Practical class № 2

Polysemy. Causes, Nature, and Result of Semantic Change

Practical Assignment
1. Group together the following words according to the lexico-semantic variants (LSVs) they
represent. Use dictionaries if necessary. What context (lexical or grammatical) actualizes the
meaning in each case?

smart, adj. – mixed polysemy – grammatical meaning

You're looking very smart in your new clothes!
Smart kids get good grades and go off to college.
He got a smart blow on the head.
Virtual reality, ‘smart’ materials, biosensors have become an integral part of our life.
We had dinner in one of the smartest restaurants.

golden, adj. – chain polysemy – lexical meaning

She received a golden ring as a present.
The girl has got beautiful golden hair.
He wasted a golden opportunity when he missed from the penalty spot.
They celebrated golden wedding anniversary yesterday.
The 19th century is traditionally referred to as the "Golden Era" of Russian literature.

root, n. – radial polysemy – lexical meaning

These plants produce a number of thin roots.
The love of money is the root of all evil.
Jazz has its roots in the folk songs of the southern states of the US.
Alex Haley's story about his search for his roots became a bestseller.
The word 'coldness' is formed from the root 'cold' and the suffix 'ness'
2 is the fourth root of 16.

2. Which of the following words are monosemantic (use a dictionary)?

abandon, abdicate, aphorism, apathy, application, arch, band, behold, bronchitis, central, denture, divide,
measure, memorial, mischance, prominent, promise, promote, prompt, sinecure, xenophobia.

3. Explain the logical associations in the meanings of the same words in the following word
combinations. Define the type of association involved in semantic change:
1. A wing of a bird – a wing of a building – on wings of joy; metaphor: similarity of position, function
2. an eye of a man – an eye of a needle; metaphor: similarity of shape
3. the heart of a man – the heart of the matter; metaphor: similarity of function
4. a hand of a man – a hand of a clock – a farm hand; metaphor: similarity of shape; metonymy:
synecdoche
5. a foot of a man – the foot of a mountain; metaphor: similarity of position in space
6. the coat of a girl – the coat of a dog; metaphor: similarity of function
7. a star in the sky – a film star; metaphor: similarity of function
8. a green leaf – green years – green with envy; metaphor: similarity of colour, synesthesia
9. warm weather – a warm welcome; metaphor: synesthesia
10. black shoes – black winter – black despair; metaphor: similarity of colour, synesthesia
11. the father of the family – the father of invention; metaphor: similarity of function
12. glass – a glass; metonymy: material stands for product
13. Ford (proper name) – a Ford (car) metonymy: producer stands for product

4. The following are some of the different meanings of skirt(s) as adapted from the DCE dictionary
(Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman). What is likely to be the prototypical meaning of
 the word? Point out which process of semantic development (generalization, specialization) or
which type of association (metaphor, metonymy) you find in each of the cases. Give reasons for
your answers.
skirt
a. A piece of outer clothing worn by women and girls which hangs down from the
waist generalization
b. The part of a dress or coat that hangs down from the waist generalization
c. The flaps on a saddle that protect a rider’s legs specialization
d. A circular flap as around the base of a hovercraft specialization
e. A bit of skirt: an offensive expression meaning ‘an attractive woman’ metonymy: transference of
meaning from part to whole
f. Skirts of a forest, hill or village etc.: the outside edge of a forest etc metaphor: similarity of position
in space
g. A new road skirting the suburb metaphor: similarity of function
h. He was skirting the issue metaphor: similarity of function

5. Read the words’ stories and identify the results of their semantic development. These results are:
a) generalization;
b) specialization;
c) elevation;
d) degradation.
1. The noun picture used to refer only to a representation made with paint. Today it can be a photograph
or a representation made with charcoal, pencil or any other means. generalization
2. The adjective nice – from the Latin nescius for "ignorant" – at various times before the current
definition became established meant "foolish", then "foolishly precise", then "pedantically precise", then
"precise in a good way" and then its current definition. elevation
3. From 1550 to 1675 silly was very extensively used in the sense "deserving pity and compassion,
helpless". It is a derivative of the Middle English seely from the German selig, meaning "happy, blissful,
blessed, holy" as well as "punctual, observant of season". degradation
4. The verb kidnap has come into wide use in the meaning "to take a child away illegally and usually by
force, in order to demand especially money for their safe return". Now it implies any person, not only a
child. generalization
5. Crafty, now a disparaging term, originally was a word of praise. degradation
6. Target originally meant "a small round shield" but now it means "anything that is fired at" and
figuratively "any result aimed at". generalization
7. Voyage in earlier English meant "a journey", as does the French voyage, but is now restricted
mostly to journeys by sea. specialization
8. Butcher dates from the 13th century as a term denoting the person who prepared and cut up any kind of
meat. Previously it referred to a specialist in goat's meat, often salted because it was tough – this fact
indicates how low the consumption of beef had been in the Middle Ages. generalization