Smart manufacturing and the Smart Factory

Smart manufacturing and the Smart Factory is a broad category of manufacturing with
the goal of optimizing the manufacturing process. Smart manufacturing is the process that
employs computer controls, modeling, big data and other automation to improve
manufacturing efficiencies.
Smart manufacturing aims to take advantage of advanced information and manufacturing
technologies to enable flexibility in physical processes to address a dynamic and global
market.

Smart Manufacturing is being predicted as the next Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0.
And, as with many other advances throughout recent years, it all has to do with technology
connectivity and the advances in the contextualization of data.

Definitions:
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines Smart Manufacturing as
systems that are “fully-integrated, collaborative manufacturing systems that respond in real
time to meet changing demands and conditions in the factory, in the supply network, and in
customer needs.”

The SMLC definition states, "Smart Manufacturing is the ability to solve existing and future
problems via an open infrastructure that allows solutions to be implemented at the speed of
business while creating advantaged value."

UNDERSTANDING THE SMART FACTORY

The term describes an environment where machinery and equipment are able to improve
processes through automation and self-optimization. The benefits also extend beyond just
the physical production of goods and into functions like planning, supply chain logistics, and
even product development.

Yet, the core value of the smart factory still happens within the four walls of the plant. The
structure of a smart factory can include a combination of production, information, and
communication technologies, with the potential for integration across the entire
manufacturing supply chain.

All these disparate parts of production can be connected via the IoT (Internet of Things) or
other types of advanced integrated circuits (IC’s), which enable sensing, measurement,
control, and communication of everything that’s happening throughout the manufacturing
process.
Central to the smart factory is the technology that makes data collection possible. These
include the intelligent sensors, motors, and robotics present on production and assembly
lines that the smart factory puts to use.

Sensors make it possible to monitor specific processes throughout the factory which
increases awareness about what’s happening on multiple levels. For example, vibration
sensing can provide a warning when motors, bearings, or other equipment need to be
maintained. These types of subtle warnings become alerts for preventative maintenance or
other actions that head off larger production problems if left unattended.

Similarly, sensing technology on SDVs (Self-Driving Vehicles) used for material handling
improves efficiency and safety as product is moved around the factory. These types of
robotics have the ability to sense and avoid people, as well as unexpected obstructions in
the course of doing its work. The ability to automatically avoid these common disruptions is a
powerful advantage that keeps production running optimally.

CONNECTING THE SHOP FLOOR TO THE TOP FLOOR

Popular Mechanics
Photo credit: Popular Mechanics

Communication and the ability to use the data is what puts the ‘smart’ in the smart factory.
New technologies are emerging as Industry 4.0 - or the next industrial revolution - are
converging to enable the smart factory.

Ultimately, it’s the application of intelligence at the factory level that creates a dynamic
production environment and the desired results - reducing costs while improving quality and
reliability. Consider how smart equipment makes it possible to automate much of what’s
required to accommodate product variation and smaller-sized production runs during the
manufacturing process. The future of manufacturing is for more customization, so by
minimizing downtime for retooling and resetting equipment, manufacturers can operate
efficiently while staying flexible.

Smart Factory Elements

A model for innovative production IT
The challenges facing production have grown enormously. These challenges are leading to
increased complexities like a high product diversity, short delivery times, fast process
changes, smaller batch sizes up to batch size 1. In times of Industry 4.0, this is clearly a
case for the Smart Factory - which in turn needs certain processes and functions to meet the
growing demands. This is a job for the Smart Factory Elements.
The Smart Factory Elements make up a control loop. According to this control loop,
production is planned (Planning & Scheduling) based on specifications from different
sources and a plan is then implemented (Execution). The data collected is analyzed
(Analytics) to make forecasts (Prediction). Subsequently, the findings from analytics and
prediction flow back into planning. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) supports this cycle
by collecting and providing data.

Planning & Scheduling

contains typical tasks of the work preparation and planning:

● Orders and operations

● Resources and employees
● Quality assurance
● Maintenance activities
● Material and energy use

Execution
ensures that the specifications are implemented and documented efficiently and correctly:

● Production control
● Monitoring process quality
● Process interlocking
● Online monitoring
● Early detection of deviations
Analytics
... uses statistical methods and innovative algorithms to prepare collected data for:

● KPIs
● Performance and correlation analysis
● Root Cause Analysis
● Self service analytics
● Machine learning based on Big Data.
Prediction
enables the prediction of events based on executable models and artificial intelligence.
Typical applications are:

● Predictive quality
● Prediction of dates
● Predictive Maintenance
● Projection of material ranges

Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

connects the operator and the real world of production with the digital image of the Smart
Factory by means of networking and edge computing. The following applications are used:

● Data transfer from IIoT sensors

● Digital machine connections
● Manual data collection
● Providing information to the shop floor
● Flexible operator guidance
THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF SMART MANUFACTURING
Smart manufacturing will realise the promise and potential of Industry 4.0. In many cases, a
tipping point has been reached, where machine builders and manufacturers are actively
engaged in implementing smart manufacturing systems

(1) PEOPLE AS KEY PLAYERS

Digital assistant functions and intelligent workplace design support people with
production-related information and improved ergonomics, thereby increasing the level of
individualisation of the work environment. This begins with assembly areas that can
automatically identify workers and create a work environment that is tailored to them
individually; show workers instructions that are oriented to their knowledge; and provide
them with smart assembly tools and devices that are intuitive to operate.

(2) DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENCE

Decentralised intelligent automation components with integrated software perform their tasks
independently, according to the specifications of higher-level systems, and make
autonomous decisions.Distributed intelligence is a basic requirement for modular machines
and flexible facilities that adjust themselves to changing market and manufacturing
conditions.

(3) FAST INTEGRATION AND FLEXIBLE CONFIGURATION

With Plug and Produce, people, machines, processes and the flow of goods are networked
together on an ad hoc basis. Software tools simplify multiple smart manufacturing machine
steps: commissioning, integration and (re)configuration, as well as preventive maintenance
of all components, modules and machines.

(4) OPEN STANDARDS

Open Standards that extend across manufacturers and are platform-independent form the
basis for horizontal and vertical integration and thus for the seamless exchange of
information in value-creation networks.

(5) VIRTUAL REAL-TIME REPRESENTATION

All components and objects are represented as virtual real-time representations across the
entire value creation process. These virtual elements are closely linked to their physical
counterparts and provide in-context information for continuous process improvement in
real-time.
systems record all relevant data using their own software functions and sensors and
exchange these via multi-Ethernet interfaces. Industry 4.0 solutions such as ActiveCockpit
evaluate the relevant data and display it in real time. This provides operators and managers
with a solid base of information for rapid process improvements as production proceeds.

(6) DIGITAL LIFE-CYCLE MANAGEMENT

The comprehensive networking of all automation components, machines, processes and
product data — from development and production to recycling — decreases development
time and therefore development costs, for both completely new smart manufacturing lines
and upgrades to existing platforms. In addition, this also ensures the application-oriented
design of all components.

(7) Secure value-creation networks

Challenges of smart manufacturing

THE IMPACT ON JOBS
As the smart factory slowly emerges, the roles that people take on will evolve from what they
are currently doing in today’s factories. People will take on more complex roles while
automation will conquer the tasks that are repeatable, mundane or currently impacted by
labor shortage. Studies indicate that technology, overall, does not eliminate jobs. As
factories get more technologically advanced, the number of indirect jobs needed to support
them will increase proportionately. In turn, new suppliers in new industries will emerge,
fueling the advancements from outside the smart factory.

In the end, the investment of building a smart factory benefits manufacturers by creating a
safer and more reliable plant. The demands on the manufacturing industry will continue
thanks to the trend for more on-demand production and ever present drive to reduce costs.
The smart factory is a direct way for manufacturers to excel in a competitive and dynamic
marketplace

Cyber-Physical Systems
Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of computation, networking, and physical
processes. Embedded computers and networks monitor and control the physical processes,
with feedback loops where physical processes affect computations and vice versa. The
economic and societal potential of such systems is vastly greater than what has been
realized, and major investments are being made worldwide to develop the technology. The
technology builds on the older (but still very young) discipline of embedded systems,
computers and software embedded in devices whose principle mission is not computation,
such as cars, toys, medical devices, and scientific instruments. CPS integrates the dynamics
of the physical processes with those of the software and networking, providing abstractions
and modeling, design, and analysis techniques for the integrated whole.
A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a computer system in which a mechanism is controlled or
monitored by computer-based algorithms. In cyber-physical systems, physical and software
components are deeply intertwined, able to operate on different spatial and temporal scales,
exhibit multiple and distinct behavioral modalities, and interact with each other in ways that
change with context. CPS involves transdisciplinary approaches, merging theory of
cybernetics, mechatronics, design and process science. The process control is often
referred to as embedded systems. In embedded systems, the emphasis tends to be more on
the computational elements, and less on an intense link between the computational and
physical elements. CPS is also similar to the Internet of Things (IoT), sharing the same basic
architecture; nevertheless, CPS presents a higher combination and coordination between
physical and computational elements.

Examples of CPS include smart grid, autonomous automobile systems, medical monitoring,
industrial control systems, robotics systems, and automatic pilot avionics.Precursors of
cyber-physical systems can be found in areas as diverse as aerospace, automotive,
chemical processes, civil infrastructure, energy, healthcare, manufacturing, transportation,
entertainment, and consumer appliances

Unlike more traditional embedded systems, a full-fledged CPS is typically designed as a

network of interacting elements with physical input and output instead of as standalone
devices. The notion is closely tied to concepts of robotics and sensor networks with
intelligence mechanisms proper of computational intelligence leading the pathway. Ongoing
advances in science and engineering improve the link between computational and physical
elements by means of intelligent mechanisms, increasing the adaptability, autonomy,
efficiency, functionality, reliability, safety, and usability of cyber-physical systems. This will
broaden the potential of cyber-physical systems in several directions, including: intervention
(e.g., collision avoidance); precision (e.g., robotic surgery and nano-level manufacturing);
operation in dangerous or inaccessible environments (e.g., search and rescue, firefighting,
and deep-sea exploration); coordination (e.g., air traffic control, war fighting); efficiency (e.g.,
zero-net energy buildings); and augmentation of human capabilities (e.g. in healthcare
monitoring and delivery).

a discipline, CPS is an engineering discipline, focused on technology, with a strong

foundation in mathematical abstractions. The key technical challenge is to conjoin
abstractions that have evolved over centuries for modeling physical processes (differential
equations, stochastic processes, etc.) with abstractions that have evolved over decades in
computer science (algorithms and programs, which provide a "procedural epistemology"
[Abelson and Sussman]). The former abstractions focus on dynamics (evolution of system
state over time), whereas the latter focus on processes of transforming data. Computer
science, as rooted in the Turing-Church notion of computability, abstracts away core physical
properties, particularly the passage of time, that are required to include the dynamics of the
physical world in the domain of discourse.

Mobile cyber-physical systems

Mobile cyber-physical systems, in which the physical system under study has inherent
mobility, are a prominent subcategory of cyber-physical systems. Examples of mobile
physical systems include mobile robotics and electronics transported by humans or animals.
The rise in popularity of smartphones has increased interest in the area of mobile
cyber-physical systems. Smartphone platforms make ideal mobile cyber-physical systems
for a number of reasons, including:

Significant computational resources, such as processing capability, local storage

Multiple sensory input/output devices, such as touch screens, cameras, GPS chips,
speakers, microphone, light sensors, proximity sensors
Multiple communication mechanisms, such as WiFi, 4G, EDGE, Bluetooth for
interconnecting devices to either the Internet, or to other devices
High-level programming languages that enable rapid development of mobile CPS node
software, such as Java, C#, or JavaScript
Readily available application distribution mechanisms, such as Google Play Store and Apple
App Store
End-user maintenance and upkeep, including frequent re-charging of the battery
For tasks that require more resources than are locally available, one common mechanism
for rapid implementation of smartphone-based mobile cyber-physical system nodes utilizes
the network connectivity to link the mobile system with either a server or a cloud
environment, enabling complex processing tasks that are impossible under local resource
constraints. Examples of mobile cyber-physical systems include applications to track and
analyze CO2 emissions, detect traffic accidents, insurance telematics and provide situational
awareness services to first responders, measure traffic, and monitor cardiac patients.

Design

A challenge in the development of embedded and cyber-physical systems is the large

differences in the design practice between the various engineering disciplines involved, such
as software and mechanical engineering. Additionally, as of today there is no "language" in
terms of design practice that is common to all the involved disciplines in CPS. Today, in a
marketplace where rapid innovation is assumed to be essential, engineers from all
disciplines need to be able to explore system designs collaboratively, allocating
responsibilities to software and physical elements, and analyzing trade-offs between them.
Recent advances show that coupling disciplines by using co-simulation will allow disciplines
to cooperate without enforcing new tools or design methods.
Augmented reality

Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience of a real-world environment where the

objects that reside in the real world are enhanced by computer-generated perceptual
information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic,
somatosensory and olfactory. AR can be defined as a system that incorporates three basic
features: a combination of real and virtual worlds, real-time interaction, and accurate 3D
registration of virtual and real objects. The overlaid sensory information can be constructive
(i.e. additive to the natural environment), or destructive (i.e. masking of the natural
environment). This experience is seamlessly interwoven with the physical world such that it
is perceived as an immersive aspect of the real environment. In this way, augmented reality
alters one's ongoing perception of a real-world environment, whereas virtual reality
completely replaces the user's real-world environment with a simulated one. Augmented
reality is related to two largely synonymous terms: mixed reality and computer-mediated
reality.
The primary value of augmented reality is the manner in which components of the digital
world blend into a person's perception of the real world, not as a simple display of data, but
through the integration of immersive sensations, which are perceived as natural parts of an
environment. The earliest functional AR systems that provided immersive mixed reality
experiences for users were invented in the early 1990s, starting with the Virtual Fixtures
system developed at the U.S. Air Force's Armstrong Laboratory in 1992. Commercial
augmented reality experiences were first introduced in entertainment and gaming
businesses. Subsequently, augmented reality applications have spanned commercial
industries such as education, communications, medicine, and entertainment. In education,
content may be accessed by scanning or viewing an image with a mobile device or by using
markerless AR techniques.

Augmented reality is used to enhance natural environments or situations and offer

perceptually enriched experiences. With the help of advanced AR technologies (e.g. adding
computer vision, incorporating AR cameras into smartphone applications and object
recognition) the information about the surrounding real world of the user becomes interactive
and digitally manipulated. Information about the environment and its objects is overlaid on
the real world. This information can be virtual or real, e.g. seeing other real sensed or
measured information such as electromagnetic radio waves overlaid in exact alignment with
where they actually are in space. Augmented reality also has a lot of potential in the
gathering and sharing of tacit knowledge. Augmentation techniques are typically performed
in real time and in semantic contexts with environmental elements. Immersive perceptual
information is sometimes combined with supplemental information like scores over a live
video feed of a sporting event. This combines the benefits of both augmented reality
technology and heads up display technology hud.
Comparison with virtual reality
In virtual reality (VR), the users' perception of reality is completely based on virtual
information. In augmented reality (AR) the user is provided with additional computer
generated information that enhances their perception of reality. For example, in architecture,
VR can be used to create a walk-through simulation of the inside of a new building; and AR
can be used to show a building's structures and systems super-imposed on a real-life view.
Another example is through the use of utility applications. Some AR applications, such as
Augment, enable users to apply digital objects into real environments, allowing businesses
to use augmented reality devices as a way to preview their products in the real world.
Similarly, it can also be used to demo what products may look like in an environment for
customers, as demonstrated by companies such as Mountain Equipment Co-op or Lowe's
who use augmented reality to allow customers to preview what their products might look like
at home through the use of 3D models.

Augmented reality (AR) differs from virtual reality (VR) in the sense that in AR part of the
surrounding environment is actually 'real' and just adding layers of virtual objects to the real
environment. On the other hand, in VR the surrounding environment is completely virtual. A
demonstration of how AR layers objects onto the real world can be seen with augmented
reality games. WallaMe is an augmented reality game application that allows users to hide
messages in real environments, utilizing geolocation technology in order to enable users to
hide messages wherever they may wish in the world.Such applications have many uses in
the world, including in activism and artistic expression.

Intelligent maintenance system

An intelligent maintenance system (IMS) is a system that utilizes collected data from
machinery in order to predict and prevent potential failures in them. The occurrence of
failures in machinery can be costly and even catastrophic. In order to avoid failures, there
needs to be a system which analyzes the behavior of the machine and provides alarms and
instructions for preventive maintenance. Analyzing the behavior of the machines has
become possible by means of advanced sensors, data collection systems, data
storage/transfer capabilities and data analysis tools. These are the same set of tools
developed for prognostics. The aggregation of data collection, storage, transformation,
analysis and decision making for smart maintenance is called an intelligent maintenance
system (IMS).
Definition-An intelligent maintenance system is a system that utilizes data analysis and
decision support tools to predict and prevent the potential failure of machines. The recent
advancement in information technology, computers, and electronics have facilitated the
design and implementation of such systems.
The key research elements of intelligent maintenance systems consist of:

1. Transformation of data to information to knowledge and synchronization of the

decisions with remote systems
2. Intelligent, embedded prognostic algorithms for assessing degradation and predicting
the performance in future
3. Software and hardware platforms to run online models
4. Embedded product services and life cycle information for closed-loop product
designs

The e-Maintenance infrastructure consists of several information sectors.

1. Control systems and production schedulers

2. Engineering product data management systems
3. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
4. Condition monitoring systems
5. Maintenance scheduling (CMMS/EAM) systems
6. Plant asset management (PAM) systems

Predictive maintenance
Predictive maintenance techniques are designed to help determine the condition of
in-service equipment in order to estimate when maintenance should be performed. This
approach promises cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance,
because tasks are performed only when warranted. Thus, it is regarded as condition-based
maintenance carried out as suggested by estimations of the degradation state of an item.
The main promise of predictive maintenance is to allow convenient scheduling of corrective
maintenance, and to prevent unexpected equipment failures. The key is "the right infor
equipment lifetime, increased plant safety, fewer accidents with negative impact on
environment, and optimized spare parts handling.

Predictive maintenance differs from preventive maintenance because it relies on the actual
condition of equipment, rather than average or expected life statistics, to predict when
maintenance will be required. Typically, Machine Learning approaches are adopted for the
definition of the actual condition of the system and for forecasting its future states.

Some of the main components that are necessary for implementing predictive maintenance
are data collection and preprocessing, early fault detection, fault detection, time to failure
prediction, maintenance scheduling and resource optimization. Predictive maintenance has
also been considered to be one of the driving forces for improving productivity and one of the
ways to achieve "just-in-time" in manufacturing.
Overview
Predictive maintenance evaluates the condition of equipment by performing periodic (offline)
or continuous (online) equipment condition monitoring. The ultimate goal of the approach is
to perform maintenance at a scheduled point in time when the maintenance activity is most
cost-effective and before the equipment loses performance within a threshold. This results in
a reduction in unplanned downtime costs because of failure, where costs can be in the
hundreds of thousands per day depending on industry.[6] In energy production, in addition to
loss of revenue and component costs, fines can be levied for non-delivery, increasing costs
even further. This is in contrast to time- and/or operation count-based maintenance, where a
piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not. Time-based maintenance is
labor intensive, ineffective in identifying problems that develop between scheduled
inspections, and therefore is not cost-effective.

The "predictive" component of predictive maintenance stems from the goal of predicting the
future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of statistical process
control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities will be appropriate.

Most predictive inspections are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing
disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of predictive maintenance can result in
substantial cost savings and higher system reliability.
One goal is to transfer the predictive maintenance data to a computerized maintenance
management system so that the equipment condition data is sent to the right equipment
object to trigger maintenance planning, work order execution, and reporting. Unless this is
achieved, the predictive maintenance solution is of limited value, at least if the solution is
implemented on a medium to large size plant with tens of thousands pieces of equipment. In
2010, the mining company Boliden, implemented a combined Distributed Control System
and predictive maintenance solution integrated with the plant computerized maintenance
management system on an object to object level, transferring equipment data using
protocols like Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol, IEC61850 and OLE for
process control.
Technologies
To evaluate equipment condition, predictive maintenance utilizes nondestructive testing
technologies such as infrared, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), corona
detection, vibration analysis, sound level measurements, oil analysis, and other specific
online tests. A new approach in this area is to utilize measurements on the actual equipment
in combination with measurement of process performance, measured by other devices, to
trigger equipment maintenance. This is primarily available in collaborative process
automation systems (CPAS). Site measurements are often supported by wireless sensor
networks to reduce the wiring cost.

Vibration analysis is most productive on high-speed rotating equipment and can be the most
expensive component of a PdM program to get up and running. Vibration analysis, when
properly done, allows the user to evaluate the condition of equipment and avoid failures. The
latest generation of vibration analyzers comprises more capabilities and automated functions
than its predecessors. Many units display the full vibration spectrum of three axes
simultaneously, providing a snapshot of what is going on with a particular machine. But
despite such capabilities, not even the most sophisticated equipment successfully predicts
developing problems unless the operator understands and applies the basics of vibration
analysis.

In certain situations, strong background noise interferences from several competing sources
may mask the signal of interest and hinder the industrial applicability of vibration sensors.
Consequently, motor current signature analysis (MCSA) is a non-intrusive alternative to
vibration measurement which has the potential to monitor faults from both electrical and
mechanical systems.

Remote visual inspection is the first non-destructive testing. It provides a cost-efficient

primary assessment. Essential information and defaults can be deduced from the external
appearance of the piece, such as folds, breaks, cracks, and corrosion. The remote visual
inspection has to be carried out in good conditions with a sufficient lighting (350 LUX at
least). When the part of the piece to be controlled is not directly accessible, an instrument
made of mirrors and lenses called endoscope is used. Hidden defects with external
irregularities may indicate a more serious defect inside.

Acoustical analysis can be done on a sonic or ultrasonic level. New ultrasonic techniques for
condition monitoring make it possible to "hear" friction and stress in rotating machinery,
which can predict deterioration earlier than conventional techniques. Ultrasonic technology is
sensitive to high-frequency sounds that are inaudible to the human ear and distinguishes
them from lower-frequency sounds and mechanical vibration. Machine friction and stress
waves produce distinctive sounds in the upper ultrasonic range. Changes in these friction
and stress waves can suggest deteriorating conditions much earlier than technologies such
as vibration or oil analysis. With proper ultrasonic measurement and analysis, it’s possible to
differentiate normal wear from abnormal wear, physical damage, imbalance conditions, and
lubrication problems based on a direct relationship between asset and operating conditions.

Sonic monitoring equipment is less expensive, but it also has fewer uses than ultrasonic
technologies. Sonic technology is useful only on mechanical equipment, while ultrasonic
equipment can detect electrical problems and is more flexible and reliable in detecting
mechanical problems.

Infrared monitoring and analysis has the widest range of application (from high- to low-speed
equipment), and it can be effective for spotting both mechanical and electrical failures; some
consider it to currently be the most cost-effective technology. Oil analysis is a long-term
program that, where relevant, can eventually be more predictive than any of the other
technologies. It can take years for a plant's oil program to reach this level of sophistication
and effectiveness. Analytical techniques performed on oil samples can be classified in two
categories: used oil analysis and wear particle analysis. Used oil analysis determines the
condition of the lubricant itself, determines the quality of the lubricant, and checks its
suitability for continued use. Wear particle analysis determines the mechanical condition of
machine components that are lubricated. Through wear particle analysis, you can identify
the composition of the solid material present and evaluate particle type, size, concentration,
distribution, and morphology.

The use of Model Based Condition Monitoring for predictive maintenance programs is
becoming increasingly popular over time. This method involves spectral analysis on the
motor’s current and voltage signals and then compares the measured parameters to a
known and learned model of the motor to diagnose various electrical and mechanical
anomalies. This process of "model based" condition monitoring was originally designed and
used on NASA’s space shuttle to monitor and detect developing faults in the space shuttle’s
main engine. It allows for the automation of data collection and analysis tasks, providing
round the clock condition monitoring and warnings about faults as they develop.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a computer system—a combination of a computer processor,

computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within
a larger mechanical or electronic system.[1][2] It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including electrical or electronic hardware and mechanical parts. Because an
embedded system typically controls physical operations of the machine that it is embedded
within, it often has real-time computing constraints. Embedded systems control many
devices in common use today.[3] In 2009 it was estimated that ninety-eight percent of all
microprocessors manufactured were used in embedded systems.[4]

Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players,
to large stationary installations like traffic light controllers, programmable logic controllers,
and large complex systems like hybrid vehicles, medical imaging systems, and avionics.
Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple
units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large equipment rack.
Digital twins

A digital twin is a virtual representation that serves as the real-time digital counterpart of a
physical object or process. Though the concept originated earlier the first practical definition
of digital twin originated from NASA in an attempt to improve physical model simulation of
spacecraft in 2010. Digital twins are the outcome of continuous improvement in the creation
of product design and engineering activities. Product drawings and engineering
specifications progressed from handmade drafting to computer aided drafting/computer
aided design (CAD) to model-based systems engineering (MBSE).
The digital twin of a physical object is dependent on the digital thread—the lowest level
design and specification for a digital twin—and the "twin" is dependent on the digital thread
to maintain accuracy. Changes to product design are implemented using engineering
change orders (ECO). An ECO made to a component item will result in a new version of the
item's digital thread, and correspondingly to the digital twin.

Origin and types of digital twins

Digital twins were anticipated by David Gelernter's 1991 book Mirror Worlds. It is widely
acknowledged in both industry and academic publications that Michael Grieves of Florida
Institute of Technology first applied the digital twin concept in manufacturing. The concept
and model of the digital twin was publicly introduced in 2002 by Grieves, then of the
University of Michigan, at a Society of Manufacturing Engineers conference in Troy,
Michigan. Grieves proposed the digital twin as the conceptual model underlying product
lifecycle management (PLM).

An Early Digital Twin Concept by Grieves and Vickers

The concept, which had a few different names, was subsequently called the "digital twin" by
John Vickers of NASA in a 2010 Roadmap Report. The digital twin concept consists of three
distinct parts: the physical product, the digital/virtual product, and connections between the
two products. The connections between the physical product and the digital/virtual product is
data that flows from the physical product to the digital/virtual product and information that is
available from the digital/virtual product to the physical environment.

The concept was divided into types later. The types are the digital twin prototype (DTP), the
digital twin instance (DTI), and the digital twin aggregate (DTA). The DTP consists of the
designs, analyses, and processes to realize a physical product. The DTP exists before there
is a physical product. The DTI is the digital twin of each individual instance of the product
once it is manufactured. The DTA is the aggregation of DTIs whose data and information can
be used for interrogation about the physical product, prognostics, and learning. The specific
information contained in the digital twins is driven by use cases. The digital twin is a logical
construct, meaning that the actual data and information may be contained in other
applications.

A digital twin in the workplace is often considered part of robotic process automation (RPA)
and, per industry-analyst firm Gartner, is part of the broader and emerging
"hyperautomation" category.

Examples
An example of how digital twins are used to optimize machines is with the maintenance of
power generation equipment such as power generation turbines, jet engines and
locomotives.

Another example of digital twins is the use of 3D modeling to create digital companions for
the physical objects. It can be used to view the status of the actual physical object, which
provides a way to project physical objects into the digital world. For example, when sensors
collect data from a connected device, the sensor data can be used to update a "digital twin"
copy of the device's state in real time. The term "device shadow" is also used for the concept
of a digital twin. The digital twin is meant to be an up-to-date and accurate copy of the
physical object's properties and states, including shape, position, gesture, status and motion

A digital twin also can be used for monitoring, diagnostics and prognostics to optimize asset
performance and utilization. In this field, sensory data can be combined with historical data,
human expertise and fleet and simulation learning to improve the outcome of prognostics.
Therefore, complex prognostics and intelligent maintenance system platforms can use digital
twins in finding the root cause of issues and improve productivity.

Digital twins of autonomous vehicles and their sensor suite embedded in a traffic and
environment simulation have also been proposed as a means to overcome the significant
development, testing and validation challenges for the automotive application, in particular
when the related algorithms are based on artificial intelligence approaches that require
extensive training data and validation data sets.

Further examples of industry applications:

Aircraft engines
Wind turbines
Ultraprecision motion systems and machine tools
Manufacturing equipments.
Large structures, e.g. offshore platforms, offshore vessels etc.
HVAC control systems
Locomotives
Buildings
Utilities (electric, gas, water, wastewater networks)

Manufacturing industry
The physical manufacturing objects are virtualized and represented as digital twin models
(avatars) seamlessly and closely integrated in both the physical and cyber spaces. Physical
objects and twin models interact in a mutually beneficial manner.
(i) Industry-level dynamics
The digital twin is disrupting the entire product lifecycle management (PLM), from design, to
manufacturing to service and operations. Nowadays, PLM is very time consuming in terms of
efficiency, manufacturing, intelligence, service phases and sustainability in product design. A
digital twin can merge the product physical and virtual space. The digital twin enables
companies to have a digital footprint of all of their products, from design to development and
throughout the entire product life cycle. Broadly speaking, industries with manufacturing
business are highly disrupted by digital twins. In the manufacturing process, the digital twin
is like a virtual replica of the near-time occurrences in the factory. Thousands of sensors are
being placed throughout the physical manufacturing process, all collecting data from
different dimensions, such as environmental conditions, behavioural characteristics of the
machine and work that is being performed. All this data is continuously communicating and
collected by the digital twin.
Due to the Internet of Things, digital twins have become more affordable and could drive the
future of the manufacturing industry. A benefit for engineers lays in real-world usage of
products that are virtually being designed by the digital twin. Advanced ways of product and
asset maintenance and management come within reach as there is a digital twin of the real
'thing' with real-time capabilities.

Digital twins offer a great amount of business potential by predicting the future instead of
analyzing the past of the manufacturing process. The representation of reality created by
digital twins allows manufacturers to evolve towards ex-ante business practices. The future
of manufacturing drives on the following four aspects: modularity, autonomy, connectivity and
digital twin. As there is an increasing digitalization in the stages of a manufacturing process,
opportunities are opening up to achieve a higher productivity. This starts with modularity and
leading to higher effectiveness in the production system. Furthermore, autonomy enables
the production system to respond to unexpected events in an efficient and intelligent way.
Lastly, connectivity like the Internet of Things, makes the closing of the digitalization loop
possible, by then allowing the following cycle of product design and promotion to be
optimized for higher performance. This may lead to increase in customer satisfaction and
loyalty when products can determine a problem before actually breaking down. Furthermore,
as storage and computing costs are becoming less expensive, the ways in which digital
twins are used are expanding.
(ii) Embedded digital twin
Remembering that a definition of digital twin is a real time digital replica of a physical device,
manufacturers are embedding digital twin in their device. Proven advantages are improved
quality, earlier fault detection and better feedback on product usage to product designer.

(iii) Urban planning and the construction (built environment) industry

Geographic digital twins have been popularised in urban planning practice, given the
increasing appetite for digital technology in the Smart Cities movement. These digital twins
are often proposed in the form of interactive platforms to capture and display real-time 3D
and 4D spatial data in order to model urban environments (cities) and the data feeds within
them.

Visualization technologies such as augmented reality (AR) systems are being used as both
collaborative tools for design and planning in the built environment integrating data feeds
from embedded sensors in cities and API services to form digital twins. For example, AR can
be used to create augmented reality maps, buildings, and data feeds projected onto
tabletops for collaborative viewing by built environment professionals.

In the built environment, partly through the adoption of building information modeling
processes, planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance activities are
increasingly being digitised, and digital twins of built assets are seen as a logical extension -
at an individual asset level and at a national level. In the United Kingdom in November 2018,
for example, the Centre for Digital Built Britain published The Gemini Principles, outlining
principles to guide development of a "national digital twin".
(iv) Healthcare industry
Healthcare is recognized as an industry being disrupted by the digital twin technology. The
concept of digital twin in the healthcare industry was originally proposed and first used in
product or equipment prognostics. With a digital twin, lives can be improved in terms of
medical health, sports and education by taking a more data-driven approach to healthcare.
The availability of technologies makes it possible to build personalized models for patients,
continuously adjustable based on tracked health and lifestyle parameters. This can
ultimately lead to a virtual patient, with detailed description of the healthy state of an
individual patient and not only on previous records. Furthermore, the digital twin enables
individual's records to be compared to the population in order to easier find patterns with
great detail. The biggest benefit of the digital twin on the healthcare industry is the fact that
healthcare can be tailored to anticipate on the responses of individual patients. Digital twins
will not only lead to better resolutions when defining the health of an individual patient but
also change the expected image of a healthy patient. Previously, 'healthy' was seen as the
absence of disease indications. Now, 'healthy' patients can be compared to the rest of the
population in order to really define healthy. However, the emergence of the digital twin in
healthcare also brings some downsides. The digital twin may lead to inequality, as the
technology might not be accessible for everyone by widening the gap between the rich and
poor. Furthermore, the digital twin will identify patterns in a population which may lead to
discrimination.
(v) Automotive industry
The automobile industry has been improved by digital twin technology. Digital twins in the
automobile industry are implemented by using existing data in order to facilitate processes
and reduce marginal costs. Currently, automobile designers expand the existing physical
materiality by incorporating software-based digital abilities. A specific example of digital twin
technology in the automotive industry is where automotive engineers use digital twin
technology in combination with the firm's analytical tool in order to analyze how a specific car
is driven. In doing so, they can suggest incorporating new features in the car that can reduce
car accidents on the road, which was previously not possible in such a short time frame.

Another example is the application of the digital twin paradigm to the vehicle-to-cloud based
advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) on connected vehicles. In the system, the
cloud server creates a digital world based on the received data, processes it with the
proposed models, and sends it back to the connected vehicles in the real world. Drivers can
benefit from this digital twin paradigm and improve their driving experience, even if all
computations are conducted in the digital world (cloud).

How to properly visualize digital twin information to vehicle drivers remains an open
question. The guidance and command computed in the digital world needs to be visualized
to drivers in the real world through human-machine interfaces, thus assisting the decision
making of their driving maneuvers as a feature of ADAS. One novel solution is to fuse image
data (both RGB and depth) coming from on-board cameras, with cloud data coming from
digital twin, and overlay the digital twin information on top of existing objects from the driver's
field of view. Such digital twin information may include status of surrounding vehicles or
crossing vehicles from other directions, status of surrounding vehicles' drivers, or predictions
of surrounding vehicles' future behaviors. Human-machine interfaces of digital twin can be
designed with an external screen on the vehicle, or with Head-up display through
Augmented reality technology.
The characteristics of digital twin technology
Digital technologies have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other
technologies. These characteristics, in turn, have certain consequences. Digital twins have
the following characteristics.

(i) Connectivity
One of the main characteristics of digital twin technology is its connectivity. The recent
development of the Internet of Things (IoT) brings forward numerous new technologies. The
development of IoT also brings forward the development of digital twin technology. This
technology shows many characteristics that have similarities with the character of the IoT,
namely its connective nature. First and foremost, the technology enables connectivity
between the physical component and its digital counterpart. The basis of digital twins is
based on this connection, without it, digital twin technology would not exist. As described in
the previous section, this connectivity is created by sensors on the physical product which
obtain data and integrate and communicate this data through various integration
technologies. Digital twin technology enables increased connectivity between organizations,
products, and customers. For example, connectivity between partners in a supply chain can
be increased by enabling members of this supply chain to check the digital twin of a product
or asset. These partners can then check the status of this product by simply checking the
digital twin.
(ii) Homogenization
Digital twins can be further characterized as a digital technology that is both the
consequence and an enabler of the homogenization of data. Due to the fact that any type of
information or content can now be stored and transmitted in the same digital form, it can be
used to create a virtual representation of the product (in the form of a digital twin), thus
decoupling the information from its physical form. Therefore, the homogenization of data and
the decoupling of the information from its physical artifact, have allowed digital twins to come
into existence. However, digital twins also enable increasingly more information on physical
products to be stored digitally and become decoupled from the product itself.

As data is increasingly digitized, it can be transmitted, stored and computed in fast and
low-cost ways. According to Moore's law, computing power will continue to increase
exponentially over the coming years, while the cost of computing decreases significantly.
This would, therefore, lead to lower marginal costs of developing digital twins and make it
comparatively much cheaper to test, predict, and solve problems on virtual representations
rather than testing on physical models and waiting for physical products to break before
intervening.

Another consequence of the homogenization and decoupling of information is that the user
experience converges. As information from physical objects is digitized, a single artifact can
have multiple new affordances. Digital twin technology allows detailed information about a
physical object to be shared with a larger number of agents, unconstrained by physical
location or time. In his white paper on digital twin technology in the manufacturing industry,
Michael Grieves noted the following about the consequences of homogenization enabled by
digital twins.

(iii) Reprogrammable and smart

As stated above, a digital twin enables a physical product to be reprogrammable in a certain
way. Furthermore, the digital twin is also reprogrammable in an automatic manner. Through
the sensors on the physical product, artificial intelligence technologies, and predictive
analytics, A consequence of this reprogrammable nature is the emergence of functionalities.
If we take the example of an engine again, digital twins can be used to collect data about the
performance of the engine and if needed adjust the engine, creating a newer version of the
product. Also, servitization can be seen as a consequence of the reprogrammable nature as
well. Manufactures can be responsible for observing the digital twin, making adjustments, or
reprogramming the digital twin when needed and they can offer this as an extra service.

(iv) Digital traces

Another characteristic that can be observed, is the fact that digital twin technologies leave
digital traces. These traces can be used by engineers for example, when a machine
malfunctions to go back and check the traces of the digital twin, to diagnose where the
problem occurred. These diagnoses can in the future also be used by the manufacturer of
these machines, to improve their designs so that these same malfunctions will occur less
often in the future.
(v) Modularity
In the sense of the manufacturing industry, modularity can be described as the design and
customization of products and production modules. By adding modularity to the
manufacturing models, manufacturers gain the ability to tweak models and machines. Digital
twin technology enables manufacturers to track the machines that are used and notice
possible areas of improvement in the machines. When these machines are made modular,
by using digital twin technology, manufacturers can see which components make the
machine perform poorly and replace these with better fitting components to improve the
manufacturing process.
Industrial internet of things
The industrial internet of things (IIoT) refers to interconnected sensors, instruments, and
other devices networked together with computers' industrial applications, including
manufacturing and energy management. This connectivity allows for data collection,
exchange, and analysis, potentially facilitating improvements in productivity and efficiency as
well as other economic benefits. The IIoT is an evolution of a distributed control system
(DCS) that allows for a higher degree of automation by using cloud computing to refine and
optimize the process controls.

Architecture

The IIoT is enabled by technologies such as cybersecurity, cloud computing, edge

computing, mobile technologies, machine-to-machine, 3D printing, advanced robotics, big
data, internet of things, RFID technology, and cognitive computing. Five of the most
important ones are described below:

1. Cyber-physical systems (CPS): the basic technology platform for IoT and IIoT and
therefore the main enabler to connect physical machines that were previously
disconnected. CPS integrates the dynamics of the physical process with those of
software and communication, providing abstractions and modeling, design, and
analysis techniques.
2. Cloud computing: With cloud computing IT services and resources can be uploaded
to and retrieved from the Internet as opposed to direct connection to a server. Files
can be kept on cloud-based storage systems rather than on local storage devices.
 3. Edge computing: A distributed computing paradigm which brings computer data
storage closer to the location where it is needed. In contrast to cloud computing,
edge computing refers to decentralized data processing at the edge of the network.
The industrial internet requires more of an edge-plus-cloud architecture rather than
one based on purely centralized cloud; in order to transform productivity, products
and services in the industrial world.
4. Big data analytics: Big data analytics is the process of examining large and varied
data sets, or big data.
5. Artificial intelligence and machine learning: Artificial intelligence (AI) is a field
within computer science in which intelligent machines are created that work and react
like humans. Machine learning is a core part of AI, allowing software to more
accurately predict outcomes without explicitly being programmed.

Architecture
IIoT systems are usually conceived as a layered modular architecture of digital technology.
The device layer refers to the physical components: CPS, sensors or machines. The network
layer consists of physical network buses, cloud computing and communication protocols that
aggregate and transport the data to the service layer, which consists of applications that
manipulate and combine data into information that can be displayed on the driver
dashboard. The top-most stratum of the stack is the content layer or the user interface.
Layered modular architecture IIoT
Content layer User interface devices (e.g. computer screens, PoS stations, tablets, smart
glasses, smart surfaces)
Service layer Applications, software to analyze data and transform it into actionable
information
Network layer Communications protocols, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa, cellular
Device layer Hardware: CPS, machines, sensors

Application and Industries

The term industrial internet of things is often encountered in the manufacturing industries,
referring to the industrial subset of the IoT. Potential benefits of the industrial internet of
things include improved productivity, analytics and the transformation of the workplace.

(i) Automotive industry

Using IIoT in car manufacturing implies the digitalization of all elements of production.
Software, machines, and humans are interconnected, enabling suppliers and manufacturers
to rapidly respond to changing standards. IIoT enables efficient and cost-effective production
by moving data from the customers to the company's systems, and then to individual
sections of the production process. With IIoT, new tools and functionalities can be included in
the manufacturing process. For example, 3D printers simplify the way of shaping pressing
tools by printing the shape directly from steel granulate. These tools enable new possibilities
for designing (with high precision). Customization of vehicles is also enabled by IIoT due to
the modularity and connectivity of this technology. While in the past they worked separately,
IIoT now enables humans and robots to cooperate. Robots take on heavy and repetitive
activities, so the manufacturing cycles are quicker and the vehicle comes to the market more
rapidly. Factories can quickly identify potential maintenance issues before they lead to
downtime and many of them are moving to a 24-hour production plant, due to higher security
and efficiency. The majority of automotive manufacturers companies have production plants
in different countries, where different components of the same vehicle are built. IIoT makes it
possible to connect these production plants to each other, creating the possibility to move
within facilities. Big data can be visually monitored which enables companies to respond
faster to fluctuations in production and demand.
(ii) Oil and gas industry
With IIoT support, large amounts of raw data can be stored and sent by the drilling gear and
research stations for cloud storage and analysis. With IIoT technologies, the oil and gas
industry has the capability to connect machines, devices, sensors, and people through
interconnectivity, which can help companies better address fluctuations in demand and
pricing, address cybersecurity, and minimize environmental impact.

Across the supply chain, IIoT can improve the maintenance process, the overall safety, and
connectivity. Drones can be used to detect possible oil and gas leaks at an early stage and
at locations that are difficult to reach (e.g. offshore). They can also be used to identify weak
spots in complex networks of pipelines with built-in thermal imaging systems. Increased
connectivity (data integration and communication) can help companies with adjusting the
production levels based on real-time data of inventory, storage, distribution pace, and
forecasted demand. For example, a Deloitte report states that by implementing an IIoT
solution integrating data from multiple internal and external sources (such as work
management system, control center, pipeline attributes, risk scores, inline inspection
findings, planned assessments, and leak history), thousands of miles of pipes can be
monitored in real-time. This allows monitoring of pipeline threats, improving risk
management, and providing situational awareness.

Benefits also apply to specific processes of the oil and gas industry. The exploration process
of oil and gas can be done more precisely with 4D models built by seismic imaging. These
models map fluctuations in oil reserves and gas levels, they strive to point out the exact
quantity of resources needed, and they forecast the lifespan of wells. The application of
smart sensors and automated drillers gives companies the opportunity to monitor and
produce more efficiently. Further, the storing process can also be improved with the
implementation of IIoT by collecting and analyzing real-time data to monitor inventory levels
and temperature control. IIoT can enhance the transportation process of oil and gas by
implementing smart sensors and thermal detectors to give real-time geolocation data and
monitor the products for safety reasons. These smart sensors can monitor the refinery
processes, and enhance safety. The demand for products can be forecasted more precisely
and automatically be communicated to the refineries and production plants to adjust
production levels.
(iii) Agriculture industry
In the agriculture industry, IIoT helps farmers to make decisions about when to harvest.
Sensors collect data about soil and weather conditions and propose schedules for fertilizing
and irrigating. Some livestock farms implant microchips into animals. This allows the farmers
not only to trace their animals, but also pull up information about the lineage, weight, or
health.