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Does a Quarterlife Crisis Exist?

Article  in  The Journal of Genetic Psychology · April 2011

DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2010.521784 · Source: PubMed

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 The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 2011, 172(2), 141–161
Copyright
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Does a Quarterlife Crisis Exist?

NICOLE E. ROSSI
Augusta State University

CAROLYN J. MEBERT
University of New Hampshire

ABSTRACT. In this study, the authors examined quarterlife crisis, defined in the popular
press as an identity crisis that leaves recent college graduates depressed, anxious, and full
of doubt. To determine if a unique crisis exists, 4 groups of young adults (recent high school
[n = 23] and college [n = 117] graduates in the workforce, present undergraduate [n =
75], and graduate [n = 57] students) completed self-report measures assessing identity
development, future time perspective, social support, coping, depression, anxiety, and
job and life satisfaction. No support was found for a quarterlife crisis among these 4
groups. Working high school graduates displayed the highest anxiety, followed by present
undergraduates. Depression was predicted by family support and identity commitment. Job
satisfaction was associated with income and support from friends. Life satisfaction was
associated with income, social support from friends and family, and identity commitment.
Keywords: anxiety, depression, job and life satisfaction, quarterlife crisis, well-being

The concept of a quarterlife crisis was introduced to popular culture with the book
Quarterlife Crisis: The Unique Challenges of Life in Your Twenties (Robbins &
Wilner, 2001). In the book, Robbins and Wilner describe the trials and tribulations
individuals face as they make choices regarding careers, finances, living arrange-
ments, and relationships. Based on the authors’ own experiences and those of 100
peers, Robbins and Wilner described the period following college graduation as
unsettled, stressful, and anxiety-provoking, which can lead to feelings of indeci-
siveness, helplessness, and panic. Depression can easily result, as the individual’s
identity and sense of self fluctuate markedly in response to the constant challenges
life presents. Frequently, individuals feel they are alone in their struggle and do
not have the resources needed to meet or rise above their myriad challenges. Fur-
thermore, friends who lived right around the corner have scattered and an active
social life becomes much harder to maintain. Few same-aged mates are present in
the work environment, and constrained financial resources make it difficult to take

Address correspondence to Nicole E. Rossi, Augusta State University, Department of Psy-

chology, 2500 Walton Way, Augusta, GA 30904, USA; nrossi@aug.edu (e-mail).

141
142 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

part in social activities. Also, entry-level jobs can be tedious and oftentimes do not
lead to a step up on the career ladder. These unpleasant features of the reality of life
after college can be overwhelming and prompt feelings of inadequacy and failure.
But, is this really a crisis period and is it unique to the young adult population,
particularly the relatively elite college graduate segment of that population (i.e.,
in 2001, 28.6% of 25–29-year-olds had a college degree according to the National
Center for Education Statistics; Snyder & Hoffman, 2002)? Although Robbins and
Wilner’s book is just the first in what became a series about this crisis, along with
Web sites, message/discussion boards, and a documentary, there remains a dearth
of empirical evidence concerning this specific phenomenon and its characteristics.

Transitions

Extensive work has been done on typical life transitions. Carl Jung intro-
duced the notion of midlife crisis in the 1930s when he was experiencing his own
(Stevens, 1990). Erikson (1968) described eight different psychosocial crises indi-
viduals experience throughout the lifespan, including a midlife concern over being
productive or stagnating. Sheehy (1974) popularized the concept of midlife crisis
in Passages, in which she described the disillusionment and restlessness people
feel at midlife when they become aware of their own mortality, let go of impossible
dreams, deal with problems of generativity, and watch their children leave the nest.
Passages was followed by similar (although more scholarly) work by Levinson,
Darrow, Klein, Levinson, and McKee (1978), who identified phases, periods of
stability, and major transitions in men’s lives from early to later adulthood, with
some emphasis on the potential for turmoil at midlife. However, empirical evi-
dence in support of a general midlife crisis is very thin (Hunter & Sundel, 1989;
McCrae & Costa, 1990; Schaie & Willis, 1986). Research has confirmed that
midlife can be a period with challenges, but the challenges are usually met with
the resources and strategies typically acquired in adulthood (Heckhausen, 2001).
Early work on the transition to parenthood (Dyer, 1963; LeMasters, 1957)
suggested that couples experienced extensive or severe crises following the birth
of a first child (e.g., declines in marital satisfaction and increases in anxiety and
depression). Subsequent work (e.g., Hobbs, 1968; Hobbs & Cole, 1976; Mebert,
1991; Steffensmeier, 1982; Wente & Crockenberg, 1976) indicated that although
the addition of the first child to a marriage does spawn a period of transition that
can be somewhat stressful, the crises, according to Mebert (1991) were more in
the minds of the researchers than in the experiences of the couples in transition.
Stewart and her colleagues (Stewart, 1982; Stewart, Sokol, Healy, & Chester,
1986; Stewart, Sokol, Healy, Chester, & Weinstock-Savoy, 1982) were among the
first to examine various school-related transitions. They reported that transitions
were inherently stressful because they were marked by an increase in novel stimuli
and experiences, initially without the resources to deal adequately with them
(Stewart et al., 1986). Also, individuals report anxiety about their competence and
 Rossi & Mebert 143

frequently take action in order to protect themselves from intrusions by others.

However, the anxiety and stress are generally short-lived, as people adjust to
the changes and develop more sophisticated methods of appraisal and greater
competence at adapting emotionally.
More recently, the period of emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000) has been the
focus of research exploring psychological stability and change in people from
about 18–25 years of age (e.g., Roisman, Masten, Coatsworth, & Tellegen, 2004).
This time period is characterized by vast change and exploration of options sur-
rounding relationships, work, political orientation, and life goals (Arnett, 2000).
In a large longitudinal study of emerging adults, Galambos, Barker, and Krahn
(2006) found that there is a generally positive trend in psychological well-being
from 18 to 25 years of age. More specifically, scores of depression and anger
decreased, whereas self-esteem increased (with some variations as a function
of gender, conflict with parents, and parents’ level of education). Interestingly,
participants’ education was not a significant predictor of any outcome, although
having university-educated parents was significantly related to participants’ post-
secondary education. Having two parents with university degrees was associated
with a steeper decline in depression over the 7-year period than was otherwise
the case. Schulenberg and Zarrett’s (2006) review of a good deal of research
concerning emerging adulthood is consistent with Galambos et al.’s report; gener-
ally, behavioral and psychological well-being improves from ages18 to 25 years,
although the relation is somewhat curvilinear for some outcome variables (e.g.,
binge drinking, marijuana use) and can vary with a number of intraindividual and
contextual variables. Overall, however, this work suggests a picture of the quar-
terlife that is at odds with both the work on other major life transitions and the
picture painted by Robbins and Wilner (2001).
Robbins and Wilner (2001) indicated that the difficulties experienced by the
twenty-something recent college graduate cohort are unique to their age and life
circumstances. In light of the work on transitions, it is important to consider
that psychological distress reported by recent college graduates in the workforce
may simply be the result of experiencing a period of transition or a “momentary
perturbation” (Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006, p. 155), rather than a crisis specific
to that age or stage of life.

Goals of Present Study

The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that the quarterlife crisis
is specific to the college-to-work transition and not a more general concomitant
of school-to-work transitions. The study involved recent high school and college
graduates. Much of the previous work on the school-to-work transition focused on
high school students (e.g., Blustein, Phillips, Jobin-Davis, Finkelberg, & Roarke,
1997; Lent, O’Brien, & Fastinger, 1998; Patton, Creed, & Muller, 2002; Phillips,
Blustein, Jobin-Davis, & Finkelberg-White, 2002; Savickas, 1999; Worthington
144 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

& Juntunen, 1997). In these studies, factors related to finding employment follow-
ing high school graduation were investigated, such as career readiness, gender,
planning, school achievement, and work-based learning. Results of this work indi-
cated that career maturity, use of career resources, supportive adults, and an active
orientation to the adult world facilitated an adaptive and successful postschool
transition to the workforce. However, other variables associated with the alleged
quarterlife crisis and examined in research on transitions were not considered.
For example, psychological well-being variables such as anxiety, depression, and
life satisfaction were largely ignored in research on the school-to-work transition
period. In addition, studies need to be extended to other populations. Findings
based on samples of high school graduates cannot be extended to college grad-
uates and vice versa. There are several differences between the two populations
that may lead to differing predictors, experiences, and consequences of postschool
employment, such as level of maturity, as reflected in ego identity development,
and dependence on family members.

Principal Variables and Hypotheses

By recruiting a sample of high school and college graduates, the concept of a

quarterlife crisis was evaluated to determine if it was a phenomenon unique to the
twentysomething population, or, if it was more reflective of a transitional period.
The predictor variables were ego identity development, future time perspective,
social support, and coping. The outcome variables were depressive symptomatol-
ogy, anxiety, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction. These variables were identified
through frequent mention by Robbins and Wilner (2001) and in research on
transitions.
The literature on transitions suggests that the stress associated with any tran-
sition should be accompanied by initially low levels of well-being, regardless of
age or education. However, this literature also leads to the hypothesis that moving
from a familiar to a novel situation would be more anxiety provoking than would
moving from a familiar to a new, but similar situation. Thus, it is expected that
individuals moving from school to work would experience more negative effects
than would those who are making the transition from one level of education to
another, regardless of age or education. This hypothesis is not consistent with the
notion of a quarterlife crisis, which is specific to recent college graduates moving
into the workforce. The outcome variables examined are those suggested by Rob-
bins and Wilner’s (2001) description of their crisis: depression, anxiety, and job
and life satisfaction. The primary predictor variable is group membership (e.g.,
college to work, high school to work). Alternative predictors were suggested by
the transition and emerging adulthood literature, as well as by limitations of the
career readiness literature: ego identity, future time perspective, social support,
and coping.
 Rossi & Mebert 145

Method

Participants

Participants were recruited to fill the cells necessary to test the primary hy-
pothesis: recent high school and college graduates in the workforce, recent high
school graduates in college, and recent college graduates in graduate school. The
recent high school graduates were recruited by sending letters and questionnaire
packets to a total of 644 graduates (class of 2003) of two local high schools.
Eighteen of these were returned unopened and 98 questionnaires were returned
completed, for a response rate of 16%. Recruitment procedures and protocol were
approved by the University of New Hampshire Institutional Review Board. All
participants provided informed consent.
The high school-to-work sample (n = 23) had an average age of 18.7 years
(SD = 0.47 years) and 61% were women. These participants worked an average
of 31.5 hrs/week (SD = 15.42 hrs), had a modal income of less than $20,000/year,
and 76% of them lived with their immediate family or relatives.
There were 75 participants in the high school to college sample, with 73%
women and an average age of 18.63 years (SD = 0.49 years). Less than half of them
lived with immediate family or relatives, but 66% had parents who contributed to
their income, which was predominantly less than $20,000/year.
Recent college graduates were recruited from the class of 2003 of a local
state university and from the high school graduating classes of 1997 and 1998 of
a local high school (similar demographically to those used to recruit the recent
high school graduates). A random sample of 20% of the university’s graduates
(n = 408) was sent questionnaire packets; 8 were returned unopened, 6 were
completed by individuals considerably older than traditional college graduates,
and 94 usable questionnaires were returned, for a 25% response rate (based on
100 being returned). A total of 431 questionnaires were sent to the 1997 and
1998 high school graduates; 67 were returned unopened and 89 questionnaires
were returned, for a response rate of 24%. Nine of these individuals did not
attend college, but had been in the workforce for several years. Due to their
increased experience in the workforce, as compared to the recent high school
graduates, these 9 individuals were not included in subsequent analyses. The
remainder of these high school graduates (n = 80) had graduated from college.
Thus, a total of 174 questionnaires from recent college graduates were available for
analyses.
One-hundred seventeen of these participants were employed. Their mean age
was 23.42 years (SD = 1.12 years) and 72% were women. They were employed
an average of 38.10 hrs/week (SD = 13.10 hrs). Approximately 61% of these
participants were presently making payments on student loans, or would be in
the near future. The percentage of participants living with immediate family or
relatives, or living with roommates was roughly equal, 40% and 41%, respectively.
146 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

Twenty-seven percent earned less than $20,000 per year, and 53% earned between
$20,000 and $40,000 on a yearly basis.
Fifty-seven of the recent college graduates (79% women) were attending
graduate school and had a mean age of 23.26 years (SD = 1.19 years). Approxi-
mately, 32% of these participants lived with family or relatives and 56% lived with
roommates. Most of the participants earned less than $20,000 per year (69%), and
21% earned between $20,000 and $40,000. The majority of these students (79%)
did not receive contributions to their income by family members.

Procedure and Materials

During the academic year, participants were mailed an introductory letter

along with a packet of questionnaires that they were asked to complete and return
to the investigator in a postage-paid envelope. Reminder postcards were mailed
to participants approximately 1.5–2 weeks following the questionnaires being
mailed. In order to encourage participation, an incentive was offered. Participants
were placed in a raffle to win one $100 gift certificate to the store of their choice.

Independent Variables

Demographics. Demographic information such as date of birth, level of education,

parents’ education, income, ethnicity, and gender were collected. Other variables
such as family composition, marital status, present occupation, student status,
and present living arrangements, as well as parents’ contribution to income, were
collected. Several of these variables are discussed previously in the participants
subsection. Regarding ethnicity, the majority of participants identified themselves
as Caucasian (94%), which is reflective of the racial composition of the geograph-
ical location in which the study was conducted.

Ego identity development. Ego identity development was evaluated using the 32-
item Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (EIPQ; Balistreri, Busch-Rossnagel, &
Geisinger, 1995). This questionnaire assesses the dimensions of exploration and
commitment in eight areas: occupation, religion, politics, values, family, friend-
ships, dating, and sex roles. Sample items include the following: “I have consis-
tently re-examined many different values in order to find the ones which are best
for me,” “I have had many experiences that led me to review the qualities that I
would like my friends to have,” “I have definitely decided on the occupation I want
to pursue,” and “I have firmly held views concerning my role in my family.” Each
item was rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 6 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the subscales indicate increased levels of
ego exploration and commitment. In the present study, scores for the entire sample
ranged from 16.00 to 89.00 (M = 60.13, SD = 11.86) for the exploration subscale,
from 17.00 to 90.00 (M = 63.18, SD = 11.06) for the commitment subscale, and
 Rossi & Mebert 147

from 16.00 to 89.00 (M = 60.13, SD = 11.86) for the whole scale. In a sample
of 260 college students ranging in age from 17 to 24 years old, Balistreri et al.
reported good internal consistency, with an alpha coefficient of .76 and .75 for the
exploration and commitment subscales, respectively. The alpha coefficients for
the exploration and commitment subscales in the present study were .79 and .78,
respectively.

Future time perspective. The degree people consider distant versus immediate
consequences of their behavior was measured using the 12-item Consideration
of Future Consequences Scale (CFC; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, & Edwards,
1994). Sample items include the following: “I consider how things might be in
the future and try to influence those things with my day to day behavior” and
“often I engage in a particular behavior in order to achieve outcomes that may not
result for many years.” Items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 (extremely uncharacteristic) to 5 (extremely characteristic). Specifically,
items on the CFC are related to a general preoccupation with the future. Higher
scores reflect a greater concern with future implications of present behaviors. In
the present study, scores for the entire sample ranged from 18.00 to 60.00 (M =
43.65, SD = 7.21). The measure has strong internal consistency, with an alpha
coefficient of .80 and test–retest reliability over two weeks of .76 (Strathman
et al.). In the present study, the alpha coefficient for the scale was .82.

Social support. Social support was measured using the Perceived Social Support
From Friends and From Family scales (PSS-Fr and PSS-Fa, respectively; Proci-
dano & Heller, 1983). Each scale comprised 20 items that measured the extent an
individual perceived friends and family were meeting his or her need for support,
information, and feedback. Higher scores indicate higher levels of social support.
Sample items include the following: “My friends give me the moral support I
need,” “My friends enjoy hearing about what I think,” “I rely on my family for
emotional support,” and “My family and I are very open about what we think about
things.” Items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (disagree
strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). Scores for the entire sample ranged from 39.00 to
96.00 for friends (M = 76.68, SD = 10.68) and from 20.00 to 100.00 (M = 77.11,
SD = 16.70) for family. Overall, the PSS-Fr and PSS-Fa have adequate internal
reliability, with alpha levels of .88 to .90, respectively (Procidano & Heller, 1983).
The alpha coefficients for PSS-Fr and PSS-Fa were .89 and .96, respectively.

Coping. Coping was measured using a 32-item questionnaire developed by Ho-

lahan and Moos (1987). This questionnaire assessed active-cognitive, active-
behavioral, and avoidance coping strategies. Participants were asked to pick the
most important problem they faced during the past year and indicate how often
they used the three types of coping strategies. Sample items include the following:
“Tried to see the positive side of the situation;” “Got busy with other things to
keep my mind off the problem,” and “Kept my feelings to myself.” Each item was
148 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (fairly often).
Higher scores indicated more positive coping strategies. In the present study, total
coping scores for the entire sample ranged from 24.00 to 90.00 (M = 61.18, SD =
11.09). Also, for the entire scale the alpha coefficient was .81.

Dependent Variables

Depressive symptomatology. Depressive symptomatology was assessed using the

20 item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff,
1977). Participants were asked to rate each question according to how they felt
during the past week. Sample items include the following: “I had trouble keeping
my mind on what I was doing,” “I felt that everything I did was an effort,” and “My
sleep was restless.” Items were rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from
0 (rarely or none of the time—less than 1 day) to 3 (most or all of the time—5–7
days). Higher scores reflected higher depressive symptomatology. In the present
study, scores for the entire sample ranged from 0 to 45.00 (M = 13.75, SD =
9.68). The CES-D is considered a strong measure of depressive symptomatology
in the general population; internal consistency has been reported to be high, with
an alpha coefficient of .85 (Radloff, 1977). The alpha coefficient in the present
study was .91.

Anxiety. Levels of anxiety were investigated using the 21-item Beck Anxiety In-
ventory (BAI; Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988). Participants were asked
to rate each question according to how they felt during the past week. Sample
items include the following: “numbness or tingling,” “fear of the worst happen-
ing,” “heart pounding or racing;” and “indigestion or discomfort in abdomen.”
Items were rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3
(severely—I could barely stand it). Higher scores reflected higher levels of anxiety.
In the present study, scores for the entire sample ranged from 0 to 35.00 (M = 7.67,
SD = 7.23). The BAI has strong internal consistency, with an alpha coefficient
of .92 and test–retest reliability over one week of .75. For the whole sample the
alpha coefficient was .88.

Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was evaluated using the 15-item Overall Job
Satisfaction Scale (OJS; Warr, Cook, & Wall, 1979). Sample items include the
following: “the freedom to choose your own method of working,” “the recognition
you get for good work,” “your rate of pay,” and “your fellow coworkers.” Each item
was rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (extremely dissatisfied)
to 7 (extremely satisfied). A higher total score reflected higher job satisfaction. In
the present study, scores for individuals who were presently employed at a full- or
part-time job (n = 225) ranged from 32.00 to 103.00 (M = 73.32, SD = 15.69).
The scale has been found to be reliable, with coefficient alpha of .85 (Warr et al.).
The alpha coefficient for the whole sample was .91.
 Rossi & Mebert 149

Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was assessed using the 5-item Satisfaction With
Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Sample items
include the following: “The conditions of my life are excellent,” “I am satisfied
with my life,” and “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.”
Participants were asked to rate each item on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A higher score indicated greater
overall life satisfaction; scores with the entire sample ranged from 6.00 to 35.00
(M = 24.21, SD = 6.41). With a sample of 176 undergraduate students, Diener
et al. reported a two-month test–retest correlation coefficient of .82 and an alpha
coefficient of .87. In the present study, the alpha coefficient was .87.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted on all relevant

variables to determine if there were group differences; means, standard deviations,
and F values appear in Table 1. Results indicated the groups differed on all variables
except job satisfaction. These findings (which are not consistent with a quarterlife
crisis) are likely due to the influence of other variables that are controlled in
subsequent regression analyses. Correlation coefficients between all continuous
variables appear in Table 2. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
run to determine if any predictor or outcome variables significantly differed due to
gender, education, or income. That is, a 2 (Gender) × 2 (Education) × 4 (Income)
MANOVA was conducted with ego identity commitment and exploration, future
time perspective, social support from family and friends, coping, depression,
anxiety, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction as the dependent variables. Using
Wilks’s lambda, the combined dependent variables were significantly affected by
gender, F(10, 192) = 2.20, p = .02. Scores on ego identity commitment, F(1,
201) = 4.35, p = .04, and perceived social support from friends, F(1, 201) =
4.09, p = .04, differed significantly between men and women. Whereas men
reported higher levels of identity commitment than women (M difference = 6.80),
women reported higher levels of social support than men (M difference = 6.14).
Also, using Wilks’s lambda, the combined dependent variables were significantly
affected by education, F(10, 192) = 7.49, p < .001. Specifically, scores on anxiety,
F(1, 201) = 8.67, p = .004; coping, F(1, 201) = 4.08, p = .04; ego identity
commitment, F(1, 201) = 5.26, p = .02; ego identity exploration, F(1, 201) =
6.86, p = .01; and future time perspective, F(1,201) = 4.92, p = .03, differed
significantly between high school and college graduates. High school graduates
reported higher levels of anxiety as well as lower levels of future time perspective,
identity commitment and exploration, and coping than college graduates. Based
on results from the MANOVA, income brackets did not differ, F(30, 564) = 0.95,
p = ns. However, based on the univariate analyses, income had an effect on ego
 150

TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and F Values of Variables for High School-to-Work, High School to College, College to
Work, and College to Graduate School Sample

College to
HS to work HS to college College to work graduate
(n = 23) (n = 75) (n = 117) school (n = 57)

Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD df F

Ego identity-Co. 58.26a 15.13 62.09a 10.79 63.62a 10.10 65.68a 10.89 3, 268 2.85∗
Ego identity-Ex. 55.52a 15.51 55.66a 10.16 62.39b 10.66 63.12b 12.59 3, 267 7.84∗∗∗
The Journal of Genetic Psychology

Future time 39.61a 8.64 39.84a 6.87 45.46b 6.31 46.61b 5.97 3, 267 17.77∗∗∗
SS-Friends 73.70a 12.87 73.76a,b 12.55 78.08a 9.24 79.00a,c 8.71 3, 268 4.35∗∗
SS-Family 68.17a 20.79 74.17a,b 17.25 79.37b 15.39 79.93b 15.25 3, 268 4.38∗∗
Coping 58.22a 10.95 56.81a 11.94 62.49a,b 9.88 65.54b 10.28 3, 264 8.40∗∗∗
Depression 19.09a,c 12.12 15.07a 10.02 12.87a 9.30 11.68a,b 8.02 3, 268 4.11∗∗
Anxiety 14.70a 11.21 8.60a,b 7.40 6.55b 6.22 5.93b 4.92 3, 268 10.73∗∗∗
Job satisfact. 71.9a 19.48 74.23a 17.28 73.33a 14.48 72.87a 15.25 3, 221 0.12
Life satisfact. 21.70a,c 8.06 24.24a 6.53 23.83a 6.39 25.96a,b 5.16 3, 268 2.80∗

Note. For ego identity-Ex., high school to college: n = 74. For future time, college to graduate school: n = 56. For coping, high school to college: n = 74;
college to work: n = 116; college to graduate school: n = 55. For job satisfaction, high school to work: n = 20; high school to college: n = 51; college to work:
n = 108; college to graduate school: n = 46. Means with differing superscripts within rows are significantly different at the p ≤ .05 level based on Tukey’s
honestly significant difference (ego identity exploration, future time perspective, social support from family, coping, and life satisfaction) or Games-Howell
(ego identity commitment, social support from friends, depression, and anxiety).
a,b,cSignificantly different at the p ≤ .05 level based on Tukey’s honestly significant difference (ego identity exploration, future time perspective, social support

from family, coping, and life satisfaction) or Games-Howell (ego identity commitment, social support from friends, depression, and anxiety).
∗ p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.
TABLE 2. Correlations Between Continuous Variables

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Age —
2. Ego identity-Commit .12∗ —
3. Ego identity- Explore .28∗∗∗ –.20∗∗ —
4. Future time perspec. .38∗∗∗ .30∗∗∗ .29∗∗∗ —
5. Social support-Friends .17∗∗ .31∗∗∗ .12∗ .22∗∗∗ —
6. Social support-Family .15∗ .33∗∗∗ –.07 .25∗∗∗ .33∗∗∗ —
7. Coping .24∗∗∗ .22∗∗∗ .24∗∗∗ .42∗∗ .44∗∗∗ .44∗∗∗ —
8. Depress. –.14∗ –.30∗∗∗ –.02 –.25∗∗∗ –.24∗∗∗ –.36∗∗∗ –.32∗∗∗ —
9. Anxiety –.21∗∗∗ –.11 .01 –.17∗∗ –.14∗ –.20∗∗ –.10 .49∗∗∗ —
10. Job satisfact. –.02 .17∗ –.08 .05 .25∗∗∗ .16∗ .14∗ –.26∗∗∗ –.15∗∗ —
11. Life satisfact. .04 .29∗∗∗ –.04 .20∗∗ .33∗∗∗ .37∗∗∗ .30∗∗∗ –.55∗∗∗ –.24∗∗∗ .33∗∗∗ —
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.
Rossi & Mebert
151
152 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

identity commitment, F(3, 201) = 2.59, p = .05. Ego identity commitment differed
between individuals earning less than $20,000 per year and $20,000–40,000 (M
difference = 7.56; p = .01). Last, the correlational analyses indicated that older
participants were less anxious and depressed and had higher levels of coping,
identity commitment and exploration, future time perspective, and social support
from family and friends (see Table 2). As a result, gender, education, age, and
income were used as covariates in subsequent analyses.

Group Differences: Regression

In order to determine the effects of group membership over and above all
other variables, a series of four hierarchical linear regressions was run. In all four
regressions, age, gender, income, and education were controlled. The ego identity
subscales, future time perspective, social support from friends and family, and
coping were entered on the second step. Group membership was entered on the
last step in order to perform the most conservative analysis using group member-
ship as a predictor. The group membership variables were dummy coded (0, 1)
for the analyses (i.e., Group 1 = high school to work, Group 2 = high school to
college, Group 3 = college to work, and Group 4 = reference group [college to
graduate school]). The dependent variables were job satisfaction, life satisfaction,
depression, and anxiety. Any cases that were missing values on included vari-
ables were considered missing; thus, N ranged from 213 (dependent variable: job
satisfaction) to 247 (remaining dependent variables) for the regression analyses.
The overall model including all predictors was statistically significant for
job satisfaction (only participants who were employed at the time of the study;
r = .36, R2 = .13, adjusted R2 = .07), F(13, 199) = 2.27, p = .01. Significant
predictors of job satisfaction in the final model were income (β = .20, p = .02) and
social support from friends (β = .20, p = .01). Regardless of group membership,
individuals who reported a higher income and greater support from friends were
the most satisfied with their jobs.
The overall model for life satisfaction was also statistically significant (r =
.54, R2 = .29, adjusted R2 = .25), F(13, 233) = 7.20, p < .001. Life satisfaction
was predicted by income (β = .13, p = .05), social support from friends and fam-
ily (friends: β = .20, p = .003; family: β = .22, p = .001), and the commitment
subscale of the ego identity measure (β = .17, p = .01). Individuals with higher
incomes, support from family and friends, and a more committed identity reported
greater satisfaction with their lives. Although the third step of the regression was
not significant, life satisfaction was predicted by group membership in the overall
model (β = –.17, p = .03). A univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was
conducted as a secondary analysis to assess the influence of the group variable.
Although the overall ANCOVA did not reach significance, F(3, 231) = 1.63, p =
ns, pair-wise comparisons indicated that those moving from college to work
 Rossi & Mebert 153

(M = 23.44, SD = .97) expressed less life satisfaction than those attending grad-
uate school (M = 25.82, SD = 1.21, p = .04) following college graduation.
The overall model for depression as the outcome variable was statistically
significant (R = .51, R2 = .26, adjusted R2 = .21), F(13, 233) = 6.20, p < .001.
Significant predictors in the final model were social support from family (β =
–.20, p = .003) and the commitment subscale of the ego identity measure (β =
–.21, p = .002); individuals with less family support and a lower level of identity
commitment were the most depressed, regardless of group membership.
Results for anxiety as the outcome variable are summarized in Table 3. The
overall regression, including all predictors was statistically significant (R = .44,
R2 = .19, adjusted R2 = .15), F(13, 233) = 4.29, p < .001. The significant predictors
at the final step were gender, high school to work, and high school to college. A
univariate ANCOVA was conducted to determine the estimated marginal means
for each of the four groups, as well as to provide a secondary analysis to assess
the influence of the group variable, which was significant, F(3, 231) = 6.78, p
< .001. Pair-wise comparisons indicated that the high school-to-work sample (M
= 17.21, SD = 2.41) was significantly more anxious than any other group (high
school to college: M = 10.71, SD = 2.08, p < .001; college to work: M = 5.23,
SD = 1.18, p < .001; college to graduate school: M = 3.98, SD = 1.46, p < .001).
Further support for the high school-to-work sample experiencing the greatest
difficultly, followed by present undergraduates was garnered from a chi-square
analysis. Participants were divided based on a median split of depression, anxiety,
and identity commitment. Individuals scoring above the median on depression and
anxiety, while simultaneously scoring below the median on identity commitment,
were considered to be functioning poorly. Results indicated that 48% of the high
school-to-work sample, 32% of the high school-to-college sample, 18% of the
college-to-work sample, and 16% of the college-to-graduate school sample fit
these criteria, χ 2(3, N = 272) = 14.29, p = .003.

Discussion

The authors of Quarterlife Crisis (Robbins & Wilner, 2001) claimed that
college graduates are anxious and unhappy despite their advantages. However, in
the present study, no empirical support was found for a quarterlife crisis particular
to recent college graduates moving into the workforce. Instead, our results indicate
that recent college graduates are generally quite content. Conversely, recent high
school graduates have a relatively more difficult time in multiple respects (i.e.,
social support from friends and family, depression, anxiety, life satisfaction, and
future time perspective; see Table 1 and previous analyses in results section),
particularly those who went from high school into the workforce. For example,
anxiety was significantly predicted by group membership, and in that case it was
the high school-to-work group that had the highest level of anxiety, followed by
present undergraduates. According to the clinical cutoffs outlined by Beck and
154 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

TABLE 3. Summary of Regression Analysis for Anxiety

Variable B SE B β R2 t

Step 1 .076
Gender 1.581 1.032 .096 1.532
Age –0.482 0.410 –.160 –1.175
Education –0.919 0.970 –.125 –0.948
Income 0.255 0.731 .025 0.349
Step 2 .049
Gender 1.771 1.054 .108 1.680
Age –0.510 0.408 –.169 –1.250
Education –0.366 0.984 –.050 –0.372
Income 0.314 0.730 .031 0.430
SS-Family –0.065 0.031 –.149 –2.081∗
SS-Friends –0.078 0.050 –.114 –1.566
Coping 0.048 0.053 .071 0.905
Ego identity-Exp. 0.009 0.047 .013 0.180
Ego identity-Commit. –0.002 0.050 –.003 –0.038
Future time perspec. –0.116 0.077 –.111 –1.507
Step 3 .068
Gender 2.141 1.023 .131 2.093∗
Age 0.087 0.462 .029 0.187
Education 1.924 1.365 .261 1.410
Income –0.068 0.750 –.007 –0.091
SS-Family –0.048 0.030 –.110 –1.580
SS-Friends –0.075 0.049 –.109 –1.546
Coping 0.028 0.051 .042 0.566
Ego identity-Exp. 0.006 0.046 .009 0.133
Ego identity-Commit. 0.008 0.048 .012 0.164
Future time perspec. –0.096 0.075 –.092 –1.284
Group 1 13.424 3.758 .509 3.572∗∗∗
Group 2 6.821 3.505 .400 1.946∗
Group 3 0.932 1.222 .063 0.763

Note. Overall adjusted R2 = .15 (N = 247). Group 1 = high school to work; Group 2 = high
school to college; Group 3 = college to work; Group 4 = reference group.
∗ p < .05. ∗∗∗ p < .001.

Steer (1993), the high school-to-work group reports moderate levels of anxiety,
whereas present college undergraduates report mild anxiety. In contrast, recent
college graduates, including those who have gone to work and those who have
gone to graduate school, function better in most respects. Only in life satisfaction
did the college-to-work individuals differ from any other in a crisis direction.
However, that difference is more likely due to particularly high levels of life
 Rossi & Mebert 155

satisfaction among participants moving from college to graduate school than it is

to low life satisfaction among those in the transition from college to work.
Findings with respect to the prevalence of anxiety among working high school
graduates may be related to the role of personal control beliefs (i.e., locus of
control), a construct not included in the present study. Locus of control refers
to the degree to which an individual perceives outcomes result from his or her
own actions (internal locus of control) or sees them as stemming from forces,
such as luck, chance, fate, or powerful others (external locus of control; Hamsher,
Geller, & Rotter, 1968; Rotter, 1966). In the control literature, individuals with an
internal locus of control feel a sense of mastery over their environment and have an
increased resistance to stress (i.e. Johnson & Sarason, 1978; Kobasa, 1979; Krause
& Stryker, 1984; Lefcourt, Martin, & Saleh, 1984). Additionally, an internal locus
of control is positively related to self motivation, academic performance and
achievement, social maturity, and independence (Nelson & Mathia, 1995). Taking
the previous findings into consideration, it is possible that college graduates feel
they have a greater sense of control over themselves and their lives and hence are
functioning better in comparison to high school graduates.
Also, in the present study, the literature on transitions and control beliefs can
be used as a basis to explain the increased anxiety among specifically the high
school to college sample as compared to the college to graduate school sample.
Graduate students are more familiar than undergraduates with the college setting
and the demands that are associated with it. Also, graduate school is more similar
to the undergraduate experience than high school is to the college experience.
Graduate students have also taken control over their future in a very concrete way
by choosing to continue their education in a specific field. In a sense, high school
students are making a larger transition to their new academic environment than
are their graduate school counterparts. Thus, higher levels of anxiety in the high
school to college sample can be explained by movement into a novel and unfamiliar
setting in which a period of adjustment is necessary. It is this unpredictability and
uncontrollability characteristic of transitions that can lead to symptoms of anxiety,
particularly in contexts that have high personal value (Barlow, 2000).
Lastly, related to the effects of gender in the regression model with anxiety as
the outcome variable, previous research has shown differences between males and
females in levels of anxiety. Specifically, females typically report higher anxiety
levels than males (Aalto-Setala, Poikolainen, Tuulio-Henriksson, Marttunen, &
Lonnqvist, 2002; Bergdahl & Bergdahl, 2002; Szádóczky, Rihmer, Papp, Vitrai,
& Furedi, 2002; Woods, Sorscher, King, & Hasselfeld, 2003).
Irrespective of group membership, social support from family and the com-
mitment subscale of the ego identity questionnaire are related to depression. Also,
income and social support from friends are associated with job satisfaction. Even
though the prior predictors were not hypothesized to influence depression and job
satisfaction over and above group membership they can be explained based on
research discussed in the introduction. For example, it was found that in a sample
156 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

of British Columbian youth, difficulties with finances were significantly related

to measures of well-being during the transition from adolescence to adulthood
(Borgen, Amundson, & Tench, 1996). The same relation may be relevant in the
present sample, in which those moving into the working world are faced with
a weakened economy, and those pursuing higher education were doing so with
limited time and opportunity to earn a wage.
Regarding the influence of social supports, in studies of young adults and
college students, mothers and friends were frequently identified as being emo-
tionally supportive, as well as offering reassurance, guidance, and instrumental
aid (Carbery & Buhrmester, 1998; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). Also, scores for
relationship satisfaction with family members were significantly and negatively
related to depressive symptomatology (Chou, 1999). Thus, people’s emotional and
supportive needs, as well as their satisfaction with aid provided, directly affect so-
cioemotional well-being. Without adequate supports, individuals can experience
a decrease in well-being indicative of depression and poor life satisfaction (Weiss,
1974).
Last, with respect to ego identity commitment, the results can be explained by
scale construction and content. The subscale of the ego identity questionnaire eval-
uates commitment to political principles, family and friendship roles, vocational
goals, and religious beliefs. As discussed in the introduction, a positive correlation
between occupational commitment and clarity in ego identity has been identified
in the literature (Blustein, Devenis, & Kidney, 1989; Grotevant & Thorbecke,
1982). More specifically, identity achieved people had a clearer sense of self and
were confident about decisions they had made with respect to their career. Addi-
tionally, according to Marcia’s (1966) criteria, people who are identity achieved
would be expected to make decisions on their own terms after seriously consider-
ing alternative options. They would have reevaluated past beliefs and would not
be overwhelmed by sudden environmental shifts or unexpected responsibilities.
Thus, individuals in the present study who score higher on ego identity commit-
ment may have a better sense of self, which acts as a protective factor against
depression resulting from the flux present in the lives of emerging adults (Arnett,
2000).
With any study there are limitations. For example, the results should be
interpreted with caution because of the small number of participants in the high
school-to-work group, as well as fewer males than females participating in the
study and the low minority participation rate. Also, the overall response rate for
the present study was 21%, which is somewhat lower than the response rate of mail
surveys with emerging adults. Typical response rates in the psychological literature
for mail surveys with adolescents and emerging adults fall between 38–41% (i.e.,
Ames et al., 2005; Caron & Moskey, 2002; Georgiades, 2005; Miller-Lewis,
Wade, & Lee, 2006; Wood, Read, Mitchell, & Brand, 2004). In comparison to the
present study, the previous studies have more sophisticated incentives and follow-
up resources. For example, 7,000 University of Michigan students were randomly
 Rossi & Mebert 157

selected to receive a survey about substance use; 3,500 potential respondents

received a mail survey and 3,500 were notified of an equivalent Web-based survey
(Couper, 2001). Respondents in both groups received a $10 gift certificate. The
response rate for the mail survey was slightly less than 41%, but was approximately
62% for the Web-based survey.
Several factors could have contributed to the low response rate in the present
study. For example, there was no incentive for participants, except the possibility
of winning a gift card and, as noted by Singer (2002), such incentives yield low
response rates. Additionally, several participants noted the questionnaire was too
lengthy. Coupled with an uncertain reward, the lengthy questionnaire likely made
participation seem burdensome, particularly when participation is a completely
independent decision rather than a school sanctioned activity. Also, some research
has pointed to mailings on colored paper being associated with an increased
response rate (Fox, Crask, & Kim, 1988). We used white paper.
Future directions include further study of high school students who are making
the transition to the working world. As Arnett (2000) stated, the “forgotten half
remains forgotten by scholars, in the sense that studies of young people who do not
attend college in the years following high school remain rare” (p. 476). To increase
knowledge of the forgotten half, it would be beneficial to recruit graduates from
vocational or technical schools (or career technical centers) to determine if there
are differences in well-being and job satisfaction between high school graduates
who are trained in a particular trade, such as carpentry or cosmetology, and those
who receive no specific training prior to entering the work force. Additionally, it
would be beneficial to recruit a sample of high school graduates who did not attend
college, but have been in the workforce for several years. An attempt was made in
this study to do that; however, data on only a few participants were collected and
so we could not compare recent college graduates with high school graduates who
had been in the workforce for four years. One would hypothesize that compared
with individuals who have been employed for a period of years, recent college
graduates may exhibit higher levels of anxiety due to the inherent nature of new life
situations being stressful and perceived control over this transitional experience
being low. Based on the previous hypothesis and on literature linking perceived
control and well-being, it may be beneficial to include an assessment of control
in further studies. Through the previously mentioned future extensions it may be
possible to shed light on the transitions of populations not normally studied and
to identify problem areas, as well as supportive mechanisms for emerging adults
during their respective transitional states.

AUTHOR NOTES

Nicole E. Rossi is an assistant professor of developmental psychology at

Augusta State University. Her research focuses on transitional experiences across
158 The Journal of Genetic Psychology

the lifespan. Her aim is to investigate transitional phenomena across diverse con-
texts and participant groups, including older and emerging adults and the gay and
lesbian population. Carolyn J. Mebert is an associate professor of developmental
psychology at the University of New Hampshire. Her research focuses on the in-
fant temperament, the transition to parenthood, child neglect, and, more recently,
autobiographical memory processes.

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Original manuscript received January 25, 2010

Final version accepted August 29, 2010
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