PHY 203. Elementary Modern 3.

Polar coordinator system P(r, θ)

Physics + Y-axis

1. Review of Cartesian coordinator P(r, θ)

system / Rectangular coordinator r
system as frames of reference; θ
i. One Dimensional coordinator - X-axis + X-axis
0,0
system (1-D)
ii. Two-Dimensional coordinator
system (2-D)
iii. Polar coordinator system
iv. Three-Dimensional coordinator - Y-axis
system (3-D)
Fig3: Polar coordinate system – with
v. Four-Dimensional coordinator
magnitude, r and direction, θ
system (4-D)

4. 3-Dimensional coordinator system

1. 1-D coordinator system (X or Y only)
Y-axis
X- Y- Z- t-axes
X-axis
0 X-axis only
(a) Horizontal motion
X-axis
0,0,0
Y-axis
Z-axis
Fig4: X-Y-Z-axes, at right angles to one
Y-axis only another

Branches of Mechanics

0 Classical / Quantum Relativistic

Newtonian mechanics - mechanics –
(b) Vertical motion mechanics - Max Planck Albert Einstein
Fig.1: Horizontal (a) and vertical (b) Isaac Newton
motions respectively
2. 2 - D coordinator system (X and Y axes) Learning Objectives 1
+ Y-axis
Y3 P(x3,y3)
By the end of this section, you will be able
Y2 P(x2,y2) to understand and:
a) Explain how time intervals can be
Y1 P(x1,y1) measured differently in different
frames of reference;
- X-axis + X-axis b) Calculate proper time and time
0,0 X1 X2 X3
dilation;
- Y-axis c) Describe how to distinguish a
proper time interval from a dilated
Fig2: Rectangular coordinate system (RCS) time interval.

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Learning Objectives 2 by two different observers. It is the
time lapse in the measurement of
By the end of this section, you will be able event. Or Time dilation is the
to understand and: lengthening of the time interval
a) Describe proper length and between two events for an observer in
contracted length respectively; an inertial frame that is moving with
b) Calculate length contraction; respect to the rest frame of the events
c) Explain why we don’t notice these
(in which the events occur at the same
effects at everyday scales.
location).
Definition:
In a very simple form, relativity means 2. Proper time – the time interval
observations made on SYSTEMS that are between two events is the time interval
in motion relative to one another. The measured by an observer for whom
system constitutes what is called Frame of both events occur at the same location.
Reference or Reference Frame. The
frame of reference is the X-Y-Z axes used 3. Proper length – Proper length L0 is the
to plot our graphs and make calculations. distance between two points measured by
The systems relationship include; an observer who is at rest relative to both
i. Time of the points. Earth-bound observers
ii. Length measure proper length when measuring
iii. Mass the distance between two points that are
stationary relative to the Earth.
iv. Momentum
v. Energy
vi. Kinetic energy 4. Length contraction – The length of any
object in a moving frame appears
vii. Velocity. Etc.
shortened in the direction of motion, or
contracted. The amount of contraction can
The foundation of our work will be based be calculated. The length is maximum in
on the following parameters; speed, the frame in which the object is at rest
distance and time.
distance 5. Mass defeat:
speed= =( meters/ second ) 1
time taken

distance=speed x time taken= ( ms x s) 2 Einstein’s postulate of relativity

The two postulates of relativity are based
on Einstein's theory as;
time taken=
distance
speed (
= mx
s
m
3) 1. Principle of Relativity: the laws of
physics (nature) are the same in all
inertial frames of reference. No frame
Types of relativity is preferred to the other. This means
Relativity has two types, namely; that the frames do not accelerate. They
1. Special relativity – deals with inertial move only at constant speed.
frames (i.e unaccelerated frames, 2. The Speed of Light: the speed of light
frames in which the velocity is is the same for all inertial frames of
constant) reference and in all directions. That is,
2. General relativity – deals with it is independent of the motion of the
accelerated frames (ie frames with observe and the source. The phrase
changing / accelerated velocity) postulate is used to say that there is in
nature what is called an ultimate
Definition of terms speed. The speed of light is the upper
1. Time dilation – this is the apparent limit and no particle can attain this
delay in the measurement of time made
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 speed. The ultimate speed has been
defined to be exactly;
C = 299,792,458 m/s
Or c = 2.99 x 108 m/s.
This is called the ultimate speed.
Measuring an Event
An event is an occurrence in space and
time. An observer can assign to an event
three space coordinates and one time
coordinate. Many likely events to occur
are;
i. Turning on or off of a light bulb, ceiling
fan, water tap etc.;
ii. Collision of two particles;
iii. An expulsion or disintegration of a
particle;
iv. Passage of light pulse through a
specified pint etc.
So, an observer can assign an event P, the
coordinates as shown in fig 4 above.
Because space and time are entangled with
each other in relativity, we describe these
coordinates as space – time coordinates.
The coordinate system itself is part of the
frame of reference of the observer. When
an event occurs in space at a time, any
number of observers can record it each in
his / her own inertial frame of reference.
Each of these observers will assign
different space -time coordinates to the
same event. This is because the event does
not belong to a particular inertial frame of
reference. Hence, to measure an event, we
assign the following coordinate systems to
our inertial frame of reference. These are;
a) The space coordinate;
b) The time coordinate;
c) The space-time coordinates.
The Relativity of Simultaneity
The relativity of simultaneity relates that,
when two (events) observers are in relative
motion, they will in general agree as to
whether the events are simultaneous or
not. One observer finds the two events
simultaneous in his frame, while the finds
it NOT simultaneous in his / hers.
Therefore, two events that are
simultaneous in one reference frame are
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NOT simultaneous in another reference
frame moving relative to the first.
Note: simultaneity is not an absolute
concept, but a relative one which depends
on the motion of the observer. Two clocks
that are synchronized in one frame will not
give the same result as in another frame
with another synchronized clock.
Defects (problems) in Newtonian
(classical) mechanics (physics)
By the late nineteenth century, the laws of
physics were based on Mechanics and the
law of Gravitation from Newton,
Maxwell's equations describing Electricity
and Magnetism, and on Statistical
Mechanics describing the state of large
collection of matter. These laws of physics
described nature very well under most
conditions, however, some measurements
of the late 19th and early 20th century
could not be understood. The problems
with classical physics led to the
development of Quantum Mechanics and
Special Relativity.
Some of the problems leading to the
development of Quantum Mechanics are
listed here.
1. Black body Radiation: Classical
physics predicted that hot objects
would instantly radiate away all their
heat into electromagnetic waves. The
calculation, which was based on
Maxwell's equations and Statistical
Mechanics, showed that the radiation
rate went to infinity as the EM
wavelength went to zero, ``The
Ultraviolet Catastrophe''. Plank solved
the problem by postulating that EM
energy was emitted in quanta with the
relation.
E = hv …1
2. Atoms: After Rutherford found that
the positive charge in atoms was
concentrated in a very tiny nucleus,
classical physics predicted that the
atomic electrons orbiting the nucleus
 would radiate their energy away and
spiral into the nucleus. This clearly did
not happen. The energy radiated by
atoms also came out in quantized
amounts in contradiction to the
predictions of classical physics.
The Bohr Atom postulated an angular
momentum quantization rule,
for n = 1, 2, 3, ….. that
gave the right result for hydrogen, but
turned out to be wrong since the ground
state of hydrogen has zero angular
momentum. It took a full understanding of
Quantum Mechanics to explain the atomic
energy spectra.
3. Compton Scattering: When light was
scattered off electrons, it behaved just
like a particle but changes wave length
in the scattering; more evidence for the
particle nature of light and Plank's
postulate.
4. Waves and Particles: In diffraction
experiments, light was shown to
behave like a wave while in
experiments like the Photoelectric
effect, light behaved like a particle.
More difficult diffraction experiments
showed that electrons (as well as the
other particles) also behaved like a
wave, yet we can only detect an integer
number of electrons (or photons).
Solution by Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics incorporates a wave-
particle duality and explains all of the
above phenomena. In doing so, Quantum
Mechanics (MQ) changes our
understanding of nature in fundamental
ways. While the classical laws of physics
are deterministic, QM is probabilistic. We
can only predict the probability that a
particle will be found in some region of
space.
Electromagnetic waves like light are made
up of particles we call photons. Einstein,
based on Plank's formula, hypothesized
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that the particles of light had energy
proportional to their frequency.
E = hv
The new idea of Quantum Mechanics is
that every particle's probability (as a
function of position and time) is equal to
the square of a probability amplitude
function and that these probability
amplitudes obey a wave equation. This is
much like the case in electromagnetism
where the energy density goes like the
square of the field and hence the photon
probability density goes like the square of
the field, yet the field is made up of waves.
So probability amplitudes are like the
fields we know from electromagnetism in
many ways.
DE Broglie assumed E = hv for photons
and other particles and used Lorentz
invariance (from special relativity) to
derive the wavelength for particles like
electrons.
The rest of wave mechanics was built
around these ideas, giving a complete
picture that could explain the above
measurements and could be tested to very
high accuracy, particularly in the hydrogen
atom.
Relativity of time intervals
Y Station 1, S Y1 Station 2, S1
S
X X1
Z mirror Z 1
mirror
M M
d d L d L
Event 2
A
A B
Event 1
Event 2
Event 1
a b
 [( ) ( ) ]
c∆ to 2 v ∆ t 2
2 4
∆t = +
c2 2 2
Fig5: Relativity of time intervals

From fig 5 above, the measurement of 2 4 c 2 ∆ t 2o 4 v 2 ∆ t 2 2

2 v ∆t
2
∆t = + = ∆ t o + 2
light pulse from point A to point B as 4 c2 4 c2 c
recorded in figure 5 (b) is the event as in
station 2 reference S2, it passes station 1,
reference S at a later time ∆t with two Collecting like terms, we obtain;
synchronized clocks C1 and C2. According 2
2
v ∆t
2
2
Einstein's theory of speed of light, the light ∆ t − 2 =∆ t o
c
travels at the same speed of light in station And factorizing, we have;
2 as in station 1. The time interval
measured by an observer in station 2
( )
2
between the two events is written as; 2 v 2
∆ t 1− 2
=∆ t o
2d c
∆ t o= 1
c
2
2 ∆to
∆t =
While the observer in station 1, reference S
( )
2
v
measures a time interval as; 1− 2
2L c
∆ t= 2
c

√(
By Pythagoras thm of equation 2 from
∆ t=
∆ t 2o
=
√∆ t 2
o

) √( )
figure 5(b); 2
v

√(
1− v2
)
2
1 1− 2
L= v ∆ t +d 2 3 c
2
c
2
1 Thus;
And from equation 1, we have; d= c ∆ t o ∆to
2
2 ∆ t= 5

√(
Squaring both sides of the equation (1), we
get;
v2
1− 2
c )
√( )
2
1
d= c ∆ t o and substituting in equation
2 ∆ t >∆ t o=timedilation
(3), we get; ∆ t , the time interval measured in station 1

√( )( )
2 2
1 1 is longer than the time interval measured
L= v ∆ t + c ∆ to 4
2 2 in station 2, the rest frame.
Also, from equations (2) & (1), 1

√(
1 1
L= c ∆ t
2
d= c ∆ t o respectively.
2
We want to establish a relationship
The quantity
c2
1− )
v 2 in equation (5) is

between ∆ t and ∆ t o expressed with the symbol γ called gamma

√(
is often used in relativity which expresses
)
2
2L 2 1 2
v
∆ t= = v ∆ t +d 4
c c 2 time dilation. Furthermore, the quantity
c
is expressed with the symbol β called bata

√( )( )
2 2
2 1 1 such that;
∆ t= c ∆ t o + vt
c 2 2 1
γ= 6
Now squaring both sides of the equation; √ 1−β 2

√(
If v << c, then equations (5) and (6)
)( )
2
2 c ∆ to
2
vt
∆ t= + approaches Newtonian mechanics.
c 2 2

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Conclusion
Comparing the time intervals in station 1 (b) Julia
and station 2, we have;
i. V must be less than c (v << c), Fig6: Relativity of length
equation (5) must be less than unity ie
1; The experiment is carried out by two
ii. ∆ t must be greater (longer) than students named Marvis (M) and Julia (J)
∆ t o, that is, station 1 measures a respectively. M is in frame S while J is in
greater time interval between the two frame S1. In M, that is frame S, the rod is
events, however, the relative motion at rest and its length is Lo. In frame S 1, the
between station 1 and station 2 made rod is moving to the right with a velocity v
measurements differently; with the light source. In frame S the time
iii. Thus, their elative motion can interval ∆to required light purse to make a
change the rate at which time passes to – and – fro journey; that is, from light
between the two events; source to mirror and back to source is
iv. Hence, the speed of light is the given as;
same for both observers; 2L
∆ t o= o 7
v. Finally, the measurements c
between station 1 and station 2 is Equation 7 is the proper time interval since
concluded with this terminology; departure and return occur at same point in
When two events occur at the same time in frame S.
space in an inertial frame of reference, the In frame S1, the rod is moving to the right
time interval between the measured in the with a velocity v with the light purse. The
rest frame is called Proper Time interval length of the rod is L and the time of travel
or simply proper Time. Any other time from source to mirror is ∆t. during this
measured of the same time interval outside interval the rod, the source and the mirror
the rest frame is always longer or greater. move distance v∆t1. Thus, the total length
traveled from light source to mirror is no
longer L, but is given as;
Measurement of length interval d = L + v∆t1 8
Again, the light purse travels with velocity
To establish relationship between two v, such that;
lengths measured parallel to the direction d = c∆t1 9
of motion in certain frames of reference, But d is the same for both equations (8)
we consider a rod of length on which a and (9), hence, eliminating d, we obtain ∆t
light source is attached at one end and a as;
mirror at the other end as shown in figure L + v∆t1 = c∆t1
6 below. v∆t1 - c∆t1 = L
or that;
Lo L
c ∆ t 1= 10
c−v d
S
Similarly, the time interval∆ t 2 for the
return trip from mirror to light source is
(a) Marvis given as;
L
c ∆ t 2= 11
d c+ v
v
The total time ∆t for the entire journey is
L v∆t1 thus written as;
L L
S1 ∆t = ∆t1 + ∆t2 = +
c+ v c+ v

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Or that; P = mv
2L And the;
∆ t= 12

√ v
2 V Mo
c 1− M=
c2
But ∆t and ∆to are related by equation 5 of
time dilation, and here since ∆to is the
√ v2
1− 2
c

proper time in frame S and also equation 7, Thus,

we have the time for the entire journey in Mo
M= 17

√
the rest frame S as; 2

√
v
v2 2 L 1− 2
∆ t= 1− 2 = o 13 c
c c
Eliminating ∆ t between equations 12 and
13, we have that;

√
2
v
L=Lo 1− 2 14
c
L
Lo = 15

Conclusion:
√ 1− 2
v2
c

Equation 15 is referred to as the equation

of the length contraction. L in frame S1 in
which the rod is moving away is less than
the length Lo measured in its rest frame S.
L is called the contracted length.

Relativity of Mass
The relativistic mass of a particle moving a
velocity v with respect to the observer is
measured in that measured in frame S1, the
rest frame, and the same mass being
reduced in frame S which is out the rest
frame. The mass in the rest frame S1 is Mo,
while the mass out the rest frame S is M.
The relativistic mass is given as;
Mo
M= 16

√
2
v
1− 2
c
Where Mo = rest of the particle; that mass
measured in its moving frame. Any other
mass measured outside the rest is the
reduced mass called the apparent mass.

Relativistic Linear momentum

The relativistic linear momentum is given

from the relation that;

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