12 Port Design and Construction
portal cranes and similar equipment, must
be reliably grounded.
1.4 WIND
1.4.1 General
Of all the factors affecting the port and
harbor operation, the wind is usually con-
sidered the most significant; it affects ves-
sel entry into the port and berthing/depar-
ting maneuvers. This is particularly true
for large vessels sailing high in the ballast
condition, container ships, and large ferries,
all with large areas exposed to wind.
Wind, by definition, is a movement (pre-
dominantly horizontal) of air in response to
differences in air pressure that are caused
primarily by differential heating and cool-
ing.
The ocean winds circulate clockwise
around permanent high-pressure areas in
the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In
the region south of the major continents,
that is, the Indian Ocean and the South
Pacific, the pressures are lower and thus
strong westerly winds prevail. In the tropi-
cal and subtropical zones, the extreme heat
and the interface between atmosphere and
ocean create deep low pressures. This re-
sults in violent storms which, depending on
their geographic localities, are known as
tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons.
The occurrence of such storms is usually
seasonal and, fortunately, somewhat infre-
quent. They are easily spotted by local ob-
servation and sibilates, and their routes are
usually predicted with reasonable accuracy.
Thus, storm alert reports to ships at sea, as
well as to the port and harbor operators,
are usually issued when the storm first de-
velops. Now, storm forecasting services are
available for all principal localities on earth.
Some remote areas, however, may suffer
from the lack of observation stations.
During the brief summer in the Arctic
Ocean the interaction between the cold air
mass over pack ice and the warmer air of
the adjacent land mass can spin off a series
of intense, however localized, cyclonic
storms, creating strong winds and short
steep waves in open water.
It should be pointed out that local topog-
raphy may modify wind patterns, resulting
in localized wind jets. At some sites, partic-
ularly in proximity to a high hillside or
canyons created by high mountains, local
tunneling of the wind may be experienced.
This can impose direct wind velocity forces
against structures, cargo handling and
hauling equipment, and ships. The latter
may obviously have a profound influence on
port operations.
Nearly every location in the world is sub-
ject to what is termed the prevailing wind,
that is, a wind blowing from one general
direction of the compass for a major portion
of the year. Prevailing winds are not neces-
sarily the strongest winds. Very often, winds
of greater intensity, but that occur less fre-
quently, come from other directions. The
direction, frequency, and intensity of the
average winds at a particular location over
a period of time are represented graphically
by a wind rose (Fig. 1-4). A wind rose indi-
cates the percent frequency of wind of a
given force from a given direction, for a
given month, season, year, and so on. This
information is very useful and is an impor-
tant consideration for port design and oper-
ation. It is, perhaps, less important for the
construction phase.
It should be pointed out that the nautical
terminology for wind directions is some-
what contrary to the wind rose; when a
mariner speaks of a north wind, it means
that the wind is blowing from the north,
and when he speaks of an onshore or off-
shore wind, it means the wind is blowing
respectively from the sea toward the land or
from the land toward the sea.
 Port Design and Construction 13

Percent
calms-- 1

1-3
4-6
Mean 7-10
velocity 11-16
in knots 17-21
22-27
s >27

Figure 1-4. Wind rose.

The side of the structure or vessel facing and land-based structures must be de-
the direction from which the wind comes is signed to withstand these unusually heavy
called the windward side, and the opposite forces. Heavy wind may also affect water
side is called the leeward side. Generally levels in the harbor, raising or lowering the
the term lee is the sheltered side, away water level substantially in a matter of a
from the wind. However, in offshore termi- few hours. The rise and fall of the water
nology, a lee shore is not a sheltered shore level due to a heavy wind condition can be
but the shore toward which the wind is computed by using relevant guidelines or
blowing and, hence, a dangerous shore. by examining historical records for the
Seasonal winds which blow in one direc- area (Gaythwaite, 1981; Reid, 1991;
tion over part of the year and in the oppo- Partheniades, 1992). In hurricane areas,
site direction the remainder of the year are where destructive wind forces can be be-
termed monsoons. These winds are basi- yond practical design factors of safety, some
cally prevalent in the western Pacific. structures of secondary importance could be
It should be pointed out that wind is not designed as "sacrificial," or with sacrificial
steady, but blows in gusts. For example, the elements, for example, doors andjor win-
3-s gust may have one-third to one-half dows, to avoid complete collapse.
greater speed than the same storm wind Other wind effects, such as the genera-
averaged over 1 h. The force of a wind is tion of waves or the movement of sand in
classified in accordance with the Beaufort dune areas that may shoal the basin or the
Scale. entrance to the marina, must be considered.
In most regions, wind data are readily The former usually requires the construc-
available and wind loads on structures are tion of breakwaters, whereas the latter re-
specified by local building codes. Where quires the implementation of some sand
wind can reach hurricane strengths, water- stabilization measures such as land stabi-