Agriculture and Forestry Notes by Ayesha Younas

NOTES
Agriculture & Forestry

Research Topics Only
Ayesha Younas
12/2/2015
This document is compiled from numerous articles and research papers. Some of the references are
mentioned. I hope you make the best use of this hard work. Wish you all Best of Luck!
Compiled by Ayesha Younas
AGRICULTURE & FORESTRY (100 MARKS)
Part-I: Agriculture (50 marks)
I. Concept of Integrated Agriculture: Components of natural resources as bases for agriculture production (Land, Water,
biological, Environmental, Solar, Energy)
II. Challenges in Pakistan’s Agriculture: Present scenario and future prospects. Analytical overview: issues and strategies for
improvement of crop management, livestock management, fisheries, cottage industry, resource management and rural
development. Institutions and policies: issues and options.
III. Elements of Climate and their Relationship with Crop Growth: Farming Systems, biological nitrogen fixation, soil profile,
structure and texture, soil fertility, soil erosion and conservation, water logging and salinity
IV. Genetic Improvement for Crop Production: GMO crops, Seed production technology.
V. Horticulture: Floriculture, landscaping, pests and diseases of agriculture crops and their control, integrated pest
management.
VI. Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture: Agriculture mechanization, land tenure and land reforms, role of agriculture in national
economy.
Part-II Forestry = (50 Marks)
I. Forest, rangelands and wildlife importance and significance
II. Forest management and utilization, wood based industries in Pakistan, silvi-culture
III. Range management and utilization
IV. National and international forest wealth statistics
V. Role of wildlife as value addition to forestry
VI. Forest based wildlife resources of Pakistan and their management, eco-tourism
VII. Forestry, agroforestry, social forestry and forest biometrics
VIII. Socio-economic and ecological impact of man-made forests
IX. Watershed Management and role of forests in prevailing climate change dilemma
X. National forest laws and policies at national level, biodiversity & environment

Part 1 Chapter 2: Challenges in Pakistan’s Agriculture
1) Introduction
I. Agriculture is the largest sector in the Pakistan economy and accounts for 24% of gross domestic product
(GDP). Government figures show that average growth in the sector during the past five years has been 4.6%
per annum and, in 1998, a growth rate of 5.9% was a major contributor to the overall GDP growth rate of
5.4%.
II. Approximately 70% of Pakistan's foreign exchange earnings come from the sale of agricultural products
(such as cotton, rice, fruits and vegetables etc) and this has stimulated demand for the provision of raw
materials, equipment (mostly second hand) and services to agro-based industries, mainly in the cotton
textile industry which is the largest industrial sub-sector in the country.
III. The sector is also the largest source of employment and accounts for over 50% of Pakistan's labour force -
nearly 2 million new jobs have been added since 1995 of which 70% are estimated to be in rural areas.
2) Present Scenario (General Overview)
I. The present and previous Government from time to time has introduced a range of incentives to enable
farmers to boost production and increase output by allowing Foreign Direct Investment in the agricultural
sector. New targets have been set for different crops for the year 2000-2001 with special emphasis on
cotton crop which is estimated at 9.7 million bales of cotton, 51. 6 million tonnes of sugarcane, 5.1 million
tonnes of rice, 1.5 million tonnes of maize and 22 million tonnes of wheat during the said period.
II. In the foreign trade, it is agriculture, which dominates through exports of raw commodities like rice, cotton
and fruits, semi processed and processed products like cotton yarn, cloth, carpets and leather products. Of
the total export earnings of Rs 387.2 billion in 1998 - 99, the earnings from export of rice and cotton alone
amounted to Rs 26.3 billion or 7 percent of the total exports.
III. Import of agricultural commodities contributes substantially to total Pakistan imports. The major
agricultural import categories are edible oils and grains, pulses and tea. During 1998 - 99, the value of the
former category is made up of about 73 percent palm oil and the remainder is mostly soybean oil. The latter
category is made up of over 85 percent wheat imports. Together, these two import categories represents
13.5 percent of the total imports. However, expected wheat production targets (19.5 million tonnes) in FY
99 - 00 was surpassed and the country for the first time exported US $ 250 million worth wheat.
IV. Agricultural Policy: The agricultural sector is highly politicised because the majority of landowners have had
considerable political influence. This has resulted in agricultural policy being steered towards supporting the
production of major cash crops such as sugarcane, and exempting almost all agricultural income from taxes.
However, following recent discussions with the IMF and World Bank on revenue collection in general, the
present government is in the process of re-structuring the system to try and increase agricultural taxation.
In addition, successive governments have extended considerable support to the sector by providing
concessionary financing to farmers for the purchase of agricultural equipment (mainly tractors) and for
building irrigation and drainage systems.
V. Three year Strategy: The Ministry of Agriculture is preparing a new three-year strategy. This will focus on
the enhanced productivity of export oriented crops and ensure better marketing of exportable crops to get
maximum prices of the produce. The new strategy will envisages to improve the performance of the
agriculture sector including
i. Higher growth rate of agriculture as compared to population growth
ii. Food security and self-reliance in food crops
iii. Enhancing the productivity of wheat, rice, oil seeds, cotton and sugarcane
iv. Land and water development for a sustained agricultural growth
v. Farm input supplies supported by appropriate technology to the farmers and at the users' end,
balanced emphasis on all aspects of agricultural production including livestock, fisheries and
forestry
vi. Improving marketing of agricultural commodities, emphasis on agricultural research to generate
innovative technology including biotechnology for raising per acre yield of land.

vii. Improving the productivity of small farmers while encouraging the large farmers for utilisation of
modern technology.
VI. Corporate Farming:
i. Agriculture Ministry and Small & Medium Enterprise Authority (SMEDA) are preparing a policy
package for Corporate Agriculture Farming (CAF). According to the proposed package, the land to
be used for the purpose of CAF will not be included in any land reforms, undertaken by the
government in future.
ii. A support committee will be created in Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (MINFAL),
comprising officials from the Federal and Provincial Ministries of agriculture, Board of Investment
(BOI), provincial boards of revenue and farmers organisations to launch a campaign for attracting
foreign and domestic investment in the agriculture sector. All the proposals for domestic and
foreign investment for the CAF will be placed before the BOI, which will finalise the case in
consultation with the Agriculture Ministry.
iii. The Provincial Governments shall be tasked to identify lands in blocks greater than 2000 acres,
suitable for large-scale mechanised farming along with the terms and conditions.
iv. The induction of corporate farms will bring modern production technology, access to capital,
direct access to domestic and foreign markets, and professional management expertise. It will also
generate opportunities for the inputs industry, as the corporate farms will act as large consumers
of farm inputs. On the marketing side, these farms will generally undertake the processing and
grading and supply of raw material to agro industry.
VII. Main Crops
i. Four crops dominate agricultural production: wheat, cotton, sugar cane and rice. They account for
around 39% of total agricultural output and nearly 10% of GDP. This is despite the fact that crop
yields in Pakistan are generally low compared to international standards. For example, wheat
yields are only 75% of international standards, while rice yields are approximately 66%.
ii. Cotton - Pakistan is one of the largest cotton producing and exporting countries in the world.
Cotton and cotton related products make up 34% of Pakistan's total exports. Cotton is used in the
upstream spinning, weaving and textile garments industries, which employ the bulk of the
industrial labour force.
iii. Wheat - Wheat is Pakistan's largest food grain crop, and accounts for a large proportion of the
total area under cultivation. The majority of wheat is grown in the Punjab. Despite increased
fertiliser usage and the government's drive towards self-sufficiency, local demand continues to
outstrip supply, except for the year 1999 - 2000 when wheat production was 21.1 million tons as
against 17.9 million tones in 1998 - 99. The increase in wheat production was mainly due to
increase in area by 2% and yield 15%. Factors responsible for this increase are:
1. Increase in support price of wheat by Rs 60 per 40 kg
2. Increased use of fertiliser by 9.5%
3. Improvement of seed supply
4. Favourable weather
5. Provision of training to farmers in wheat production technology
iv. Rice - Pakistan grows enough high quality rice to meet both domestic demand and allow for
exports of around one million tonnes per annum. Two varieties of rice dominate the market:
basmati, which is grown mainly in the Punjab and irri, which is grown mainly in the Punjab and
Sindh. Basmati accounts for around 2% of exports and is of a higher quality than irri. Quantities of
irri are exported to Bangladesh and Africa. Production of rice during 1999 - 2000 was 5156
thousands tonnes, which is 10.3 percent higher than 1998 - 1999 as a result of increase in the
area, better yield, favourable climatic conditions and less attack of insects, pests / diseases, on the
crop during the year. It was cultivated on an area of 2515 thousand hectares, which was 3.7
percent higher as compared to 1998 - 99. The yield per hectare was also higher by 6.3 percent.
However due to the less rains this year government is discouraging the rice cultivation and instead
encouraging the farmers to grow cotton which consumes less water.

v. Sugar cane - Sugar cane is grown in abundance throughout Pakistan and is the major raw material
for the sugar refining and packing industries. Most sugar is produced in the Punjab (57%) and
Sindh (40%). Sugarcane has been cultivated on an area of 1010 thousand hectares during 1999 -
2000, showing a decline of 12.5 percent over 1998 - 1999. The production during 1999 - 2000
remained 46363 thousands tonnes which is lower by almost 16 percent as compered with 1998 -
1999. The yield per hectare has also declined by 3.9 percent. Several factors are responsible for
the sharp decline in sugarcane crop. Firstly, the delay in payments by the sugar mills discouraged
farmers to grow sugarcane. Secondly, sugarcane is an intensive user of water relative to other
crops. The abolition of flat rates of electric tube-wells by the Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) in Punjab also created water constraints. The Government with its policy to
cope up with the problem of water scarcity is encouraging farmers to grow cotton instead of
sugarcane.
VIII. Mechanisation: Mechanisation of agriculture has played an important role in increasing agricultural
production. The policy has been framed to accelerate the pace of agricultural mechanisation in the country.
The sale of tractors for the period July - March 1999 - 2000 is reported as 26313 or 47.1 percent higher than
17882 tractors delivered during the same period last year. The increase in sale is largely attributed to the
availability of agricultural credit (by ADBP) and ensuring of tractor pricing within the affordable limits of
farmers. Messy Ferguson (UK) in Joint Venture with "Millat Tractor" are producing tractors to meet the local
demand. ADBP allocated funds to the tune of Rs 7000 million for tractor financing during the year 1999 -
2000. Furthermore, a sum of Rs 4510 million was disbursed during 1998-99 for purchase of 16,951 tractors
of various makes, including 2,562 tractors under Punjab Government subsidy and 791 tractors under
Federal Government subsidy for Balochistan.
IX. Characteristics of Market: Government of Pakistan has identified agriculture as one of the priority sector
productive for domestic and foreign investment. Recent developments include the import of agricultural
machinery at concessional customs duty for non-corporate agriculture. Pakistan faces major difficulties with
crop yields and over use of pesticides when compared to other agricultural centres in the region. This is
compounded by dated infrastructure and farming techniques that have not changed for decades and a lack
of adequate irrigation and cold storage facilities.
3) Importance for the uplift of economy
I. Increase in Per Capita Income
II. Major Source of Employment
III. Reduction in Poverty
IV. Supply of Food
V. Source of Forex Earning
VI. Supply of Surplus Labour
VII. Source of National Income
VIII. Supply of Raw Material
IX. Development of Industrial Sector
X. Balance of Payment Position
XI. Improvement in Living Standard
XII. Extension in Market Size
XIII. Capital Formation
XIV. Increase in Investment
XV. Economic Development
XVI. Self Reliance Policy
XVII. Direct Foreign Investment
XVIII. Controlling Inflation
XIX. Reduction in Regional Disparities
XX. Demand for Industrial Goods
XXI. Balanced Growth Economy
XXII. Increase in Govt. Revenue

4) Crop Management
I. Issues: TECHNO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Limited Cultivable Area: The total area of Pakistan is about 79.6 million hectares, out of which
only 23.7 million hectares (28%) area is used for agricultural purposes. About 8 million hectares
area is idle and un-utilized. There is vast sub-division and fragmentation of land holdings, as a
result modern technology cannot be applied in agriculture sector.
ii. Water Logging and Salinity: Water logging and salinity are twin problems of agricultural sector
due to salinity, deposits of salt in land have appeared on the surface of land and they have
adversely affected the performance of agricultural sector. Water logging and salinity affect about
0.10 million acre of land in every year. It is not only waste of land but also reduction in
productivity.
iii. Slow Growth of Allied Products: Allied products refer to those productions, which are not
agricultural but indirectly, help the farmer to improve his living standard. Pakistan is in-sufficient
in the production of fruits, milk, poultry, fisheries, livestock and forestry. As a result not only our
food quality is poor but also industries such as furniture, textiles and dairy cannot be developed.
iv. Low Per Hectare Yield: The most important problem of agriculture is its low yield per hectare for
almost every major crop. 45.0% of labour force is engaged in this sector in Pakistan while it is less
than 5% in developed countries. But, other countries of world are getting higher yield per hectare
due to use of modern technology and trained labour.
v. Inadequate Infrastructure: Rural infrastructure like, roads, storage facilities, transport, electricity,
education, sanitation and health facilities etc. is inadequate to meet the requirement of growth of
agriculture. Total length of farm-to-market road is not only shorter but their condition is also
poor. Many villages have no metal-led road at all. Electricity is available to only 3/4 rural
populations.
vi. Uneconomic Land Holdings: Due to increasing population and division of land under the law of
inheritance, landholdings are subdivided over and over again. The result is that very large number
of farmers has less than 2 hectares of area. Moreover holdings are scattered. It is difficult to use
modern machinery on small pieces of land.
vii. Old Methods of Production: No doubt, mechanization of agriculture is increasing in Pakistan, but
in most of the areas, the old implements are still being used for agricultural production. Old and
orthodox techniques of production cannot increase the production according to international
levels.
viii. Inadequate Supply of Agricultural Inputs: The supply of modern inputs like high yielding variety
(HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, mechanized machinery etc. not only costly but also
inadequate and irregular in Pakistan. Numbers of fertilizer producing units are just 10 in Pakistan.
ix. Lack of Irrigation Facilities: Shortage of irrigation facilities causes a serious limitation in the
expansion of crop area in Pakistan. The lower water supplies, loses from water course in the fields
are the serious problems of farm sector. Actual surface water availability is 91.8 million acre feet.
x. Inadequate Agricultural Research: The average crop yield in Pakistan is very low as compared to
the production levels of the advanced countries of the world. In order to raise the potential of
agricultural production, there should be continuous improvement in the research for agricultural
growth. Total agricultural universities and colleges are only 16 in Pakistan.
xi. Problem of Land Reforms: Land reforms have been implemented against the will of people. There
is an urgent need to conduct a proper land reform for improving agricultural growth. Due to this
problem agricultural production cannot increase to desired level.
xii. Defective Land Tenure System: Defective land tenure system is also responsible for low yield per
acre in agricultural sector. Landlords and feudal-lords live in posh urban areas while tenants and
peasants have no or less incentive for their hard work. So, the productivity in agricultural sector
remains low.
xiii. Subsistence Farming: Our farmer is attached with subsistence farming; a huge of portion of
production is consumed at farmer’s own house to support large family. Hence, less portion of the

production is available for market supply. It causes low income of the farmers. Farming is not
conducted at commercial level in Pakistan.
xiv. Low Cropping Intensity: Cropping intensity means the number of crops grown on a piece of land
in one year. At the present stage of our development, there is low level of cropping intensity as
compared to advanced countries. Cultivable area under double or multiple cropping is inadequate
in Pakistan.
xv. Improper Crop Rotation: Proper turning round of crops is essential to re-establish the fertility of
the land. The constant cultivation of one crop or two; exhausts the fertility of the soil. Proper
rotation of crops is necessary in order to restore the fertility.
II. Issues: NATURAL PROBLEMS
i. Various Plant Diseases: Various agricultural crops like cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, wheat and rice
often come under attack of pests and insects. Pests and plant diseases reduce the annual
productivity of agriculture.
ii. Natural Calamities: Labour is in the hand of mankind but its result is in the hands of ALLAH in
agriculture sector. So, growth of agriculture is dominated by nature. In case if there is too much
rain, reduction in the productivity. There is 20% reduction in productivity due to unnecessary rain
and unfavourable climatic situations in Pakistan.
iii. Scarcity of HYV Seeds: Our poor farmers have to use lower quality seeds due to non-availability of
High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds. On the other hand, if seed is available they cannot be
purchased due to low income. Agricultural production is badly affected because of inferior quality
of seeds.
iv. Under Utilization of Land: Mostly poor population is attached with agricultural sector in Pakistan.
They are using orthodox and traditional means of cultivation. Our farmer is not interested to use
the advanced and modern means of farming, as a result area under cultivation remains under
utilized, un-utilized or mis-utilized.
III. Issues: SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Consumption Oriented: Our farmers have no proper records of their incomes and expenses.
Mostly, they spend more when they have more due to illiteracy. A huge part of the farmer’s
income is consumed on occasions of marriage, birth, death and several other rural ceremonies
and festivals in Pakistan.
ii. Farmer’s Litigation: There are frequent and continuous litigations among the farmers directly or
indirectly. They are often seen in courts, police stations, irrigation offices, revenue boards and
other official problems. Due to mentioned problems, our farmer cannot devote his time, energy,
efficiency and labour to agricultural productions.
iii. Joint Family System: Joint family system is also a big problem in agricultural sector. Our farmer is
poor; on the other hand he has to support his big family. It creates deficiency in saving and
investment. A huge part of farmer’s productivity is consumed at his own house.
iv. Illiteracy and Ill-health: Most of the farmers, labourers and tenants in our country are illiterate.
They are untrained and inefficient to boost up the agricultural productivity. On the other side, the
health of our farmers is improper due to rural backwardness. Literacy rate is only 57.7 % in
Pakistan. Economic Survey of Pakistan shows that literacy remains higher in urban areas (73.2
percent) than in rural areas (49.2 percent).
v. Political Instability: Political instability has affected development in all economic and social
sectors. Unfortunately, the political situations in Pakistan are not stable. It creates unrest among
the farmers to sell the productions to various industries as a raw material. On the other hand,
people hesitate to invest in agricultural sector due to political unrest.
IV. Issues: FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
i. Lack of Credit: Basically our farmer is poor and he has low level of income. Agricultural credit
facilities are not common in Pakistan. Credit that can facilitate agriculture is not available easily.
Moreover non-institutional sources are available but these are not reliable due to high rate of
interest. About 50.8% poor borrow from landlords in Pakistan.

ii. Poor Financial Position of Farmers: It is a common saying about our farmer that he borns in
debts, grows in debts and dies in debts. It means that financial position of Pakistani farmer is weak
and poor. According to “Pakistan Human Development Report 2003” about 57.4% poor are
working for feudal-lords without wages.
iii. Instability in Market Prices: The price market of agricultural goods generally remains unstable in
the country. Cobweb theorem is very popular in case of market prices; it means that a price of one
commodity is much high in this year and much low in the next year and vice versa. The farmers,
do not get due reward from the sale of their productions. So, they remain unsatisfied.
iv. Shortage of Agricultural Finance: Agricultural credit facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan. Rate of
interest on agricultural credit is high and loan is not provided in time. According to “Pakistan
Human Development Report 2003” in Pakistan about 50.8% poor borrow from landlords at very
high rate of interest.
V. Strategies for improvement:
i. Government policies for Short term and long term:
ii. Supply of Agriculture Credit: Poor farmers cannot afford the expensive technology from their own
resources in Pakistan. So, supply of agriculture credit at easy terms and conditions is very
necessary. An amount of Rs. 85,177 million is disbursed by commercial banks in 2009 and Rs. 49
billion was distributed by ZTBL. ZTBL issued credit or Rs. 37.4 billions during 2010-11.
iii. Water Logging and Salinity Control: Water logging and salinity destroys about one million acre of
land every year in Punjab and Sindh. It reduces our cultivable area. For this purpose, installation of
tube wells, repair of canal banks and drainage of water etc. are needed. The Ministry of
Agriculture proposed to invest Rs. 18.5 billion with the objective of converting 2,00,000 acres of
irrigated land to drip and shower irrigation system.
iv. Construction of Dams: Sometimes, due to heavy unwanted rains and floods agricultural
productivities destroys. To tackle this problem it is necessary to construct dames and bands on
rivers.
v. Provision of HYV Seed: High yielding variety seed is not available at suitable price in Pakistan. So,
farmers have to depend upon low quality of seeds that causes 20% reduction in total production.
Government should provide HYV seed at minimum price in this case.
vi. Mechanization: Farm mechanization is necessary to remove the problems to agriculture sector.
Sowing, cultivation and harvesting of crops through agricultural machines increase the productive
quality and quantity.
vii. Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is compulsory to remove the backwardness of
agriculture sector. Major agricultural colleges and universities are only about 16 in Pakistan.
Government should increase the research work in the field of agriculture.
viii. Agro-based Industries: Agro-based industries like poultry, fisheries, dairy and livestock should
establish. These industries indirectly lead to improve the agricultural sector.
ix. Tax Concessions: Mechanization is necessary to remove the problems of agriculture sector.
Government should give tax concession on imports of agricultural technologies to enhance the
process of farm mechanization.
x. Training of Farmers: Our farmers are illiterate and ill trained so, their efficiencies are poor.
Government should start special education programme for farmers and give them training about
farming.
xi. Prices of Agricultural Productivities: Sometimes, our farmers receive low prices of their crops.
There is no proper effective price policy of government. Government should set reasonable prices
of agricultural productions to develop the living standard of farmers.
5) Livestock Management
I. Status:
i. Livestock is an important sector of agriculture and occupies a unique position in the National
Agenda of the economic development of the present government. The sector meets the domestic
demand of milk, meat and eggs.

ii. It also provides net source of foreign earnings. More than 8.0 million rural families are involved in
raising livestock. It is central to the livelihood of the rural poor in the country and can play an
important role in poverty alleviation and can uplift the socioeconomic conditions of our rural
masses.
iii. Livestock contributed to agriculture value added stood at 56.3 percent while it contributes 11.8
percent to the national GDP during 2014-15 compared to 55.6 percent and 11.8 percent during
the same period last year, respectively. Gross value addition of livestock has increased from Rs.
778.3 billion (2013-14) to Rs. 801.3 billion (2014-15), recorded an increase of 3.0 percent as
compared to previous year.
iv. The major products of livestock are milk and meat which for the last three years
v. The population growth, urbanization, increases in per capita income and export opportunities are
few of the main factors to fuel the demand of livestock and livestock products in the country. The
overall livestock development strategy revolves to foster "private sector-led development with
public sector providing enabling environment through policy interventions and play capacity
building role to improve livestock husbandry practices". The emphasis will be on improving per
unit animal productivity and moving from subsistence to market oriented and then commercial
livestock farming in the country to meet the domestic demand and surplus for export. The
objective is to use livestock sector as engine for economic growth and food security for the
country and further leading to rural socioeconomic uplift.
vi. Government Policy Measure: Livestock Wing with its redefined role under 18th Constitutional
Amendment continued regulatory measures that included allowing import of high yielding
animals, semen and embryos for the genetic improvement of indigenous dairy animals, allowing
import of high quality feed stuff/micro ingredients for improving the nutritional quality of animal
& poultry feed and allowing duty free import of veterinary, dairy and livestock machinery /
equipment in order to encourage establishment of value added industry in the country. Livestock
insurance scheme for farmers having 10 animals or more have been introduced during 2014-15.
Zero rating on processed valued added chicken products has been withdrawn. Livestock Wing also
provided facilitation for export of red meat. A total of 49.5 thousand tons of red meat was
exported from July-March 2014-15. The export of meat fetched US$ 145.6 million. This meat was
exported from 29 private sector slaughterhouses. During same period export facilitation was also
provided for livestock by- products like animal casing, bones, horns and hooves, gelatin. Efforts
are on way to access new markets like Russia, China, South Africa, and Indonesia for export of our
meat and meat products.
II. Issues
i. Nutrition: Adequate nutrition is a major problem in livestock production in Pakistan. Without
providing the required nutrition for the animal the genetic potential cannot be exploited. It is yet
to be decided that how much nutrients our animals need to express their full genetic potential of
productivity. To develop feeding standards of buffaloes, cattle, sheep and goat, no serious effort
have been made. It is difficult for extension workers to recommend accurately to livestock farmers
that what standard he has to follow to feed his cow for cost-effective milk and meat production.
Some advancement has been made in this regard however there is a lot need to do for revolution
in animal nutrition. The availability of green fodder is not sufficient.
ii. Health: Livestock health is a limiting factor to productivity. A major problem is the lack of proper
knowledge and awareness about the productive benefits of disease control. Those farmers, who
are aware of the benefits, have limited access to appropriate vaccines and therapeutic drugs.
Animal production systems are affected by different types of diseases with varying capacity like
mastitis, foot and mouth, helminthosis, parasites and tick-borne are most important regarding
animal productivity. In short the diseases seriously affect productivity and profitability.
Vaccination and treatment for the animals was usually ignored by farmers which fallout to huge
losses regarding productivity and the number of heads. Farmers use to practise traditional
methods for animal care which exacerbate the problems for animal health. Lack of diagnosis of

diseases is a major factor in low productivity. In Pakistan, quacks are very active in curing animals
in the rural areas. These non-technical persons often treat animals with hit and trial methods
which some time cause even death of the animal.
iii. Animal Productivity/Genetic Potential: Pakistan has bred with low genetic potential Sire (bull). The
breed with best potential such as Sahiwal cow and Nili-Ravi buffalo are rarely found on the farms
of small and medium farmers who contribute a bigger share of heads. These pure breeds are in
fact in danger. There is need to save and exploit the genetic potential of the high yielding breeds.
It is common observation that there is a tendency among farmers to cross the animals by
imported semen. This practice is a big threat to our local and potential breeds. It is interesting to
say that Australia had demanded the 100 pure Sahiwal breed and Pakistan could not provide. It
shows that the country is being lost to the breed.
iv. Lack of Livestock Credit: To establish the modern livestock farms, it needs huge capital. Unlike
crop sector, livestock sector required more investment. The absence of credit disbursement to
small and medium-scale farmers the involvement of poor farmers in the commercialization of
livestock production is restricted.
v. Deprived livestock extension activities: Livestock extension wing in the country is inadequately
performing and partial toward large farmers tending to neglect poor rural livestock-keepers.
Public sector follows a top-down transfer of technology approach. It is now universally accepted
that this approach is not result oriented instead bottom up approach should be adopted in which
the participation of the livestock farmers should be ensured. In extension programs, only large
ruminants are focused and the other species are almost excluded which need to be addressed.
The extension services are concentrated in the areas where potential for livestock is high. The
services should be evenly provided to the farmers, and neglected areas in fact deserve more. The
extension messages are not frequently disseminated through print and electronic media. There is
a dire need to educate the farmers as without educating there the dream of high productivity
cannot be realized.
vi. Poor Marketing System: Proper marketing system encourages the animal productivity. Poor
marketing system is also a noteworthy limitation in the animal productivity. The private sector has
organized the farmers’ association for their own interest. These associations collect milk for the
organizations. Regarding marketing farmers are at the mercy of milkmen and commission agents
(middle man). These market players utilize the poor farmers. There should be a systematic
marketing system which could ensure the profit share of the farmers.
III. Strategies for improvement:
i. Improving the genetic potential of native livestock through selection, crossbreeding and Artificial
insemination.
ii. Quality of poor fodders and straws can be improved with treatment of urea and molasses. The
urea is an economical source of nitrogen while molasses offer ample energy to the ruminants.
iii. Good, economical, efficient and flexible housing strategies should be developed through animal
production experts or any other feasible and sustainable sources.
iv. Enforcement of vaccination schedules beside proper and timely veterinary cover.
v. Control of ecto and endo-parasites through proper dipping and drenching with suitable chemicals.
Response of proper feeding and improved nutritional management is much lower if animals are
infested with the parasites.
vi. Upgrading of breed potential and high-quality management will increase conception rate, growth
rate, and milk yield and diminish calving interval.
vii. Price stability in livestock production is a must for avoiding great seasonal fluctuations.
Implementation of sound policies can bring the livestock economy to a great assurance.
viii. Preservation of spare milk in winter by converting it into powder and saving massive amounts of
foreign exchange being spent on the import of dry milk.

ix. Replacing draught animals to beef route through fattening and finishing programs. A feedlot
system for cattle, male buffalo calves, sheep, goats and other culled animals should be
encouraged.
x. Proper pricing system is also the need of the hour. Meat grading, preservation and suitable
marketing are required.
xi. Commercial producers should be encouraged by providing incentives and services.
xii. Manure should be handled properly along with its preservation, timely application for increasing
soil fertility and keeping pollution under control.
6) Fisheries
I. Status:
i. Fishery plays an important role in Pakistan’s economy and is considered to be a source of
livelihood for the coastal inhabitants. A part from marine fisheries, inland fisheries (based in
rivers, lakes, ponds, dams etc.) is also very important activity throughout the country. Fisheries
share in GDP although very little but it adds substantially to the national income through export
earnings.
ii. During 2014-15 (July-March), total marine and inland fish production was estimated 499,000 m.
tonnes out of which 365,000 m. tonnes was marine production and the remaining catch came
from inland waters. Whereas the production for the period 2013-14 (July-March), was estimated
to be 494,000 m. tons in which 345,000 m. tons was for marine and the remaining was produced
by inland fishery sector.
iii. Pakistan’s major buyers are China, Thailand, Malaysia, Middle East, Sri Lanka, Japan, etc. During
2014-15 (July-March), a total of 100,321 m.tonnes of fish and fishery products were exported
earning US$ 253.625 million. Whereas the export for 2013-14 (July-March), was 102,967 m.tonnes
of fish and fishery products were exported earning US$ 254.728 million. The export of fish &
fishery products has been decreased by 2.57 percent in quantity and in value have been
decreased by 0.43 percent during 2014-15 (July-March).
iv. Government of Pakistan is taking a number of steps to improve fisheries sector which includes
inter alia strengthening of extension services, introduction of new fishing methodologies,
development of value added products, enhancement of per capita consumption of fish, up-
gradation of socio-economic conditions of the fishermen’s community.
v. Biological and Hydrological Research: During July-March 2014-15, sample of seawater collected
from coastal areas were analyzed to determine parameters which affect fish distribution. Fish
samples of different species were examined for study of length-weight relationship, sex ratio,
maturity, food and feeding habit and fecundity etc. Monitoring for fish landing to determine stock
position was also carried out at Karachi Fish Harbour.
vi. Quality Control Services: Marine Fisheries Department is responsible to regulate quality and
promote export of fish and fishery products and to prevent export of substandard quality of
seafood products and for matters connected therewith and ancillary thereto. During July-March
2014-15, the Quality Control Section of MFD has issued 12,555 certificates of Quality & Origin and
health for seafood commodities exported from Pakistan.
vii. Accreditation of Quality Control Laboratories Under ISO / IEC-17025 International Standards:
Two (02) laboratories (namely Microbiology and Chemical) of MFD achieved international
accreditation under ISO / IEC -17025 international standards. Thus the MFD has fulfilled the
requirements of EU and other importing countries and now, the test reports issued by these
laboratories are acceptable all over the world.
viii. Extension in Accreditation of Testing Laboratories: The Biochemical laboratory of MFD is planned
for achievements of accreditation under ISO/17025 International Standards.
ix. Marine fisheries in Pakistan is being carried out on two distinct grounds i.e. coastline covering
Mekran (Balochistan) as well as the coast of Karachi (Sindh). Sindh and Balochistan coasts
comprise of many widely dispersed, small landing places utilized by small craft equipped with sails
and/or outboard engines. The marine fish are marketed as fresh, freezing, canning for local

consumption. Karachi and Mekran being the most important fishing ports are being developed by
the Government of Pakistan as a fishing centre.
x. Inland fisheries are getting much popularity. Some inland resources include small rivers, dams
(Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma), lakes (Haleji, Keenjhar and Manchhar), barrages, reservoirs,
ponds and canals.
xi. The major marine harbors of Pakistan are:
1. Karachi Fish Harbor handles about 90% of fish and seafood catch in Pakistan and 95% of
fish and seafood exports from Pakistan.
2. Karachi Fisheries Harbor is being operated by Provincial Government of Sindh.
3. Korangi Fish Harbor is being managed by Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Livestock.
4. Pasni Fish Harbor being operated by Provincial Government of Balochistan.
5. Gwadar Fish Harbor being operated by Federal Ministry of Communication.
xii. Aquaculture: In Pakistan farming of different kinds of fishes is practiced in the Punjab, North West
Frontier and Sindh provinces but on limited scale. Aquaculture is receiving increasing attention as
it appears to have a good profit potential for small and medium sized investors. Government has
established several fish hatcheries and training facilities for fish farmers.
xiii. Fish Marketplace: Pakistan has a domestic and an international market for fish, shrimps and fish
products.
xiv. Domestic Market: At domestic level the catch from marine fisheries is supplied to the local fish
markets. Frozen or processed fish is supplied to only a few large departmental stores in some
cities.
xv. International Market: At international level Pakistan has a market for fish and fish products.
Pakistan exports reasonable quantity of shrimp, fish and its products and earns a substantial
amount of foreign exchange. Fish and fish products are processed and exported to many
countries, European Countries being at the top. Major markets for export are: Canada,USA
Denmark , Japan, Holland, Norway, Iceland, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore Malaysia, Gulf
xvi. The organizations that are part of different projects or research and development for industry,
fisheries and aquaculture are:
1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) – Fisheries Department
2. The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) is carrying out the research of the
industry.
3. Aquaculture Technologies Pakistan
4. Many universities are also involved for research and development of the industry.
II. Issues
III. Strategies for improvement
7) Cottage Industry
I. Status
i. Surgical manufacturers. This type of business requires stainless steel which can only acquired
through imports. However, its end product is exported. The Lahore and Sialkot cater to surgical
manufacturers.
ii. Metalworking. In Peshawar area of Pakistan metalworking is done, it is famous for copper and
brass. The items produced include tins, trays, cans, plants.
iii. Ceramics. Ceramic painting and manufacturing is a famous cottage industry of Pakistan. A well
known example of ceramic painting is Pakistani piggy banks called “ Gallas”. Children use “Gallas”
to save their money. Gujrat, Bahawalpur, and Rawalpindi are areas where ceramic manufacturing
is aesthetically done. The items usually produced are crockery items like pots, mugs, cups and
more.
iv. Jewelers. The level of perfection with which the jewellery is manufactured in the cottage industry
is to be praised, albeit, they are hand made but the perfection with which it is made makes it
commendable.

v. Textiles. The intelligence of report of ‘ECONOMIST’ in August 2003 claims,” Despite Government
efforts to diversify exports and widen the industrial base, the industrial sector remains dominated
by the Textile sector. Textile Sector still represents 46% of total manufacturing and provides 68%
of Pakistan’s Export receipts”. The items produced through textile industry of Pakistan include
Chiffon, Georgette, Lawn, Linen, Silk, and Taffeta.
vi. Carpets & Rugs. The Quetta is known for selling the best rugs in the country. The customers can
get Moroccan rugs, Persian rugs, Turkish rugs, Afghani rugs, and Russian rugs. These carpets and
rugs have hand-knotted materials which have a demand globally.
vii. The President of ICCI claimed that Cottage industry has provided employment to almost 80% of
industrial workers.
II. Issues
i.
Lack of Finance :The cottage and small scale industry is facing the problem of capital shortage. The
financial institutions are not ready to provide the credit on low rate of interest. It is an obstacle in
the ways of small scale industry development.
ii. Competition : There is a stiff competition between the large scale industry and small scale industry
and usually small scale industry suffers a loss.
iii. Import Policy : The import [policy of the government is also not favorable for the small scale
industry. It discourages the small scale industry.
iv. Smuggling : Smuggling of large scale consumer goods from Russia, Iran and Singapore has also
discouraged the small scale industry.
v. Problem of Raw Material : The owner of the small scale industry can not get enough raw material
what he wants. Poor quality of raw material is provided on higher prices to the small industry.
vi. Old Methods of Production : Small industries use old machines and old methods of production.
Due to this the quality of small scale industries product is very poor. So they are helpless to sell
the product at low rate.
vii. Lack of Marketing Facility : The marketing facilities are inadequate in the country. The small and
cottage industries are selling their product at the low prices in the hands of middleman. Even they
can not advertise their product on T.V because they have not sufficient capital for this purpose.
viii. Lack of Qualified Staff : The cottage industries can not employ the qualified engineers and
economists. It reduces the quality of product.
ix. Shortage of Electricity : There are a large number of villages where electricity is no available. The
non availability of electricity is an obstacle in the way of small scale industries.
x. Breakdown of Electricity : The regular break down of electricity has also affected the production of
small scale industry adversely. Prices of electricity are also rising day by day. Higher prices has
increased the cost of production.
xi. Lack of Standardization : The mixing of good and bad product creates problems of marketing
inside and outside the country. The product is not standardized.
xii. High Cost of Production : The mostly cost of cottage industry is very high. Because the process of
production is very slow and raw material is also bought at higher prices. Rates of electricity
charges are also increasing.
xiii. Entrepreneur is Uneducated : Mostly cottage industries are owned managed and controlled by
literate people. They follow the old methods and production remains very low.
xiv. Lack of Roads and Transport Facilities : There is a lack of roads, transport, water supply, electricity
and telephone facilities for the small scale industry. When infrastructure will not be available how
those can flourish.
xv. Lack of Storage Facilities : The small scale industry in particularly in villages is lacking storage
facilities. A huge product is wasted due to the problem.
8) Resource Management and Rural Development
I. Status

i. Rural development is a total process of economic, social and human development. Development
programmes have different connotations in different political and social systems, but common to
all is the need to reduce unemployment, poverty and inequality with the participation of the
masses.
ii. Despite the rhetoric and insistence on local or popular participation in decision making, all
development models had the same “up-down” relationship, but with full government support to
safeguard rural Pakistan from the clutches of stagnation and poverty. The programmes were
expected to raise agricultural productivity, improve marketing infrastructure, provide welfare
services, develop cottage industry and other income/employment generating activities.
iii. These development paradigms improved the rural scene somewhat, but the available
commentaries and statements on the performance of these programmes are highly contradictory.
However, the available information reveals that each programme achieved a limited success with
little tangible benefits to the real clientele.
iv. Since its independence, Pakistan has embarked upon a number of rural and agricultural
development programmes to increase the productivity and quality of life of rural people.
v. These programes were Village Aid Programme, Basic Democracies system, Rural Works
Programme,Integrated Rural Development, Peoples Works Programme, Local Govt. and Rural
Development,Peoples Programme, Tameer-e-Watan, Social Action Programmes, Khushal Pakistan,
Tameer-ePakistan and Khushal Pakistan Programme-1.
vi. These programmes were partially or fully extended to all parts of the country. The overall
objectives of these programmes were the social welfare, improvement in quality of life and
agricultural development. These programmes did not achieve the desired results because the
objectives of one programme conflicted with those of others, and there was no institutional
mechanism for reconciling them.
vii. Consequently, many programmes not only failed to produce the intended benefits, but also
caused harm to other programmes.
viii. Common causes of failure of these programmes were loose and uncoordinated institutional
framework; lack of mutual understanding and collaboration within the nation-building
departments and with the departments of rural development; absence of efforts to help evolve
rural leadership from the grass roots; lack of proper supervision, follow-up, research and
evaluation of projects.
II. Issues
i. Rural development policy always had a heavy bias towards large farmers, whereas small
landholders making more than 90 percent of total farms were ignored along with landless labor
community.
ii. Rigid cropping pattern prevailing in the country results in lack of intensification and diversification
of agriculture sector, thereby increasing unemployment in rural areas.
iii. Natural resource base is deteriorating overtime. Due to inappropriate agricultural practices and
climate change, land degradation is more and land productivity is declining. Almost 40 percent of
land in Sindh alone has turned saline. The rangelands on which 70 percent of local livestock
thrives have been degraded and no rehabilitation plans are in place (Baig and Khan, 2006).
iv. Literacy rate is very low in these areas and illiterate farmers cannot realize the benefits of
modern, scientific and technical know-how in farming business. Moreover, rural areas are
deprived of schools. In case, if schooling facilities are available, then qualified staff is not available.
Basic health care is the prime need of every individual. Unfortunately, this component is totally
ignored by the Govt. Most villages in Pakistan still are lacking in hospitals, dispensaries and other
health centers. According to an estimate 70-80 million people do not have requisite access to
education and health services (Pirzada, 1999).
v. Poor health, malnutrition and high population growth rates are widespread in rural areas, badly
affecting productivity. According to an estimate, 30-50 million people are malnourished (Pirzada,
1999).

vi. Water supply and sanitation condition is not satisfactory in rural areas. Population having access
to safe water is 87 percent and 35 percent of total population has access to sanitation (ADB,
2005).
vii. Appropriate facilities for healthy activities are not available in rural areas. So, the frustrated young
people indulge in obnoxious activities such as drug addiction, rape, robbery, murder, etc.
i. The rural poor (small landholders and landless class) need to participate in the development and
implementation of the relevant policies and programs. It requires institutional and technological
reforms.
ii. For sustainable rural development, conservation and development of natural resources, focusing
on protection of environment and biodiversity must be undertaken.
iii. Strengthening rural institutions in the country can satisfy the thrust for rural development.
iv. There is a need to address the issues of inequality in terms of resources along with the innovation
and adoption of cost saving technologies.
v. There is a strong need to develop and promote agro-based industry in rural areas to create
employment opportunities through private-public interventions. This will definitely help in
reducing the rural urban migration on one hand and rural poverty on the other. It could be
achieved by promoting savings in rural areas, thereby increasing investment opportunities for
overall improvement in the income of the rural communities.
vi. Proper monitoring and evaluation of rural development programmes must be carried out to
ensure successful implementation of programme activities and those who are responsible for not
achieving the results must be accounted for.
vii. Initiatives must be taken to address the problems of public health and education for fast growing
population. This demand for establishment of schools and health facilities on modern lines. Such
facilities would provide productive, healthy and educated labour force to agriculture in particular
and to the economy in general
9) Institutions and Policies
I. General Overview of MAJOR INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING EXTENSION/ADVISORY SERVICES
i. Public Institutions
1. Provincial Directorates General of Extension : In spite of devolution, the Directorate-
General of Agriculture and Applied Research still exists. This office carries out various
duties including advice on agriculture sector to the provincial government,
implementation of provincial projects and maintenance of links with the district
governments for agricultural extension matters. The responsibility for livestock
extension lies with the Veterinary Officers and Veterinary Assistants of the provincial
Livestock and Dairy Department. A Directorate-General for On-Farm Irrigation exists at
provincial level. But like the Directorate-General of Extension, it also provides policy
advice to the provincial government.
2. District level extension organization: Under the District Coordination Officer are a
number of Executive District Officers (EDO), and one of them is for agriculture, called
Executive District Officer for Agriculture (EDOA). The EDOA coordinates agricultural
activities with other departments at district level. Under the EDOA is a District Officer
for Agriculture (DOA) who is also based at district level, and is responsible for overall
agricultural extension work in the particular district. At district level, the Livestock and
Dairy Department has more or less the same structure as the Department of
Agriculture, staffed by District Livestock Officers, Veterinary Officers and Veterinary
Assistants. The Irrigation and On-farm Water Management Directorate provides
extension advice on relevant matters mainly through Water Users Associations. Within
the districts, extension offices are located at the following lower layers of bureaucracy:
3. Tehsil level extension offices: Under the DOA are many Deputy District Officers for
Agriculture (DDOA), based at tehsil level. Their number corresponds with the number of

tehsils in the particular district. The DDOAs handle agricultural extension activities in
their respective tehsils.
4. Markaz level extension offices: Under the DDOA, there are many Agriculture Officers
(AOs) based at markaz level. These numbers correspond with the number of markaz in
the particular tehsil. The AOs are responsible for carrying out agricultural extension
responsibilities in their respective markaz.
5. Union Council level extension offices: Under each AO are several Field Assistants (FA)
based at Union Council level. Their number corresponds with the number of Union
Councils in the particular markaz. The FAs are frontline agricultural extension workers.
Extension advice is provided in the areas of crops, fruit, vegetables, livestock, fisheries,
and marketing. Under each FA are two Beldars who are fieldworkers. They are more
laborers than technical persons, and help the FA in daily agricultural activities.
ii. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) http://www.parc.gov.pk
1. Although PARC is essentially apex agricultural research body, it has a social sciences
wing, which is engaged in policy level activities in marketing and extension. Statutory
functions of PARC are to aid, promote and coordinate agricultural research, expedite
utilization of research results, establish research facilities, train high-level scientific
human resources, generate, acquire and disseminate agricultural information, and
establish a research library. The PARC sets national agricultural research agenda,
maintains national and international coordination and conducts in-house strategic
research on national issues. Pakistan’s national agricultural research system (NARS)
consists of 20 federal research establishments for basic and applied research, 10
provincial research institutes for applied research, 14 agricultural universities and
colleges for basic research, and private agro-industry research organizations for applied
research on pesticides, fertilizers, seed and machinery, and it is PARC which provides
strategic thinking and orientation to the entire NARS.
iii. Number of Key Agricultural Extension Staff in Provinces of Pakistan as in 2011
1. Province/Number of Agriculture Officers/ Number of Field Assistants: Punjab/763/3,264,
Sindh/573/1,026, Balochistan/586/1,016, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa/222/539, Gilgit and
Baltistan/ 180/673: Total/2,324/ 6,518
iv. Public universities
1. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (in Punjab province)
2. Arid Agriculture University (also known as Barani University), Rawalpindi
3. Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam (Sindh province),
4. Agricultural University, Peshawar (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province)
5. All these universities have agricultural extension departments which offer degrees up to
Doctorate. University of Agriculture at Faisalabad is the oldest and largest institution in
Pakistan among agricultural academic institutions. Besides a Directorate of Extension,
the university has six faculties covering disciplines of agriculture, agricultural economics
and rural sociology, agricultural engineering and technology, animal husbandry,
veterinary science, and basic sciences.
v. Non-Public Institutions
1. Private sector
a. Syngenta (sells both pesticides and seed),
b. Fauji Fertilizer Company
c. Lakson Tobacco Company
d. Pioneer Pakistan
e. METRO and MACRO
f. Nestle
g. Seed Association of Pakistan

2. These companies work in most cases with only those farmers who have signed contracts
with them or have informally agreed to follow their instructions in crop production.
They do not charge any fee to their farmers. Motives behind extension support by the
private companies are either to obtain good quality raw materials from growers, and/or
to enhance the sale of companies’ products. Of course, farmers also benefit in many
ways such as gaining technical knowledge and skills and enjoying satisfaction of a
guaranteed market for their harvest at reasonable prices. The extension support by
private companies excludes those farmers who do not join their programs.
3. Subjects of extension advice include plant protection, plant nutrition, introduction of
new and improved varieties, entire crop production cycle (sugarcane covered by sugar
mills; tobacco covered by national and multi-national tobacco companies; maize by seed
and corn-processing companies; oil seed by edible oil processing companies and Oil
Seed Development Board; and milk by national and multi-national companies), and
credit (covered by micro-finance institutions and commercial banks).
4. The companies maintain well-equipped, well-educated, experienced and mobile staff in
the field, and are apparently popular among farmers. Their extension methods include
demonstrations, field days, and visits to individual farmers, farmers’ group meetings,
training of farmers, tours to model farms, phone calls, and published materials. The staff
usually works through progressive farmers who are in most cases large landholders.
vi. Non-governmental organizations
1. National Rural Support Program (NRSP), Islamabad
2. Rural Development Foundation, Islamabad
3. CABI South Asia, Rawalpindi
4. Kashf Foundation, Lahore
5. Plan Pakistan, Islamabad
vii. Farmers-based organizations and cooperatives
1. Pakistan Agriculture & Dairy Farmers Association,
2. Farmers Associates Pakistan
3. Livestock Farmers & Breeders Association
4. Dairy Association of Pakistan
5. Farmers Association of Pakistan
6. Mango Growers Association Pakistan
7. Poultry Farming Association
viii. TRAINING OPTIONS FOR EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS
1. Pre-service education of would-be extension professionals takes place at the agricultural
universities located at Faisalabad, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, and Tandojam (mentioned in a
previous section) which offer academic degrees in a number of agricultural disciplines
including extension. These universities also offer short training courses on regular basis.
2. For the purpose of in-service training, the following institutes are used by agricultural
staff:
a. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Sargodha
b. Barani Agricultural Training Institute, Dahgal, Rawalpindi
c. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Rahim Yar Khan
d. Pak-German Institute of Co-operative Agriculture, Multan
e. Extension Services Management Academy (ESMA), Garhi Dopatta, Azad
Jammu & Kashmir
ix. INFO-MEDIARIES AND INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) FOR
AGRICULTURE AND EXTENSION
1. Pakistan has a National Information and Communication Technology Strategy developed
by the Ministry of Education. It has National ICT R&D Fund established in 2007. The ICT
expenditure (% of GDP) in Pakistan was reported at 4.37 in 2008. Recently, the ICT

sector has been deregulated by the government. In spite of all this, the use of ITC in
support of extension is quite limited. Several cellular phone companies launched
Interactive Voice Response based agricultural services in the Punjab Province but were
discouraged due to lack of revenue. While urban areas have been increasingly adopting
modern ICT, most rural areas are still behind due to low literacy and poor infrastructure
not to mention the absence of electricity and frequent lengthy power outages. In cities
and in some villages especially those close to major cities, the use of the Internet is
becoming common as indicated by the presence of Internet cafes. The cellular phone
though is prevalent in both urban and rural areas. There are hundreds of “call centers”
at private shops in mostly cities but some located in rural areas are also available to the
public for making international telephone calls.
2. According to the World Bank, in 2010, the number of mobile cellular subscriptions (per
100 people) in Pakistan was 57.13. The number of Internet users (per 100 people) in the
country during the same year was 16.78.
3. The Punjab province has a Directorate of Agriculture Information, which has established
a “help line” for farmers. However, its use has been very limited as most farmers are
unaware of this facility. The country has been having radio and television programs for
farmers for several decades. An NGO, Pakistan Social Association (PSA), has started a
project under the title of E-Village with the objective of reaching rural population
through the Internet.
II. Issues
i.
Human Resources Issues
1. Pay structure & career opportunities
2. Research managers selection
3. Training opportunities
ii. Research Efficiency Issues
1. Priority setting
2. Collaboration / Linkage with external agencies
3. Funding for research to action
iii. Functional Issues
1. Funding and funding patterns
2. Facilities and equipments
3. Mobility
III. Options/ Future Prospects
10) Way Forward/General Strategy
I. Government Policies Short Term
II. Government Policies Long Term
i. Federal Authority
ii. Provincial Authority
iii. Division Authority
iv. District Authority
v. Tehsil Authority
11) Conclusion
Part 1: Chapter 4: Genetic Improvement for Crop Production
1) Introduction

I. Biotechnology can be described as any technology that uses living organisms to make or modify a product
for a practical purpose. Some traditional techniques have been used for thousands of years. Natural yeasts,
for instance, have been used to make bread, beer, and wine through a process called fermentation.
II. In the last century, more sophisticated techniques have used other micro-organisms to make antibiotics,
amino acids, vitamins, and other useful products. Modern biotechnology, developed during the past 30
years, usually makes changes to the hereditary material of a living organism by a technique called genetic
engineering or genetic modification.
III. In crop plant breeding, biotechnologies are used to develop plants resistant to pests, diseases, drought,
heat, or cold, as well as to improve the nutritional content of plant food.
2) Genetic Engineering
I. The code which regulates all biological processes is stored in the DNA present in every cell of living
organisms. Only a small share of the DNA in a cell actually makes up genes, which contain coded
information. The cells use this information to produce proteins, the basic building blocks and tools for
running biological processes. An organism's entire set of chromosomes, and thus its entire set of genetic
information, is called the genome.
II. Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional plant breeding half of the
genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas in genetic engineering one or a few specially
selected genes are added to the plant genome.
III. Method of Genetic Engineering: GM crops are made through a process known as genetic engineering.
Genes of commercial interest are transferred from one organism to another. Two primary methods
currently exist for introducing transgenes into plant genomes. The first involves a device called a ‘gene gun.’
The DNA to be introduced into the plant cells is coated onto tiny particles. These particles are then
physically shot onto plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off and is incorporated into the DNA of the
recipient plant. The second method uses a bacterium to introduce the gene(s) of interest into the plant
DNA.
IV. A number of economically valuable characteristics have been introduced into plants by genetic engineering.
Most of the genetically modified crop plants used so far have transgenes that provide resistance to
herbicides or insects. To improve crop production and soil management, research is now exploring how to
increase the variety of transgenic characteristics to include resistance to drought, heat, cold, acid soils, and
heavy metals. These characteristics will increase the range of soils and climates that are able to support
agriculture.
V. A GM or transgenic crop is a plant that has a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the
use of modern biotechnology. For example, a GM crop can contain a gene(s) that has been artificially
inserted instead of the plant acquiring it through pollination.The resulting plant is said to be “genetically
modified” although in reality all crops have been “genetically modified” from their original wild state by
domestication, selection, and controlled breeding over long periods of time.
VI. In 1994, Calgene’s delayed-ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr™) became the first genetically modified food crop to
be produced and consumed in an industrialized country. Since the recorded commercialization of GM crops
in 1996 to 2013, several countries have contributed to 100-fold increase in the global area of transgenic
crops.
VII. The area planted to GM crops shot up from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 175.2 million hectares in 2013,
with an increasing proportion grown by developing countries. In 2013, there were 27 biotech countries, 19
of which growing 50,000 hectares or more, 20 developing countries and 8 industrial countries; they were, in
order of hectarage: USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, South Africa, Pakistan, Uruguay,
Bolivia, Philippines, Australia, Burkina Faso, Myanmar, Spain, Mexico, Colombia, Sudan, Chile, Honduras,
Portugal, Cuba, Czech Republic, Costa Rica, Romania, and Slovakia.
VIII. In the developed world, there is clear evidence that the use of GM crops has resulted in significant benefits.
These include:
i. Higher crop yields
ii. Reduced farm costs
iii. Increased farm profit

iv. Improvement in health and the environment

IX. Potential risks
i. The danger of unintentionally introducing allergens and other antinutrition factors in foods
ii. The likelihood of transgenes escaping from cultivated crops into wild relatives
iii. The potential for pests to evolve resistance to the toxins produced by GM crops
iv. The risk of these toxins affecting nontarget organisms.
3) GMO crops
I. Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of
which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a new
trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species.
II. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction
of spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient
profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and
other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
III. Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land
cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to
1,750,000 km2 (432 million acres).
IV. 10% of the world's croplands were planted with GM crops in 2010. In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted
area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties. In recent years GM
crops expanded rapidly in developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of
worldwide GM crops in developing countries.
V. There is general scientific agreement that food on the market derived from GM crops poses no greater risk
to human health than conventional food. GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits. However,
opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns,
whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food
needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.
VI. Gene Transfer: DNA transfers naturally between organisms. Several natural mechanisms allow gene flow
across species. These occur in nature on a large scale – for example, it is one mechanism for the
development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons,
proviruses and other mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to new loci in a genome.
Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.The introduction of foreign germplasm into crops has
been achieved by traditional crop breeders by overcoming species barriers. A hybrid cereal grain was
created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye. Since then important traits including dwarfing genes and rust
resistance have been introduced. Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to
alter the makeup of plant genomes
VII. Types of Modifications
i. Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The
inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant) or between
kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified
slightly in order to correctly and efficiently express in the host organism.
ii. Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a closely related one,
where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic
modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as
potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny
as transgenics.
iii. Subgenic: In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat
that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress
defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's
hexaploid genome. The strain promises to reduce or eliminate the heavy use of fungicides to
control the disease. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or
changing any other genes.

VIII. Traits:
i. Lifetime: The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was the FlavrSavr
tomato, which had a longer shelf life.
ii. Nutrition
1. Edible oils: Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing or healthier
eating. Camelina sativa has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels
of oils similar to fish oils.
2. Vitamin enrichment: Golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI), provides greater amounts of Vitamin A targeted at reducing Vitamin A deficiency.
3. Toxin reduction: A genetically modified cassava under development offers lower
cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other nutrients (called BioCassava). In
November 2014, the USDA approved a potato, developed by J.R. Simplot Company, that
prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried.
4. Stress resistance: Plants engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors such as drought,
frost, high soil salinity, and nitrogen starvation were in development. In 2011,
Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive
US marketing approval.
iii. Herbicides
1. Glyphosate: As of 1999 the most prevalent GM trait was glyphosate-resistance.
Glyphosate, (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants
by interfering with the shikimate pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis
of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan.
2. Bromoxynil: Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to the herbicide
bromoxynil.
iv. Pest resistance
1. Insects: Tobacco, corn, rice and many other crops have been engineered to express
genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Papaya,
potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber
mosaic virus which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants.
2. Viruses: Virus resistant papaya were developed In response to a papaya ringspot virus
(PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. . They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80% of
Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified.
v. By-products
1. Drugs: In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant-produced pharmaceutical, a treatment
for Gaucher's Disease. Tobacco plants have been modified to produce therapeutic
antibodies.
2. Biofuel: Algae is under development for use in biofuels.
3. Materials: Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used to make
bioplastics. Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches have been developed as
well. Oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and
petrochemicals.
vi. Bioremediation
1. Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis thaliana) that
contains genes from bacteria that can clean TNT and RDX-explosive soil contaminants.
vii. Asexual reproduction
1. Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get
propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To
maintain a high-quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year.
4) Seed production technology
I. Introduction

i. Seed is a mature integumented megasporangium or mature ovule consisting of embryonic plants

together whit store food material covered by a protective coat (mega sporangium i.e. female
gametophyte –the pistils are the female reproductive organs called megasporophylly in the
flowering plants) the ovary of the carpel contains ovules (megasprorangia)
ii. Seed technology is the science dealing with the methods of improving physical and genetical
characteristics of seed.
iii. The various aspects coming under seed technology are seed production, seed processing, seed
certification, seed testing, seed storage, seed biology, seed entomology, seed pathology and seed
marketing.
iv. Cowan (1973): Defined as “That discipline of study having to do with seed production,
maintenance, quantity and preservation.
v. Feistritzer (1975): Defined seed technology as the method through which the genetic and physical
characteristic of seeds could be improved.
vi. Prerequisite for any seed production program is to maintain genetic purity and other
characteristics of seed. Therefore seed production should be conducted with some underlying
principles.
II. Objectives or Goals or Aims of Seed Technology
i. Supply high quality seeds, means seeds of high yielding varieties, varieties with resistance to
diseases and pests.
ii. To increase agricultural production by supply of quality seed.
iii. To assure rapid seed multiplication of desirable varieties.
iv. Timely supply of seeds, i.e. well before the sowing season.
v. Supply of seeds at reasonable prices.
III. Hybrid Seed Production
i. In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is seed produced by cross-pollinated plants. Hybrid seed
production is predominant in agriculture and home gardening. It is one of the main contributors
to the dramatic rise in agricultural output during the last half of the 20th century. The alternatives
to hybridization are open pollination and clonal propagation.
ii. All of the hybrid seeds planted by the farmer will produce similar plants while the seeds of the
next generation from those hybrids will not consistently have the desired characteristics.
Controlled hybrids provide very uniform characteristics because they are produced by crossing
two inbred strains. Elite inbred strains are used that express well-documented and consistent
phenotypes (such as high crop yield) that are relatively good for inbred plants.
iii. Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants, such as better yield,
greater uniformity, improved color, disease resistance. An important factor is the heterosis or
combining ability of the parent plants. Crossing any particular pair of inbred strains may or may
not result in superior offspring. The parent strains used are therefore carefully chosen so as to
achieve the uniformity that comes from the uniformity of the parents, and the superior
performance that comes from heterosis.
IV. Role of Seed Technology
i. A carrier of new technologies: The introduced of quality seed of new verities and combined with
other inputs significantly increased yield level e.g. in cereals, yield increased up to 112%, in potato
– 24% & sugar beet - 142% in U. S. A. & central Europe.
ii. A basic tool for secured food supply:The successful implementation of the high yield verities
programme in India has led to a remarkable increase the production.As a result, food imports
from other countries have been substantially brought down in spite of the rapid population
increase.
iii. The principle means to secure crop yield in less favorable area of production: The supply of good
quality seed of improved verities, suitable to these areas is one of the crops. Immediate
contribution that seed technology can make to secure higher crop yield
V. Classes of Seeds

i.Nuclear seed : This is the hundred percent genetically pure seed with physical purity and
produced by the original breeder/Institute /State Agriculture University (SAU) from basic nucleus
seed stock. A pedigree certificate is issued by the producing breeder.
ii. Breeder seed : This is also hundred percent physical and genetic pure seed for production of
foundation seed. A golden yellow colour certificate is issued for this category of seed by the
producing breeder.
iii. Foundation seed : The progeny of breeder seed produced by recognized seed producing agencies
in public and private sector, under supervision of seed certification agencies in such a way that its
quality is maintained according to prescribed field ad seed standards. A white colour certificate is
issued for foundation seed by seed certification agencies.
iv. Certified seed : The progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers under
supervision of seed certification agencies t o maintain the seed quality as per minimum seed
certification standards. A blue colour certificate is issued by seed certification agency for this
category of seed.
VI. Basic Seeds Vs Certified Seeds
i. The seeds which seeds companies sell in the market and our farmers grow are commonly
“certified seeds”. The certification of seeds is a legally sanctioned system for quality control of
seeds that are used to cultivate crops. The certified seeds are grown under stringent production
requirements and they have improved traits such as better yield, pest resistance, drought
tolerance, herbicide tolerance etc.
ii. The certified seeds are outcome of few years of research and development to get these improved
traits.
iii. This R&D is done on their parent plants. On this basis, there are five different categories viz.
Nucleus Seeds, Breeder’s Seeds, Foundation Seeds, Registered Seeds and finally certified seeds.
The Offspring of breeder seeds is foundation seeds to registered seeds to certified seeds. Further,
each of the breeders, foundation, registered and certified seeds are certified and labelled with a
different colour tag as per Section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966. Thus, they are also called as Labelled
Seed. The Breeder seeds have golden yellow tag, Foundation seeds have white tag, registered
seeds have opal blue tag and certified seeds have green tag.
5) Implementation in Pakistan
Part 1 Chapter 6: Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture
1) Introduction
2) Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture
I. The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practises that rely on rainfall for water. It provides
much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing countries. For example, rainfed agriculture
accounts for more than 95% of farmed land in sub-Saharan Africa, 90% in Latin America, 75% in the Near
East and North Africa; 65% in East Asia and 60% in South Asia.
II. Levels of productivity, particularly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, are low due to degraded
soils, high levels of evaporation, droughts, floods and a general lack of effective water management. A
major study into water use by agriculture, known as the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management
in Agriculture, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute, noted a close correlation
between hunger, poverty and water. However, it concluded that there was much opportunity to raise
productivity from rainfed farming.
III. The authors considered that managing rainwater and soil moisture more effectively, and using
supplemental and small-scale irrigation, held the key to helping the greatest number of poor people. It
called for a new era of water investments and policies for upgrading rainfed agriculture that would go

beyond controlling field-level soil and water to bring new freshwater sources through better local
management of rainfall and runoff.
IV. The importance of rainfed agriculture varies regionally but produces most food for poor communities in
developing countries. In subSaharan Africa more than 95% of the farmed land is rainfed, while the
corresponding figure for Latin America is almost 90%, for South Asia about 60%, for East Asia 65% and for
the Near East and North Africa 75% (FAOSTAT, 2005). Most countries in the world depend primarily on
rainfed agriculture for their grain food. Despite large strides made in improving productivity and
environmental conditions in many developing countries, a great number of poor families in Africa and Asia
still face poverty, hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition where rainfed agriculture is the main agricultural
activity. These problems are exacerbated by adverse biophysical growing conditions and the poor
socioeconomic infrastructure in many areas in the semi-arid tropics (SAT). The SAT is the home to 38% of
the developing countries’ poor, 75% of whom live in rural areas. Over 45% of the world’s hungry and more
than 70% of its malnourished children live in the SAT
V. There is a correlation between poverty, hunger and water stress (Falkenmark, 1986). The UN Millennium
Development Project has identified the ‘hot spot’ countries in the world suffering from the largest
prevalence of malnourishment. These countries coincide closely with those located in the semi-arid and dry
subhumid hydroclimates in the world (Fig. 1.1), i.e. savannahs and steppe ecosystems, where rainfed
agriculture is the dominating source of food and where water constitutes a key limiting factor to crop
growth (SEI, 2005). Of the 850 million undernourished people in the world, essentially all live in poor,
developing countries, which predominantly are located in tropical regions (UNSTAT, 2005).
VI. Since the late 1960s, agricultural land use has expanded by 20–25%, which has contributed to
approximately 30% of the overall grain production growth during the period (FAO, 2002; Ramankutty et al.,
2002). The remaining yield outputs originated from intensification through yield increases per unit land
area.
VII. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of
agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during
periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which
include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil
consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dryland
farming
VIII. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often
studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water
from a given area.
IX. In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that could pump
groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill them. This can lead to permanent
loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of
food production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great Plains of the US is
threatened by this phenomenon.
X. At the global scale, 2,788,000 km² (689 million acres) of fertile land was equipped with irrigation
infrastructure around the year 2000. About 68% of the area equipped for irrigation is located in Asia, 17% in
the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation
density are found:
i. In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers
ii. In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China

iii. Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan
iv. In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California
v. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world
XI. Only 8 years later in 2008, the scale of irrigated land increased to an estimated total of 3,245,566 km²,
which is nearly the size of India.
XII. TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
i. Ditch Irrigation: Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and
seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between
the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals.
This system of irrigation was once very popular in the USA, but most have been replaced with
modern systems.
ii. Terraced Irrigation: This is a very labor-intensive method of irrigation where the land is cut into
steps and supported by retaining walls. The flat areas are used for planting and the idea is that the
water flows down each step, while watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used for
planting crops.
iii. Drip Irrigation: This is known as the most water efficient method of irrigation. Water drops right
near the root zone of a plant in a dripping motion. If the system is installed properly you can
steadily reduce the loss of water through evaporation and runoff.
iv. Sprinkler System: This is an irrigation system based on overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns,
installed on permanent risers. You can also have the system buried underground and the
sprinklers rise up when water pressure rises, which is a popular irrigation system for use on golf
courses and parks.
v. Rotary System: This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas, for the sprinklers can reach
distances of up to 100 feet. The word “Rotary” is indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers
moving in a circular motion, hence reaching greater distances. This system waters a larger area
with small amounts of water over a longer period of time.
vi. Center Pivot Irrigation: This is a form of overhead irrigation. Steel or aluminum pipes are joined
together, supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers. The sprinklers are situated on the
length of the tower and they move in a circular motion.
3) Agriculture Mechanization
I. Mechanization is defined as the art of using machineries to hasten production, accomplish task and reduce
fatigue and human labor in order to produce better quality goods and services. Agricultural mechanization is
the process whereby equipments, machineries and implements are utilized to boost agricultural and food
production.
II. It is the application of machineries, equipments and implements in the day to day farm activities to increase
marginal output in food production and poverty eradication. Agricultural mechanization reduces drudgery
which hitherto makes it difficult for large scale food production.
III. Equipments, Machineries and Implements required for Land Preparation
i. Tractor: Farm Tractor is a self propelled machine or equipment that pulls or pushes tools or
implements over the land. It is equipment designed and used for farm operations for the purpose
of land preparations, cultivation and harvesting of crops. A tractor is sub-divided into three (3)
major parts namely (a) engine system (b) transmission system and (c) hydraulic system

1. Engine – Generally a tractor makes use of four (4) stroke cycle, internal combustion,
compression ignition (diesel), thermosyphon cooling, heat engine of various cylinders
depending on the horsepower of the engine.
2. Transmission: The transmission system of the tractor consists of the clutch assembly,
gear train, final drive etc.
3. Hydraulic system: The hydraulic system of a tractor consists of hydraulic fluid, Armshaft,
three (3) point linkage i.e. lower links and top link, hydraulic pump, selectmatic valves,
quick coupling point, draft control, control valve.
ii. Rotary Power Tiller: Rotary power tiller also known as two wheeled tractor is light duty
agricultural equipment used for tilling operation. It is affordable in price when compared with the
four wheeled tractors, for the small and medium scale farmers. It could be used on undulating
terrain and fragile soil. It is portable and can be used or taken to the interior farmlands where
there is no access road for big tractors.The affordability of this equipment in terms of low price to
local farmers will make food production to increase considerably. The rotary power tiller, apart
from tilling operation could also perform the following, these are: ploughing, wet pudding,
ridging, cultivating, water pumping, cassava planting and weeding operations making use of
appropriate implement. The equipment in conjunctions with the trailer could be used to transport
the appropriate implement to be used to the field and could also be used to bring or conveyed
farm produce from the field to the barn. The equipment is economical, safe and efficient in use
than manual operation. It can perform tilling operation of about 1.25 hectares of land per day.
The equipment is sub-divided into (3) three major parts, these are:
1. Engine
2. Transmission
3. Implement
iii. Other equipments or machines in this category are:
1. Track laying tractor
2. Crop thresher
3. Combine harvester
iv. The implements are:
1. Disc plough and moldboard plough
2. Disc Harrow and moldboard Harrow
3. Disc Ridger and mouldboard Ridger
4. Boom Sprayer and Gun Sprayer
5. Seed Planter and Cassava Planter
6. Fertilizer Spreader
7. Mower
v. All these aforementioned machineries, equipments and implements plays vital role in the
enhancement of sustainable food production, if properly utilized and made affordable within the
reach of small and medium scale farmers.
vi. Food production stages: The food production stages consist of the followings:
1. Land clearing
2. Planting and weeding
3. Harvesting
4. Transportation
5. Processing
6. Storage
7. Consumption
IV. Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture,
greatly increasing farm worker productivity. In modern times, powered machinery has replaced many jobs
formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen, horses and mules.

V. The history of agriculture contains many examples of tool use, such as the plough. Mechanization involves
the use of an intermediate device between the power source and the work. This intermediate device usually
transforms motion, such as rotary to linear, or provides some sort of mechanical advantage, such as speed
increase or decrease or leverage.
VI. Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors, trucks, combine harvesters, airplanes (crop
dusters), helicopters, and other vehicles. Modern farms even sometimes use computers in conjunction with
satellite imagery and GPS guidance to increase yields.
VII. Mechanisation was one of the factors responsible for urbanization and industrial economies. Besides
improving production efficiency, mechanisation encourages large scale production and improves the quality
of farm produce. On the other hand, it displaces unskilled farm labor, causes environmental pollution,
deforestation and erosion.
VIII. New Technology and the Future: The basic technology of agricultural machines has changed little in the last
century. Though modern harvesters and planters may do a better job or be slightly tweaked from their
predecessors, the US$250,000 combine of today still cuts, threshes, and separates grain in the same way it
has always been done. However, technology is changing the way that humans operate the machines, as
computer monitoring systems, GPS locators, and self-steer programs allow the most advanced tractors and
implements to be more precise and less wasteful in the use of fuel, seed, or fertilizer. In the foreseeable
future, there may be mass production of driverless tractors, which use GPS maps and electronic sensors.
IX. Open Source Agricultural Equipment: Many farmers are upset by their inability to fix the new types of high-
tech farm equipment. This is due mostly to companies using intellectual property law to prevent farmers
from having the legal right to fix their equipment (or gain access to the information to allow them to do it).
This has encouraged groups such as Open Source Ecology and Farm Hack to begin to make open source
agricultural machinery. In addition on a smaller scale Farmbot and the RepRap open source 3D printer
community has begun to make open-source farm tools available of increasing levels of sophistication. In
October 2015 an exemption was added to the DMCA to allow inspection and modification of the software in
cars and other vehicles including agricultural machinery.
X. Notable Manufacturers
i. AGCO
ii. Art's Way
iii. Kubota
iv. John Deere
v. Claas
vi. CNH Industrial
vii. Mahindra & Mahindra
viii. Minsk Tractor Works
ix. JCB
x. Mirrlees Blackstone
4) Land Tenure and Land Reforms
I. Land reforms are basically required for redistribution of land which could have several benefits that could
be social, economic and administrative. There is always inverse relationship of large land holding and
productivity therefore land reforms are always treated as strategy for better production. However the
traditional large land holdings hardly concentrate on productivity. The population all over the world as a
whole is on rising trend; especially in developing and under developed countries fewer efforts have been
made for birth control “Pakistan is one of the populous countries in the world with 180,808,000
populations”. The entire population requires fulfilling the need for food, a dwelling to live and economic
activity to survive. For such activities land is very much required, this aspect of importance of land have
already been discussed at the beginning of this essay.
II. Rapid population growth, widespread poverty, persistent food insecurity, and alarming rate of
environmental degradation have fuelled an increasing debate on land tenure systems and land reforms.
More equitable access to land is important in combating rural poverty. Under these circumstances Land
Reforms undoubtedly are regarded as an important factor to alleviate poverty and increase economic

development. Since there is always a relationship between land reforms and growth, therefore land reforms
were central to strategies to improve the asset base of the poor in developing countries. But in Pakistan
their effectiveness has been hindered by political constraints on implementation. For the land reforms it
requires political will and determination of the governments, not only this but appropriate laws need to be
formulated with their ensured implementation.
III. Land Reforms inviting involvement of international donor agencies, different governments at different
times, NGOs, environmentalists, and economists. Globally, land reforms have been introduced for a mixture
of political, economic and egalitarian motives, often resulting from political upheavals, and changing the
distribution of land in favour of small farmers. Land reform is also treated with a view of Human Rights issue
as it involves survival of people and livelihood of poor peasants. More equitable access to land is important
in combating rural poverty to overcome the menace of poverty.
IV. LAND reforms in Pakistan have a long and somewhat chequered history. The British had less of an interest
in the matter as they relied on the support of several influential landlords. Although there had been some
limited reforms in the years leading up to 1947, all major reforms date from the years after independence.
Almost immediately the various provincial legislatures passed several statutes whereby the jagirdari
systems were abolished and tenants protected. The major reforms, however, came in three stages: the first
during Ayub Khan`s martial law in 1959; the second and third during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto`s rule in the 1970s.
V. Ayub Khan`s government passed the first major piece of legislation concerning land reforms in Pakistan.
This legislation was the West Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation 1959 (Regulation 64 of 1959). The salient
features of this regulation included a ceiling on individual holdings. No one individual could own more than
500 acres of irrigated and 1,000 acres of unirrigated land or a maximum of 36,000 Produce Index Units
(PIU), whichever was greater. It further allowed that land be redistributed amongst tenants and others. In
addition, the regulation contained provisions which provided for security of tenants as well as for
preventing the subdivision of land holdings.
VI. These land reforms stayed in force until 1972 and the next great wave of land reforms.
VII. Bhutto, despite being a major landowner himself, was determined to institute reforms, having been a
minister under Ayub Khan. Bhutto, seeing the former`s land reforms as inadequate, was responsible for two
major land reform regimes. The first was by way of a martial law regulation, the Land Reform Regulation
1972 by which the West Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation 1959 was repealed through paragraph 32.
VIII. As per paragraph 8(1) no individual holdings were to be in excess of 150 acres of irrigated land or 300 of
unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated land the aggregate area of which exceeded 150 acres of
irrigated land (one acre of irrigated land being reckoned as the equivalent of two acres of unirrigated land),
or an area equivalent to 15,000 PIU of land, whichever was greater. Paragraph 18(1) of the regulations also
provided for excess land to be surrendered and utilised for the benefit of tenants shown to be in the
process of cultivating it.
IX. By 1977, the country had an elected parliament. It would be this body which passed the last major piece of
legislation dealing with land reforms; the Law Reforms Act 1977 (Act II of 1977) and the only one ironically
which came the way of a democratically elected legislature as opposed to a military junta. It did not repeal
the 1972 regulations, but was designed to operate concurrently with the same.
X. The most important and relevant change it made was that individual holdings, including shares in shamilat ,
if any, in excess of 100 acres of irrigated land or 200 acres of unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated
land the aggregate of which exceeded 100 acres of irrigated land (again, one acre of irrigated land being
reckoned as equivalent to two acres of unirrigated land). Furthermore, notwithstanding the above, no land
holding could (per section 3) be greater than an area equivalent to 8,000 PIU of land calculated on the basis
of classification of soil as entered in the revenue records for kharif.
XI. The end of the Bhutto era also signalled the end of the era of statutory land reform in Pakistan.
XII. During Ziaul Haq`s reign only major new laws were passed. Only two amending ordinances came into being.
The first in 1979 declared that where the provincial government had decided to lease out surrendered land,
the person who surrendered it would have first priority, and the second allowed the federal government to
exempt any educational institution or cooperative farming society from the operation of the 1977 act.

XIII. Land reforms were always controversial. It was alleged by opponents that they were un-Islamic and that
they infringed on the right to own, use and enjoy property as protected by the constitution. Matters finally
came to a head before the Supreme Court in the case of Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner in
which both the 1972 regulations were attacked as being against Islamic injunctions and unconstitutional.
The Supreme Court agreed.
XIV. Of the 1972 regulations, the Supreme Court declared that paragraphs 7, 8, 9, 10, 13 and 14 and thus
consequently 18 were unconstitutional as being against Islamic injunctions. The striking down of paragraphs
8 and 18 overturned the main reforms achieved.
XV. Similarly in the same case the Supreme Court overturned the entire sections — 3, 4, 5, 6, 7(5), 8, 9, 10 —
and consequently sections 11-17 of the act as being unconstitutional and against Islamic injunctions. The
striking down of sections 3 and 17 undid the main reforms promulgated in the act. The laws stated to be
unconstitutional ceased to have effect on March 23, 1990 (the day the judgement was handed down).
XVI. The net result of the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner is that land reforms in Pakistan are now at
the same level as they were in 1947, as the 1972 regulations and the 1977 act have seen their main
provisions being struck down and the 1959 regulations have been repealed.
XVII. To commence land reforms and to ensure they contain at least the same measure of reforms as the 1972
regulations and the 1977 act did will at the very least require a constitutional amendment which allows
parliament to enact legislation regarding land reform notwithstanding the relevant constitutional
provisions.
XVIII. Failing the above, any proposed reforms would have to be more limited in their ambit than the previous
reforms to avoid unconstitutionality or their lordships would have to overrule the judgment in the
Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner in another case.
XIX. It is very difficult for people to reconcile to the fact that the dose of 'Islamic welfare' that they have been
taught largely ends at zakat and while there are promises of huge rewards on helping the needy, Islam is
very much pro-capitalistic and opposes ceilings on wealth accumulation
XX. The politics of land reform have always been tenuous in this country, the populist rhetoric very much
opposed to the reality. In the latest series of mere rhetoric on the issue, the MQM has set up a 'think tank'
that will table parliamentary legislation for land reforms in the country. However, these statements of
ending feudalism and bringing land reforms not only ignore the legal challenges that such reforms face in
the wake of the Qazalbash Waqf case that declared a ceiling on landholdings as opposed to shariah but
also serve nothing but the appetites of the urban middle class masses who are too keen to blame feudalism
for all ills. Needless to say, land reforms are very much supported by the masses but their vocal proponents
amongst the urban middle classes fail to understand the history, politics and legal perspective associated
with such a change.
XXI. The basis of land reform has always been to abolish the stratification of society based on the concentration
of land in the hands of a select few. This monopolisation of landholdings leads to the denial of political
rights to a large percentage of the population in an agrarian economy like ours.
XXII. Feudalism is a tribal notion that hampers social progress and is combined with the fact that landlords have
social, political and often religious and legal power in their regions. However, urban upper middle and
middle classes have crafted a narrative that blames all national problems on feudalism. This notion is devoid
of reality since feudalism has transformed over the past 63 years and, contrary to popular perception,
landlords cannot continue to suppress their subjects and still expect to remain politically popular. An
oversimplification of the reality that ignores changes in patterns of landholdings and associated socio-
political power in the country and what feudalism means in an era of urbanisation and modernity
hampers intellectual progress itself.
XXIII. The history of land reforms in this country started in 1949 with the Agrarian Reforms Committee of the
Muslim League proposing short- and long-term measures to address the issue. The short-term measures
were incorporated in the Tenancy Acts that were promulgated in Punjab, Sindh and NWFP between 1950
and 1952. The long-term goal of imposing a ceiling on landholdings never saw the light. Meanwhile, the East
Bengal Land Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950 transformed the eastern wing of the country and imposed
a 33-acre ceiling on landholding. Never a strongly feudal society, by 1954 the situation was such that none

of the East Bengal Constituent Assembly representatives was a landlord compared to the 70 percent
landlord-legislators from West Pakistan.
XXIV. The martial law government of Ayub Khan brought forward the country's first major land reforms in 1959.
The ceiling on landholdings was imposed at 500 acres for irrigated and 1,000 acres for un-irrigated land. 2.5
million acres of land was resumed, 2.3 million was distributed amongst 183,271 tenants (in reality the
distribution was skewed and only 59,906 tenants below the subsistence level of 12.5 acres received any
benefit). Only 35 percent of the holdings that exceeded the ceiling were taken over.
XXV. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had promised land reforms under his Islamic socialism agenda and, in 1972, a stricter
ceiling was imposed at 150/300 acres for irrigated/un-irrigated lands and land was resumed without any
compensation. In 1977, it was further lowered to 100/200 acres. In total, 3.1 million acres of land was
resumed and 1.8 million was distributed amongst 89,143 beneficiaries. Due to various reasons, only 42
percent of the holdings in excess of the ceilings were taken over in Punjab and 59 percent in Sindh. The
reforms failed to bring the expected results.
XXVI. Ziaul Haq's Islamisation and creation of shariat courts gave the opponents of land reforms including the
religious establishment a golden opportunity to challenge them. In Haji Niamatullah v. NWFP
government, the imposition of a ceiling on landholdings was declared un-Islamic. In December 1980 the
Federal Shariat Court decided petitions against land reforms in Muhammad Ameen v. Islamic Republic of
Pakistan (PLD 1981 FSC 23). It declared that it did not have the sufficient rights to declare it unconstitutional
and even then it was not un-Islamic in any way to impose a ceiling on landholdings.
XXVII. Appeals were filed and the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court delivered its final judgment on
the issue on August 10, 1989 in Qazalbash Waqf v. Chief Land Commissioner (PLD 1990 SC 99). The lead
judgment, written by Mufti Taqi Usmani, held that the right to land in Islam is absolute, that Islam has
imposed no quantitative ceiling on land or any other commodity that can be owned by a person, that any
such limits are prohibited by shariah, that a temporary limit may be imposed in times of emergency, that
illegitimately acquired land is illegitimate and that forceful acquisition of land is haram. In short, ceilings on
landholdings imposed by the Land Reforms Regulation, 1972 and Land Reforms Ordinance, 1977 were un-
Islamic and acquisition of land under the said laws was ab initio illegal.
XXVIII. With this case, the classic definition of land reforms in the form of ceilings on landholdings came falling
down and the doors for reform were closed forever. The judges who dissented with the majority opinion
based their opinion on the Islamic notion of social welfare and necessity to alleviate poverty.
XXIX. While the future of land reforms looks bleak, it is certainly not unrealisable. One option lies in the form of
analysing the shady origins of landholdings and land grants given by the colonialists as illegitimately
acquired. However, not only is this tenuous and complex, it must therefore be extended to the vast urban
and agricultural lands acquired largely by the military, but also by other state functionaries. The other
option remains the very abolition of the Federal Shariat Court and the associated 'Islamic' provisions from
the constitution, paving way for the old-style reforms again also unrealisable and politically unfeasible.
XXX. With increasing religiosity part of urbanisation, and in our case strongly linked with an urban middle class
identity, it becomes laughable that the demon of 'feudalism' that should be tackled through the populist
argument of 'land reforms' is not being tackled because of 'Islamic laws', which are the slogan of a large
percentage of disillusioned, apoliticised urban middle class youth today. It is very difficult for people to
reconcile the fact that the dose of 'Islamic welfare' that they have been taught largely ends at zakat and
while there are promises of huge rewards on helping the needy an obligation defined by Islam as social
responsibility Islam is very much pro-capitalistic and opposes ceilings on wealth accumulation. Reflective
of the inner contradictions of our society is the fact that secular ideals of social reform brought forward land
reforms (even if supported by Islamic rhetoric) and were thrown into the dustbin of history on the basis of
religion. Demonisation of feudalism not necessarily wrong but ignoring the legal realities, especially
how they were struck down by an 'Islamic' court, is convenient and tailor-made to satisfy the conscience of
a society that seems to find it difficult to balance religion, its role in society, its role in politics and its
intrusion into governing laws.
XXXI. The future of land reforms

i. In the mode of the classical application of land reforms vis a vis ceiling on land holdings, the door
for reform is pretty much closed unless the state wishes to undertake the thorny issue of the
nature of land ownership at the time of Independence.
ii. Given the colonial history of the region, it is a known fact that modern property laws were
introduced and recognized in this region by the British by virtue of the capacity of the local
individuals to extract revenue for the colonial state. Some of these individuals had already been
collecting revenues for the Mughal state as jagirdars, but their rights over the land were not
recognized in manner as they were recognized by the British (the exclusive right of enjoyment
etc., for example). Many, who acquired title through settlements, did so for the first time by virtue
of their ability to coerce the local population and collect revenue.
iii. If we are to review that situation and perhaps deem land granted by British (for services to the
crown) as illegitimately acquired owing to their shady origins, then we are looking at a wholly
different scenario. That will also raise questions as to whether land grants post-Independence in
the form of huge agricultural and urban land grants largely to military officers, but to bureaucrats
and other state functionaries as well are illegitimately acquired. Certainly, this is far from
realizable. However, it still remains a possibility for future legislators.
iv. Another possibility that lays at the doors of the legislators, is to review the existence of the
Federal Shariat Court (and the Shariat Appellate Bench) itself and there-after re-introduce
legislation along the lines of the ’72 and ’77 reforms. Certainly, this too is a non-realizable one – at
least in the short term – considering the power of the religious groups and the right wing, both
street power and their vocal power. If such a radical step were to be taken, it would not be
surprising that the legislators would be declared enemies of Islam, traitors, agents and the usual
labels.
v. The door for land reforms is not closed, yet, but there are huge challenges in pursuing such an
agenda.
5) Role Of Agriculture In National Economy
I. Increase in Per Capita Income: Per capita income is the annual average income of the individuals of a
nation. We derive it by dividing national income on total population. Agricultural sector provides more jobs
to unemployed people. It increases the individuals as well as national income. Agricultural sector is essential
to increase the PCI, which is $ 1254 at present.
II. Major Source of Employment: Agriculture sector provides employment to major portion of our labour
force. More than 45.0% of our labour force is directly involved in agriculture sector, while 66.7% of our rural
population is dependent on agriculture. This is the major sector, which provides employment to a large
portion of our population. Agriculture sector is helpful to reduce the unemployment and disguised
unemployment.
III. Reduction in Poverty: Agriculture development has significant impact on rural development. If productivity
increases in agriculture it reduces poverty and stimulates non-farm employment, too. They are able to get
basic services of life such as water supply, sanitation, provision of health and educational facilitates. About
21.0% population of Pakistan is much poor.
IV. Supply of Food: Food is the first in basic necessities of the life. The agriculture sector is the sole provider of
all type of food like wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane vegetables and fruits etc., to the population engaged in
various sectors of the economy. Agricultural sector also provides food to those animals that provide milk,
cheese, butter and meat to population to maintain the efficiency. According to economic survey of Pakistan,
exports of food group are $ 2007.3 million.
V. Source of Forex Earning: Agriculture sector is the main source of foreign exchange (forex) earning which is
used to import capital goods. Total forex resources of Pakistan is $ 17.1 billion out of which share of
agriculture is $2007.3million. Major cash crops of Pakistan are cotton, rice, tobacco etc. that is helpful to
correct the balance of payment.
VI. Supply of Surplus Labour: About 61% population is living in more than 50,000 villages in Pakistan. This
sector is the major source for supply of labor force to industrial sector due to farm mechanization and

disguised unemployment. In this way an increase in the income of the people leads to improved living
standard.
VII. Source of National Income: At the time of partition, contribution of agriculture sector to GNP was 60%,
which decreased to 29.4% in 1980-81. Now its share to GDP is 20.9% in 2010-11. Accordingly, agricultural
sector is the major contributor to Pakistan’s national income.
VIII. Supply of Raw Material: Agricultural sector provides not only food but also provides cotton, sugarcane,
tobacco, rice, oil-seed, meat and milk to various agro-based, small scale and large-scale industries as a raw
material.
IX. Development of Industrial Sector: There is inter-dependence and inter-relationship between agricultural
and industrial sector, both are helpful to develop each other. Due to use of modern techniques of
production in agricultural sector, when income of the agriculturists increases, they will demand for
industrial articles, like threshers, harvesters, tractors, tub-wells and various other consumer goods, which
results in industrial growth and development.
X. Balance of Payment Position: Promotion of agriculture sector will provide surplus production for exports
and our foreign exchange reserves will be increased. This will be helpful in the improvement of balance of
payment. At present Pakistan is facing a deficit of $ 8.3 billion in its balance of payment.
XI. Improvement in Living Standard: There is an increase in the income of the farmers due to development of
agricultural sector. It will improve their living standard by constructing better houses, demanding luxuries of
life, television, computer, mobile, motor-cycles and a lot of other items. So, growth of agricultural sector
will cause to improve the standard of living of the population.
XII. Extension in Market Size: There is more output in agricultural sector due to farm mechanization. It enlarges
the size of market. If there is more production, then surplus production can be export to the other countries
of the world. So, agricultural sector expands the market at national and international level.
XIII. Capital Formation: Role of agricultural sector in capital formation cannot ignore. It increases the incomes of
the people that lead to more saving and more investment. Here, more investment leads to rapid capital
formation. Capital formation rate in Pakistan is 5%.
XIV. Increase in Investment: Total investment is only 13.4% of GDP in Pakistan. This low investment is mainly
due to low income and low savings. Agricultural sector increases the income of people that caused in more
saving and more investment. Accordingly, agricultural sector is helpful in increasing the investment.
XV. Economic Development: Economic development, progress and prosperity cannot achieve without
agricultural sector. It provides employment opportunities to a lot of people. It produces exportable items,
which increases the foreign exchange resources. So, agricultural sector is helpful to make rapid economic
development. Real GDP growth rate is 2.4%.
XVI. Self Reliance Policy: Agriculture sector is helpful to achieve the self-sufficiency. Our country will not only
become self-sufficient in food but supply of raw materials for industries will also expand our industrial
sector.
XVII. Direct Foreign Investment: Now a day, use of advanced technologies in farming is common. It boost-up the
industries like tractors, harvesters, thrashers, chemicals etc. It has increases the foreign direct investment in
our country. It provides employments to our population and also increases the national income. Foreign
investment is $ 1.8 billion in Pakistan.
XVIII. Controlling Inflation: Inflation refers to the increase in general price level. It may be due to increase in
demand and shortage in supply. Agricultural sector is very helpful to control the inflation. It produces more
goods and maintains the equilibrium in demand and supply. Rate of inflation is 14.1% in Pakistan.
XIX. Reduction in Regional Disparities: Agriculture sector is the life-blood of our economy. Development of
agriculture sector will increase the living standard of the rural population. This leads to reduce the urban
and rural differences in the country.
XX. Demand for Industrial Goods: As the agriculture productivity increases, the income of farmers goes up.
With the rise in income the demand for both agricultural goods (tractor, fertilizer, pesticides, tube-wells
etc.) and industrial goods (television, mobile, computer etc.) will increase in rural areas.

XXI. Balanced Growth Economy: There exists close inter-dependence between agricultural sector and industrial
sector. Agricultural sector will develop the industrial sector also. Income received by cultivator will develop
the demand for the industrial goods. Its results are in balance growth of the economy.
XXII. Increase in Govt. Revenue: There is no direct tax on the agricultural income. But indirectly government
receives a huge amount of tax form agricultural sector. It imposed some duties on imported technologies
applied in farming. It imposes tax on chemicals etc. So agriculture sector is also a source of income for the
government.
6) Impact of Feudalism on the agriculture of Pakistan
Part 2: Chapter 2 Forest Management and Utilization
Forestry is the study of this complex interaction, the management of the various components of the forest, the preservation of
its' natural balance (of forests and the life forms they support) as well as the care of it to ensure its' wellbeing. Good forestry
programs also make it possible for humans to get some economic value from it, without hurting the forests in anyway. This way
of using the forest is known as Sustainable Forestry.
Sustainable Forestry
In sustainable forestry, efforts are put into replacing almost all the resources we get from the forests, whiles extra care is taken
to ensure that there is very little damage to wildlife and the natural environment. Example: only old trees may be cut down,
allowing younger trees to grow to ensure continuity, and trees are planted to replace the ones cut down.
Sustainable Forestry activities

Unfortunately, environmental issues cannot be separated from politics and economics (people’s life) This is why effective
sustainable forestry comes in two approaches. These are:
Forests and Forests related Industries

Here, the attention is on the natural resource itself and the timber companies that harness resources directly from the forests.
In this approach, there are usually very strict rules and consequences with the way resources are extracted from that forest. It
is usually enforced by laws, hefty fines and effective monitoring efforts. In recent time, the use of technology is helping
authorities see more about what is going on in the forests. This means items made from resources that come from forests will
cost a lot in the shops, so consumers also need to be prepared.
Here, campaigns are developed to educate consumers (industries and individuals including you) on the value of forests
resources and the dangers forests face. Efforts are directed to make people become more environmentally aware and friendly.
Example, people are encouraged to recycle more, to use paper products from recycled pulp, and to encourage everyone to join
the fight to save our forests.
Importance of Forests
Forests and biodiversity is key to all life forms. The richer the diversity of life, the greater the opportunity for medical
discoveries, economic development and adaptive responses to such new challenges as climate change.
Watershed
Forests serve as a watershed. This is because almost all water ultimately comes from rivers and lakes and from forest-derived
water tables. Some rivers running through forests are also kept cool and from drying out. "The Amazon is by far the largest
watershed and largest river system in the world occupying over 6 million square kilometers. Over two-thirds of all the fresh
water found on Earth is in the Amazon Basin's rivers, streams, and tributaries." - RainTree

Forests and biodiversity

Habitat and Ecosystems
Forests serve as a home (habitat) to millions of animals. Think of the many types of reptiles (snakes and lizards) wild animals,
butterflies and insects, birds and tree-top animals as well as all those that live in the forest streams and rivers.
Animals form part of the food chain in the forests. All these different animals and plants are called biodiversity, and the
interaction with one another and with their physical environment is what we call ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems can better
withstand and recover from a variety of disasters such as floods and wildfires.
Economic benefits
Forests are of immense economic importance to us. For example, plantation forests provide humans with timber and wood,
which is exported and used in all parts of the world. They also provide tourism income to inhabitants (people living in or close
to forests) when people visit to see the best of nature. economic importance of forests
Climate Control
Climate control and atmosphere purification is key for human existence. Trees and soils help regulate atmospheric
temperatures through a process called evapotranspiration. This helps to stabilize the climate. Additionally, they enrich the
atmosphere by absorbing bad gases (example CO2 and other greenhouse gases) and producing oxygen. Trees also helps to
remove air pollutants.
Did you know: In many developing countries more than 80% of total energy (fuel wood and charcoal) consumed by people and
industry is derived from forests. Trade in timber and other forest products is estimated at almost 330 billion US Dollars /year.
Its' value multiplies as it is processed into a range of products used globally every day. Uses of genetic diversity within forests
enable the development of new medicines; progress in health care and science
Forest Management
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal and social aspects and
with the essentially scientific and technical aspects, especially silviculture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes
management for aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products, forest genetic resources
and other forest resource values. Management can be based on conservation, economics, or a mixture of the two. Techniques
include timber extraction, planting and replanting of various species, cutting roads and pathways through forests, and
preventing fire.
The forest is a natural system that can supply different products and services. The working of this system is influenced by the
natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also by human action. The actions of man in forests constitute the
forest management. In developed societies this management tends to be elaborated and planned, in order to achieve the
objectives that are considered desirable.
Some forests have been and are managed to obtain the traditional forest products such as fire wood, fiber for paper, building
timber, with little thinking for other products and services. Nevertheless, as a result from the development of ecology science
and environmental awareness, management of forests for multiple use is becoming more common
There has been an increased public awareness of natural resource policy, including forest management. Public concern
regarding forest management may have shifted from the extraction of timber for earning money for the economy, to the
preservation of additional forest resources, including wildlife and old growth forest, protecting biodiversity, watershed
management, and recreation. Increased environmental awareness may contribute to an increased public mistrust of forest
management professionals. But it can also lead to greater understanding about what professionals do re forests for nature
conservation and ecological services
The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife are affected by strategies and types of forest
management.

Forest management varies in intensity from a leave alone, natural situation to a highly intensive regime with silvicultural
interventions. Management is generally increased in intensity to achieve either economic criteria (increased timber yields, non-
timber forest products, ecosystem services) or ecological criteria (species recovery, fostering of rare species, carbon
sequestration).
Sustainable Forest Management

Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development.
Sustainable forest management uses very broad social, economic and environmental goals. A range of forestry institutions now
practice various forms of sustainable forest management and a broad range of methods and tools are available that have been
tested over time and space.[citation needed]
The "Forest Principles" adopted at The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro
in 1992 captured the general international understanding of sustainable forest management at that time. A number of sets of
criteria and indicators have since been developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at both the country and management
unit level. These were all attempts to codify and provide for independent assessment of the degree to which the broader
objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly
adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument was the first of its kind, and reflected the
strong international commitment to promote implementation of sustainable forest management through a new approach that
brings all stakeholders together.
Forest Management Basics
Forests are an important part of our state’s environment and economy. When they are well managed, forests provide clean air
and water, homes for wildlife, beautiful scenery, places for recreation and more than 5,000 products we all use every day.
When they are not well managed, forests are often unhealthy and unproductive because of overcrowding, disease, insects, and
competition for light, water and nutrients. To maintain or improve the health and productivity of a forest and to achieve the
landowner’s objectives for the property, foresters use a number of management techniques, including harvesting, prescribed
burning and reforestation.
Harvesting Trees
In forest management, trees are harvested for a variety of reasons including improving the health of the forest; controlling the
types of trees that grow on the site; attracting certain wildlife species; providing a source of income for the landowner;
producing paper, lumber and numerous other forest products; and improving access to the area for hikers, hunters and other
recreational users.
Just as there are many reasons for harvesting trees, there are many different harvesting methods. Each method has its benefits,
drawbacks and conditions under which it is the most suitable way to harvest trees. No one harvesting method is ideal for all
situations.
Thinning Harvest
When trees are crowded together, they are in greater competition for sunlight, nutrients and water. As a result, they tend to be
less healthy and to grow less vigorously. To improve the health and productivity of the forest, forest managers may remove a
portion of the trees in the early stages (10-15 years) of a growing stand of trees so there is less competition for sunlight, water
and nutrients. The forest is ‘thinned’ by taking out a certain percentage of the trees. The remaining trees will grow faster,
stronger and larger. The thinning also improves the growth of the forest’s understory such as wildflowers and native weeds by
increasing the amount of sunlight that reaches the forest floor. This growth provides more food and cover for animals such as
quail and rabbits.
This type of harvest is typically referred to as a “pre-commercial” harvest since the costs associated with the forest
management (road maintenance, harvesting, etc.) often equal or outweigh the money earned on the harvested trees for the

landowners. These type of harvests result in pulpwood size trees, which are smaller in diameter than trees that would be made
into lumber.
Clearcut Harvest
Clearcutting removes all the trees in a given area, much like a wildfire, hurricane or other natural disturbance would do. It is
used most frequently in pine forests, which require full sunlight to grow, and in hardwood forests with yellow poplar,
sweetgum, cherry, maple and other species that require full sunlight.
Clearcuts are an efficient way to convert unhealthy stands to healthy, productive forests because they allow forest managers to
control the tree species that grow on the site through natural or artificial regeneration.
While a clearcut removes all canopy cover and is unattractive for a short period of time, it is an effective method for creating
habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Animals that eat insects, such as turkeys and quails, and those that eat annual and
perennial plants, such as bears and deer, thrive in recently clearcut areas. Many creatures also find shelter from weather and
predators in the low growing grasses, bushes and briar thickets that follow this type of harvest. In addition, clearcutting is an
important forest management tool because it can be used to create edges – areas where two habitat types or two ages of the
same habitat meet. Because edges provide easy access to more than one habitat, they usually have more diverse wildlife
communities than large blocks of a single habitat.
A clearcut harvest will produce a mixture of pulpwood and sawtimber products for the forest products industry based on the
size of the trees and whether the trees are softwood (pine) or hardwood (maple, oaks, etc.). Loggers sort the trees onto
different trucks for their different locations. The smaller diameter trees, typically called pulpwood, will head to a paper mill or
energy facility. The larger diameter trees, typically referred to as sawtimber, will be sent to a sawmill. Again, different tree
species (whether softwood or hardwood) are sent to specific markets.
Shelterwood Harvest
In a shelterwood cut, mature trees are removed in two or three harvests over a period of 10 to 15 years. This method allows
regeneration of medium to low shade-tolerant species because a “shelter” is left to protect them. Many hardwoods, such as
oak, hickory and cherry, can produce and maintain seedlings or sprouts in light shade under a partially cut stand. However, the
young trees will not grow and develop fully until the remaining overstory trees are removed.
One benefit to shelterwood harvests is that they provide cover and early successional food sources for wildlife. However, this
method of harvest is not recommended for trees with shallow root systems because the remaining trees are more susceptible
to wind damage after neighboring trees are removed. Another disadvantage to shelterwood cuts is that they require more
roads to be built through the forest, and increase the risk of soil disturbance and damage to the remaining trees during
harvesting.
Seed Tree Harvest

In a seed tree harvest, five or more scattered trees per acre are left in the harvested area to provide seeds for a new forest
stand. These trees are selected based on their growth rate, form, seeding ability, wind resistance and future marketability.
Wildlife benefit from seed tree harvests in much the same way as they do from a clearcut harvest, except that they also reap
the benefits of the seed trees themselves. If left on site indefinitely, seed trees eventually may become snags or downed logs,
which are important habitat components for woodpeckers and many other species. Seed trees are also excellent food sources
and nesting sites for hawks and other birds.
One disadvantage to seed tree harvests is that the remaining trees are at increased risk of damage from wind, lightening, insect
attack and logging of nearby trees. This type harvest may also require the landowner to make future investments in thinning
and competition control because of uncontrolled reseeding.
Group Selection Harvest

Group selection is essentially a small-scale clearcut where groups of trees in a given area are harvested over many years so that
the entire stand has been cut within 40 to 50 years. This method is used primarily on bottomland hardwood stands to harvest
high-quality, top dollar logs. The size of the group cut determines the tree species that are likely to return after the harvest.
Openings that are less than one-fourth acre favor shade-tolerant species, and larger openings favor sun-loving species.
Group selection provides ideal pockets of young vegetation for grouse, deer and songbirds. But because it requires intensive
management and frequent access to all areas of the property, it can be an expensive forest regeneration method.
Single-Tree Selection Harvest

Single-tree selection removes individual trees that are ready for harvest, of low value or in competition with other trees. With
single-tree selection, the forest continuously produces timber and constantly has new seedlings emerging to take the place of
harvested trees. Single-tree selection maintains a late succession forest that benefits many wildlife species such as squirrels and
turkey.
Single-tree selection harvesting is best in small or confined areas for a variety of reasons. One is that this harvesting method
requires more roads. In addition, surrounding trees can be damaged during harvests, and frequent use of logging equipment in
a given area may compact the soil. Sun-loving trees, which are an important source of food for wildlife, do not regenerate well
with single-tree selection, so forest managers must use mechanical or chemical controls to prevent shade-tolerant species from
taking over the site.
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed burning is a forest management practice that benefits certain forests by reducing the amount of leaves, branches
and dead trees accumulated on the forest floor that could fuel a wildfire. In addition to helping control the spread of wildfire,
removal of this “litter layer” also promotes the growth of new forage and succulent plants, which are important sources of food
for many wildlife species including rabbits and deer. And the increase in available insects and seeds following a prescribed fire is
good for turkeys and a variety of nongame species.
While improving wildlife habitat, prescribed fire also promotes the health of the forest by controlling the spread of disease and
insect infestations, and reducing plant competition for nutrients, water and sunlight.
This management technique is commonly used in Longleaf, Shortleaf and Loblolly pine forests because these trees are naturally
resistant to fire. In fact, the Longleaf Pine requires fire for its seeds to germinate.
Reforestation
Trees are a renewable resource. This means that they can be grown, harvested, replanted and harvested again and again in a
never-ending cycle to provide clean air and water, habitat for wildlife, beautiful views and thousands of products both today
and in the future. The process of growing trees on an area that previously has been harvested or cleared is called reforestation.
The two basic methods of reforestation are natural regeneration and artificial regeneration.
Natural regeneration relies on nature to return an area to forestland after trees are harvested. Through natural regeneration,
new trees grow from seeds that are carried by the wind, transported or buried by animals, or that are simply dropped on site by
mature trees. In addition to producing seedlings from seeds, hardwood trees regenerate naturally by sprouting new growth
from the stumps of cut trees.
Artificial regeneration involves human intervention in sowing seeds or planting seedlings. This method of forest renewal has
several advantages over natural regeneration. It provides better control over tree spacing, more control over the species
present in the new forest, the opportunity to plant genetically improved seeds or seedlings, and a higher rate of tree survival.
Although artificial regeneration is more expensive than natural regeneration, the result is usually a more productive stand in a
shorter period of time.

Forest Succession
Each stage of succession provides different benefits to a variety of wildlife species. In fact, many species need more than one
forest type to meet their needs. Rodents and rabbits prefer early successional forest where there are plenty of grasses and
shrubs for food and shelter. Deer also need food found in early succession, but require the denser cover of middle and late
succession for shelter and escape from danger. Birds of prey nest in mature forests, but feed on rodents and snakes found in
early succession. Other wildlife, such as squirrels, find both their food and shelter in mature trees.
Forestry in Pakistan
The forestry sector of Pakistan is a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as food and provide
ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Less than 4% of land in Pakistan is covered with forests.
Statistics
Total forest area coverage (source)
Parameter Pakistan Asia World
Total forest area in 2000 (000 ha) 2,361 504,180 3,869,455
Natural forest area in 2000 (000 ha) 1,381 375,824 3,682,722
Plantations area in 2000 (000 ha) 980 110,953 186,733
Total dryland area in 1981 (000 ha) 72,524 1,078,121 5,059,984
Percentage of forests ~3% ~20% ~29%
Types
1) The coniferous forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Chitral, Swat, Upper Dir, Lower Dir, Malakand,
Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Azad Kashmir and Rawalpindi district of the Punjab are
the main areas covered with coniferous forests. Pindrow Fir(Abies pindrow), Morinda spruce (Picea smithiana),
deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) are the most common varieties.
The Coniferous forests also occur in Balochistan hills. Chilghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) and juniper (Juniperous
macropoda) are the two most common species of Balochistan.
2) The sub-tropical dry forests are found in the Attock, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Jhelum and Gujrat districts of the Punjab,
and in the Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawar and Kohat districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa up to a height of
1,000 m. In Balochistan, they are confined to the Sulaiman Mountains and other hilly areas. Dominant tree species
are phulai (Acacia modesta), kau (Olea cuspidata) and hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa).
3) The tropical thorn forests are dominated by xerophytic scrubs. They are most widespread in the Punjab plains but
also occupy small areas in southern Sindh and western Balochistan. They are mainly used for grazing purposes,
watershed protection and fuelwood. Common species are vann (Salvadora oleoides), khejri (Prosopis cineraria), kair
(Capparis aphylla), etc.
4) The irrigated plantations were first developed in 1866 at Changa Manga in Lahore. Today they occupy about 226,000
ha. Sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo), mulberry/Shahtoot (Morus alba), babul (Acacia nilotica) and species of Eucalyptus
and Populus are the common tree species grown in the irrigated plantations.
5) The riparian forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of River Indus and its tributaries. They are more commonly
found in Sindh and to some extent in the Punjab. Babul (Acacia nilotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax
dioica are the most common species. Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Populus euphratica are some other species. They
are mainly used for lumber.
6) The mangrove wetlands are located in the Indus River Delta. Other saltwater wetlands are located on the coast of
Balochistan such as at Sonmiani and Jiwani. These support mangrove forestry, mainly of species Avicennia marina as
well as bamboo species and marsh grasses of Apluda and Cenchrus.
Ecosystems area by type in 1993 (source)

Ecosystem type Pakistan Asia World
Shrublands, woodlands and grasslands 36% 37% 37%
Sparse or barren vegetation; snow and ice 34% 10% 16%

Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic 28% 34% 20%

Wetlands and water bodies 1% 2% 3%
Uses
The forests of Pakistan are a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as human and animal food. Other
minor products include resin (a fluid in tissue of Chir pine plant that becomes solid on exposure to the air) and 'mazri' (used for
making baskets). The forests also provide for ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Forests have also been planted in
some areas like Thal Desert to avoid soil erosion and further desertification. Riparian zone along the river Indus have been
managed to avoid excess flooding.
Annual production, 1996-1998 (source)

Parameter Pakistan Asia World
Total production (000m³) 31,528 1,111,958 3,261,621
Fuelwood production (000m³) 29,312 863,316 1,739,504
Industrial roundwood production (000m³) 2,217 268,470 1,522,116
Paper (thousand metric tons) 619 88,859 313,206
Deforestation
The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued this sector at Rs.25,637 million in 2005 thus registering over 3% decline of
forests in Pakistan since 2000. The main reasons of deforestation are urbanization, farming, overgrazing, global warming, and
tourism development. This has led to severe consequences desertification, flooding and endangering of wildlife.
As a consequence to deforestation and changing land use patterns, the most critically affected ecosystems of Pakistan are:
Juniper forests of northern Balochistan, have been heavily harvested for timber and fuelwood.
Indus River riparian zone is the other such area where ecological changes have drastically affected the 'Riverain Forests'. Large
tracts have been cleared for agriculture.
The Himalayan temperate forests are also under severe pressure from logging for timber and firewood and making clearings for
agriculture and the increasing population pressure.
Conservation
The protected areas serve the purpose of conserving the forests and wildlife of Pakistan. National Conservation Strategy of
1993 was a major landmark of start of conservation of natural resources and wildlife in Pakistan. Resource-managed man-made
forests like Changa Manga, Kamalia plantation and Chichawatni plantation have also been planted to serve purpose and
conserve forests. Through conservation, a large region of Thal desert has been afforested.
Natural protected forests

Birir Valley Coniferous Forest in Chitral District (also called 'Deodar Chilghoza Oak Forest')
Jhangar Scrub Forest in Chakwal District
Sulaiman Coniferous Forest in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (also called 'Sulaiman Chilgoza Pine Forest')
Ziarat Juniper Forest in Ziarat District
Artificial resource managed forests

Changa Manga Forest in Lahore District
Chichawatni Plantation in Sahiwal District
Khipro Reserve Forest in Sanghar District
Research institutions
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Sheringal, Dir Upper, KPK, DIR
Agricultural Research Institute, Quetta

Punjab Forest School (profile), Bahawalpur

Pakistan Forest Institute (profile), Peshawar
The university of agriculture, Peshawar (http://www.aup.edu.pk/
Sindh Agriculture University, Hyderabad
University of Agriculture (profile), Faisalabad
University of Haripur, Haripur Hazara (khyber pakhtunkhwa) (Pakistan)
Silviculture
Introduction:
Silviculture pertains to the raising, development, care, reproduction and overall management of forest crops.
Definition: If has been defined variously as follows:
By Toumey and Korstain:

Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of stands of
timber.
By Champion and Seth:

The terms silviculture, in English refers only to certain aspects of the theory and practices of raising of forests crops.
By Iffprt (IFR Dehradun)

The art and science of cultivated forests crops. On the other hands, silvics is the study of trees and forests and biological
entities, the laws of their growth and development, and impact of environment on them. Thus, silviculture can be described to
include all practical and theoretical aspects of silvics.
Objects of Silviculture:
Study of silviculture helps to attain the following object:
1) To derive environmental benefits: Soil and water conservation, control of air and noise pollution, wild life
conservation, regulation of climatic condition, regulation of water cycle.
2) Raising species of more economic value: Industrial and economic growth through.
3) Production of high-quality timer: Silviculture techniques help of avoid the problem of crooked, malformed, disease or
defective timber and thus help to produce goods quality timber.
4) Production of more volume per unit area: Unmanaged forests may be too dense or too open, less production,
premature death of trees silviculture helps to solve these problems.
5) Reduction of rotation period: In Unmanaged forests the rotation tends to be longer.
6) Afforestation of blank areas: Waste lands can be used for forests
7) Creation of plantation: Man made forests or plantations may be created in placed of natural forests.
8) Introduction of exotics: Successful introduction of exotic species is possible.
9) Employment potential: In any plantation operation, the labour component account for 60 to 70% of the total financial
input.
10) Increase in the production of fuel and fodder: In development countries like India it is important aspect.
11) Forest Industries: Resin for resin and turpentine industry, pulp wood for paper industry, industrial wood for match
and timber industry, railway, etc, minor forests product based industries.
Silviculture
Silviculture is an important subject of forestry. It is tie forestry as Agronomy in to agriculture, in that it is concerned with the
technology of crop production. It has been defined in a number of ways. Following are the accepted definitions of silviculture.
1. Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of stands of
timber. By Tourney and Karstien

2. Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. By Indian Forest and forest products Teminology (1957)
3. Generally, The science and art of cultivating (e.g. growing and tending) of forest crops, based on a knowledge of silvios. More
particularly, the theory and practice of establishment, composition, constitution and growth of forests. By Society of American
Foresters (1983)
4. Silviculture refers to certain aspects of theory and practice of raising forest crops, methods of raising tree crops, their growth
and after care up to the time of final harvesting. By Rao (1987)
In simple words, Silviculture is the growing and tending stands of trees. Silva is the Latin word for forest and culture for
cultivation. Therefore, without exaggeration, Silviculture is the Real art of forest.
Silviculture is very important and essential when human beings wish to manage the forests.
a. To accelerate the wildlife, timber and forage production.

b. To increase the Recreation values and Watershed values.
Silvicultural Systems
Silvicultural system is defined as (Prakash and Khanna 1979) method of silvicultural procedures workout in accordance with
accepted sets and silvicultural principles by which crops constituting forests are tende, harvested and replaced by new crops of
distinctive forms or a planned Silvicultural treatment which is applied to a forest crop, through-out its life, so that it assumes a
distinctive form.
As silvicultural systems deals with the removal of a forest crop, its replacement by a new crop and distinctive form and it’s
tending, it has following essential characteristics
1) The pattern of felling to be adopted in harvesting a mature crop to be regenerated.

2) The method of regeneration to be adopted.
3) The tending of new crops.
Silvicultural System is special tool or technique for achieving the objects of Forest Management
Object of Silviculture
Silviculture is improved limitation of nature. In nature, we find a large number of species coming up at one place. Some
individuals die out of competition, some attain top canopy while others remain at lower levels. Silvicultural factors are usually
controlled by economic considerations. If there are a large number of species, perhaps a forester would select some of them
which are economically more important. Also the forester may remove the trees which are likely to die out of suppression.
Since our knowledge of economic and natural factor is not perfect, it is not always possible to determine how far to divert from
purely natural course. In nature, succession is a process in which one species or group of species is replaced by another species
or group of species and a stage comes when more stable species appears. The study of silviculture enables the foresters to
know the whole course of natural succession on a given site and also the manner and the speed of existing crop being replaced
or altered. This knowledge helps the foresters to determine where and how to control the succession.
The important objectives of silviculture can be summarised as under:
1. Control of Crop Composition and Production of Species of More Economic Value:

Under natural conditions, a large number of species form the crop inferior or less valuable species may flourish at the expense
of the desirable species. The control is exercised by two ways:
i. By removing or cutting inferior species
ii. By creating more favourable conditions for the regeneration and growth of desirable species.

2. Control of Stand Density, for Production of Maximum Volume:

In the natural forests, trees are likely to grow either too dense or too open. If the trees are too dense-the wood production is
distributed over large number individuals and none of them grow to the optimum size. If the trees are too less, the production
would be less, though individual trees may grow sufficiently with higher dimensions. If the trees are too less, they will not be
able to utilise the site, effectively and may be even inadequate to regenerate the area. Both these conditions are not good for
maximum wood production. Silviculture helps to maintain or retain sufficient number of trees per unit area so that by optimum
use of soil, maximum wood production is ensured. Substantial increase in production can be ensured by thinning dense prop
through salvaging the trees otherwise these trees would have died.
3. Afforestation of Blank and Under Stocked Areas:

There is a large area of forests which is blank or under stocked due to fire, encroachments, illicit fillings, or some natural causes.
These areas are however, suitable to bear tree growth. Silviculture helps us to afforest these areas with suitable trees by
planting or by seedling. Silviculture guides to know the best period of seed collection, nursery technique, plantation details, etc.
to complete afforestation.
4. Production of Quality Timber:

In unmanaged forests, because of intense competition or little competition, quality timber is not produced. A large number of
trees are malformed, defective and sometimes diseased. Proper control of damaging agencies can increase the production.
Insects,fungi,fire,wind, grazing,lopping, etc. which affect the quality of the timber are controlled by suitable Silvicultural
techniques and methods.
5. Control on Rotation Period:

Rotation is counted period in years from regeneration to harvesting. In unmanaged forests, if there are more number of trees,
the growth of individual tree is slow consequently, they take longer period to reach to harvestable size. The knowledge of
silviculture helps to regulate the density of the crop at various sizes / ages which helps to reach exploitable size much faster.
Thus, rotation of a crop can be reduced by regulating the density of the crop. It also helps in identifying short rotation crops.
6. Facilitate Management and Use of Forests:

In unmanaged forests, good forests exist in difficult areas, where it is difficult to manage and harvest the timber. In managed
forests, it is easy to plant the growth and distribution of forests so that the produce is used efficiency and economically. It is
possible to arrange the forest in different localities in such age classes and species composition that management becomes
easy.
7. Creation of Man Made Forests and Introduction of Exotics:

Silvicultural techniques help us to replace wholly or partly, natural forests by man mad forests of the same species or by other
species. If the existing, forest does not contain valuable and the desirable species. It can be planted with such important
species. If the forest consists of desirable species but it is not regenerating properly, it can be harvested and regenerated
artificially. Identification of suitable exotics depending upon geographical location, raising trail, plantations, selection of suitable
exotics species, perfecting the nursery and plantation techniques of the exotics are some of the silvicultural techniques which
help in introduction of exotic species on a large scale.
8. Protection of Site and Intangible Returns:

The main object of silviculture is to provide maximum protection to the site so that intangible returns from the forests are
ensured. Important intangible returns include, moderating climate, increasing precipitation, reducing soil erosion and floods
conserving soil and water increasing water yields providing shelter to a large number of wild animals, etc. Silviculture helps to
understand the requirement of a tree and its effect on the site. The species, which are likely to deteriorate the site, are
discarded. Only such species which afford complete protection to the site and ensure continuous flow of intangible benefits are
preferred.

Problems and Constrains in Forest Development
i. Loss of forest areas for different purposes.

ii. Encroachment of people on forest land.
iii. Cutting due to heavy demand for wood, industry, home fuel
iv. Excessive grazing of animals
v. Fires - incidences / attacks / problems
vi. Shifting cultivation - Tonguya etc.
vii. Inadequate finance
viii. Non - involvement of people
ix. Different projects - irrigation / power / thermal / canals
x. Ecological balance
xi. Man hindrance
Wood-based Industries of Pakistan
Wooden furniture industry in Pakistan: Bright scope for further expansion By Dr. Noor Ahmed Memon
The wooden furniture market is generally divided into the home-use and contract markets. The contract market represents a
significant part of it. And when built-in furniture, which is sold in a package with new homes and condominiums, is included, the
contract market is thought to be huge. Hotels, restaurants, and public facilities represent the backbone of the contract market
for wooden furniture. The office furniture market consists largely of metal furniture and some wooden, thus office furniture
cannot be included in the contact furniture market.
Wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan by a large number of cottage industries spread over rural areas, small towns and
cities. Pakistan's tradition of wood carving has been considerably enriched by the continuing addition of new furniture designs
in vogue overseas. Furniture markets keep themselves well acquainted with the latest design kits. The fast growing furniture
industry is aiming at developing a system designed to incorporate its tradition with modern functional demands, coupled with a
feeling for the quality of the material and of aesthetic values.
The export of furniture which was worth US $3.46 million in 1995-96 decreased to US $3.33 million in 1997-98. Today a large
quantity of wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan at the cottage level. The environment and conditions being
favourable, the wooden furniture industry holds out a bright scope for further expansion.
Furniture items produced in Sindh comprise ordinary chairs, tables, musical instruments and other items like doors and
windows. Since most of the furniture product in this province is simple and heavy in weight, it is crude from the export point of
view, and therefore sold locally especially in areas close to the production centers. Tastefully designed furniture items, made of
superior quality wood, which are light in weight and in knocked-down conditions, are more suitable for export purposes and for
supply to distant markets within the country. But, production of such furniture requires installation of modern machinery and
plants.
The wood furniture industry in Pakistan can be divided into two main types: cottages and small-scale industry. These units
which are not mechanised, use out-dated tools and employ manual labour for production of furniture. There are about 700
registered units in the country. These units are operating on a single shift/300 day's per annum basis.
A number of families in Hala, Kashmore, Khanewal and Dera Ghazi Khan have stuck to the traditional workmanship, despite
sharp fluctuations in the taste of customers. The wood carvers skill is predominantly visible in furniture making apart from
carving wooden ceilings, wooden panels, doors and windows. The oldest single style evolved in NWFP, where craftsmen design
massive pieces, beds, desks chairs, stands, lamps etc. Swati furniture has basically broad seats, heavy legs (chairs) and
geometric floral designs carved in various patterns. A similar but equally vigorous style of wood work has been developed in the
Peshawar Valley. Traditional Peshawari furniture is still liked for its sturdy look and bold ornamentation.

Unlike the Swati and Peshawari furniture, which is made from oak, deodar and partial wood, the wood-carvers of Azad Kashmir
and some parts of the Frontier province use walnut wood. Kashmiri craftsmen are famous all over the world for producing a
number of elegant furniture items.
Carved shisham tables come in numerous shapes; the tops may be rectangular, square, circular, polygonal or palm shaped;
which rest on four straight legs or on a single pillar. These are the specialties of the craftsmen of Chiniot (Punjab).
Jacquard work is a popular traditional craft of Sindh. The articles such as table lamps, chairs, and sofa sets, produced by the
lacquer industries of Hala in Hyderabad district and Kashmore in the Jacobabad district, are very popular. There was a time
when lacquer work furniture was used by villagers only - bed legs, low chairs, into the modern homes of the rich in cities.
Export of furniture decreased to US $3.33 million in 1997-98 from US $3.46 million in 1995-96, thus showing decline of 4 per
cent. Country-wise export of furniture is given in table. Pakistan's wooden furniture industry has a great export potential and in
quality is inferior to none. The domestic markets is very vast and varied. However, export to Japan's markets has great
potential. No tariffs are levied on furniture or furniture components. The largest obstacle to imports of furniture into Japan is
size. Western furniture is often rejected because it is too large for Japanese consumers.
Traditionally, Japan's furniture market has been heavily dependent on the so-called box furniture. This type of market,
however, is gradually fading away. Instead, the focus of home-use furniture demands shifting to furniture sets for reception
rooms. The increasing adopting of western housing and interior designs will further accelerate this trend. Many single family
dwellings and condominiums come with built-in furniture such as walk-in closets. On the other hand, Japanese consumers have
a traditional attachment to wood. They dislike the presence of knots in the furniture surface, and expect from manufacturers to
perform careful finishing of all parts, even those that cannot be seen. Hence, products that emphasises the beauty of the
woodgrain will be an important key to success.
Although the wooden furniture industry is cottage based, a few units have recently established modern automatic plants for
furniture making. Success in the contract market requires the ability to propose interior design concepts and design furniture
that matches these concepts. The ability to manufacture products with extremely short lead times is also a necessity.
Moreover, since unit prices are much lower in the contract market than in the home-use market, only the larger manufacturers
are able to tender bids for large projects. These manufacturers, with their accumulated expertise, advanced design skills, ability
to propose total interior concepts, and mass production facilities, have an overwhelming competitive advantage over small
businesses in the field.
The demand for furniture has been rising constantly for domestic as well as export purposes, and it has been estimated that it is
likely to maintain a growth rate of approximately 10 per cent annum by the end of 2003. To meet the growing demand,
improved designs and by suing seasoned wood has good prospects in the domestic as well as foreign markets.
Forestry's Importance in National Economy
Forests are valuable assests to the nation. They provide timber, fire-wood, forage and medicinal plants. These help in
conservation of soil fertility and thus enhance its productivity. They also provide the vital coverage to the country's water sheds
and regulate supply of water. They also sustain the country's wild life and provide recreational facilities. These materials
support and sustain such important industries as paper, news prints, match, plywood, hardboard, pulp rayon, sports goods and
a host of cottage industries. Forests also induce better rainfall in arid regions.
Man's dependence on trees for the essential of his existence has been of paramount importance in his life since the human race
began. To-day almost all the necessities of life are in one way or the other connected with the forest wealth. Besides glorifying
the beauty of nature, the trees prove to be helpful to the economy. The economic growth of an agricultural country like ours is
dependent on heavy plant production and its wide distribution. The trees help the industrial revolution in a big way and provide

excellent raw materials for industry. The wooded area in our country is 4.5 percent of the total which is very insufficient. The
universally desirable standard is 20 percent. Our annual requirement of wood is about 22 million cubic feet of timber and we
hardly produce 11 million cubic feet and the balance has to be imported in foreign exchange. The total area of the country is
197 million acres, of which forest area constitutes only about 72 lakh acres. Moreover, only 47 lakh acres or 2.4 percent of the
total has been classified as productive forests. It is estimated that with an increase of 50,000 acres per year in future
afforestation programme, it will required about 100 years to raise the present meagre forest area by about another 2.5 percent.
Trees are beneficial to mankind in many ways. They help to improve the environment. Trees can help to control water and wind
erosion, serve to regulate temperatures in the cropping zone, supply wood, influence the cycling of nutrients significantly, fix
atmospheric nitrogen, compete with crops for light, water and nutrients, influence biological equlibria involving pests and their
natural enemies. Some woody plants such as Acacia arabica, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sisso and Zizyphus mauritiana are
grown in or on borders of the cultivated fields, which have come economic values. As regards fruit bearing trees, we have the
example of our neighbouring country India. A large number of these trees live at public roads and highways. Perhaps the
tradition emanates from the earliest grand trunk road, where shaddy trees, laden with fruit, were planted along the road for
the benefit of mankind. To plant trees is to ensure for the community unending social, economic and environmental
advantages. It is bequeath what our Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) described as Sadqa-i-Jariya.
Unfortunately, ours is wood deficit country. Although, our efforts over the past four decades have enabled us to increase the
forest area from 2 to 5 percent, our wood resources still lag far behind our requirements. We have to spend Rs.1.75 billion
every year on imports. Trees are like jewels strung around the earth. They add to the beauty and glitter of our planet on the
one hand and fulfil our innumerable needs on the other. They add fragrance and colour to enliven the environment which
motivates man towards creativity. Like all other living beings, trees, too bow to Allah Almighty in prayer and praise. It will,
therefore, be sinful to pluck even one leaf unnecessarily. That would affect the enviornmental balance of our planet.
No serious effort was made in the past to increase the number of trees. A larger number were cut down, while fewer were
planted. To-day, only five percent of our land is dotted with trees. It is not enough to merely plant trees in fields and gardens
and on farms and orchards and along roods and canals. They have to watered, nursed and protected till they are full grown
trees. Many species are planted as ornamentals or shade trees such as cordia obliqua, Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Morus
alba, Tamarix ophylla and Dalberyia sissoo, mangifera indica, Tamarix aphylla, Zizyphus nummularia. Some of the important
trees species grown in Pakistan are poplar, mulbery, Eucalyptus, Pinus radita, hard and soft wood tree species. Other trees are
deodar, Fir, Chir Spuree, Keo, Phulai, pine, Babool, Shisham, Lignum etc.
The average annual per hectare yield for the wooded forest are in Pakistan is 0.21 cum. as compared to 1.65 cum. in case of UK
and 1.19 cum. in USA. For increasing potential yield and area the plants based on realistic strategy evolved are: Management of
forests on scientific basis, introduction of social forestry, Planning of waste and denuded lands in high rainfall areas, raising
industrial wood species on suitable soil.
Raising and extension of nurseries to provide adequate plants to planting agencies and farmers have been considered as
essential attributes which need to be implemented under strong and vigilant insight. Forests make an enormous contribution to
the environmental stability on the one hand and play a very significant role in food security for millions of people on the other.
A very important link between food production and forest is the role of trees in keeping intact the fragile eco-system in the
watersheds as well as the low rainfall zones of a country. Excessive deforestation not only causes soil erosion and
disappearance of rich agriculture land but also because of its effect on the water regime, is a major drought threat to the
agriculture in the areas situated downstream. Keeping in view so much significance it would be appropriate to say that forest
play an important role in the economy of the country. However, Pakistan is extremely deficient in forest resources. The forest
area for the last four decades has remained almost static. Pakistan has nearly 4.5 percent of the area under forest. This
percentage is too low as compared with an optimum desired level of 20 to 25 percent.
A tree cover breaks the velocity of the raindrops before falling on the ground, this substantially reducing the kinetic energy
which is otherwise so great that soil many times the volume of raindrop would be disrupted and eroded. Of all the natural
resources gifted to the mankind, sunlight, soil and water are the most important ones. These resources have sustained the
existence of man from the very beginning but in recent years with increasing population, the demand of food has increased
enormously. Out of the total earth are of 510 million square kilometers, water is spread over 360 million square kilometers

making 150 million square kilometers of land available for man's use. The earth receives about 10 million kilocalories of solar
energy per square meter per year. Out of this only 1 to 2 percent is absorbed by the plants and in turn, the net plant production
is about 0.3 percent of the light reaching the land surface. The optimum utilization of natural resources in general and effect of
forests in particular are of vital importance to mankind.
In earlier times, when the rate of growth of population was very low, man was free to utilize the natural resources wastefully.
With the increase in population and society becoming more industrialized and urbanized, man has no other alternative but to
put greater demands on natural resources, including water, land, vegetation, animals, etc. causing cutting and encroaching of
forests, increasing pollution and this disturbing the ecological system. Although, Pakistan's forested areas are relatively small
compared to the land under cultivation and desert, the forests are of vital importance. Pakistan's forests are of basic natural
resource which provides food, fodder for cattle, fuel wood, wood for building and other materials; they provide shelter and
protection, and are source of income and employment, providing oxygen to the air we breath and influencing the climate. They
protect the soil against erosion and help to prevent flood and desertification.
Wood is an important source of energy and in Pakistan the shortage of fuel wood alone presents an energy crisis for rural
population which may be as profound and intractable than that connected with oil. To day, Pakistan has only 4.75 percent of
the area under forests as compared to a desired level of 20-25 percent. There is a great need for increasing forests for the
betterment of the country. Wood is at present, mainly used for construction, timber and fuel wood purposes. Only a small
quantity is used for manufacturing industrial carriages, boat building, pencils, coal mine timbering products e.g matches, sport
goods, plywood, particle board, bus and truck body buildings, railways etc. However forestry as it exists today in Pakistan is
generally characterized lack of adequate area under forests, very low per capita consumption of wood and use of outdated
forest technology in planting and harvesting operations. There are a number of factors responsible for this state of affairs.
Firstly, Pakistan inherited a very small forest area at the time of independence. Secondly, most of the land area in Pakistan is
arid and received low precipitation on which natural tree growth is not possible without artificial irrigation. Further, in view of
importance of agriculture, forestry development was given low priority despite the fact that population has increased three-
fold with the concomitant rise in living standard of the people during this period. Research is essential for the development of
technology in any field which is suitable for local conditions.
Part 2: Chapter 7&8 Types of Forestry
Forestry - Definition and Types of Forestry

Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and scientific management of
forests and the utilization of their resources (Anon, 1966). It includes all thinking and all actions pertaining to creation and
management of forests, including harvesting, marketing and utilization of all forest products and services. It includes not only
management of existing forests but also the creation of new forests.
National Forest Policy of 1952, recommended that on the basis of Functions, all forest lands may be classified into:
A. Protection Forests
B. National Forests
C. Village Forests
C. Tree Lands
National Commission of Agriculture (1976) proposed that forests can be classified into:
A. Protection Forests:
The practices of managing the forests for their protection function are called Protection forestry. In protection forestry, the
object is to protect the site due to instability of terrain, nature of soil, geological formations, etc. Such areas where
manipulation of the forest cover is not desirable may be classed as protection forests. The forests located on higher hill slopes,
national parks and sanctuaries, preservation plots, biosphere or nature reserves and wilderness areas may be included under
protection forests. The practice of forestry with a view to conserving flora, fauna, soil and water, increasing water yields,
reducing floods and droughts, amelioration of climatic conditions, etc. is called Protection Forestry.
B. Production Forests:

The practice of forestry with object of producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel wood and other forest produce is called
Production Forestry. The production forestry can be further classified into:
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel wood and other forest products
as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. In Production forestry, there is a
greater concern for the production and economic returns.
(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests
C. Social Forests: Social Forestry is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the requirement of rural and urban
population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic needs of community aiming at bettering the conditions of living
through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns
Various forms of Social forestry are:

a) Community Forestry: The practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area for the benefit of local population
has been called Community forestry. Community forestry seeks the involvement of community in the creation and
management of such forests.
b) Farm Forestry: Farm Forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms of village lands generally
integrated with other farm operations.
c)Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm lands, villages wastelands and
community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads, canal banks and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there
has been emphasis on dynamic land use planning and efforts are made to maximise production on farmlands under
agroforestry.
d) Agro-Forestry: Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system which increases the yield of the
land, combines the production of crops and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of
land and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
e) Recreational Forestry: More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational forestry, which is defined as the
practice of forestry with the object of developing and maintaining forests of high scenic value. Recreational forests are being
developed near towns and cities. The areas are being planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide forest
atmosphere near towns and cities.
Branches of Forestry
Mainly, the forestry has been grouped as follows:
1. Basic Forestry
2. Applied Forestry
1. Basic Forestry: Basic Forestry deals with the theory and practice of constitution and management of forests and utilization of
their products. Agriculture is the study of science and art of production of plants and animals used by man In India, the
geographical, areas is about 32,80,500 km2. The forests occupy about 7,50,000 km2. (22.9% approximately) whereas
agricultural (cultivated) area is about 46% However, agriculture is the largest enterprise in India. Nearly, 70% of the population
is employed in this profession. But unfortunately, in spite of this, it is not able to meet the requirements of ever-increasing
population. Forestry, just like agriculture, is a good professional with the difference of long life-span.
Basic Forestry has the following Branches:

A) Silviculture: This refers to certain aspects to theory and practise of raising forest, crops, methods of raising tree, their growth
and after-cares up to the time of final harvesting. However, in simple words, it is the cultivation of forest trees.
B) Forest Mensuration: In simple language, it is the measurement of forest produce. However, it is defined as the determination
of dimensions (e.g. height, diameter, volume, etc.) from, volume, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods,
either standing or after felling. It concerns with linear area, volume and weight measurements.
C) Silvicultural Systems: A Silvicultural system can be defined as a method of Silvicultural procedure worked out in accordance
with accepted sets of Silvicultural principles by which crops constituting forests are tended, harvested and replaced by new
crops of distinctive forms.
D) Forest Management: It is the practical application of science, technique, and the economics to a forest estate for the
production of some wanted results. In actual sense, it is the application of business methods to the operation of a forest
estate. The Society of American Foresters (SAF) has described it as an application of business methods and technical forestry
principles to the operation of a forest property.
E) Forest Utilization: It is a branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, conversion, disposal and use of forest produce
(British Common Wealth Forest Terminology, 1953.).According to SAF (1983) it is a branch of forestry concerned with the
harvesting, any necessary processing, and delivery to the consumer of forest produce.
F) Forest Law: Law includes any rule of action. The rules and law imposed by the state up on the actions of its citizens for the
breach of which they are punishable. Forest law is classified as:
a) Constitutional laws
b) Public laws
c) Private laws; Very essential for protection of forest; Some terms - Forest offence / Forest right / Forest settlement
d) Forest wild life Act WL (protection ) Act 1972 Animals / bird.
G) Forest Policy: Branch of forestry concerned essentially, with social and economic aims underlying forest management and
forestry development (SAF - 1983)
2. Applied Forestry: This includes those subjects which how the references to other subject but make the essence of, forestry
Dendrology, Forest Ecology, Forest Economy, Forest Entomology, Forest Fire, Forest Genetics, Forest Pathology, Forest Seed
technology, Forest soils, Forest statistics, Forests surveying, Remote sensing
Social Forestry-Social Resent

i. Agroforestry
ii. Forestry Extension
iii. Afforestation
iv. Recreation Forestry etc.
Some Other Forestry Branches:

1. Aesthetic forestry
2. Commercial Forestry
3. Community Forestry
4. Extensive Forestry
5. Farm Forestry
6. Extensive Forestry
7. Multiple use Forestry.
Introduction to Agroforestry

Social forestry pertains to those areas and forest which are manmade. Agroforestry is conspicuously and important part of
Social forestry and is it a dual system of production i.e. production of forest crops and food crops, fodders or medicinal plant
becomes possible. It meets simultaneously at least two requirements of the participating persons. Agroforestry is defined as a
sustainable land management system which increase the overall yield of land, combined with the production of crops (including
tree crops) and forest plants and animal simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of applies management practices that
are compatible with the cultural practice of the local population. Thus in Agroforestry co-existence of farm and forestry is
adopted on a scientific basis and consequently, the total yield of land is raised significantly.
Agro-forestry is an old concept. Trees, crops and animals have traditionally been raised together on small farms throughout the
World. This concept first derived in the temperate zone due to the small family farms, as a result trees, crops and animals
become separately managed on a large scale in modern agriculture and forestry.
In our country the functional allocation on land is 46.4% for Agriculture and 22.7% area for forestry is not sufficient for meeting
the multi ferrous requirement of growing population for food, fodder and fuel and other raw materials. The only answer
appears to be to integrate the land used for agriculture and forestry in such a way as to maximize production of foods and
services for diverse requirements rural communities.
Modern Agro-forestry establishes a symbiosis among agricultural crops tree species and livestock rising. In other words, these
are complementary and beneficial to each other.
In short conventionally there had been separation between Agriculture and Silviculture. From immemorial on a limited scale a
combination of food crops and forest crops had been adopted in land management by the farmers throughout the world,
however due to steep rise in the demand for fuel wood and food, due to increase of population, present and early and urgent
necessity to adopt the scientific approach on a large scale to the dual system of production or co-existence of forestry and farm
council of research for FAO set Agroforestry in 1878 and it is a landmark in history in Agro-forestry. Growing of forest crops
along with food grains in dual system has been extensively being adopted world over by the farmer.
Agro-forestry is defined as an efficient, integrated and sustainable land use system that combines Agricultural crops, Forest
corps and / or Livestock together on the unit of farmland at the same time or in sequential manner. In an Agroforestry there are
both ecological and economical interactions between the various components.
Agro-forestry is collective name for land used systems involving trees combined with crops and / or animals on the same unit of
land.
It combines production of multiple outputs with protection of resources.
It places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs.
It is particularly suitable for low input conditions and fragile environment.
It is structurally and functionally more complex than mono culture (single crop culture) the cycle of Agroforestry system is
always more than one year.
Objectives of Agro-forestry
1) To manage land efficiently so that its productivity is increased and restored.
2) To use available resources efficiently and economically
3) To generate employment opportunities for rural peoples.
4) To provide raw material for small cottage industries in rural areas.
5) To raise the supply of fuel in the rural areas at convenient distance for consumer. In India 70 million tons of dried cow dung is
used every year, which can be diverted for natural organic fertilizer moreover undue pressure is on traditional forest for
obtaining fuel wood.
6) Agro-forestry aims to raise the supply for small timber used by villages for agricultural implements, house construction and
other domestic purposes. In this way Agroforestry can meet this requirement of the rural population and reduce pressure on
forest.
7) One of the main objectives of Agroforestry is to raise the production of food crops, legumes and tuber to meet the rapidly
growing food requirements of the Indian population.

8) Agroforestry aims at promoting production of, vegetables, pulses, milk and meat. Thus it can raise the Nutritional value of
food, which is urgently, require for mankind in our country. Average Indian gets 2000 calories when 3000 calories require per
day.
9) Agro-forestry program helps in obtaining an ecological balance in rural areas and thus it may be consider a matter of great
significance for a country like India.
10) Preservation of humidity in cultivable lands and check soil erosion. Increase productivity of land. In drought prone areas
Agroforestry reduces insecurity of the agriculture; in such areas the dual system of production of tree and grasses ensures
stability with productivity of land.
11) Supply of fodder for vast population of livestock. For proper feeding to livestock increase supply of fodder is urgently
required. Large supply of milk and meat is achieved from livestock and poultry when fodder and feeding is proper.
Benefits from Agro-forestry

Combining trees with food crops on cropped farms yield certain environmental benefits such as,
1. Reduction of pressure on Forrest.
2. More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site.
3. Better protection of ecological systems.
4. Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion.
5. Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soils surface temperature and reduction of evaporation of soil moisture
due to mulching and shading.
6. Increment in soil fertility through addition and decomposition of litter fall.
Economical Benefits:
Agro-forestry brings significant economic benefits to the farmers, the community, the region and the nation such as:
1. Increment in outputs of food, fodder, fuel wood, timber and organic matter.
2. Reduction in incidence of total crop failure.
3. Increase in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.
Social Benefits:
1. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
2. Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food.
3. Provides stability to rural peoples.
4. Ecological balance.
5. Pollution reduction.
Limitations of Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry does have Certain Negative Aspects:

1. Possible competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrient which may reduce crop yield.
2. Damage to food crops during harvesting of trees.
3. Potential of trees is serving as hosts to insects and birds.
4. Rapid regeneration of profile trees may displace food crops and take over entire fields.
Through skilled management practices any or all these aspects can be controlled. For example, once it is known that trees
complete with food crops and may reduce food yields, it is easy to adopt some of the following strategies.
1. Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sunlight will reach the food crops.
2. Select trees that are deep-rooted so that they will also absorb moisture and nutrients from the deeper subsoil.
3. Space the trees further apart to reduce their competitive effect on the food crop.
Other Agroforestry System
In which following systems are included,

a) Horti-pastoral System: Cultivation of Horticultural crops plus pastures.
b) Agri-Horti-Pastoral System: In this system, in the marginal lands the fruit crops like Mango, Ber, Anona, Jamun, Tamrind,
Wood apple etc. are taken along with forest trees and the food grains like, Peas, Gram, Wheat, Rice, Vegetables are taken.
c) Apiculture with Trees: In this system, the flowering trees like Kanchan Jacaranda Spathodia, Erythrina, Krate sawar, Palas are
planted for producing the honey in addition to Jamun, Mahuha, Ecualyptus like trees are also planted for honey collection.
d) Aqua Forestry: Plants grown on the boundary around fish ponds like Casuriana, Coconut, Arecanut, Kokum, Babhul, Bamboo,
etc.
e) Multipurpose Wood Lots: The specific multipurpose trees are grown mixed or separately on the farm like Australin babhul,
Euclayputs, Subabhul, Bakan, Bamboo etc.
Kinds of Land and Site for Agro and Farm Forestry
The following type of land and sites can be assigned for Agroforestry
(I) Field boundaries

(II) Along with farm roads
(III) Along with nala sites
(IV) Land on which cultivation is difficult
(V) Old fallow lands
(VI) Cultivable wasteland
(VII) Site of cattle shade, kitchen farm, farms of house etc.
Introduction to Social Forestry
Social forestry may be defined as the science and art of growing trees in and outside traditional forest areas and managing like
existing forest with intimate involvement of the people and more or less integrated with other operation resulting in balanced
and complementary land used with view to provide wide range of goods and services to the individual as well as to the society.
It is also called as Community forestry. The term social forestry was first used by a forest scientist named Westoby in 1976.
Social forestry is the greatest instrument of land transformation. Consider the number of trees, which we have if each farmer
raises even 10 trees on his farmland. The figure and yield will be colossal and its effect on economy will be very impressive. If
each tree is harvested say at the 10th year, the farmer having 10 trees will earn nearly Rs.400 at Rs.40 a tree. This is with an
initial expenditure of about Rs. 10 only. This increases the area under trees for the benefit of community as a whole and rural
community in particular.
Development of trees on agricultural and other waste lands has tremendous effect. The trees control sheet, rill and gully
erosion, they retain moisture in soil, provide the farmer with fuel and timber for agricultural implements, improve the climate,
provide recreation to people, save cow dung for manure and wood required for cremation which is scarce sometime. Fuel alone
to the extent of 90 million tones is consumed annually and it is estimated that more than 180 million tons of fuel will be
needed. Again, it is said that about 400 million tons of cow dung equivalent to about 60 million tons of fuel wood are burnt
annually in or country. That means the total fuel wood requirement will be to the order of 240 million tones. With forest yield
being diverted for industrial purposes and their extent dwindling year by year, the only possible recourse for us will be make
the farmer to grow trees on his farms.
Social Forestry Practices
The Social Forestry Practices Include:
1) Raising wind breaks on the dry farm lands

2) Planting shelter belts

3) Planting along road sides intensively

4) Planting up the village common lands and wastelands
5) Planting along railway lines and canal banks
6) Planting small wood lots on the farm if it is large
7) Planting of grooves near villages and along highways for recreation and rest
8) Planting foreshore areas of irrigation tanks
9) Planting of saline and calcareous soils unsuitable for agriculture
10) Reclamation of waterlogged areas or areas susceptible to inundation by planting trees
11) Planting of river and stream banks and training the rivers
12) Reclamation of highly eroded lands and controlling erosion
13) Raising of trees on soil conservation bunds
14) Planting of trees in urban areas - environmental planting
15) Raising of irrigated plantation of teak and mulberry
16) Afforestation of command areas of irrigation projects.
Methods of Practice of Social Forestry:

Social forestry may sub divided into farm forestry, extension forestry and urban forestry. Practice of forestry on farm lands is
farm forestry. Practice of forestry outside the farm lands and outside the reserve forests is extension forestry.
Farm Forestry: Includes, rising of wind breaks, shelter, belts, and farm wood kots, raising trees in village common land etc
Extension Forestry: Includes raising tree crops on canal banks, railway lines- and road sides, under high tension electric lines,
afforestation of foreshore areas of tanks and reservoirs, reclaiming lands unsuitable for agriculture under tree crops.
Urban Forestry: Rising of tree crops in urban, areas L as a forest or for amenity planting, to prevent and minimize pollution.
By now it is well appreciated that there is essential need for social forestry programme and farm forestry development.
Benefits of Social Forestry

1) Betterment of environment
2) Reduction of pollution
3) Providing the basic needs of rural and urban people for fuel, small timber, manure leaf and other economic products nearer
to home
4) Providing raw materials for industries such as wood, wool, packing cases, slate frames, fibre, tamarind extract, oil seeds,
pulping and husking material
5) Provide shelter for insectivorous birds on the farms
6) Protection from wind
7) Conservation of moisture
8) Prevention of soil erosion
9) Fullest utilization of land unsuitable for cultivation
10) Employment opportunities in rural and urban area
11) Reduction of noise
12) Recreation
13) Reduction of pressure on national forests
14) Achievement of self-sufficiency by the villages
15) Improvement of rainfall by induction precipitation
Types of Forests
Tropical rainforests
Hugely dense, lush forest with canopies preventing sunlight from getting to the floor of the forest
All year high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Located near the equator
A vital storehouse of biodiversity, sustaining millions of different animals, birds, algae and fish species

Sub-tropical forests
Located at the south and north of the tropical forests
Trees here are adapted to resist the summer drought
Mediterranean forests
Located at the south of the temperate regions around the coasts of the Mediterranean, California, Chile and Western Australia
The growing season is short and almost all trees are evergreen, but mixed with hardwood and softwood
Temperate forests
Located at Eastern North America, Northeastern Asia, and western and eastern Europe
Mix of deciduous and coniferous evergreen trees
Usually, the broad-leaved hardwood trees shed leaves annually
There are well-defined seasons with a distinct winter and sufficient rainfall
Coniferous forests
Located in the cold, windy regions around the poles
They come in both hardwoods and conifers
The hardwoods are deciduous
The conifers are evergreen and structurally adapted to withstand the long drought-like conditions of the long winters
Montane forests
Known as cloud forests because they receive most of their precipitation from the mist or fog that comes up from the lowlands
Usually found in high-elevation tropical, subtropical and temperate zones
Plants and animals in these forests are adapted to withstanding the cold, wet conditions and intense sunlight
Trees are mainly conifers
Plantation forests
Has around 7% of global forest cover (140 million hectares)
Produces more sustainable timber and fibre than natural forests
Plantations produce around 40% of industrial wood
Plantation forests are on the increase
Regeneration of Forest
The renewal of a forest by some means (e.g. natural or artificial) is known as regenerations. The regeneration has been defined
in a number of ways by several workers.
1) "The renewal of a forest crops by natural or artificial means; also the new crop so obtained".
2) Regeneration as, "The renewal by self-sown seed or by vegetative means." It is of two types viz., Natural regeneration and
Artificial regeneration.
Methods of Regeneration:
There are following methods of regeneration of forest:
A) Natural Regeneration,
B) Artificial regeneration and
C) Natural regeneration supplemented by Planting.
However, first two methods are most important in regeneration of forests.

A) Natural Regeneration: The renewal of a forest crop, by self-sown seed, or by coppice or root-suckers, also the crop so
obtained or also it can be defined as Reforestation of a stand by natural seeding.
B) Artificial Regeneration: It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting, or other artificial methods; also the
crop so obtained or the renewal of a tree crop by direct seeding, or planting.

Part 2: Chapter 10: National Forest Policy
I. Preamble
National Forest Policy (NFP) provides a framework for the sustainable management of forests and allied natural resources,
namely watersheds, rangelands, wildlife and associated biodiversity. The policy seeks to launch a process of addressing
fundamental causes of forest depletion through active participation of all stakeholders, particularly local communities, to
maintain and improve ecosystem functions and services of forests and allied natural resources. It is an umbrella policy
providing guidelines to the Federal and Provincial Governments, Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) and
administrations of Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Gilgit Baltistan territories for protection, conservation, and
sustainable management of Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) for devising policies, strategies and action plans specific to
their priorities, needs, socio-economic and ecological conditions.
II. Goal
The policy aims at restoration, development, conservation and sustainable management of forests and allied natural resources
to ensure sustainability of ecosystem functions, services and benefits for present and future generations of Pakistan.
III. Objectives
The following basic objectives shall govern achieving goal of the National Forest Policy:
1. Restoration and maintenance of natural forests to preserve ecological cycles, functions and services.
2. Increasing productivity of forests to meet requirements of timber, fuel wood, fodder and non-wood forest products
and to promote sustainable natural resource based livelihoods.
3. Encouraging efficient utilization of wood and non-wood forest products, maximizing wood substitution and
development of alternative renewable energy resources.
4. Development of forest resource base to enhance carbon sequestration capacity and mitigation of climate change
effects, through massive afforestation programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands.
5. Mainstreaming sustainable forest management into sectoral policies, plans and programmes, ensuring effective inter-
provincial and inter-ministerial coordination at Federal and provincial levels.
6. Conservation of biological diversity, protection and sustainable use of indigenous flora and fauna.
7. Fostering public-private partnerships to enhance forest cover and promote commercial forestry in private sector and
encouraging role of civil society organizations.
8. Strengthening forestry education and research institutions to cope with the emerging challenges of deforestation and
climate change.
9. Creating mass awareness and involving local communities in sustainable natural resource management.
10. Meeting national obligations under Multilateral Environmental Agreements especially CBD, UNCCD, UNFCCC and
UNFF.
IV POLICY MEASURES
The objectives of this policy shall be achieved through following measures:
1. Reducing Adverse Impacts of Socio-Economic Causes
1.1 Protection of Forest Lands from Encroachments
A GIS/Remote Sensing based system shall be developed to establish and monitor boundaries of forest lands and
changes in tree cover in the country, in order to address issues of deforestation and changes in land use. The Provincial
Governments shall ensure mutation of state forestlands, maintenance of proper revenue record, demarcation and
establishment of permanent boundary pillars.
1.2 Transfer of Forest Land to Non-Forestry Uses: Federal, Provincial and territorial governments will ensure that no
forest land shall be converted to any non-forestry uses. In case such conversion is inevitable, permission for transfer
shall be granted by the Federal Government on the recommendation of the respective provincial/ territorial
government, subject to the condition that proper arrangements are made for provision of alternate land and funds

for compensatory afforestation. Any diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes should be subject to most
careful scrutiny by specialists from the stand point of social and environmental costs and benefits. Necessary
legislation to curb the practice of forest conversions to non-forestry uses shall be promulgated.
1.2.1 Control of Encroachments : Forest encroachments are on the increase and this trend has to be curbed through
effective legislation and law enforcement. There should be no regularization of existing encroachments.
1.2.2 Forest Fire Management: The incidence of fires in mountain forests is high leading to enormous damage to the
growing stock and natural regeneration. Special precautions and improved management practices should be adopted to deal
with forest fires.
1.2.3 Regulating Mining and Quarrying: Mining and quarrying in designated forest lands and lands covered by trees should
be allowed only after ensuring that the beneficiaries shall repair and re-vegetate the area in accordance with established
forestry practices. No mining lease should be granted, private or public, without proper EIA and management plan, appraised
from the environmental angle and enforced by adequate set-up.
1.3 Bringing Additional Land under Tree Cover: The concept of social forestry, farm forestry, agro-forestry will be
promoted by providing appropriate incentives to the farmers. Tree planting, soil stabilization and watershed
management will be an integral component of all Federally funded projects for construction of new dams, water
reservoirs, roads, railways, canals, industrial estates, housing schemes, etc. The corporate sector shall be motivated to
participate in afforestation campaigns under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and under obligation to sequester
green house gases emitted from the industrial processes.
1.4 Firewood Substitution: In order to reduce pressure on natural forests, alternate energy resources including energy
plantations, micro-hydro power generation, bio-gas, solar and wind energy, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and natural
gas shall be promoted in critical mountain ecosystems. Fuel efficient cooking stoves and energy efficient houses shall
be promoted throughout the country.
1.5 Sustainable livelihoods through Integrated NRM
Government of Pakistan shall assign high priority to development programmes aiming at sustainable livelihood for local
communities through integration of forestry component with projects and programmes of other economic sectors including
agriculture, water, tourism, housing, communication.
1.6 Transparency and Good Governance: National, provincial and local governments shall ensure adequate institutional
mechanisms for ensuring career protection and safety of Forestry professionals in the discharge of their official duties,
keeping in view transparency and accountability at different levels.
1.7 Wood Substitution and import liberalization: In order to reduce pressure on natural forests, use of solid timber of
precious tree species like deodar and shisham for construction and furniture should be discouraged in government buildings. A
programme for promotion of composite wood, non-wood and synthetic wood products in construction of government buildings
may be launched. As a major step towards wood substitution and import liberalization, the Government will exempt timber
imports from all types of taxes, including sales tax.
1.8 Grazing Regulation
Heavy, indiscriminate and ubiquitous grazing being one of major cause of degradation of forests and allied natural resources,
programmes to promote regulated (controlled) grazing, stall feeding and breed improvement shall be launched in collaboration
with Livestock Division, Government of Pakistan and Provincial Livestock Departments.
1.9 Forest Development Fund
A Forest Development Fund will be established at Federal level for conservation and development of critical watersheds in
uplands, on which sustained supply of the nation’s water depends. Part of such fund shall also be used for promotion of
forestry research, education and extension in the country.

2. Institutional Strengthening
Improvement and strengthening of Federal and provincial institutions responsible for education, research, management and
extension of forestry and allied disciplines in the country will receive high priority. The institutions will be restructured to
enable them to handle present day challenges and responsibilities. Pakistan Forest Institute will also be gradually transformed
into a University of Forests and Natural Resource Sciences. National Forestry Council will be established as a think tank on
forest policy, maintain and monitor academic and professional standards in forestry and allied disciplines. Office of Inspector
General Forests will be strengthened to discharge the mandated functions including planning and policy making, inter-
provincial and inter-ministerial coordination, finacing and international cooperation. Special resources will be allocated to
effectively deal with the new challenges like climate change through capturing emerging opportunities under Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) and Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation ( REDD).
3. Role of Local Governments in Sustainable Management of Natural Resources: The local governments shall be
provided with adequate financial and institutional support for promotion of forests and allied natural resources in
their rural development programmes.
4. Measures for Specific Forest Ecosystems: A number of important ecosystems in the country have been depleted due
to variety of factors. Adequate arrangements will be made for conservation and restoration of the following fragile
ecosystems:
4.1 Mountain Forests: Mountain forest ecosystems are critically important to Pakistan. They provide a carbon sink to
mitigate global warming, act as repositories of invaluable biodiversity, safeguard water supplies, retard loss of soil and
water from watersheds, thereby reducing siltation of water storage reservoirs, and afford sustenance to large number
of human communities and their livestock. The conservation and sustainable management of mountain forest
ecosystems shall be ensured through following interventions;
4.1.1 Sustainable Management in Reserved, Protected, Guzara and Private Forests : Ban on commercial harvesting,
imposed in 1993 by the Federal Cabinet has disrupted forest management cycle depriving forest owners of their legitimate
rights. Consequently the Forest Management Plans have become non-operational and the forest owners have lost interest in
protection and management of their forests. Out of shear frustration many of them have resorted to large scale illicit cutting of
forests. Therefore, in order to restore the process of forest management, to promote natural forest regeneration and to regain
confidence of the forest owners, it is imperative to lift ban on timber harvesting. However, Government of AJK may continue
the ban to implement Green Kashmir Vision.
Provincial governments may resume sustainable commercial timber harvesting in the Reserved, Protected, Guzara and Private
Forests. However, Reserve Forests shall only be subjected to hygienic felling and left alone for preserving gene pool and
maintaining ecosystem integrity, structure and functions. Timber harvesting in Protected, Guzara and Private Forests shall be
allowed on the basis of the following conditions:
a. Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in well stocked forests that are covered under updated and revised
management plans approved by the respective government. All operations such as marking, felling, logging,
transportation and regeneration of forests shall be monitored by an independent committee having
representation of the Forest Department, District Administration, reputable environmental NGO, concerned
community and the Federal Government. Such committees shall be notified by the provincial governments.
b. Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in those areas whose owners and right-holders undertake to fully
participate in the management and regeneration of their forests in association with the Forest Department, with
due regard to meeting the minimum sustainable needs of the non-right-holders to the extent of the productive
capacity of each forest.
c. Essential criteria for classifying forests into commercial and non-commercial categories shall not only be stocking
but terrain, need for regeneration and a creditable guarantee from the owners, right-holders and users that they
will ensure the regeneration of the forests by affording them protection from grazing, fires and other sources of
injuries.

d. The principal objective of timber harvesting in the above forests shall be poverty alleviation through providing
income to the owners and right holders and to promote economic activity through generating local employment.
Provincial Governments will make arrangements for training the local people in all timber-harvesting operations
and enable them to take on small timber harvesting contracts on the pattern successfully demonstrated in the
Kalam and Kaghan projects.
e. In order to ensure regeneration of the forests, timber harvesting should be undertaken only after a regeneration
plan has been approved and funds ensured for its implementation.
f. Provincial Governments and forest owners shall provide necessary resources to rehabilitate the degraded
forests. In this regard the initiative of establishing Forest Development Fund taken by NWFP Forest Department
may be adopted in other provinces as well including AJK and Gilgit- Baltistan.
g. Local communities will be actively involved in management of forest resources. In doing so the Forest
Department should assume the role of providing advisory services.
h. Existing pressure on national forests will be reduced through promotion of commercial plantations by private
sector.
4.1.2 Establishing Protected Areas
The role of Protected Areas in conserving ecological characters of representative samples of important ecosystems is well
recognized. Therefore, the Provincial Governments will be encouraged to create and effectively manage Protected Areas
networks falling in their geographical boundaries.
Federal Government will provide grants out of poverty alleviation programmes to rural communities, dependent on such
forests for firewood and fodder; for growing these commodities on their village lands through participatory approaches.
Appropriate institutional mechanisms will be devised for collaborative management of such protected forests with the local
communities in order to give them an economic and environmental stake in the endeavor.
4.2 Mangrove Forests: Mangrove forests are vital for protecting coastal belt and as habitat for fish nurseries and shrimp,
which are a source of food and export earnings. These forests are threatened by marine pollution, scarcity of fresh
water flowing down the Indus delta, and over-use by the local communities for fuel wood and fodder. In order to
ensure protection of these forests, proper arrangements shall be made for containing marine pollution, allowing
sufficient water to flow down the Indus River and evolving an incentive-based system for sustainable management of
these forests.
4.3 Riverain Forests
Riverain forests are pitiable remnants of the extensive woodlands that once fringed rivers of Pakistan. These forests shall be
managed primarily for maintenance of their environmental and biodiversity functions, and secondarily for meeting the needs of
the public and wood-based industries.
As the existence of these forests is primarily dependent on availability of inundation water from the Indus River System, this
fact will have to be kept in view while planning Indus water storage and distribution system.
4.4 Preservation of Relict and Unique Forests
Relict forests and their associated biodiversity are an invaluable cultural heritage of Pakistan, which once covered the
mountains of Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistanand plains of Punjab and Sindh. Native tree species, having strong cultural and social
values, shall be preserved and promoted. It shall, therefore, be the policy of Government to preserve these forests and
associated biodiversity primarily for research, education, maintenance of local environment, and controlled eco-tourism; in
partnership with rural communities by providing them their minimum subsistence needs from the forests, along with
appropriate incentives in return for their active participation in the regeneration and protection of the forests. Such forests
include juniper forests of Ziarat, Chalghoza forests in Sulaiman Range, spruce forests of Naltar in Gilgit-Baltistan.

4.4.1 Juniper Forests
The juniper forests of Balochistan are unique in having survived as remnants of once extensive forests covering its high
mountains against overwhelming odds, such as heavy uncontrolled grazing and removal of wood by the local communities for
use as fuel and timber. Besides their scientific significance they also harbor a unique biodiversity, protect watersheds of the
apple growing tracts, and have great scenic beauty for promoting eco-tourism.
The Provincial Government shall take appropriate measures for conservation and sustainable management of these forests
with the involvement of local communities. This shall be achieved by providing them incentives for enhancing their livelihoods
and thus reduce their dependence on the forests for consumptive uses.
4.4.2 Chalghoza Forests
The chalghoza forests of Balochistan and South Waziristan comprise the largest pure stands of chalghoza pine in the country.
Their survival is being threatened by the unsustainable demands of the residents of about a hundred remote villages for timber,
fuel wood, grazing, and edible pine nuts. To save these forests from extinction, the Provincial Government shall launch
appropriate development schemes, on the same lines as for the juniper forests. Cultivation of chalghoza pine orchards will also
be promoted, in order to relieve pressure on limited natural forests.
4.4.3 Spruce Forests
Spruce forests in Naltar, District Gilgit in Gilgit-Baltistan being famous for their biodiversity shall be protected with the
involvement of local communities. This would require provision of appropriate incentives by the Gilgit-Baltistan Administration
for integrated resource management with all stakeholders so that adverse impact of human and livestock pressure on these
forests is reduced.
5. Wildlife Management: Rapid depletion of forest, range and wetland resources have adversely affected wildlife
habitats bringing many endemic animal and plant species on the verge of extinction. Pakistan’s Biodiversity Action
Plan (BAP 2000) provides a strategic framework for biodiversity conservation in the country. In order to effectively
manage existing protected areas and encourage new conservation initiatives on privately owned lands, provincial
wildlife departments shall be strengthened and Forest-Wildlife coordination be improved. Federal Government shall
assist provinces for implementation of international treaties/conventions i.e. CITES, CBD, CMS and Ramsar
Convention in provincial territories for the protection and conservation of the threatened species of wildlife and their
habitats. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (NCCW) shall be strengthened for providing more effective
advisory and coordination services. The capacity of Zoological Survey Department shall be enhanced for biodiversity
assessment and to conduct regular surveys and research on wildlife species and habitats.
6. Rangelands and Desert Ecosystems

6.1 Sub-Alpine and Alpine Rangelands and Meadows
Sub alpine and alpine rangelands and meadows constitute one of the most productive but fragile ecosystems of the country.
Over-grazing is not only depleting the productivity of these ecosystems but is also setting soil erosion causing their permanent
degradation. Wildlife in these areas is in direct competition with livestock and many species particularly snow leopard, musk
deer, Markhor and Ladakh Urial have become endangered
The Federal Government shall assist Provincial Governments in conservation and rehabilitation of these ecosystems by carrying
out inventories on range condition, habitat restoration and preparation of conservation plans.
6.2 Semi-Arid and Arid Rangelands.
Semi-arid and arid rangelands in Pakistan cover about 30 percent of its total land area. Un-controlled over-grazing and
uprooting the shrubs for fuel wood is converting these areas into deserts. Government of Pakistan shall provide financial
assistance to Provincial Governments for undertaking rehabilitation and management of such lands. It shall also provide
facilities for education in Range Management and Wildlife Management.
6.3 Land Degradation and Desertification : Pakistan is mainly a dryland country, where 80 percent of its land is arid and
semi-arid. Two-third of its human population depends on arid lands to support their livelihood. The menace of land
degradation and desertification is not only affecting rain-fed agriculture and pastoral systems, but also reducing

productive potential of irrigated agro-ecosystems due to water logging and salinity. Sustainable Land Management
(SLM) is now considered as a viable option to combat land degradation and desertification. Federal and Provincial
Governments shall integrate SLM principles into sectoral policies, strategies and plans, as land degradation adversely
affects natural resource based livelihood of the rural poor. Federal Government shall support provincial governments
to combat desertification as recommended under Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), National Action
Programme (NAP) and aligning Pakistan’s NAP with 10-Year Strategic Plan of the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD). A National Desertification Control Fund as envisaged under NAP and UNCCD shall be
established to ensure continued financial sustainability for SLM interventions at grassroots level. Appropriate
incentives shall be designed to enlist the participation of local communities in sustainable management of land
resources.
7. Planting Trees on Farmlands: Farmers will be motivated to adopt farm forestry as a commercial enterprise for
production of industrial wood, fuel wood and fodder. Provincial and local governments shall be encouraged to devise
mechanisms of incentives for farmers for growing trees on farm lands, including exemption from water tax and
provision of agricultural loans. Pakistan Forest Institute, Agricultural Colleges and Universities will be encouraged to
develop specialized courses in agro-forestry.
8. Management of irrigated and linear plantations

Irrigated Plantations (IPs) are badly suffering from shortage of irrigation water. New improved irrigation and planting
techniques shall be encouraged to rejuvenate IPs with fast growing local species propagated under state of the art silvicultural
system. Production of non-wood products of IPs such as silk, honey and medicinal plants shall be enhanced to generate sources
of livelihood for surrounding communities.
Existing linear plantations along canals, roads and railway tracks shall be protected and developed using new irrigation and
protection technologies. At least 10 % of command area of new canals shall be allocated for raising plantations. Road side
plantations shall become an integral component of all the projects of new highways and motorways.
9. Improving urban environment: Urban and amenity forestry shall be given due focus by city and district
administrations in their development programmes. Maximum available blank lands in jurisdiction of city and district
governments shall be brought under tree cover. New housing schemes shall allocate maximum areas for amenity
planting and building by-laws shall essentially include open space for trees.
10. Promotion of Indigenous Tree Species: Tree species of native origins, adapted to specific forest ecosystems, will be
promoted. Special measures are, however, needed by the provincial governments to improve germplasm availability
of species like Fraxinus, Juniper, Betula, Taxus, Abies, native Acacia, Ziziphus, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix, Tecomella,
Calligonum, and Dalbergia etc. This would be needed to enhance growth rate of native species and induce resilience
to pests, diseases, pollution and climate change affects. Provincial governments will ensure that alien invasive species
are not introduced and propagated
11. Monitoring and Evaluation Systems:In order to monitor the changes in forest cover, both on public and private lands,
an effective monitoring and evaluation system is urgently needed for future policy, planning and implementation
purposes. Government of Pakistan will provide necessary financial and technical assistance to provincial forest
departments and R&D institutions for establishing regular monitoring system based on GIS and Remote Sensing.
V. ACTION PLAN: A mechanism shall be devised to implement and review the National Forest Policy, including passing of
any legislation that may be required, issuance of the requisite notifications and the provisions of fund etc. A synoptic
action plan for implementation of National Forest Policy is given as under:
1. Responsibilities
1.1 Federal Level
At the Federal level, Ministry of Environment shall be responsible for initiating following actions;
 Establishing a cell under IGF for monitoring implementation of the policy.
 Reporting annual progress of policy implementation to the Federal Forestry Board (FFB)
1.2 Provincial Level: In line with the provisions of this umbrella policy, respective Provincial Forest and Wildlife
Departments including FATA, AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan shall initiate actions to achieve the goal and objectives envisaged in this
policy.
2. Priming the Action
Government shall implement this policy through the following stages:
1. Preparation and implementation of a 10-Year Plan of Action (2010-2020).

2. Integration of Plan of Action with PSDP and international grant assistance.
Provincial/territorial governments shall devise their own policies, legislation, programmes and plans of actions.

References:
http://www.ahsankhaneco.blogspot.com/2012/04/major-problems-of-agricultural-sector.html
http://www.pakistaniexporters.com/static/industry_information/article4.aspx
http://www.worldwide-extension.org/asia/pakistan
http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/editorial/22-Sep-2010/comment-much-ado-about-feudalism-shahid-saeed
http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/2190/the-past-present-and-future-of-land-reforms/
http://www.ahsankhaneco.blogspot.com/2012/04/role-and-importance-of-agriculture.html

Agriculture and Forestry Notes by Ayesha Younas

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Agriculture and Forestry Notes by Ayesha Younas

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Agriculture & Forestry

AGRICULTURE & FORESTRY (100 MARKS)

Part-I: Agriculture (50 marks)

Part-II Forestry = (50 Marks)

I. Forest, rangelands and wildlife importance and significance

III. Range management and utilization

IV. National and international forest wealth statistics

V. Role of wildlife as value addition to forestry

VII. Forestry, agroforestry, social forestry and forest biometrics

VIII. Socio-economic and ecological impact of man-made forests

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Part 1 Chapter 2: Challenges in Pakistan’s Agriculture

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Part 1: Chapter 4: Genetic Improvement for Crop Production

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iv. Improvement in health and the environment

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i. Seed is a mature integumented megasporangium or mature ovule consisting of embryonic plants

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Part 1 Chapter 6: Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture

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ii. In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China

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iii. Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan

iv. In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California

XII. TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

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Part 2: Chapter 2 Forest Management and Utilization

Sustainable Forestry activities

Forests and Forests related Industries

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Forests and biodiversity

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Sustainable Forest Management

Forest Management Basics

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Seed Tree Harvest

Group Selection Harvest