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Photovoltaic plants generation improvement using Li-ion batteries as energy

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Article · June 2011

DOI: 10.1109/ISIE.2011.5984478

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 Photovoltaic Plants Generation Improvement
Using Li-Ion Batteries as Energy Buffer
H. Beltran♦, M. Swierczynski♣, A. Luna , G. Vazquez and E. Belenguer♦
♦
Universitat Jaume I. Dpt. Industrial Systems Engineering and Design – Av. Sos Baynat s/n, E-12071 Castelló – Spain
♣
Aalborg Universitet. Institute of Energy Technology – Pontoppidanstræde 101, DK-9220 Aalborg – Denmark
♠
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. Dpt. of Electrical Engineering – Colon, 1, 08222 Barcelona – Spain
E-mail: hbeltran@esid.uji.es
Abstract – this paper analyzes the PV power plants operability
improvement obtained when introducing energy storage (ES)
systems which allow decoupling the power received from the sun
on the photovoltaic (PV) panels from the power injected by the
power plant into the grid. Two energy management strategies
are presented and analyzed, using Li-ion batteries as the energy
storage buffer. The generated power redistribution and its
variability reduction are All the results obtained in this paper
are based on one year long simulations which used real
irradiance data sampled every two minutes.
I. INTRODUCTION
Most of renewable energy systems (RES) present the big
handicap of producing power intermittently [1]. For a future
further development of RES, as well as the promising
implementation of viable and stable intelligent microgrids [2]
and distributed generation (DG) philosophy, energy storage
(ES) systems turn to be a key technology, together with a
flexible demand response, and a spot pricing [3,4].
Nowadays, intermittent energy sources are limited to at most
25–30% of the electricity produced for assuring the grid
proper operation without introducing such measures [5-7].
Meanwhile, some situations have already been experienced in
countries such as Denmark or Spain when wind electric
production has been, during periods of several hours, well
above this percentage [8]. Nonetheless, not all renewable
sources are intermittent. Those systems which can be
considered continuous include: biofuels, hydroelectric, tidal
and geothermal power as well as some which can be still
considered prototypes: energy tower, high altitude airborne
wind turbines, and space-based solar power satellites.
Regarding solar photovoltaics (PV), although technically
intermittent, they produce mostly during peak consumption
periods (i.e. daylight), reducing the need for global peak
power generation. Unfortunately, peak demand periods in the
residential sector do not correspond with peak availability of
solar energy, weakening the idea of autonomous PV systems
in this sector, which motivates the development of new and
more effective ES and energy recovery systems [9, 10].
Grid level ES will allow DG and grid operators (TSOs) to
send excess electricity contained over the Electrical Power
System (EPS) to temporary electricity storage sites which will
become energy producers when electricity demand is greater
978-1-4244-9312-8/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE
♠ ♠
Fig. 1. Combined PV+ES system topology.
than actual production [11-13]. This will help TSOs to have
an improved and easier system balance since RES power
production forecast will be more predictable. Besides, grid
level ES will be particularly important in matching supply
and demand over 24 hours time periods in both the EPS and
local microgrids.
On the demand side, further improvements have to be
performed too [10]. Demand response programs which send
market pricing signals to consumers can be a very effective
way of managing the variations in electricity production. For
example, intelligent ES devices can be set to store energy
when electricity is being produced beyond current demand
(and prices are low) and conversely, set to distribute energy
when demand is high (and prices are high). This practice is
called energy arbitrage [14, 15].
This paper focuses on the case of PV plants since they are
truly intermittent and, although representing a low percentage
on the electric production in most of the countries nowadays,
their quick installed power increment may force them to have
to cooperate in the grid operation offering some ancillary
services and, for that reason, some ES system (ESS) has to be
integrated within these plants, as depicted in Fig. 1. This
paper analyses the operability improvement obtained with
this combination (PV+ES) along one year.
The paper starts with a brief summary on ES technologies
and its selection. Then, the PV power plant integrating an
ESS and the lithium ion battery model used for the study are
presented in section III. Section IV is devoted to the different
energy management strategies which can be implemented in
such a system. Thereupon, its performance and some
simulation results are presented in section V. Finally, some
conclusions remarks are introduced in section VI.
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 II. ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
ES is the capability of storing electricity or energy and
releasing it for use during other periods when the use or cost
is more beneficial. ES became already a dominant factor in
economic development with the widespread introduction of
refined chemical fuels, such as gasoline, kerosene and natural
gas in the late 1800s. Unlike other common ES systems used
earlier, such as wood or coal, electricity has always been used
when generated. To the moment, it has never been stored on a
major scale, a trend which may soon change e.g. the U.S, the
2009 stimulus plan enhances research on energy storage and
how it may be used with the new plans for a Smart Grid [16].
Electricity is transmitted in a closed circuit and, for
essentially any practical purpose, cannot be stored as
electrical energy. This means that changes in demand could
not be accommodated without either cutting supplies (as by
brownouts or blackouts) or by storing the electric energy in
another medium [17, 18]. As previously introduced, even
renewable energy must be stored in order to make it reliable
and sustainable [19] (e.g. wind blows intermittently and
hence some form of ES is required to compensate for calm
periods, or the case of solar energy which is not effective on
cloudy days so ES must be available to compensate for the
loss of sun energy).
Focusing on ES technologies, those systems in commercial
use today can be broadly categorized mainly as: mechanical,
chemical or electrochemical and electromagnetic. Those most
important and developed nowadays are listed in Table 1.
Amongst the different storage technologies available on the
market, only few of them are able to meet requirements
established for specific applications and connection to PV
plants. Requirements set for ES are: fast reaction time, high
efficiency, maturity of the technology, possibility of freely
sizing storage power and capacity, efficiency, maintenance
ease and relatively long cycle life [27-29]. Lithium ion
batteries are meeting all those requirements and, moreover, it
is likely that their performance will be significantly improved
due to large research effort which is being performed
especially focused on its potential application to electric
vehicles [30]. Besides, their dynamical properties seem to fit
perfectly for solar variations and some experience has already
been gained with them in the field of wind power [20-22].
The Lithium ion battery model developed for this study is
introduced in the following section III.
TABLE I
CLASSIFICATION OF ES TECHNOLOGIES
Electro- Electro-
Mechanical Chemical
chemical magnetic
Pumped-Hydro Biofuels Fuel cells Capacitors
Compressed air Liquid nitrogen Batteries Ultracapacitors
Superconduc-
Flywheels Biogas Flow batteries
ting magnetic
2064
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM & BATTERY MODEL
The system considered in this paper is a combined PV+ES
power plant whose overall topology can be observed in Fig.
1. It consists of a 40kW PV plant integrating an ES system
composed by Lithium ion batteries whose characteristics are
gradually modified to perform the analysis. This system
represents a prototype to be constructed in the coming months
in a Spanish southern location.
The goal of this kind of combined distributed generation
plants is to incorporate ES capabilities which will allow
offering ancillary services to the network operator [11], not
available nowadays in standard PV plants. It is analyzed in
this paper the operation of the ES system as a buffer which,
by being charged and discharged continuously, will
complement the PV instantaneous production so that a
defined power value at the point of common coupling (PCC)
can be offered or assured. If it cannot be achieved at any time
it is envisaged with a certain and increased probability.
In this sense, the control scheme of the plant is based on a
power reference to be followed according to:
ܲ௥௘௙ = ൫ ܲாௌ + ܲ௣௩ ൯ (1)
Being Pref the power reference (to be established by TSO
depending on strategy), Ppv the instantaneous power provided
by the PV panels (depending mainly on location and weather)
and PES the currently received/ delivered ES power, the one to
be controlled, which is in turns:
݀‫ܧ‬ ܲ
Discharge: ܲாௌ > 0 ↔ ாௌൗ݀‫ = ݐ‬− ாௌൗ∈ (ܲ ) (2)
ௗ ாௌ
݀‫ܧ‬ாௌൗ
ܲாௌ < 0 ↔ ݀‫ = ݐ‬−ܲாௌ ·∈௖ (ܲாௌ ) (3)
Charge:
Where:
• EES – currently stored energy (available energy)
• ∈௖ – charging efficiency
• ∈ௗ – discharging efficiency
To predict the battery behavior and its performance under
different operational conditions a model of Lithium Ion
battery was developed.
1. Lithium ion Battery model
The modeling approach is directly based on a battery
equivalent circuit; hence, the Lithium ion battery is modeled
as a State of Charge (SOC) controlled voltage source and its
equivalent impedance, as can be seen in Fig. 2, where R
represents the conducting resistance and the resistance from
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit based lithium ion battery model.
leading wires, R1 and C1 represent effects caused by mass
transport, and R2 and C2 represent effects caused by the
charge transfer and the electrochemical double layer.
Parameters of the equivalent impedance are also function of
the SOC [23-25]. To each parameter of the equivalent circuit,
specific physical phenomena can be ascribed. Model
parameters are obtained by performing Electrochemical
Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) for different values of SOC
[25]. There is a straightforward relation between the model
and real batteries because all the coefficients and parameters
were obtained experimentally [23]. It is also to note that
according to [23], although the model was developed for a
specific type of battery, it can be valid for other kinds of
lithium ion batteries. Finally, it is to point out that the model
used in this paper does not include characteristics such as:
influence of temperature, ageing or self-discharging.
The battery model together with a battery power controller
were developed in the Matlab/Simulink environment (block
diagram in Fig. 3). The power controller regulates the battery
current in order to obtain the required power. Charging
/discharging current limits and maximum SOC limitations are
also included in the model.
IV. CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR THE PLANT
When operating a combined PV+ES power plant some new
services can be offered to the network operator thanks to the
buffer capability introduced by the ES system [11]. This is
the base for future ancillary services provided by solar plants.
A first step is to rearrange the plant production and improve
its predictability by defining one specific controlled power
reference to be injected by the plant to the grid. Two main
energy management strategies are presented here defining
different power references which have been implemented and
tested in the digital model under consideration.
1. Constant output power control
This energy management strategy is based on establishing a
constant power reference to the plant which it should provide
to the EPS by combining its PV production with the batteries
energy reserve, which is known by means of the SOC level.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the battery system.
2065
The duration and value of the constant power step used as
power reference can be varied along the year, adapting it to
the average expected irradiation of each month. In fact, not
only one but several different steps can be introduced along
the day in the power reference, as depicted in Fig. 4 for a one
day period, in order to reduce the size of the ES adapting
these steps to the PV production. However, these multiple
constant steps references do reduce the constancy of the final
combined plant power output. In the upper Fig. 4, it can be
appreciated the curves corresponding to the PV panels power
production, the batteries power exchange and the reference 2
step power curve. On the lower Fig. 4, the evolution of the
SOC of the ES along the day simulation can be observed.
The main goal of this control strategy would be providing a
more constant and more predictable solar production which
could be better traded. Hence, this strategy seems appropriate
for clear days when the total irradiance can be forecasted and,
hence, the guaranteed constant output power easily
calculated. It is important to point out that the power
reference to be followed along the day will probably be
traded on power markets and communicated in advance to the
TSO in future scenarios.
For example, in one first example reported in [26] the
plant output power value is transmitted to the electric power
company 24 hours in advance. It is also stated in that
example, analyzing a wind power plant (WPP) with ES that
the required battery power to follow the reference is 60% of
the WPP output power (51MW wind turbines with 34MW
NaS batteries). According to that, this strategy requires high
power and capacity levels to minimize SOC saturations.
2. Fluctuations reduction control
This second control strategy is based on the production
smoothening by a much more frequent reversed exchange of
energy between the batteries and the PCC than in the previous
strategy. It flattens the power delivered by the combined plant
to the EPS at the maximum according with the ES capacity.
The outlook of the power exchanges in a whole day time with
completely intermittent solar production due to clouds
presence can be observed in Fig. 5. An ES system with 0.5pu
power and 0.5pu energy capacity (in a 1 hour range) is
considered in this case. The upper Fig. 5 shows the PV power
as well as the combined plant power production. The lower
Fig. 5 depicts the SOC of the ES system along the whole day,
responding to the ES power demands.
Hence, this strategy seems appropriate not for clear days
but mostly for cloudy days when the total irradiance depends
strongly on clouds and, hence, the plant output power cannot
be guaranteed. So, the goal for this strategy is that of
flattening the PV production in order to reduce the
intermittent solar power spikes which could disturb the EPS
and reduce quality service. This strategy tends to decouple the
power injected by the plant to the EPS from the PV
instantaneous production.
 Fig. 4. A constant output control example, with 2 steps.
3. Other strategy complements
Two complementary actions can be added to these control
strategies. One first action would be the control of the ES
SOC. By defining a preferred SOC which should be achieved
within a certain period of time, defined as Tau, the system
would suffer a modification on its power reference since it
will have to recover in that Tau time the preferred level for
the SOC. Therefore, the equation governing the combined
power plant operation when this preferred SOC is defined is:
൫‫ܧ‬ாௌ − ‫ܧ‬ாௌ௠௔௫ ∙ ܱܵ‫ܥ‬௙௩ ൯
ܲாௌ = ൫ ܲ௥௘௙ − ܲ௣௩ ൯ +
߬ improvement obtained along a year when introducing an ESS,
Where:
• Pref – power required at the PCC
• Ppv – solar photovoltaic power
• EESmax – capacity of ES
• ܱܵ‫ܥ‬௙௩ – preferred state of charge
• ߬ – storage charge time constant
The first part in (4) is responsible for the output power
reference tracking, being the second part responsible to
maintain the SOC as close as possible to the preferred value.
The balance between those two tasks is determined by storage
time constant which shows how fast the control should make
the ES to reach that preferred SOC.
And a second complementary action would be the power
gradient limitation control. This additional control, which can
be integrated too in any of the two strategies previously
introduced, is focused on limiting the power changes in the
plant power reference to some extend within a certain time
(limit dP dt ). In this way, these power gradient limitations
could be applied on the one hand to the reference step
changes in the constant power strategy (the programmed
Fig. 5. A fluctuation reduction control example.
changes or instantaneous changes which could be required by
the TSO and are wanted to be in a controlled way), and on the
other hand to the fast and very frequent power variations
encountered in the fluctuations reduction strategy produced
by climatic phenomena (variations desired to smooth).
Only the preferred SOC complementary control has been
considered in this paper.
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
In order to analyze the PV power plant operability
(4)
a set of simulations considering time periods of 365 days
have been carried out. Real irradiance solar data have been
used in the analysis. Those have been adapted to a 40kW PV
power plant to get an estimated, but realistic, PV generated
power curve along the year. Besides, different lithium ion
batteries, with their corresponding energy capacities and
instantaneous power limitations, have been simulated.
However, for the sake of clarity and brevity of the paper, only
the case of battery rated 0.5p.u in of the PV plant nominal
power and with energy enough so as to supply the maximum
PV production during 2hours is presented. Charging and
discharging efficiencies are considered equal to 1, the
preferred SOC is 0.5 and the storage charge time constant
fixed to 12h (the average time of darkness along the year
along which the system can recover the initial SOC
configuration to restart its daily operation).
So, plant behavior on the one side and probability distribu-
tion and the power injected frequency domain response under
such configuration on the other side, for the two different
control strategies considered, are here explained.
2066
 1. Results for the constant output strategy
Further simplifications in the simulation parameters
variability have been taken into account for each control
strategy in order to keep clarity and brevity in the paper; for
the case of the constant output power strategy, results
comprehending just the case of introducing a single power
step in the daily reference are here introduced. Besides,
among the multiple possibilities and combinations of length
and power value of this reference power step which would
balance the batteries, input and output energies, along each
day just the case of a 0.75pu step lasting 8 hours per day is
presented. Simulation results for this configuration are
depicted in Fig. 6 and Fig. 8. While Fig. 6 represents the plant
interacting powers (upper figure) and the ES system energy
level (lower figure) for a random 6-day period within the year
(depicted every 2 minutes, sampling period) which contains
clear and cloudy days, Fig. 8 represents both the frequency
domain response and the probability distribution of the power
injected for the whole year, respectively.
The constant power control strategy performance can be
appreciated in Fig. 6. From the initial solar power (linearly
dependent on irradiance) the doted red line is obtained as the
final PV+ES power plant production which tries to follow the
dashed green line. The large variations in the ES SOC are due
to the pretended goal of following the reference power, quite
an energetic demanding curve. These energy fluctuations tend
to reestablish during night hours (power reference equal to
zero) the preferred SOC, as can be appreciated in the lower
Fig. 6. Regarding Fig. 8, the effect of this strategy on the
frequency content of the generated power can be appreciated
to be low. However, it is clearly observed in the lower Fig. 8
how effective it is when trying to improve the cumulative
probability and making the production more predictable.
Fig. 6. Constant output strategy performance.
2067
2. Results for the fluctuation reduction strategy
For the case of the fluctuation reduction control strategy,
some simplifications have been considered too since different
degrees of fluctuation reduction can be achieved. A medium
degree of flattening, trying at the same time to smooth the
large PV oscillations due to irradiance variability and to
minimize the power exchange between the plant and the grid
before the sunrise and after the sunset has been implemented
as can be appreciated in Fig. 7, where the same time period as
for the previous strategy has been registered.
Both Fig. 7 and Fig. 9 represent for this strategy the same
variables as Fig. 6 and Fig. 8 did for the constant power
control strategy. It can be appreciated already in Fig. 7 the big
difference in the behavior and performance of the plant. Here,
since the power reference is softer the plant has no problem to
follow it (in fact, reference and total final production are
superposed, upper Fig. 7) and the range of energy it uses to
follow this reference and, hence, filter the initial solar power,
is much smaller (only around 14kWh in front of than 50kWh
for the previous strategy). Regarding Fig. 9 and its
corresponding results, the upper figure shows how the
frequency response is largely modified for high frequency (as
desired to avoid with this strategy) although the cumulative
probability is hardly changed.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this paper was to analyze the PV plants
generation improvement possibilities that can be obtained
when integrating some ES system, more precisely Lithium
ion batteries, in the plant. The study and simulation results
showed that the proposed PV+ES combined plant topology
can achieve an advanced performance capable to reduce the
Fig. 7. Fluctuation reductions strategy performance.
 Fig. 8. Constant output power strategy results.
PV production variability and hence, improving its
predictability. In particular, two different control strategies
have been simulated producing different results. While the
constant power control strategy allows a clear reorganization
of the production, making it more constant and predictable,
the power fluctuations reduction control strategy only
improves the high frequency variations and not an
Besides, power and energy requirements on both strategies
differ significantly one from the other. So, different ES
technologies could be applied in one or the other strategy.
Even a combination of technologies could be considered.
It has been proven with these results that the constant
power control strategy can be better applied under sunny days
while reduction fluctuations control strategy could be suitable
for cloudy days when no clear values of irradiance, to be
received by the PV panels along the day, can be predicted. In
this way, a good coordination between the plant operator or
the TSO, demanding power to this kind of plants, and the
weather forecast service seems essential to improve their
performance. In this way, by using this forecast information,
operation parameters such as the preferred SOC or the
numbers of hours and values of the power steps could be
modified daily. This would improve the operation even more.
Finally, it is to point out that although the study is
envisaged here for a whole year time, different periods along
the year will have to be compulsory analyzed separately since
PV production varies largely from winter to summer due to
both irradiance change and to the different quantity of cloudy
hours per month. These variations will limit or require some
monthly adjustments to the control strategies here introduced.
The simulations results together with a further and
complete experimental evaluation to be done in the coming
2068
Fig. 9. Power fluctuations reduction strategy results.
months should allow us to confirm the validity and technical
viability of our proposal.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported in part by the projects ENE 2008-
06841-C02/ALT and TRA2009-0103 of the Spanish Ministry
of Science and Innovation and in part by the project
P1•1A2008-11 of the Fundació Caixa Castelló-Bancaixa..
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