Ch.

Level and Flow Measurement

1
 Level measurement
• Level—the filling height of a liquid or bulk
material.
• E.g. tank or reservoir.
1. Continuous level measurements (level
indication, LI)
2. Level switches (LS), e.g. to detect an
alarm limit to prevent overfilling.

2
 Level measurement

• The level sensor can be mounted at (a), (b), (c), or (d) position.
3
 Displacer

• b=length, Ld=dipped, ρ=length Density

4
 Displacer
• The weight of force FG:
FG = gm = gAbρD
where A is cross section.
• The buoyant force FB:
FB = gALdρL + gA(b - Ld) ρA
• The resulting force:
FR = FG – FB
• Ld related to the lower edge of the displacer:
FR
b( ρ D − ρ A ) −
gA
Ld =
ρL − ρ A

5
 Float

• Principle of operation for float level meters. (a) A counter weight’s

position represents the level. (b) Using a bistable relay, this
system is used as a level switch.
6
 Pressure Gages

• Level gaging by hydrostatic pressure measurement. The bottom pressure p

is proportional to level. (a) Using differential measurement. (b) A differential
measurement within the liquid is called “hydrostatic tank gaging, HTG” and
can be used for compensate errors due to density variations of the liquid. (c)
This arrangement is called “bubble tube”. This is often used if the sensor
cannot be mounted at the bottom of the tank. 7
 Pressure Gages
• A hydrostatic pressure p, caused by the weight of
the product, is presented at the bottom of a tank,
in addition to the atmospheric pressure p0:
p = p0 + gρLL

p − p0
=> L=
gρ L

8
Capacitive Sensors—Capacitive
Liquid Level Measurement

9
 Level Measurements by Detecting
Physical Properties
• To measure level, you can detect
conductivity, viscosity, or attenuation of
any type of radiation.
1. Continuous measurement with an
integral sensor.
2. Switching by a pt. measurement when
the sensor comes in contact with the
product.

10
 Level Sensors by radiation source

• The amount of gamma radiation detected by the detector is proportional to the depth of
the liquid level.
11
 Surface Reflectance
• Surface reflectance techniques use the
reflectance of light off the surface to
determine liquid level.
• For an incident beam of light striking the
surface, the position of the detected beam
is a function of liquid level.

12
Surface Reflectance

13
 Surface Reflectance
• Advantage:
– This approach can be used for corrosive liquids or
high-temperature liquids there contact is not possible.
– E.g. measuring the level of molten glass.
• Disadvantage:
– A large dynamic range or very high sensitivity would
be costly due to the large no. of detection elements
required.
– Low viscosity liquids are not suitable for this approach
because surface vibration and ripple will affect the
measurement.

14
Refractive Index Change Liquid
Level Sensor

15
 Refractive Index Change Liquid
Level Sensor
• Light transmits to the prism, typically
quartz (refractive index=1.46). In the
medium of air (refractive index=1.0), the
prism acts as a fiber optic.
• In the presence of a liquid, the light is not
totally internally reflected but is passed
into the liquid.

16
 Optical Level Sensors

• The liquid should be opaque. When the liquid level is under the
photodiode, the light from the LED can be detected. Otherwise, the
photodiode cannot detect any light. 17
 Different Types of Flowmeters
• Differential Pressure Flowmeters
• Variable Area Flowmeters
• Rotameter
• Positive Displacement flowmeters
• Turbine and Vane Flowmeters
• Impeller Flowmeters
• Electromagnetic Flowmeters
• Ultrasonic Flowmeters
• Vortex Shedding Flowmeters
• Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
• Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters
• Drag Force Flowmeters
18
 Differential Pressure Flowmeters

• (http://www.process-controls.com/Metex/Kobold/rcd_series.html) 19
 Bernoulli’s Equation

• Flow through an inclined, tapered pipe 20

 Bernoulli’s Equation
2 2
p1 v1 p 2 v2
+ + h1 = + + h2 (1)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

where v = fluid velocity

p = fluid pressure
h = height
• Assuming that the fluid is frictionless (zero
viscosity) and of constant density
(incompressible).
21
Bernoulli’s Equation

22
 Bernoulli’s Equation
• Since the pipe is horizontal, equation (1) reduces to:
p1 − p 2 v1 − v 2
2 2
= (2)
ρ 2
• The conservation of mass principle requires that:
v1A1ρ = v2A2 ρ (3)
• Rearranging equation (3) and substituting for v2 in
equation (2) gives:
A2 2( p1 − p2 )
Q = v1 A1 = (4)
A ρ
1 − ( 2 )2
A1
23
 Bernoulli’s Equation
• Equation (4) shows that the volumetric
flow rate of fluid Q can be determined by
measuring the drop in pressure (p1-p2)
across the restriction in the pipeline—the
basic principle of all differential pressure
flowmeters.
• Assumptions:
– The fluid is incompressible.
– The fluid has no viscosity.

24
 Common Differential Pressure Flowmeters

• The Orifice Plate Flowmeters

• The Venturi Tube Flowmeters
• The Nozzle Flowmeters

25
 The Orifice Plate Flowmeters
• The orifice plate is the simplest and
cheapest type of differential pressure
flowmeter.
• It is simply a plate with a hole of specified
size and position cut in it, which can then
clamped between flanges in a pipeline.

26
The Orifice Plate Flowmeter

• A square-edged orifice plate flowmeter

27
 The Orifice Plate Flowmeters
C π 2( p1 − p2 )
Q= ε d 2

1− β 4 4 ρ

where ρ = Density of the fluid upstream of the

orifice plate
d = Diameter of the hole in the orifice plate
β = Diameter ratio d/D, where D is the
upstream internal pipe diameter
• 2 empirically determined correction factors are:
– discharge coefficient—C
– expansibility factor—ε
• Both C and ε can be determined from equations and
tables in a no. of internationally recognized documents
known as standards. 28
The Venturi Tube Flowmeter

29
The Nozzle Flowmeter

30
 Variable Area Flowmeter—
Rotameter
• The rotameter is a robust and simple
flowmeter for gases and liquids.
• It consists of conical transparent vertical
glass tube containing a “bob”, which rises
in the tube with increasing flow rate until a
balance is reached between gravitational,
buoyancy, and drag forces on the bob.

31
 Rotameter

• (http://www.kinginstrumentco.com/7430/7430.html)
32
Rotameter

• Cross-section of a
rotameter. The level of
the bob rises linearly
with increasing flow rate.
33
Typical Rotameter Bob Geometries

34
Positive Displacement Flowmeters (PD meters)

•An Oval Gear Meter

• (http://www.globalspec.com/FeaturedProducts/Detail?ExhibitID=1552)
35
Oval Gear Meter

36
 Turbine and Vane Flowmeters
• Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• Insertion Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• Angular Momentum Flowmeters
• Multijet Turbine Flowmeters
• Cylindrical Rotor Flowmeters

37
Turbine and Vane Flowmeters

• (http://www.ftimeters.com/pages/product/ftseries.html)
38
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters

• (http://www.ftimeters.com/pages/product/omniflo.html)
39
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters

• (1) Eng fitting—flange shown; (2) flowmeter body; (3) rotation pickup—magnetic,
reluctance type shown; (4) permanent magnet; (5) pickup cold wound on pole
piece; (6) rotor blade; (7) rotor hub; (8) rotor shaft bearing—journal type shown; (9)
rotor shaft; (10) diffuser support and flow straightener; (11) diffuser; (12) flow
conditioning plate (dotted) 40
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• There are 2 approaches described in the
current literature for analyzing axial
turbine performance.
1. Describing the fluid driving torque in terms of
momentum exchange.
2. Describing it in terms of aerodynamic lift via
airfoil theory.
• The first approach is now used to
highlight the basic concepts of the axial
turbine flowmeter.
41
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• In a hypothetical situation, where there are
no forces acting to slow down the rotor, it
will rotate at a speed that exactly
maintains the fluid flow velocity vector at
the blade surfaces.

42
 Vector diagram for a flat-bladed axial turbine rotor

• V-incident fluid velocity vector; VE-exit fluid velocity vector; θ-exit flow
swirl angle due to rotor retarding torques; β-blade pitch angle, same as
angle of attack for parallel flow; ω-rotor angular velocity vector; r-rotor
radius vector; F-flow-induced drag force acting on each blade surface;
c-blade chord; s-blade spacing along the hub; c/s-rotor solidity factor.
43
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• Referring the above picture, one obtains:
tan β
rω i =
V
• When one introduces the total flow rate, this becomes:
ωi tan β
= (5)
Q rA
where ωi = “Ideal” rotational speed
Q = Volumetric flow rate
A = Area of the annular flow cross-section
r = Root-mean-square of the inner and outer
blade radii, (R, a)
44
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• In equation (5), eliminating the time
dimension from the left-hand-side quantity
reduces it to the no. of rotor rotations per
unit fluid volume, which is essentially the
flowmeter K factor specified by most
manufacturers.

45
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• The maximum flow rate is determined by
design factors related to size vs. maximum
pressure drop and maximum rotor speed.
• The minimum of the range is determined
by the linearity specification itself.

46
Axial Turbine Flowmeters

47
Insertion Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• These flowmeters comprise a small axial
rotor mounted on a stem that is inserted
radially through the conduit wall, often
through a shut-off valve.

48
An Onicon dual rotor turbine assembly

49
An Onicon dual rotor turbine assembly

• It comprises 2 rotors that rotate in opposite

directions.
• The output is based on the average rotor
speed.

50
 Impeller Flowmeters

• (a) in-line meters; (b) insertion meters. 51

A Typical Insertion Type Impeller Flow Sensor

52
Electromagnetic Flowmeters

53
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters

• Principle of transit time flowmeters. Transmitting an ultrasonic pulse

upstream and downstream across the flow: the liquid is moving with
velocity va and with angle ϕ to the ultrasonic pulse. 54
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

• Vortex shedding in a pipe.

55
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

56
 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
• Principles of Conventional Thermal Mass
Flowmeters
• Mass and Heat Transfer
• Analytical Models for Calorimetric
Flowmeters
• Principles of Microflow Sensors

57
 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
• The flow can be understood by the motion of a
continuum (fluid) in a closed structure (channel,
orifice), and is the measured object.

• The volume flow rate Φv is:

Φv = dV/dt = vA (6)
where V = Volume through in the time t
v = Average velocity over the cross-
section area A of the channel
58
 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
V = M/ρ (7)
• From (6) and (7), the mass flow rate Φm is:
dρ
Φ m = (Φ v ρ ) + (V ) (8)
dt
• For time invariable fluid density, (8)
becomes:
Φm = Φvρ = Avρ

59
 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
• A thermal mass flow sensor will generally output a signal
related to the mass flux:

φm = Φ m / A = vρ
and convert the mechanical variable (mass flow) via a
thermal variable (heat transfer) into an electrical signal
(current or voltage) that can be processed by a
microcontroller.

60
 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors

• The 3 signal domains and the signal transfer process of a thermal

flow sensor.

61
 Principles of Conventional Thermal
Mass Flowmeters
• With 2 heater control modes and 2 evaluation
modes, there are 6 operational modes and 3
types of thermal mass flowmeters:

62
 Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors
• Hot-wire, hot-film sensors, or hot-element sensors—
measure the effect of the flowing fluid on a hot body
(increase of heating power with constant heater
temperature, decrease of heater temperature with
constant heating power).
• Hot-wire sensors are fabricated from platinum, platinum-
coated tungsten, or a platinum-iridium alloy.

R = Rr[1+α(T - Tr)]

where R = Resistance at operating temperature T

Rr = Resistance at reference temperature Tr
α = Temperature coefficient
63
Typical Arrangements of Flow Channel

64
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors

65
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors

• Constant-current bridge 66
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors
• R3 and R4 >> R1. Therefore, current
through R1 is essentially independent of
changes in the sensor resistor R1.
• Any flow in the channel cools the hot wire,
R1 decreases according to equation(9).
• The unbalanced bridge produces an
output voltage V0.

67
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors

• Constant-temperature bridge
68
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors
• The bridge is balanced under no-flow
conditions with the variable resistor R2.
• The flow cools the hot wire, and its
resistance decreases and unbalances the
bridge.
• A differential amplifier balances the bridge
with the feedback voltage.

69
 Hot-Wire Sensor

• (http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/hot_wires/
hot_wires_intro.cfm) 70
 Calorimetric sensors
• Calorimetric sensors—measure the
displacement of temperature profile around
the heater, which is modulated by the fluid
flow.

71
 Calorimetric Flowmeter

• (http://www.webersensorsinc.com/flow-captor_inline_flow_meter4460.html)
72
 Time-of-flight sensors
• Time-of-flight sensors—measure the
passage time of a heat pulse over a known
distance.

(a) principle; (b) temperature at downstream sensor; (c) sensor

characteristic

73
 Mass and Heat Transfer
• Conduction—the heat will flow from the hotter to
the colder region when there is a temperature
gradient in a substance.
• Convection
– Force convection—caused by a fluid flow.
– Natural convection—because of the temperature
dependency of fluid density and the buoyancy forces.
• Radiation—not important for the operational
principle of thermal mass flow because of its
relatively low magnitude.
74
Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters

• Flow tube response to Coriolis acceleration 75

Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters

• (http://www.cancoppas.com/flow_coriolis_technology.html)
76
 Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters

• (http://www.yokogawa.com.au/products/index.asp?Section=Product
&CatID=117&ProductDesc=Coriolis) 77
 Drag Force Flowmeters (Target Flowmeters)

• (http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_tar.cfm) 78
 Drag Force Flowmeters

• (http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_tar.cfm) 79