Material Test and Different Mix Design

MATERIAL TEST AND DIFFERENT MIX DESIGN
SOIL TEST
Atterberg Limits:
• Liquid Limit (LL): The moisture content at which any increase in
the moisture content will
cause a plastic soil to behave as a liquid. The limit is defined as
the moisture content, in percent,
required to close a distance of 0.5 inches along the bottom of a
groove after 25 blows in a liquid
limit device.
• Plastic Limit (PL): The moisture content at which any increase in
the moisture content will
cause a semi-solid soil to become plastic. The limit is defined as
the moisture content at which a
thread of soil just crumbles when it is carefully rolled out to a
diameter of 1/8 inch.
• Plasticity Index (PI): The difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit. Soils with a
high PI tend to be predominantly clay, while those with a lower
PI tend to be predominantly silt.
Flexible Pavement: Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavement, also
commonly called asphalt pavement.
Pavement System: Consists of the pavement and foundation
materials
Foundation Materials: Material that supports the pavement, which
are layers of subbase and
subgrade.
Pavement: The pavement structure, the upper surface of a
pavement system, or the materials of
which the pavement is constructed, including all lanes and the
curb and gutter. Consist of flexible or
rigid pavements, typically Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) or PCC,
respectively, or a composite of the two.
PREPARE BY BEKELE MOKONEN LAB TECHNICIAN

Rigid Pavement: PCC pavement, also commonly called concrete
pavement.
Subbase: The layer or layers of specified or selected material of
designed thickness, placed on a
subgrade to support a pavement. Also called granular subbase.
Subgrade: Consists of the naturally occurring material on which
the road is built, or the imported fill
material used to create an embankment on which the road
pavement is constructed. Subgrades are
also considered layers in the pavement design, with their
thickness assumed to be infinite and their
material characteristics assumed to be unchanged or unmodified.
Prepared subgrade is typically the
top 12 inches of subgrade.
This section summarizes the basic soil properties and definitions
required for designing pavement
foundations and embankment construction. Basic soil classification
and moisture-density
relationships for compacted cohesive and cohesionless soil materials
are included. The standard for
soil density is determined as follows:
1. Coarse-grained Soil: The required minimum relative density and
moisture range should be
specified if it is a bulking soil.
2. Fine-grained Soil: The required minimum dry density should be
specified; then the acceptable
range of moisture content should be determined through which this
density can be achieved.
3. Inter-grade Soils: The required minimum dry density or relative
density should be specified,
depending on the controlling test. Moisture range is determined by
the controlling test.
B. Soil Types
1. Soil: Soils are sediments or other unconsolidated accumulation of
solid particles produced by the
physical and chemical disintegration of rocks, and which may or may
not contain organic matter.
Soil has distinct advantages as a construction material, including its
relative availability, low cost,

simple construction techniques, and material properties which can be
modified by mixing,
blending, and compaction. However, there are distinct disadvantages
to the use of soil as a
construction material, including its non-homogeneity, variation in
properties in space and time,
changes in stress-strain response with loading, erodability,
weathering, and difficulties in
transitions between soil and rock.
Prior to construction, engineers conduct site characterization,
laboratory testing, and geotechnical
analysis, design and engineering. During construction, engineers
ensure that site conditions are
as determined in the site characterization, provide quality control
and quality assurance testing,
and compare actual performance with predicted performance.
Numerous soil classification systems have been developed, including
geological classification
based on parent material or transportation mechanism, agricultural
classification based on particle
size and fertility, and engineering classification based on particle size
and engineering behavior.
The purpose of engineering soil classification is to group soils with
similar properties and to
provide a common language by which to express general
characteristics of soils.
Engineering soil classification can be done based on soil particle size
and by soil plasticity.
Particle size is straightforward. Soil plasticity refers to the manner in
which water interacts with
the soil particles. Soils are generally classified into four groups using
the Unified Soil
Classification System, depending on the size of the majority of the
soil particles (ASTM D 3282,
AASHTO M 145)
a. Gravel: Fraction passing the 3 inch sieve and retained on the No.
10 sieve
b. Sand: Fraction passing No. 10 sieve and retained on the No. 200
sieve.
c. Silt and Clay: Fraction passing the No. 200 sieve. To further
distinguish between silt and

clay, hydrometer analysis is required. Manually, clay feels slippery
and sticky when moist,
while silt feels slippery but not sticky.
1) Fat Clays: Cohesive and compressible clay of high plasticity,
containing a high
proportion of minerals that make it greasy to the feel. It is difficult to
work when damp,
but strong when dry.
2) Lean Clays: Clay of low-to-medium plasticity owing to a relatively
high content of silt
or sand.
2. Rock: Rocks are natural solid matter occurring in large masses or
fragments.
3. Iowa Soils: The three major soils distributed across Iowa are loess,
glacial till, and alluvium,
which constitute more than 85% of the surface soil.
a. Loess: A fine-grained, unstratified accumulation of clay and silt
deposited by wind.
b. Glacial Till: Unstratified soil deposited by a glacier; consists of sand,
clay, gravel, and
boulders.
c. Alluvium: Clay, silt, or gravel carried by running streams and
deposited where streams slow
a. Down
C. Classification
Soils are classified to provide a common language and a general
guide to their engineering behavior,
using either the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) (ASTM D
3282) or the AASHTO
Classification System (AASHTO M 145). Use of either system
depends on the size of the majority of
the soil particles to classify the soil.
1. USCS: In the USCS (see Table 6A-2.01), each soil can be classified
as:
• Gravel (G)
• Sand (S)
• Silt (M)
• Clay (C)
2. AASHTO: In the AASHTO system (see Table 6A-2.02), the soil is
classified into seven major

groups: A-1 through A-7. To classify the soil, laboratory tests
including sieve analysis,
hydrometer analysis, and Atterberg limits are required. After
performing these tests, the particle
size distribution curve (particle size vs. percent passing) is generated,
and the following
procedure can be used to classify the soil.
a. A comparison of the two systems is shown in Table 6A-2.03.

Strength and Stiffness

Subgrade materials are typically characterized by their strength and
stiffness. Three basic subgrade

stiffness/strength characterizations are commonly used in the United
States: California Bearing Ratio
(CBR), modulus of subgrade reaction (k), and elastic (resilient) modulus.
Although there are other
factors involved when evaluating subgrade materials (such as swell in the
case of certain clays),
stiffness is the most common characterization and thus CBR, k-value, and
resilient modulus are
discussed here.
1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR): The CBR test is a simple strength test
that compares the
bearing capacity of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone
(thus, a high-quality
crushed stone material should have a CBR of 100%). It is primarily
intended for, but not limited
to, evaluating the strength of cohesive materials having maximum particle
sizes less than 0.75
inches. Figure 6E-1.01 is an image of a typical CBR sample.
This method was developed by the California Division of Highways around 1930 and has
since
been adopted and modified by numerous states, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE),
and
many countries around the world. Their test procedure was most generally used until 1961,
when
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) adopted the method as ASTM D
1883,
CBR of Laboratory-Compacted Soils. The ASTM procedure differs in some respects from the
USACE procedure and from AASHTO T 193. The ASTM procedure is the easiest to
use and is

the version described in this section.
The CBR is a comparative measure of the shearing resistance of soil. The test consists
of
measuring the load required to cause a piston of standard size to penetrate a soil
specimen at a
specified rate. This load is divided by the load required to force the piston to the same
depth in a
standard sample of crushed stone. The result, multiplied by 100, is the value of the
CBR.
Usually, depths of 0.1 to 0.2 inches are used, but depths of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 inches
may be used if
desired. Penetration loads for the crushed stone have been standardized. This test
method is
intended to provide the relative bearing value, or CBR, of subbase and subgrade
materials.
Procedures are given for laboratory-compacted swelling, non-swelling, and granular
materials.
These tests are usually performed to obtain information that will be used for design
purposes.
The CBR value for a soil will depend upon its density, molding moisture content, and
moisture
content after soaking. Since the product of laboratory compaction should
closely represent the
CBR (%) Material Rating
> 80 Subbase Excellent
50 to 80 Subbase Very Good
30 to 50 Subbase Good
20 to 30 Subgrade Very Good
10 to 20 Subgrade Fair-good
5 to 10 Subgrade Poor-fair
<5 Subgrade Very poor

Relationship of CBR and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Index: The dual
mass
Dynamic cone Penetrometer (DCP) is a method for estimating in-place stability from
CBR
correlations. As shown in Figure 6E-1.05, the dual mass DCP consists of an upper and
lower
5/8 inch diameter steel shaft with a steel cone attached to one end. The cone at the end
of the

rod has a base diameter of 0.79 plus 0.01 inches. As an option, a disposable cone
attachment
can be used for testing of soils where the standard cone is difficult to remove from the
soil.
According to Webster et al. (1992), the disposable cone allows the operator to
perform twice
the number of tests per day than with the standard cone. At the midpoint of the upper
and
lower rods, an anvil is located for use with the dual mass sliding hammers. By
dropping
either a 10.1 or a 17.6 pound hammer 22.6 inches and impacting the anvil, the DCP is
driven
into the ground. For comparison, the penetration depth caused by one blow of the 17.6
pound
sliding hammer would be approximately equivalent to two blows from the 10.1 pound
hammer. The 10.1 pound hammer is more suitable for sensitive clayey soils with CBR
values
ranging from 1 to approximately 10; however, it is capable of estimating CBR values
up to
80. In general, the 17.6 pound hammer is rated at accurately measuring CBR values
from 1
to 100. At its full capacity, the DCP is designed to penetrate soils up to 39 inches. In
highly
plastic clay soils, the accuracy of the DCP index decreases with depth due to soil
sticking to
the lower rod. If necessary, hand-augering a 2 inch diameter hole can be used to open
the test
hole in 12 inch increments, preventing side friction interference.
CBR and DCP index (PI)

Function of soil as highway Subgrade
The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be

broadly
divided into three groups:
 Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests
Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil
samples in the
laboratory. In order to find out the strength properties of soil, a
number of
representative samples from different locations are tested. Some
of the
commonly known shear tests are direct shear test, triaxial
compression test, and
unconfined compression test.
Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils
in-situ with a
load bearing area. The results of the bearing tests are influenced
by variations in
the soil properties within the stressed soil mass underneath and
hence the
overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed could be
studied.
Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests
in which the
size of the loaded area is relatively much smaller and ratio of the
penetration to
the size of the loaded area is much greater than the ratios in
bearing tests. The
penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the laboratory.
California Bearing Ratio: methods of finding CBR valued in
the laboratory
and at site and their significance
California Bearing Ratio Test
It is a penetration test wherein a
standard piston, having an area of 3 in (or 50 mm diameter), is
used to
penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The
pressure up to a
penetration of 12.5 mm and it's ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed
rock is termed as the CBR.
In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The
ratio at 2.54
mm penetration is used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio at
5.08mm may be
greater than that at 2.54 mm. If this occurs, the ratio at 5.08 mm
should be used. The

CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of
standard plunger
under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test
procedure should be
strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is desired. The
CBR test may
be conducted in re-moulded or undisturbed specimen in the
laboratory. The test
is simple and has been extensively investigated for field
correlations of flexible
pavement thickness requirement.
Test Procedure
 The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 152.4 mm
diameter with
a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for
measuring
the penetration values and the expansion on soaking.
 The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and
the
swelling and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge
weight is
placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly
is placed
under the plunger of the loading frame.
 Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of
49.63 mm at
the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The
load
values on standard crushed stones are 13.35 kg and 19.93 kg at
2.54mm
and 5.08 mm penetrations respectively.
Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.54 mm is

greater
than that of 5.08 mm penetration, the former is adopted. If the
CBR value
obtained from test at 5.08 mm penetration is higher than that at
2.54 mm,
then the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test
again gives
similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.08 mm
penetration is
reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three test
specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.
Standard load (Kg) Standard load (Kg)

2.54 1370
5.08 2055
7.5 2630
10 3180
12.5 2600
NOTE : AASHTO T-193 CBR IS 2.54=6.9 & PLUNGER AERA 49.63; So-=CBR
=(49.63*49.63*�)/4 = 1935
5TANDARD LOAD 2.54=6.9=6.9*1935=13.35
STANDARD LOAD 5.08=10.30=10*1935=19.93


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 Density of Cement Density of Sand | Sand Density | Cement
Density | Density of Aggregate | Density of Concrete | Density of
Cement, Sand, Aggregate & Steel
Cement is one of the major ingredients of concrete
mix. Cement work as binding material and filler material
in concrete which binds all aggregate, sand together. There
are mainly two types of cement used in construction
GENERAL FORMULA
1. Concrete Mix ratio = 1:2:4
Let Volume of concrete = Z m3 \
Then a) Cement = 1/7 x Zm3 x 1400 kg/m3 x 1.30
Shrinkage x 1.05 wastage
= 273 kgs Z
1. OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)
2. PCC (Pozzonala Portland Cement)
The common materials used for cement manufacturing are

shells, limestone, and chalk mixed with shale, blast furnace
slag, and silica sand.
The density of cement is 1440 kg/m3 and its specific

gravity is around 3.15.
Read More: Specific Gravity Test of Cement – Procedure,

Result

Cement Bulk Density As Per IS 875 Part-
Cement is one of the major ingredients of concrete

mix. Cement work as binding material and filler material
in concrete which binds all aggregate, sand together. There
are mainly two types of cement used in construction



Result
Cement Bulk Density As Per IS 875 PartCement is one of

the major ingredients of concrete mix. Cement work
as binding material and filler material in concrete which
binds all aggregate, sand together. There are mainly two
types of cement used in construction



Result
Cement Bulk Density As Per IS 875 Part-

Cement Types Density in Kg/m3 Density in KN/m3
Lime Mortar 1600-1840 16-18
Ordinary Cement 1440 14.4
PCC (Plain Cement Concrete) 2400 24
10.1
Pitch 1010
Near about 35% volume of the concrete is comprised of sand.

For concrete to be of good quality it should be produced by
careful mixing of cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water,
and admixtures as needed in order to obtain optimum quality
and economy.
The building density of natural sand is 1.71 kg/m3 used

for construction and has a specific gravity of around
2.65. Natural sand used in concrete has an F. M. value of
around 5.24.
Alternative to Natural
Sand is Manufactured Sand; M-Sand was used as having the
bulk density of 1.75kg/m3 with specific
gravity and fineness modulus around 2.73 and 4.66,
respectively.
Densities of various sands are listed below,
1. Loose sand has a density of 1442 kg / m3 as it is a dry

form of sand.
2. Dry sand itself has a density of 1602 kg / m3.
3. Packed sand is known to have a density of around 1682

kg / m3.
4. Wet sand has a density of 1922 kg / m3 whereas Packed

Wet sand has 2082 kg / m3of density.



Aggregate is one of the important

ingredients of construction work is
used along with water and Portland cement, to form
an essential ingredient called concrete. Aggregate forms
the main body of concrete.

To increase the bulk density of concrete mix,
coarse aggregates are used
in two markedly different sizes—the bigger ones known to
be coarse aggregate (grit) and the smaller ones fine
aggregate (sand).
Aggregates Are of Two Types-
 Sand (Fine aggregate)

 Gravel (Coarse aggregate)
Fine aggregate is nothing but sand used for construction work.
Sand is of two types natural sand and Manufactured sand.
Fine aggregate particle size generally varies between 75 micros
to 4.75 mm. Fine aggregate fills the void or air pocket left
between aggregate in concrete.
Coarse aggregate is having a particle size of more than 4.75

mm as per IS. Coarse aggregate is used to form a main
body of concrete along with sand and cement mixed with
water in concrete.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate used for

concrete making is 20 mm. Aggregates used
for construction must be chemically inactive in nature.
Aggregate Bulk Density

Bulk density of aggregate is defined as
the weight or mass of aggregate per unit volume.
Weight aggregate in a specified volume of the container.
Bulk density = Weight (Mass) / volume
It can also be explained as if 1 is the volume of aggregate,

then its Bulk density = Mass.
The standard density of aggregate which is used in

the concrete making is about
1200-1750 kg/m3.
Unit- kg/m3 or lb/ft3.

Standard Relative Aggregate Density
The standard aggregate relative density can be defined
as mass divided by an equal volume of liquid like water.
Therefore, Relative density = Aggregate mass / Weight with

the same volume of water
Aggregates used in general construction have related

density ranges 2.4-2.9 with a weight density of 2400-2900 kg m3.
Artificial Aggregate Density

Artificial Aggregates are Broken bricks, synthetic aggregates,
and blast furnace slag. Broken bricks also
called brickbat suitable for mass concreting work. but there are
not recommended to be used for reinforced concrete.
Blast furnace slag aggregate is the waste

material from power plants prepared from slow cooling of the
slag followed by crushing. These types of aggregate are used
to manufacture precast concrete products.
The sp. gr. of these range between 2–2.8 and bulk

density 1120–1300 kg/m3.
Density of Silica Fume

The specific gravity of silica fume is 2.20. The silica fume is
available as produced in intensified from with bulk
density of 200-300 kg/m3.
Densified from with bulk density of 500-600 kg/m3; in the

form of micro pellets with a bulk density of 600-800 kg/m3.
In slurry form with the desired concentration (generally with

a density of 1400 kg/m3). The other basic characteristics are
the specific surface area of 1500-2000 cm2/g, standard
grade slurry pH value of 4.7, specific gravity of 1.3-1.4, and
dry content of micro silica of 48-52 percent.
Aggregate Materials
Aggregates are broken pieces of stone, obtained by blasting andcru
shing a parent rock or stone boulders in a designated size; or by
screening suitable gravels from natural sources. However, coarse
aggregates obtained from natural sources are sometimes
polishedor weathered due to formation and transportation
modes. Therefore, natural sources may be ideal for fine
aggregate (natural sand) than coarse aggregates.How ever
Tanzania is a large territory with variable geology,aggregates
produced in the country are mainly from
granite and gneiss
rocks in the upcountry regions,
basalt
in the volcanic region sand
limestone
in the coast regions. Granite, gneiss and basalt are hard and strong
enough to resist heavy loads, while limestone is porous and soft;
hence, so weak to sustain heavy
loads. Aggregate is used in a concrete mix as an extender (bulking
material) to reduce cost and control shrinkage, in pavement layer
sas base course material (CRS and CRR), as chipping for surface
dressing and it takes up about 95% of asphalt mixes.
Additionally,graded aggregate is used to improve the strength
(CBR) of weak soils (
known as ‘
mechanical stabilization
.However, before being used in any mix, aggregate should be
cleanand strong enough to resist forces (e.g. crushing, abrasion,
impact,etc.) and durable under exposure conditions (e.g. heat,
chemicalattack, etc.). Soft aggregate (e.g., limestone, sandstone,
etc.) shouldnot be used where high strength is required (unless it is
the onlyoption and design modification is made to accommodate
such weak
aggregate). Aggregate particles should have angular shape to form
tightinterlock and rough enough to produce frictional resistance in
amix. Flaky or elongated aggregates should be avoided, as they
break and do not pack tightly during compaction. For aggregate to
produce adequate density and stability during compaction, it
should contain a wide range of particle sizes (from fine to
coarse)that can fill the mix matrix.Some of the common tests used
to examine the quality of aggregate are; Grading, Shape test (FI
and EI), ACV, TFV, AIV,LAA, SG, Sulphate Soundness, Organic
test, Clay lumps, etc

Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Some aggregate particles resist crushing
while some crush duringrolling (due to the
effect of weathering process or
micro-fractures developed by blasting or
crushing operations). Crushing of
aggregates during construction process
affects the grading, density and strength of
a mix or layer made with such
aggregate. To measure resistance of aggreg
ate to crushing, the ACV test iscarried out
on the 14
10mm aggregate fraction, by applying a
400KN force gradually over a period of 10
minutes.

1 Obtain the required fraction by sieving the

aggregate on 14mmand 10mm sieves.2)
2 Take the fraction passing 14mm but

retaining on 10mm sieve and dry it in oven
for about 4 hours before testing.3)
3 Fill the mould with three layers of the dry

sample and strike each layer with 25 strokes
of the tamping rod.4)
4 Level the surface of the material and insert

the crushing the mould.5)
5 Place the mould (with sample and plunger)

on the platen of the concrete compression
machine.6)
Apply 400 KN force gradually over a period of

6 10 minutes.7)
7 After 10 minutes; release force, pour the ma

terial in a clean trayand determine its total
weight
Then, sieve the material thoroughly
on 2.36mm sieve.9)
Weigh the material retained on 2.36mm sieve
Sulphate Soundness (SS)
Sulphate soundness test measures the effect of
salts on aggregate particles. The effect is
measured as the loss in aggregate weight after
repetitive drying and soaking the aggregate in
Sodium or
Magnesium
sulphate solution. The applicable sulphate

solution is prepared as follows;
Sodium sulphate solution:
is made up of 225g of Sodium sulphate and1
litre of water (is supposed to have a specific
gravity of1.151
–
1.174 when ready for use).
Magnesium sulphate solution:
is made up of 350g of Magnesium sulphate
and 1 litre of water (is supposed to have a
specific gravity of 1.295
–
1.308 when ready for use).
Specific gravity (SG
Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a
solid particle
to the densityof
distilled water
. In addition, the test measures impermeability ofaggregate
particles (water absorption).It is a useful data for computing the
volume of aggregate and voidsin different mixes (especially
concrete and asphalt). Generally, thethree parameters given by the
test are:
Bulk specific gravity:-

the density of permeable particle (includingpermeable and
impermeable voids normal to the particle).
Apparent specific gravity:-
the density of impermeable portion ofparticle (excluding
permeable and impermeable voids normalto the particle).
Water absorption:-
the amount of water absorbed by solid particle(expressed as
percentage of dry mass of the particle).
A Fine aggregate(passing 4.75mm or 5.0mm)
1 First, dry the sample in oven (at 105 and 110

2 Allow the sample to cool and put it in a clean
container.3)
3 Add water to the sample and allow it to soak for
15 and 19 hours.4)
4 Then, decant the excess water with care to avoid
loss of fines.5)
5 Remove the sample from pycnometer, decant
water and dry it inoven to constant weight.12)
6 After drying, allow the sample to cool and record
its weigh
7 Fill pycnometer with water to its calibration mark
and determine
8 Spread the sample on a flat surface exposed to
warm air until thesample achieves saturated-surface
dry condition
9 Fill sample in the cone in four equal layers and
give the layers 10,10, 3 and 2 drops of tamper
respectively.7)
10 Remove loose materials around the cone and lift
up the conegently (if the material slumps slightly,
means it is at a saturated-surface dry
11 condition; and if retains the cone shape means it
is still wet; therefore, should be dried a little bit).8)

12Partially fill pycnometer with water and add
about 500g of thesaturated-surface dry
13 Add more water and shake pycnometer to
remove air bubbles.10)
Then, add more water in the
pycnometer to its calibration markand take
theoverall weight of pycnometer + sample
+ water
The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by

weight of aggregate particles whose
least dimensions /thickness is less than three fifths or
0.6 of their mean dimension. The test
applicable to sizes larger than 6.3mm.standard
thickness gauge is used to cause the
thickness of the sample.
The sample of aggregates to be tested is sieved through
a set of sieves and separated into
specified size ranges. Now to separate the flaky material
the aggregate which passes
through the appropriate slot would be 0.6 of the average
of the size range. If the size range
of aggregate in a group is 16-20mm,the width of the slot
too be selected in thickness gauge
would be 18x0.6=10.8mm.
The flaky material passing the appropriate slot from
each size r5ange of test aggregates are
added up and let this weigh be w. If the total weight of
sample taken from the different sizes
ranges is W. flaky index is given by 100w/W percent, or
in other words it is the percentage
of flaky materials the width of which are less than 0.6 of
the mean dimentions.it is desirable
Diamater One Hole Formula =

1*(50+63)/2*0.6=33.9 All this
1*(50+40)/2*.6=27


11-
Length =1*(14+10)/2*1.8=21.6
that the flakiness index of aggregates used in road construction is less than
the 15 percent
and normally does not exceed 25 percent.
Pavement Material – Aggregates
Major component – road construction
Used in
 Granular bases and sub-bases
 Bituminous courses
 Cement concrete pavements
Types of Aggregates
Natural aggregates
 obtained from rock
Artificial aggregates
 Broken brick ballast
Natural Aggregates
 Igneous rocks
 cooling of molten material
 Sedimentary rocks
 deposition of granular material
 Metamorphic rocks
 transformation due to heat & pressure
Igneous rocks
• Granite
• Basalt (Trap)
 Hard and durable
 Resistant to abrasion
 Low absorption of water
 Fine grained to coarse grained texture
Very good for bituminous courses and
cement concrete pavements
Metamorphic rock
• Quartzite
 Reasonably hard and durable
 Resistant to abrasion
 Low absorption of water
 Fine grained to medium grained
texture
Good for base courses, bituminous courses
and cement concrete pavements
Sedimentary rocks
Limestone
Sandstone
 Reasonably hard and

durable
 Liable to a smooth polish
 Fine grained
 High absorption of water
Kankar
 Soft to medium hard
Good for sub-base and base course
Desirable Properties
Strength
Hardness
Toughness
Durability
Shape

Adhesion with bitumen
Desirable Properties….
• Strength
 Bear the traffic load without getting
crushed
 Top layer – in direct contact with
traffic – Strongest
Crushing strength test
Desirable Properts….
Hardness
• Continuous wear and tear under the wheels of
vehicles - abrasion
• Rubbed with each other due to application of
traffic load - attrition
Hardness test – Los angeles abrasion test
Deval abrasion test
Polished stone test
• Toughness
 Ability to sustain impact loading
Impact test
• Durability
 Gradual deterioration due to
continuous exposure to environment
Soundness test
• Shape
 Angular or rounded
Shape tests – flakiness index,
elongation index, angularity
Adhesion with bitumen
 Thin film formed over the aggregates
holds the whole mass together
 Electrostatic attraction towards bitumen
and water
 More affinity towards water results in
stripping off of bitumen
Density of Different Construction

Materials.
The building construction materials density table,
Sr.
Materials Name Density
No.
1. Cement 1440 kg/m3
2. Sand or Fine Aggregate 1450 to 2082 kg/m3
3. Bricks 1600 to 1920 kg/m3
4. Steel 7850 kg/m3
5. Coarse aggregate or Gravel 2850 to 2960 kg/m3
6. Water 1000 kg/m3
7. Soil 1760 kg/m3 (Black Cotton Soil)
8. Glass 2530 kg/m3
9. Marble Stone 2620 kg/m3
10. Granite Stone 2460-2800 kg/m3
11. Bitumen 1040 kg/m3
12. PCC 2400 kg/m3

13. RCC 2% Steel 2500 kg/m3
Cement concrete
14. 1800 kg/m3
block(solid)
15. Lime Mortar 1760 kg/m3
16. Lime 640 kg/m3
17. Sal Wood 990 kg/m3
18. Cement Mortar 2080 kg/m3
19. A.C.sheet corrugated 16 kg/m3
FAQs: Density of Cement Sand and

Aggregate
The density of Coarse Aggregate The coarse aggregate density
used for construction is generally
Specific gravity (SG

ween 1450 – 2082 kg/m3 The density of coarse aggregate
varies depending on the source, nature, and condition like wet or
dry.
Density of Cement
The density of cement is content around 2.8 g/cm³. ASTM standard

for measuring cement density (ASTM C188-14) is used liquid
displacement method
Cement in kg/m3
The cement density is around 1440 kg/m³.
Density of Sand
1680 kg/m3
The fine aggregate used for used to make concrete has bulk
density is between 1540-1680 kg/m3. Here, the standard test

method to determine the bulk density of sand is given in ASTM
C 29 (AASHTO T 19).
Bulk Density of Sand
The fine aggregate used for used to make concrete has bulk
density is 1540-1680 kg/m3
Density of Concrete
The density of nbetween ormal concrete is about 2400 kg/m3
The density of Concrete Kn/m3
Concrete density is about 2400 Kn/m3 for unreinforced concrete.
The density of Concrete g/cm3
Concrete density is around 2.4 g/cm3. It depends on the

density of concrete materials used.
The density of Concrete in Kg/ft3
Concrete density is around 68.03 kg/ft3 and 150 lb/ft3 for

unreinfroced concrte.
The density of Concrete in Kg/m3
As for concrete itself, the concrete density is

about 2,400 Kg/m3, or 145 lb/ft3
The density of Concrete Per Cubic Foot
The normal concrete density is about 145 lbs. per cubic foot
The density of M sand
The M sand means manufactured sand it is also called artificial

sand. M sand has a density of about 1850 kg/m3. Its specific
gravity is about 2.56 and F. M. value lies around 3.10.
River Sand Density in kg/m³

The average river sand density is 1650 kg/m3, it means 1650 kg
of river sand occupies 1 cubic meter of volume, 1 cubic meter
of River sand weight = 1650kg, so 1650kg is the weight of 1
cubic meter of river sand.
What is the Density of Cement?
DENSITY OF CEMENT- 1440 kg/m3

Cement has the density of or should have the density
of 1440kg/m3 or 14.4KN/m3 according to standards. The
density mentioned in the above two units is used worldwide.
What is the Density of Concrete?
The density of concrete is different for PCC and RCC.

As compared to PCC, RCC has a higher value of density because of
the reinforced steel.
Density of PCC= 2400kg/m3 or 24KN/m3
Density of RCC= 2500 kg/m3 or 25 KN/m3


DENSITY (UNIT WEIGHT), YIELD, AND AIR CONTENT (GRAVIMETRIC)

OF
CONCRETE
FOP FOR AASHTO T 121
Measure: May be the bowl portion of the air meter used for
determining air content
under the FOP for AASHTO T 152. Otherwise, it shall be a metal
cylindrical container
meeting the requirements of AASHTO T 121. The capacity and
dimensions of the
measure shall conform to those specified in Table 1.
Balance or scale: Accurate to within 45 g (0.1 lb) or 0.3 percent of the
test load,
whichever is greater, at any point within the range of use.
Tamping rod: 16 mm (5/8 in.) diameter and approximately 600 mm
(24 in.) long, having
a hemispherical tip the same diameter as the rod. (Hemispherical
means “half a sphere”;
the tip is rounded like half of a ball.)
Vibrator: 7000 vibrations per minute, 19 to 38 mm (3/4 to 1 1/2 in.) in

diameter, and the

length of the shaft shall be at least 610 mm (24 in.).
Scoop: a receptacle of appropriate size so that each representative
increment of the
concrete sample can be placed in the container without spillage.
Strike-off plate: A flat rectangular metal plate at least 6 mm (1/4 in.)
thick or a glass or
acrylic plate at least 12 mm (1/2 in.) thick, with a length and width at
least 50 mm (2 in.)
greater than the diameter of the measure with which it is to be used.
The edges of the
plate shall be straight and smooth within tolerance of 1.5 mm (1/16
in.).
Mallet: With a rubber or rawhide head having a mass of 0.57 ±0.23

kg (1.25 ±0.5 lb) for
use with measures of 0.014 m3 (1/2 ft3 ) or less, or having a mass of
1.02 ±0.23 kg (2.25
±0.5 lb) for use with measures of 0.028 m3 (1 ft3 ).
1. Determine the mass of the dry measure and strike-off plate.

2. Fill the measure with water at a temperature between 16°C and
29°C (60°F and 85°F)
and cover with the strike-off plate in such a way as to eliminate
bubbles and excess
water.
3. Wipe the outside of the measure and cover plate dry, being careful
not to lose any water
from the measure.
4. Determine the mass of the measure, strike-off plate, and water in
the measure.
5. Determine the mass of the water in the measure by subtracting the
mass in Step 1 from
the mass in Step 4.
6. Measure the temperature of the water and determine its density
from Table 2,
interpolating as necessary.
7. Calculate the volume of the measure, Vm, by dividing the mass of
the water in the
measure by the density of the water at the measured temperature,
from Table 2.
ܸ

VM=mass of water/density off water
VM=7.602/999.54=0.007079
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL

LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE
Definition of Lightweight Aggregates
Lightweight aggregate is the generic name of a group of aggreg
ates having a relative
density lower than normal density aggregates (natural sand,
gravel, and crushed stone),
sometimes and is referred to as low density aggregate.
Structural lightweight aggregate-Structural aggregate meeting
the requirements of
ASTM C 330 with bulk density less than 70 lb/ft³ (1120 kg/m³)
for fine aggregate and
less than 55 lb/ft³ (880 kg/m³) for coarse aggregate. This
includes aggregates prepared
by expanding, pelletizing, or sintering products such as
blast-furnace slag, clay, fly ash,
shale, or slate, and aggregates prepared by processing natural
materials such as pumice,
scoria or tuff.
Masonry-lightweight aggregate-Aggregate meeting the
requirements of
with bulk density less than 70 lb/ft³ (1120 kg/m³) for fine
aggregate and less than 55
lb/ft³ (880 kg/m³) for coarse aggregate. This includes aggregates
prepared by
expanding, pelletizing, or sintering products such as
blast-furnace slag, clay, diatomite,
fly ash, shale, or slate; aggregates prepared by processing
natural materials such as
pumice, scoria, or tuff; and aggregates derived from and
products of coal or coke
combustion.

Insulating aggregate – Nonstructural aggregate meeting the
requirements of ASTM
332. This includes Perlite with a bulk density between 7.5 and
12 lb/ft³ (120 and 192
kg/m³), and Vermiculite with a bulk density between 5.5 and 10
lb/ft³ (88 and 160
kg/m³), as well as aggregate that meets the requirements of
ASTM C 330 and ASTM C 331
This chapter primarily addresses structural
lightweight aggregates and does not include
cellular or foam concrete, where lighter weight
is developed primarily by inclusion of
large amounts of air or gas through
foaming-type agents. Requirements for
structural
lightweight aggregates are covered in ASTM C
330 ―Standard Specification for
Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete”,
C 331 ―Standard Specification for
Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry
Units”, and C 332 ―Standard
Specification for Lightweight Aggregate for
Insulating Concrete”.
Particle Shape and Surface Texture
Depending on the source and the method of
production, lightweight aggregates exhibit
considerable differences in particle shape and
texture. Shapes may be cubical, rounded,
angular, or irregular (Fig. 3.1 and 3.2). Textures
may range from fine pore, relatively

smooth skins to highly irregular surfaces with
large exposed pores.
Particle shape and surface texture can directly
influence the finished products. Shape
and texture of aggregates influence workability,
coarse-to-fine aggregate ratio, cement
content requirements, and water demand in
concrete mixtures, as well a
Grading Lightweight Aggregate for Concrete

Grading requirements are generally similar to those provided for
normalweight
aggregate with the exception that lightweight aggregate particle
size distribution permits
a higher weight through smaller sieves. This modification
recognizes the increase in
relative density typical for the smaller particles of most
lightweight aggregates, and that
while standards are established by weights passing
each sieve size, ideal formulations
are developed through volumetric considerations.
For normalweight aggregates, the relative density of
fractions retained on the different
sieve sizes are nearly equal. Percentages retained on
each size indicated by weight give a true indication of
percentages by volume. However, the relative density
of the various size fractions of lightweight aggregate
usually increases as the particle size decreases.
Some coarse aggregate particles may float on water,
whereas material passing a No. 100sieve (0.015 mm)
may have a relative density approaching that of
normalweight sand. Itis the volume occupied by each
fraction, and not the weight of material retained on
eachsieve that determines the void content and
influences the workability of the concrete.
Percentages retained on each sieve and fineness
modulus, by weight and by volume, are computed for
comparison in the example illustrated in
Relative Density of Aggregate Particles
Structural Lightweight Aggregate has a low particle
density due to the internal cellular
pore system. The cellular structure within the
particles is developed by heating certain
raw materials to high temperatures to the point of
incipient fusion, at which time gases
are evolved within the pyroplastic mass, causing
expansion that is retained upon
cooling. Strong, durable, ceramic lightweight
aggregates contain a relatively uniform
system of pores that have a size range of
approximately 5 to 300 μm enveloped in a
high-strength vitreous phase. Pores close to the
surface are readily permeable and fill
within the first few hours of exposure to moisture.
Interior pores, however, fill
extremely slowly. A fraction
of the interior pores are essentially non interconnected and
may remain unfilled after years of immersion.
Aggregate Bulk Density

Aggregate bulk density is defined as the ratio of the mass of
a given quantity of material and the total volume occupied
by it. This volume includes the voids between, as well asthe
pores within the particles. Bulk density is a function of
particle shape, density, size,gradings, and moisture content,
as well as the method of packing the material (loose,
vibrated, rodded) and varies not only for different materials,
but for different sizes and
gradations of a particular material. summarizes the
maximum bulk density for

Region A. Rapid entry of water by capillary absorption by close

to surface
pores within the first few hours.
Region B. Very slow diffusion into interior pores.
Region C. When the moisture content is approximately equal to
that obtained
by ASTM procedure (24 hour immersion), then the slope of the
line reflecting
further absorption represents the very slow process of diffusion.
This is the basis
for providing accurate relative density values during the
relatively short time
used to conduct pycnomter tests at 24 hours.
Region D. Absorption developed over an extended period of
time used to mix,
transport, place, and prior to initial set (6-8 hours +) will be very
small, and
therefore the W/Cm ratio will be decreased by an equivalent
small amount.
Consequently there will be a negligible influence on slump loss if
aggregates are
batched at a moisture content close to the 24 hour submerged value.
For illustrative purpose the water absorption with time and the resulting
degree of
saturation for a midrange, typical lightweight aggregate are shown in Figs.
3.7, 3.8 and
Table 3.2.
Immersion Water Degree of % of 24- Relative

Time Absorption Saturation Hour Soak Density
(% Mass) Factor

0 mins 0 0 0 1.38
2 mins 5.76 .17 55 1.46
5 mins 6.15 .18 59 1.46
15 mins 6.75 .20 64 1.47
60 mins 7.74 .23 74 1.49
2 hours 8.32 .24 79 1.49
1 day 10.5 .31 100 1.52
3 days 12.11 .35 115 1.55
28 days 18.4 .54 175 1.63
4 months 23.4 .69 223 1.70
1 year 30 .88 285 1.79
2 years 30 .88 285 1.79
Aggregate Absorption and Degree of Saturation

Saturated Surface Dry
ASTM C 127 and C 128 procedure prescribe measuring the ―saturated‖
(inaccurately
named in the case of Lightweight Aggregates; partially saturated after a
24-hour soak is
more accurate) particle density in a pycnometer and then determining the
absorbed
moisture content on the sample that had been immersed in water for 24
hours. After a
24-hour immersion in water, the rate of moisture absorption into the
lightweight
aggregate will be so low that the partially saturated particle density will
be essentially
unchanged during the time necessary to take weight measurements in the
pycnometer.
After the moisture content is known, the oven-dry particle density may be
directly
computed. Fig. 3.9 illustrates typical ESCS lightweight aggregate.

lightweight aggregate are:

Relative Density, RD24 = 1.52
Moisture Absorption, M24 = 10.5%
Relative density solid, RDSOLIDS = 2.6
Bulk Density, BD = 44.6 pcf (714 kg/m³)
That after 24-hour immersion in a pychometer, measurements result in a relative
density
of 1.52 with an ―absorption‖ of 10.5% by mass. The oven-dry particle density
(PDOD)
may be back calculated to be as follows

Following the prescribed ASTM procedures the DS for ESCS lightweight aggregate
will
generally be in the range of approximately 25 to 35% of the theoretical saturation.
The
use of the ASTM expression ―saturated surface dry‖ is therefore,
inappropriate for
lightweight aggregate because it’s theoretically inaccurate and
analytically misleading.
Stockpile Moisture Content
From a practical perspective and considering the fact that most
lightweight concrete is
placed by pumping, the usual practice is to batch the lightweight
aggregate at a moisture
condition greater than the ―Absorption Value‖ defined by ASTM C 127
procedures
hour immersion). In this condition the absorbed (internal) moisture
content will be in
excess of the 24 hour absorption value defined by ASTM. The degree of
saturation
(DS) necessary for adequate pumping characteristics, as determined by
practical field
experience, may be obtained from the ESCS supplier.
Example, assume for this hypothetical lightweight aggregate (Fig. 3.10)
that experience
has shown that the lightweight concrete will pump efficiently when the
lightweight
aggregate used has absorption of at least 17% by mass.
DS (Degree of Saturation) .17(2.60x.53) /47
=50
Therefore, it is necessary to run the usual moisture test as follows.
Measure the weight
of the as-received surface moist sample (WT). After towel drying,
measure the weight
of the surface dry sample (WTD) and conduct the drying test.
MeasuredWeights g
WT (total sample ) =602g
WTD (Toweldried)= 562g
WOD (Ovendried) =480g
MoistureContent
MT (Total sample ) =(602-480)/480=25.4%
MAB (Absorption)=(562-480)/480*100=17.1%
Ms (surface)=(602-562)/480*100=8.3%

Aggregate Grading
Grading of the fine and coarse aggregates and the proportions used have an
important effect on the concrete. A well-graded aggregate will have a
continuous
distribution of particle sizes producing a minimum void content and will
require a
minimum amount of cement paste to fill the voids. This will result in the
most
economical use of cement and will provide maximum strength with
minimum
volume change due to drying shrinkage.
In general, the largest total volume of aggregate in the concrete is
achieved: when
the coarse aggregate is well-graded from the largest to the smallest sizes
and
when the particle is rounded to cubical in shape.
These same factors of grading, particle shape, and texture also affect the
percentage of fine aggregate required with a minimum percentage of fine
aggregate being associated with a rounded or cubical shape and rough
texture. It
is common that when well-graded, normal weight sand is used to replace
lightweight fine aggregate; the proportion of coarse lightweight aggregate
may be
increased. The proportion of coarse aggregate should approach the
maximum
consistent with workability and place ability, unless tests indicate that a
lesser
proportion provides optimum characteristics. In some cases, strength may
be
increased by reducing the nominal maximum size of the aggregate
without
increasing the cement content.
The use of normal weight sand usually results in an increase in strength
and
modulus of elasticity. These increases, however, are made at the sacrifice
of
increased density. The mixture proportions selected, therefore, should
consider
these properties in conjunction with the corresponding effects on the
overall
economy of the structure.
Air entrainment
Air entrainment is strongly recommended in lightweight aggregate concrete. It
reduces density, enhances workability, improves resistance to freezing and
thawing cycles and deicer chemicals, decreases bleeding, and tends to obscure
minor grading deficiencies. When severe exposure, at anytime of its service life,
is not anticipated, its use may be waived, but the beneficial effects of air
entrainment on concrete workability and cohesiveness are desirable and can be
achieved at air contents of 4.0 percent and higher.
The volume of entrained air for lightweight aggregate concrete shall be according
to the requirements of ACI 318.
The strength of high strength lightweight concrete may be reduced by high air
contents. At normal air contents (4 to 6 percent), the reduction is small if slumps
are 5 in. or less.4-16
The volumetric method of measuring air, as described in ASTM C 173, is the
most reliable method of measuring air in structural lightweight concrete and is
thus recommended.
Methods of Proportioning
ACI 211.2 “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural
Lightweight Concrete” provides guidance for the two proportioning methods
currently used in the USA. They are the Absolute Volume method and the Damp
Loose Volume method. Because each LWA manufacturer has specific
proportions and recommendations based on satisfactory production and long term
field performance of their product, this manual offers principals that are
appropriate to both methods. Interested parties should consult ACI 211.2 and the
LWA manufacturer. Some general comments about the two methods follow.

Absolute Volume (Previously referred to as weight method-specific gravity
pycnometer)-For several decades’ Lightweight aggregate concrete has been
proportioned the same way as normalweight concrete, by the absolute volume
method using a relative density factor on the basis of a water-cementitious
materials ratio relationship. This method requires the surface and absorbed
moisture content of the batched lightweight aggregate to be determined. As with
normalweight concrete the amount of surface water, which contributes to the
―net‖ mixing water determines the water to cementitious material ratio.
Damp Loose Volume— Some manufacturers use this method with any
combination of lightweight and normalweight aggregates. This method is based
on proportioning graphs/charts using local materials that were developed over
several years of field experience using this method. Lightweight concrete
mixtures are proportioned on a cement and air content basis to produce the
required consistency rather than on a water-cementitious ratio to strength basis..
Therefore, it is essential to contact the LWA supplier before using this method. In
general this method develops trial mixture proportions based on damp, loose
volumes converted to batch weights
4.3
Absolute Volume Method
Proportioning mixtures for the lightweight concrete involves determining the
relative density factor of the lightweight aggregate, as discussed in Appendix A,
from which the first estimate of the density of fresh lightweight concrete can be
made. The absorbed moisture content of lightweight coarse aggregate should be
measured by the method described in ASTM C 127.
As with normalweight concrete, the proportioning follows the sequence of
straightforward steps that, in effect, fit the characteristics of the available
materials into a mixture suitable for the work. The job specifications will dictate , 4
density, and strength, and may dictate the maximum w/cm, type of admixtures,
cement types, and placement methods.
Step 1: Estimation of mixing water—The quantity of water per unit volume of
concrete required to produce a given slump is primarily dependent on the particle
shape and grading of the fine aggregates, amount of entrained air, and inclusion of
chemical admixtures. It is not significantly affected by the quantity of
cementitious materials or the grading of the coarse aggregate. provides
estimates of required mixing water for concretes made with various nominal
maximum sizes of aggregate, with and without air entrainment. Depending on
aggregate texture and shape, mixing water requirements may be different from the
tabulated values, but they are sufficiently accurate for the first estimate. Such
differences in water demand are not necessarily reflected in strength since other
compensating factors may be involved.
European Standard EN206-1 Part 1: Specification,
performance, production and
conformity
Concrete in EN206-1 is classified with respect to its
compressive strength. The characteristic

compressive strength at 28 days of 150 mm diameter by 300
mm cylinders or the characteristic
compressive strength at 28 days of 150 mm cubes may be used
for classification.
Compressive Minimum cylinder Minimum cube fck
strength fck cyl n/mm2 cub n/mm2
C8/10 8 10
C12/15 12 15
C16/25 16 25
C25/30 25 30
C30/37 30 37
C30/37 35 45
C35/45 35 45
C40/50 40 50
C45/55 45 55
C50/60 50 60
60*0.8=48 50*1.2=60 or
48*1.25
Target mean strength

k for 10% defectives = 1.28
k for 2.5% defectives = 1.96

Water Fine Coarse Aggregates (kg)

Cement
(kg or aggregate 10mm 20mm
(kg)
litre) (kg)
1310.1
Per 1m3 340 160 605
(to 436.7 873.4
nearest 3.85
5kg) 1 0.47 1.78
1.28 2.57
Per 0.05 17 8 30.3 21.8 43.7
m3
Per 25 850 400 15125 10918 21835
m3

Y=Y1+(X-X1)*((Y2-Y1)/X2-X1)
X-1 2.8 Y -
X 2.84 Y1 0.6
X-2 3 Y2 62
Y=0.62+(2.84-2.80)*((0.60-0.62)/(3.00-
2.80))
Y= 0.62+(0.04)*(-1)
=0.62+(-0.004)=0.616

*Quantities of mixing water given for air-entrained concrete are based on typical total contents
requirements as shown for ―moderate exposure‖ in the table above. These quantities of mixing
water are for use in computing cement or cementitious materials content for trial batches at 68 to
77o F (20 to 25o C). They are maximum for reasonably well-shaped angular aggregates graded
within limits of accepted specifications. The use of water-reducing chemical admixtures will
reduce mixing water. The volume of the liquid admixtures is included as part of the total volume
of the mixing water.
†Additional recommendations for air content and necessary tolerances on air content for control in
the field are given in a number of ACI documents, including ACI 201, 213, 345, 318, 301, 302
and 308. ASTM C 94 for ready-mixed concrete also gives air content limits. The requirements in
other documents may not always agree exactly, so in proportioning concrete, consideration must
be given to selecting an air content that will meet the needs of the job and also meet the applicable
specifications.
Absolute Volume Proportioning Methodology

1 A Estimate free (net) water requirements. (WW)
B Compute absolute volume of water. (VW
2 A Based upon specification requirements (maximum, (WCM)

water/cementitious
ratio, or minimum cement content compute weight of
cementitious
materials.
B Compute absolute volume of cementitious materials. (VCM)
3 Based upon specification requirements or durability exposure (VA)

determine
volume of air.
4 A Based upon current practice (usually related to density (WCA)

requirements for
structural loads) establish weight of coarse lightweight
aggregate.
B Compute absolute volume of coarse aggregate. (VCA)

5 Sum up absolute volumes of water (VW) cementitious materials
(VCM),
air (VA) and coarse lightweight aggregate (VCA).
6 Calculate volume (VFA) and weight (WFA) of fine aggregate (VFA)

necessary (WFA)
to make one cubic meter (cubic yard).
VFA = 27 – (VW + VCM + VA + VCA)
(VFA = 1.0 – (VW + VCM + VA + VCA))
WFA= VFA x DFA x 62.4
(WFA= VFA x DFA)
7 Compute total weight (WC) for one cubic meter (yd³) (WC)
8 Calculate fresh density (DF) (DF)

DF = WW + WC + WA + WCA + WFA ÷ 27
(DF = WW + WC + WA + WCA + WFA)
Compare with specifications for maximum fresh density.
9 Following procedures of ASTM C 567 determine the calculated (DEQ)

equilibrium density (DEQ) compare with maximum structural
self load
or code related fire rated slab requirements.
Absolute volume method:

The following is an illustration of the proportioning procedures where several of
the specific mixture requirements are specified.
Specifications and Requirements:
3500 psi (24 MPa) specified compressive strength at 28 days
1200 psi (8 MPa) required over-design (per ACI 318, Section 5.3.2.2, no
prior history)
Required average strength of concrete 4700 psi (32 MPa)
Lightweight aggregate: ASTM C 330
Natural Sand ASTM C 33 5-0 mm (No. 4 – 0)
Air-entraining admixture (ΑΕΛ) for 6 + 1 percent: ASTM C 260
Water-reducing admixture (WRA) use permitted: ASTM C 494, Type A
or D
Slump 5 + 1 in. (125 + 25 mm) at pump discharge.
Background information:
From the lightweight aggregate manufacturer:
Relative density factor – 1.55 at a 12% percent moisture content
(Reference ACI 211.2, Appendix A).
Suggested coarse aggregate factor (CAF) 850 lb/yd³ (504 kg/m³) at a 12%
moisture content (stockpile condition)
From the sand supplier:
Relative density = 2.62 (2620) fineness modulus = 2.80
From the cement supplier:
Relative density = 3.15 (3150)
Step 1:

From the ready-mix supplier
With local sand and midrange water reducer, pump mixtures require
approximately 300 lb/cy (178 kg/m³) of net water.
Step 2:
Typical w/cm ratios recommended for exposure conditions of .45
require cementitious materials 300/.45=667 lbs/cy (178/.45=396 kg/m³)
Step 3:
Based on Exposure condition – 6% air content
Step 4:
Based upon current practice local aggregates and using in-place
density requirements coarse LWA (WCA) used is 850 lb/cy (504 kg/m³): VFA
is calculated:
VCA=850/1.55*624=8.79ft3=504/1550=0.323m3







In the study of cement-based grout for preplaced-aggregate concrete

application, Awal [7] used several varieties
of grout mix with or without admixtures. He used three different
cement : sand weight ratios, namely 1 : 1, 1 : 1.5,
and 1 : 2 with various water-cement ratios using the same sand
gradation. In general it was found that the
application of more sand in the mix will reduce material cost but will
also reduce the grout flowability. A higher
water-cement ratio is required if more sand is used in the mix to
maintain the grout flowability. For instance the 1 :
2 mix must have a water-cement ratio of 0.65 to pass the flow cone test,
meanwhile the 1 : 1.5 and 1 : 1 mixes only
need water-cement ratios of 0.52 and 0.50 r espectively.
The mix design of grout can be calculated based on the
absolute volume of each material using determined water,
cement, and sand volumetric or weight proportion. If the
volumetric ratio of cement : sand : water is 1 : s : w is
determined, for example, then according to the absolute
volume method the following equation must be satisfied
Grout mix type for under dam curtain wall
Grout name
Grout mix per m3
Water Cement Bentonite Admixture
(Liter) (kg) (kg) (Liter)
GIN 750 750 18 20
Backfilling 560 1400 - -
Sleeve 910 250 25 -

Asphaltic Concrete
► Asphaltic concrete is a mixture of
► Coarse Aggregate
► Fine aggregate
► Mineral filler and
► Bitumen
► Well graded aggregates and mineral filler resulting in maximum
density when mixed with optimum quantity of bitumen results in a mix
with very high stability
Desirable Properties of AC Mix
► Stability
► Enough resistance to deformation under sustained or repeated loads
► Durability
► Resistance to disintegration by weathering or abrasive forces of traffic
► Flexibility
► Ability of a bituminous mix to bend repeatedly with out cracking and to
conform to changes in shape of the base course
► Skid Resistance
► Offer enough resistance to the skidding of tyres
► Impervious Layer
►Soundness test
► Durabilit
► Should be highly impervious to water
Construction & Quality

Control of Flexible
Pavements
Bituminous construction are classified
into four categories
• Interface Treatments
• Thin Bituminous surface Courses
• Bituminous Surface Courses
• Bituminous Binder Courses
INTERFACE
TREATMENTS
Prime Coat
Tack Coat
Crack Prevention Courses
SAM and SAMI
REQUIREMENT FOR PRIMING
MATE``RIAL
Porosity Type of Viscosity at Quantity
Surface 600 C per 10 m2
(centistokes) (Kg)
Low WMM, 30-60 6-9
WBM
Medium Gravel 70-140 9-12
Base
High Gravel 250-500 12-15
base
QUANTITY OF AGGREGATES AND
BITUMEN
The total quantity of aggregates
used shall be 0.27 cum per 10 m2 area
The quantity of binder shall be
22.0 kg and 19.0 kg for 10m2 area for
Type A and Type B surfacing
respectively
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE (BC)
BC is a Dense Graded Bituminous
Mix used as Wearing Course for
Heavily Trafficked Roads
BC Mix consists of Coarse
Aggregates, Fine Aggregates, Filler
and Binder blended as per Marshall
Mix Design
Quality control operations involved are:
Design of mix in laboratory, and
control of mixing, laying and
rolling temperatures
Density, Marshall Stability, Flow,
Air Voids, Retained Stability,
Bitumen Content, Gradation of
aggregates are controlled
Riding quality is a control
CRITERIA OF MINIMUM VOIDS IN
MINERAL AGGREGATE (VMA) FOR
Nominal nimum VMA, per cent
Maximum Related to Design Air Voids,
Particle Size Per cent
(mm)
3 4 5
9.5 14 15 16
12.5 13 14 15
19 12 13 14
25 11 12 13
37.5 10 11 12
MASTIC ASPHALT
Mastic Asphalt is a mixture of
Bitumen, Filler and Fine Aggregates
in suitable proportions designed to
yield a void less compact mass It is heated to
200ºC
It solidifies into a dense mass on cooling to
normal temperature No compacting effort
required
MASTIC ASPHALT AS WEARING
COURSE
Heavy-duty pavement City street carrying high
volume of
traffic
Bus stops where heavy tangential
forces are expected
Junctions
Bridge Decks
DENSE BITUMINOUS
MACADAM (DBM)
DBM is Closely Graded
DBM is used as a Binder Course for
pavements subjected to heavy
traffic
Hydrated Lime or Cement shall be
used as filler, if the mix fails to
meet the water sensitivity
requirement
Steps Involved in Deriving
the Job Mix Formula
► Selection of aggregates
► Selection of aggregate gradation

► Proportioning of aggregates to meet the required gradation
► Selection of bitumen
► Preparation of specimen
► Density – void analysis
► Measurement of stability and flow
► Determination of optimum bitumen content
There are three types of cut-backs based on the diluent (dilutant or
solvent)
1. Rapid-curing (RC) cutback – Bitumen blended with gasoline or
naphtha,
(highly volatile, low viscosity)
2. Medium-curing (MC) cutback – Bitumen blended with kerosene or
coal tar
creosote oil (medium viscosity)
3. Slow-curing (SC) cutback – Bitumen blended with gas oil (low
viscosity,
highly viscous)
Each of these has been categorized based on their initial kinematic
viscosity
values as follows:
1. RC 70, RC 250, RC 800, RC 3000
2. MC 30, MC 70, MC 250, MC 800, MC 3000
3. SC 70, SC 250, SC 800, SC 3000
Bitumen emulsions, like cutback bitumens, are also classified into
three
types based on their setting times:
1. Rapid-setting emulsions (RS)
2. Medium-setting emulsions (MS)
3. Slow-setting emulsions (SS)
used:
Softening Point Test
The softening point is the temperature at which the substance
attains a particular degree of
softening under specified condition of test. The softening point
of bitumen is usually
determined by ring and ball test.
Generally higher softening point indicates lower temperature
susceptibility and is preferred
in warm climates brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is
suspended in liquid like
water or glycerin at a given temperature steel ball is placed
upon the bitumen sample and
the liquid medium is then heated at a rate of 50C per minute.
Penetration test
The penetration test determines the hardness and softness of bitumen by
measuring the
depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate
vertically in
five seconds. The sample is maintained at a temperature of 250C.
The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight OF 100g and
device for
releasing and locking any position. There is a graduated dial to read penetration
values to
1/10th of a millimeter.
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured
into
containers to a depth at least 15mm in excess of the expected penetration. The
sample
containers are then placed in a temperature controlled water bath at
temperature of 25oC
for one hour. The sample with container is taken out and the needle is arranged
to contact
with the surface of the sample. The dial is set to zero or the initial reading is
taken and the
needle is released for 54 seconds. The final reading is taken on dial gauge. At
least three
penetration tests are made on this sample by testing at distances of at least
10mm apart.
After each test the needle is disengaged and wiped with benzene and dried. The
depth of
penetration is reported in one tenth millimeter unit. The mean value of three
measurements
is reported as a penetration value. It may be noted that the penetration value is largely
influenced by any inaccuracy as regards pouring temperature, size of needle weight
placed
on the needle and the test temperature.
The bitumen grade is specified in terms of penetration value 80-100 or 80/100 grade
bitumen mean as that the penetration value of the bitumen is in the range 80 to 100 at

standard test conditions.
Selection of Aggregates
► The aggregates should satisfy the specifications laid down for the mix in respect
of the following
Cleanliness
►Percent passing 0.075 mm sieve
► Particle shape
►Combined flakiness and elongation index
► Strength
►Los Angeles abrasion value / Impact value
► Polishing
►Polished stone value


Selection of Aggregate Gradation

► Densely graded aggregate offers
► High frictional resistance
► Greater area of load transfer
► The gradation that results in maximum density would offer high stability to the final mix
► Theoretical gradations could be used as a starting point to arrive at the required gradation by
trial and error method
Theoretical Gradation
► Theoretical gradations generally take the following form
► P = 100 (d/D)x
► Where, P = percent passing
► d = size of sieve opening
► D = largest size in gradation
► The basic idea of the theory is that the amount of material of a given size should
be just sufficient to fill the voids between aggregates of larger size
► Fuller suggested a value of 0.5 for x
► However, a value of 0.45 for x is being used in Superpave gradations
Specified Gradation
► Specified gradations are worked out starting from the theoretical gradations
► Lower and upper limits of gradation for each sieve size are arrived at for allowing window of
variation by examining the changes in density and the resulting stability in the final mix
► The specified gradations are also related to the thickness of construction and the nominal size of
aggregate used








Specified Gradation for BC

Specified Vs Theoretical Gradation
►When theoretical Gradations are adopted in actual practice, the smaller particles
tend to wedge between the larger ones, increasing the voids that must be filled with
the smaller ones
►As a result maximum densities are actually achieved by gradations having an
excess of the small sizes compared with the theoretical amounts
Proportioning of Aggregates
► Normally, the aggregates from the quarry are available in three
nominal sizes viz., 19 mm, 9.2 mm and 2.36 mm (Grit and dust)
► Sieve analysis is carried out on each of these aggregates and their
individual gradation is determined
► Sieve analysis is also carried out on lime which will be used as filler
► The proportion in which each of these aggregates are to be mixed to
get the specified gradation is to be obtained
Worksheet for
Proportioning of
Aggregates
Selection of Bitumen
► A proper grade should be selected as per specifications
► Bitumen should satisfy all the specifications laid down
relating to the following (BIS: 73)
► Penetration
► Softening point
► Ductility
► Flash point
► Wax content
► Loss on heating and retained penetration
► Solubility
► Viscosity at 60 OC and 135 OC
► If modified bitumen is used then additional tests (elastic
recovery, etc) should be performed as specified

Binder Specific Gravity

Marshall Method of Mix Design
►The basic concepts of the Marshall mix design
method were originally developed by Bruce
Marshall of the Mississippi Highway Department
around 1939 and then refined by the U.S. Army.
►The Marshall stability of the mix design is
defined as a maximum load carried by a
compacted specimen at a standard temperature of
60oC.
Preparation of Specimen
► The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler
material should be proportioned and mixed as per the dry mix
design
► The required quantity of the dry mix is taken so as to
produce a compacted bituminous mix specimen of thickness
63.5mm approximately
► Considering the specific gravities of aggregates in this region,
approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler would be
required to get a standard specimen
► The dry mix of aggregates and filler is heated to a
temperature of 150 to 170oC
► The compacted mould assembly and rammer are
cleaned and kept preheated to a temperature of 100oC
to 145oC
► The bitumen is heated to a temperature of 150oC to
165oC and the required quantity of the first trial
percentage of bitumen is added to the heated
aggregates and thoroughly mixed.
► The mixing temperature of the 60/70 grade is about
165oC.

Marshall Mould
For preparing specimens of 10.16 cm
diameter and
6.35 cm height for Marshall testing.
Consists of base plate, forming mold and
collar.Interchangeable

base plate and collar can be used

on either end of compaction mold.
Compaction of the Specimen
► The mix is placed in the mould and compacted by a rammer
with about 75 blows on each side.
► The weight of hammer is4.54 kg and height of fall is 45.7 cm
► The compacting temperature may be about 135oC for 6



Determine trial combination(s) and
batch dry aggregates
- Each aggregate or batch is sieved
and carefully combined


• Heat aggregates and binder, then mix

- Until all aggregate is sufficiently coated


Marshall Stability and Flow

► The specimens to be tested are kept
immersed in water in a thermostatically controlled
water bath at 60 ± 1oC for 30 to 40 minutes.

Marshall
Stability and
Flow
► Take out the specimen from the water
bath and place it in the breaking head
Place the breaking head in Marshall testing
machine
Marshall Stability and Flow

Load is applied on the breaking head by the

loading machine at the rate of 5 cm per minute.
Marshall Mix Design
Tests
• Heights of samples
– Used to correct stability
measurements
• Bulk specific gravity of compacted
sample
• Maximum specific gravity of loose
mix
• Stability and flow
– 60oC water bath (30 to 40 minutes)
– 50 mm/min loading rate
– Max. load = uncorrected stability
– Corresponding vertical deformation
= flow


STABILT CORRECT =(9*1.1533)-0.0078




TEMPERATURE
Grade Bitumen Agg. Mix Laying Rolling
35 160-170 160-175 170max 130min 100min
65 150-165 150-170 165max 125min 90min
90 140-160 140-165 155max 115min 80min



flexible pavements –Others
Conventional flexible pavements


Cross section consist of (from top):
1. Seal coat
2. Surface course
3. Tack coat
4. Binder course
5. Prime coat
6. Base course
7. Subbase course
8. Compacted subgrade
9. Natural subgrade
The use of various courses is based on either
necessity or
economy, and some of the courses may be
omitted
■ Subgrade can be either in situ soil
or a layer of selected materials.
■ The top 6” of subgrade should be
scarified and compacted to the
desired density near the optimum
moisture content.
■ Purpose
Provide a platform for construction of the
pavement
support the pavement without undue
deflection that would impact the
pavement’s performance.

A layer or layers of specified or selected
materials of designed thickness placed on a
subgrade to support a base course. Usually of somewhat lower
quality than the
base layer In some cases, the subbase may be treated with
Portland cement, asphalt, lime, fly ash, or
combinations of these admixtures to increase
its strength and stiffness
Layers –Subbase course
A subbase layer is not always included,
especially with rigid pavements Inclusion of a subbase layer is
primarily an
economic issue A subbase layer is typically included when the
subgrade soils are of very poor quality and/or
suitable material for the base layer is not
available locally, and is, therefore, expensive .
Layers – Base course
A layer or layers of specified or select material
of designed thickness placed on a subbase or
subgrade (if a subbase is not used) to provide a
uniform and stable support for binder and
surface courses.
It usually consists of high-quality aggregates,
such as crushed stone, crushed slag, gravel and
sand, or combinations of these materials.
The specifications for base materials are usually
more stringent than those for the lower-quality
subbase materials.
■ The base layer typically provides a significant
portion of the structural capacity in a flexible
pavement system and improves the foundation
stiffness for rigid pavements.
Layers – Base and subbase course layers


27
Layers – Prime coat

Application of low viscosity Cutback
asphalt to an absorbent surface
such as untreated granular base on
which asphalt layer will be placed
on.
Uses
Minimize flow of asphalt cement from the
asphalt concrete to the aggregate base
Fill the surface voids and protect the subbase
from weather.
Stabilize the fines and preserve the subbase
material.
Promote bonding to the subsequent
pavement layer

Cutback asphalt = AC + Petroleum solvent

Layers – Tack coat
It prevent of Inadequate bonding between layers can result
in
delamination (debonding) followed by longitudinal wheel
path cracking, fatigue cracking, potholes, and other
distresses

such as rutting that greatly reduce pavement
life


Density – Air Voids

Measurement

THANKS
BEKELE MOKONEN NOTE
EMAIL BEKELEMOKONEN49@GMAIL .COM

Material Test and Different Mix Design

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Material Test and Different Mix Design

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MATERIAL TEST AND DIFFERENT MIX DESIGN

PREPARE BY BEKELE MOKONEN LAB TECHNICIAN

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Strength and Stiffness

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> 80 Subbase Excellent

50 to 80 Subbase Very Good

20 to 30 Subgrade Very Good

<5 Subgrade Very poor

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Function of soil as highway Subgrade

The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be

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Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.54 mm is

Standard load (Kg) Standard load (Kg)

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1. OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

2. PCC (Pozzonala Portland Cement)

The common materials used for cement manufacturing are

The density of cement is 1440 kg/m3 and its specific

Read More: Specific Gravity Test of Cement – Procedure,

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Cement is one of the major ingredients of concrete

1. OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

2. PCC (Pozzonala Portland Cement)

The common materials used for cement manufacturing are

The density of cement is 1440 kg/m3 and its specific

Read More: Specific Gravity Test of Cement – Procedure,

Cement Bulk Density As Per IS 875 PartCement is one of

1. OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

2. PCC (Pozzonala Portland Cement)

The common materials used for cement manufacturing are

The density of cement is 1440 kg/m3 and its specific

Read More: Specific Gravity Test of Cement – Procedure,

Cement Bulk Density As Per IS 875 Part-

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Cement Types Density in Kg/m3 Density in KN/m3

Lime Mortar 1600-1840 16-18

Ordinary Cement 1440 14.4

PCC (Plain Cement Concrete) 2400 24

Near about 35% volume of the concrete is comprised of sand.

The building density of natural sand is 1.71 kg/m3 used

Densities of various sands are listed below,

1. Loose sand has a density of 1442 kg / m3 as it is a dry

2. Dry sand itself has a density of 1602 kg / m3.

3. Packed sand is known to have a density of around 1682

4. Wet sand has a density of 1922 kg / m3 whereas Packed

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Aggregate is one of the important

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Aggregates Are of Two Types-

 Sand (Fine aggregate)

Coarse aggregate is having a particle size of more than 4.75

The maximum size of coarse aggregate used for

Aggregate Bulk Density