V 0
[Th o m so n
]

33 . Fi d n
r n f th v r g n rgy tr nsm i tt d an e x p e s si o or e a e a e e e a e a c r o ss a

fi d v rti c l pl n p r l l l t th fr n t
xe e f a i nfi i t tr i n f ia te a a e o e o s o an n e a o rro a

ti l h m ni c w v
on a f gi v n m ll l v ti n m vi ng
ar o w t r f a e s, o e s a e e a o ,
o on a e o

u nif rm d pth o e
[M th T.i p 1 8 7 8 ] a r ,

34 . A de e p r
ng l r v l n rly fi ll d w i th w t r i nti n d
ec a t u a e ss e ea e a e s co ue

at on e en d h ll w n l f i nd fi i t l ng th
as a s a pp i
o n g th w t r ca a o e n e e su os e a e

o f th e v l th r wn i nt th c ndi ti n f t ti n ry n d l ti fi d
e ss e o o e o o o a s a o a u u a on ,
n

a ppr o x i m t ly th r t
a e t w h i ch th nd l ti n w ld b id b y m
e a e a e u u a o s ou su s e co

m u n i ca ti to th wat r f th
on nl e [ Set k ] o e ca a . o es

L . 17
2 58 E XE R CI SES .

35 . n r l p r p rti f q i p t n t i l d t r m -
F r om th e g e c rv e a o e es o e u o e a an s ea u e s,

p r v th t i
o er g l r ri f w v m vi ng i d p w t r w i th t
a n a e u a se es o a es o n ee a e ou

m l c l r r t t i n th r
o e u a i n c ri ly i th n i gh b rh d f th
o a o e e s e e s sa n e e ou oo o e
su rf c t r n f r n c f fl i d i th di r cti n f th w v p r p g ti n
a e a a s e e e o u n e e o o e a e s
’
o a a o ,
w h th r th t
e rf c ti fy th c ndi ti n f fr
e a su rf ca e t sa s e o o o a ee su a e or n o .

[ L r d R y l i g h M th T i p o a e ,
a . r o s,

36 P r v th t w v f dd n r r f cti n i
o e i a na t b l a e o su e a e a o n a as
g s an u s a e
.

t t f m ti n
s a e o o o .

[Th m
] o so n

37 P r v th t th di i p t i n-
. f n cti n f A t 1 7 9 c n t b
o e a r e ss a o u o o r . a n o e ze o

at v ry p i n t f
e e i n c m pr i b l fl i d nl
o o th fl i d m v
an li d o e ss e u u e ss e u o e as a so

b dy k
o .

[S t ] o es

38 A m i ng th f rm l
. s su e o u a

kll s i n [c
95 ( ct
)
‘

a e a:

as r pr nti ng ppr i m t ly th m
e e se a ox a e e o t i o n o f a l o n g t ra i n o f w a v e s o n
de e p w t r p r v
a b y m e
n f th
, di o e ea s o e s s i a t i o n-
p fu n cti o n o f Ar t 1 7 9 t h a t .

th e di m i n ti n f d t vi c i ty i
u o o a ue o s os s g i v n by
e th e fo m r u la

0 . a
o
e
[S t o ke s
]
39 . n r l t r m w i th t c l c l ti n w h y h rt
E x pl a i n in g e e a e s, ou a u a o , s o

w v a m r r pi dly d
e s ar e t r y d b y vi c i ty th n l ng n
o e a es o e s os a o o es .

40 A l n g c i r c l r c yl i d r r t t
. o b t it i wi th ni f rm
u a n e o a es a ou s ax s u o

v l ci ty i
e o i n fini t m n f vi c
an fl id fi d th m t i n f th fl i d e as s o s ous u n e o o o e u

wh n it h
e b c m t dy as e o e
[ S t
s eak ] . o es

41 W r k t th
. m p r b lom f th c f
ou r t t i n g p h
e r sa e o e or e a se o a o a s e e .

[ Ki r c h h ff ] o

42 Inv ti g t th m l l c i l l ti n f S ph ri c l h ll fill d wi th
. es a e e s a os a o s o a e a s e e

vi c fl i d d ci ll ti ng b y th t r i n f
s ous u ,
a n
p n di n g w
os i r a e o s o o a su s e e .

e l m h o l tz
[H ]
43 . A cy l i n d e r m o v es wi h t u ni f rm v l o e c i ty i n a di r e ct i o n p e r
o

p e d i c u l a r t o i ts l e g t h , i n a n i fi i t e m a s s
n n n n o f vi s c o u s fl u i d p r o v e t h a t
th e m o ti o n c a o t b e ste a d nn
De c i b e i n y sr .
g e n e r a l te rm s th e n a t u r e o f

th e a ctu a l m o ti no .
[S t o ke s
] .

C AM BR I D GE 2 P R I N TE D BY C . J . C L AY , M A . .
, AT TH E U N I VE R S I TY P R E S S .