OPEN PIT MINING

As the term implies, this type of mining involves driving/making a series of excavations that are
entirely open from the surface. The opening formed in the process of mining out gemstones form
an open pit. At each given moment of time, the totality of workings called the pit is limited by
the top and bottom contour.
Compared to underground mining, surface mining has the following advantages:

 Minimum loss of gemstones during extraction.

 It can be used for mining both small and massive ore-bodies lying close to the earth’s'
surface;
 The method is relatively safe, because nearly all the mining operations are conducted in
the open atmosphere and not enclosed environment.
 Better lighting, sanitary and hygienic condition of labor;
 It has higher production output because of its ability to accommodate large and high
productive equipment.
 It can easily be mechanized.
 Simplified auxiliary operations and services (e.g. ventilation, drainage)
 Lower capital investments and shorter construction terms than those of underground
mining.
 Simple working plan, possibility of selective and more complete extraction of mineral
from the earth etc.
Open pit mining of deposits comprises the following stages:
1. Preparation of the surface (removal of natural and artificial objects interfering with
mining beyond the open pit boundaries and de-watering and fencing where
applicable.
2. Opening up the deposit through construction of trenches and other related mine
workings.
3. Extraction of mineral through concurrent stripping;
4. Reclamation of land (restoration of land surface).

PIT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Open –pit planning is correlated to all phases of mining operation. The factors that must be
considered in compiling mine plans for the operating open pit are numerous and reflect the
characteristics and surrounding conditions of a particular ore-body.

Long Range mine planning

The initial step in open pit mine design is the compilation of a long –range mining plan or, as it
sometimes referred to, a final pit design. There are two primary objectives in designing a long
range mining plan:
i) The ore reserves of the mine should be determined and
ii) The extent of the ore-body and ultimate pit geometry should be design.
In reality, long range mining plans usually change, throughout time, reflect the effects of a
changing economy, increased knowledge of the ore body and improvements in mining
technology.
As a result, long range mining plans should be updated at regular intervals to meet the foregoing
objects.

This task usually demands great amounts of skilled man power when performed manually.
However, the solution to this problem is regularly derived from use of computer, which permits
the engineer to update plans more rapidly and take more variables into account in developing a
plan.

To accomplish the objectives of long range planning, the following conditions similar to
underground mine design should be satisfied:
i) The characteristic of the ore-body, such as the grade, geologic structure and
formation, etc. should be depicted on vertical and sections and a mineralization inventory should
be developed.
ii) The basic pit design requirements, such as economic and physical parameters and
legal constraints, should be defined.
iii) The open pit design technique to be used must be determined.

Development of mineralization inventory

The first step in development of an open pit mine design is building a mineralization inventory,
based on the results of a drilling program and a surface mapping program. In effect it should
represent a complete model of the ore-body’s mineralization, topography and geology.

To achieve a representative model, the drilling, as well as other forms of sampling, must be
sufficient to classify the material and provide adequate definitions of geological features
pertinent to open pit mine planning. The basic mine drilling data generally utilized to develop a
mineralization inventory includes assays, geological formation and structure, and mineralization
type. In addition, results of metallurgical tests are tabulated.

Once the drill-hole data have been logged, assays are composited to intervals coinciding with the
bench height being used in the mine. The composited drilling data then are utilized to compile
horizontal and vertical sections. The vertical sections are helpful when attempting to visualize
the ore-body and estimate the final pit lit, while the horizontal sections are used to evaluate each
estimate.

To facilitate compilation of horizontal sections, it is advisable to subdivide each level into a set
of blocks or small regularly shaped unit volumes. The physical characteristics such as grade,
rock type, and metallurgical characteristics, which will be pertinent to mine planning are
assigned to each block. The block height is dictated by existing bench height in the mine, but the
block width is determined by:

i) General geometry of the ore-body

ii) Size and shape of the geological features that with incorporated in the model
iii) The time intervals that mine plans developed from inventory are to represent
iv) Sample density and spacing

Once the drilling data have been composed and a block size selected, the next step in compiling
horizontal sections is assigning assay values to blocks using for example the polygonal ore
reserve method.
Basic pit requirements

To determine the final pit limits of an ore-body and its associated grade and tonnage, it is
necessary to consider the following economic and physical aspects:

Economic aspects –
The development of the pit design that will maximize the total net value of the ore –body,
excluding the time value of money, requires the computation of a break –even stripping ratio.
This ratio is applied only at the surface of the final pit, and normally will be greater than the
overall stripping ratio of the ore-body.

The break –even stripping ratio can be defined as follows:

Recoverable value per tonne ore_- production cost per tonne ore
Stripping cost per ton waste

Here, the production cost refers to the total of all costs through to the refined metal, exclusive of
stripping cost. The break-even ratio should be developed for variations in the grade of ore;
metallurgical characteristics and market price.

Pre-production and financing costs should not be included because such costs recovered before
the end of the life of the mine.
Note that the break –even stripping ratio concept is based on average grades and costs.

Physical aspects

After determining, the allowable stripping ratios, the final pit slope must be defined. To
minimize, the overall stripping ratio, the slope should be as steep as possible and still remain
stable.

Knowledge of the location, orientation, character of geological structures, as well as operating

experience, often serve s as the basis for estimating the final pit slopes. The time element also
must be considered. Many comparatively steep slopes will stand for periods of several months or
even years. In such cases, mining plans should be designed to recover ore as soon as possible.

Potential hydrological problems, such as ground water, also should be taken into account when
estimating the final pit slope.

Open pit design technique

With the estimation of the basic pit design requirement, the geometric configuration of the pit
design can be developed in one of three ways:
i) Manually,
ii) With a computer or
iii) A combination manual and computer techniques, depending on the size of the ore-
body, degree of accuracy desired, time limits and availability of software.
Manual techniques – is based on the use of vertical and horizontal sections.

Short Range Open pit Mine Planning

Once a long range open – pit mining plan has been established, it is essential to develop a series
of short –range mining plans. These plans will define the intermediate steps required to reach the
final pit limits under physical, operating and legal constraints. They also provide the pit
geometry, ore grade, stripping ratio and expected profit information necessary for future
production forecasts and equipment needs. Some key factors that must be taken into account
when developing short range –mining plans are:

i) Pit operating procedures related to productivity capacity

ii) Existing and projected mining, milling and smelting capacities
iii) Orderly mining of the pit
iv) Required operating slopes
v) Haulage profiles
vi) Water drainage
vii) Dump space
viii) Equipment maneuverability
ix) Equipment availability
x) Corporate goals related to cash flows and commitments to buyers.

Manual technique – This involves laying out on a set of horizontal sections, a series of
proposed mining cuts and the locations.

The mining sequence of the ore-body should be analyzed to take into consideration not only the
varying metallurgical characteristics but also the varying ore grade, availability of ore, haulage
routes, mining capacity, grade etc.

The mining sequence should reflect corporate goal. For example, the increased present worth of
future profits and general desire to recover capital expenditure quickly are strong arguments in
favour of mining the best grades first.

If the present worth of future profits and early recovery of capital expenditure are desired, it may
be wise to integrate short -range mine planning and the concept of time value for money into the
design of a long range mining plan.

Another important element of short –range planning is to provide ample operating room to
permit more economical mining practices. Tight bench room effects a minimum stripping ratio
but results in costly operation, as well as hampers drilling and blasting operations. Shovel and
haulage operations are also facilitated by ample working room. This means flat pit slopes in
contrast to the final pits slope that must be as steep as possible to minimize the overall stripping
ratio.

During the initial years of operation, working slope stripping ratios may be higher than the
overall ratio. This results in high stripping costs charges. Once the working slopes reach the final
pit surface limits, steepening operations to the final pit slope begin, generally with resulting
decreases in stripping ratio.

Selection of stripping methods

In selecting the stripping method, the ultimate aim is the removal of the material at the least
possible cost. Accomplishment of this goal requires the careful consideration of many factors,
including geologic and topographic information, proximity of the stripping operation to waste
disposal areas, possible problems of land reclamation, and types of suitable equipment available
and auxiliary equipment requirements.
The following information concerning the geologic nature, environment, and characteristics of
the ore-body, as well as the production requirements, must be determined before any selection of
the mining equipment is made:

i) The size of the ore-body and distribution of values within that ore-body. Is the ore
massive or scattered, bedded or disseminated, thick or thin?
ii) The nature of the overburden to be removed. Is it a hard dense rock, bedded rock
(thick or thin), friable material, earth, sand, clay, marsh, etc.
iii) The character and significance of geologic structures. Are there fractures , faults,
shear zones, etc. associated the ore occurrence? Are there water –bearing formations
with resulting water disposal problems?
iv) Alteration products. Are there physical or chemical conditions which, when combined
with anticipated climatic conditions, may render certain equipment inoperable during
un favorable seasons.
v) The life and expected production rate of the operation. Is the production to be
continuous or intermittent?
vi) The calculated capacity of, and haulage distance to , each disposal area.
vii) The future use of the equipment. Is it to be utilized to mine the ore-body as it is
developed, or it is to be used for stripping only? What is the effect of ore-blending
requirements on equipment size when it is also to be used to mine ore?

A list of the attributes of various types of equipment available should help refine selection
possibilities.

EXCAVATORS

Shovels:

1. Can give high production

2. Can handle all types of material, including blocky material
3. Are limited to fairly rigid operating conditions
4. Require supporting equipment for waste disposal except in some strip mining
5. Have limited mobility

Draglines:

1. Have the ability to dig well above and below grade

2. Can function under less rigid conditions that shovel due to less precise motions.
3. May or not require supporting waste – haulage equipment.
4. Are normally used for handling unconsolidated and softer material, but larger
units can handle blasted rock.

Scrapers

1. Have excellent mobility

2. They are limited to fairly soft and easily broken material for production.
3. Usually require pushers to assist to assist in loading.

Bucket wheel excavators

1. They are operated under very rigidly engineered conditions.

 2. Have very high capital costs
3. They are limited to fairy easy digging.
4. They are capable of high production rates
5. Require auxiliary disposal system

HAULAGE EQUIPMENT

Bull dozers:

They are economically limited to a fairly short operating radius of about 15 m.

Scrapers
1. Require good roads to minimize tire costs.
2. They are fast but economically limited to un operating radius

Trucks
1. Require good roads to minimize tire costs.
2. Can negotiate steep ramps
3. Usually are limited by economics to an operating radius.
4. Are very flexible
5. Can handle coarse, block material
Trains

1. Are high volume long distance low unit- cost carriers

2. Tract requires careful conformity to engineering specifications.
3. Have a high initial costs

Conveyors
1. They are high volume long distance low unit- cost carriers
2. They are difficult and costly to move
3. Have a high initial capital cost
4. Require material broken into fairly small pieces for good belt life.
5. High maintenance cost