PES

EXAM STUDY GUIDE

Chapter 1: Integrated Training Essentials

Integrated training—train with optimal posture in all planes of motion to develop high levels of dynamic flexibility, core
strength, neuromuscular control, power, speed/agility/quickness, and functional strength
Functional continuum—all three planes of motion, multidimensional movement, entire muscle-contraction spectrum,
entire contraction-velocity spectrum, all acute variables manipulated
Neuromuscular efficiency—ability of neuromuscular system to produce and reduce forces, and stabilize the entire HMS
Stabilization strength—ability of stabilizing muscles to provide dynamic stabilization and postural equilibrium during
functional activities
Force-couple—muscles working together to produce movement around a joint (agonists, synergists, antagonists)

Integrated sports performance program—flexibility, metabolic energy system, core, balance, plyometric,
speed/agility/quickness, resistance, and sport-specific training
Exercise selection criteria—safe, challenging, progressive, systematic, proprioceptively enriched, activity-specific
Exercise selection variables—plane of motion, body position, base of support, lower/upper extremity symmetry,
external resistance, balance modality
Exercise progression continuum—progress exercises from: slow to fast, known to unknown, stable to unstable,
controlled to dynamic functional movement, low to high force, correct execution to increased intensity

The OPTTM model, Stabilization Level:

Phase 1: Stabilization Endurance—increase stabilization strength, develop optimal nervous-muscular system
communication; proprioceptive progressions; correct muscle imbalances; increase flexibility, joint and postural
stabilization
The OPTTM model, Strength Level:
Phase 2: Strength Endurance—continue
enhancing stabilization strength and
endurance while increasing prime mover
strength
Phase 3: Hypertrophy—maximize muscle
growth
Phase 4: Maximal Strength—maximize prime
mover strength
The OPTTM model, Power Level:
Phase 5: Power—enhance prime mover
strength while improving rate of force production
Phase 6: Maximal Power—produce maximal acceleration and rate of force production; reserved for high-level
athletes
Chapter 2: Human Movement Science

PLANES AND AXES OF MOTION

Plane Motion Axis Example
• Biceps curls
• Triceps
pushdowns
• Squats
• Front lunges
Sagittal Flexion/extension Coronal
• Calf raises
• Walking
• Running
• Vertical jumping
• Climbing stairs
Adduction/abduction • Side lateral raises
Anterior-
Frontal Lateral flexion • Side lunges
posterior
Eversion/inversion • Side shuffling
• Cable rotations
• Transverse plane
Internal/external rotation
lunges
Transverse Left/right spinal rotation Longitudinal
• Throwing
Horizontal adduction/abduction
• Golfing
• Swinging a bat

PRONATION AND SUPINATION

During pronation (eccentric muscle function)

CLASSES OF LEVERS
The foot Dorsiflexes, everts, abducts
The ankle Dorsiflexes, everts, abducts Class Common Example Body Example
The knee Flexes, adducts, internally rotates I Teeter-totter Flexion-extension of the head
The hip Flexes, adducts, internally rotates
II Wheelbarrow Dorsiflexion-rising up on tiptoes
During supination (concentric muscle function)
The foot Plantar flexes, inverts, adducts III Lifting a shovel Forearm flexion
The ankle Plantar flexes, inverts, adducts
The knee Extends, abducts, externally rotates
The hip Extends, abducts, externally rotates
Length-tension relationship—resting length of a muscle and the tension it can produce at that length
Force-velocity curve—muscles’ ability to produce tension at differing shortening velocities
Rate of force production—how quickly a muscle can
generate force

MUSCLE ACTION SPECTRUM

Developing tension while a muscle is
Concentric shortening; when developed tension
overcomes resistive force
Developing tension while a muscle is
Eccentric lengthening; when resistive force overcomes
developed tension
When the contractile force is equal to the
Isometric
resistive force

Muscle categories:
Agonists—prime movers
Antagonists—act in opposition to prime movers
Synergists—assist prime movers
Stabilizers—support and stabilize body while agonists and synergists create movement

Behavioral properties of muscle—extensibility, elasticity, irritability, ability to develop tension

Local muscular system—stabilization system; muscles connect directly to spine; transverse abdominis, multifidus,
internal obliques, diaphragm, pelvic floor muscles
Peripheral joint support system—appendicular skeletal muscle; poor force production; isolated stabilization function;
rotator cuff, gluteus medius (posterior fibers), vastus medialis oblique

Global muscular system—movement musculature; four distinct subsystems

Deep longitudinal subsystem (DLS)—transmits force between trunk and ground; erector spinae, thoracolumbar
fascia, sacrotuberous ligament, biceps femoris, peroneus longus
Posterior oblique subsystem (POS)—transfers force from transverse to sagittal plane; works synergistically with
DLS; important for rotational activities; latissimus dorsi and contralateral gluteus maximus, cross-body bridge
through thoracolumbar fascia
Anterior oblique subsystem (AOS)—similar to POS on front side of body; internal and external obliques, adductor
complex, hip external rotators
Lateral subsystem—frontal plane and pelvo-femoral stability; gluteus medius, tensor fascia latae, adductor complex,
quadratus lumborum
Proprioception—cumulative neural input from sensory afferents to the CNS
Internal feedback—information provided by length-tension relationships, force-couple relationships, and
arthrokinematics to monitor movement and environment
External feedback—information provided by an external source
Knowledge of results—informs athlete about the outcome of performance
Knowledge of performance—informs athlete about the quality of movement during exercise
Sensorimotor integration—ability of CNS to gather and interpret information to execute the proper motor response

Motor behavior—motor response to internal and external stimuli

Motor control—how the CNS integrates sensory information with previous experience to produce a motor response
Motor learning—integration of motor control with practice and experience; creates relatively permanent change in
ability to produce skilled movement
Motor development—change in motor behavior over a lifetime
Chapter 3: Sports Performance Testing

Subjective information—personal information given by the athlete; medical history and lifestyle
Readiness for activity—collect medical history, such as past injuries, surgeries, illness, medications, and chronic
conditions before training a new athlete
Past injuries—prior injuries can have effects up and down the kinetic chain; most importantly ankle sprains, and injuries
to knee ligaments, the low back, and the shoulders
Objective information—measureable data obtained by performing assessments and observations

EFFECTS OF MEDICATION ON HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE

Medication Heart Rate Blood Pressure
Beta-blockers ↓ ↓
Calcium channel blockers ↑, ↔, or ↓ ↓
Nitrates ↑ or ↔ ↔ or ↓
Diuretics ↔ ↔ or ↓
Bronchodilators ↔ ↔
Vasodilators ↑, ↔, or ↓ ↓
Antidepressants ↑ or ↔ ↔ or ↓

Physiological assessments—resting heart rate, blood pressure, body composition

Resting heart rate—70 BPM for average adult, can range from 60 to 100 BPM
Blood pressure—normal systolic = 120-130 mmHg; normal diastolic = 80-85 mmHg

Body composition assessments—skin fold calipers, circumference measurements, bioelectrical impedance, underwater
weighing, whole-body plethysmography, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
Fat mass—body fat % × scale weight
Lean mass—scale weight – fat mass
Circumference measurements—assess girth changes; measure at neck, chest, waist, hip, thigh, calves, and biceps
Skin fold measurement—taken on right side of body, arms relaxed freely to the side, repeat three times and
average for each site, add averages of sites together and match to Durnin formula chart to determine body fat
percentage
Biceps—vertical fold over biceps muscle half way between shoulder and elbow
Triceps—vertical fold over triceps muscle half way between shoulder and elbow
Subscapular—45-degree fold, 1-2 cm below the inferior angle of the scapula
Iliac crest—45-degree fold, just above iliac crest at anterior axillary line
Posture—independent and interdependent alignment and function of all components of the Human Movement System
Structural efficiency—alignment of musculoskeletal system which allows center of gravity to be maintained over a base
of support
Functional efficiency—ability of neuromuscular system to monitor and manipulate movement during functional tasks,
using least amount of energy, creating least amount of stress on kinetic chain
Functional strength—ability of neuromuscular system to contract eccentrically, isometrically, and concentrically in all
three planes of motion

Standard posture—observe from lateral and posterior views:

Head—neutral position = no tilt front-back or side-to-side, no rotation
Shoulders—level, not elevated or depressed
Cervical spine—normal curve = slightly convex to anterior
Scapulae—flat against upper back
Thoracic spine—normal curve = slightly convex to posterior; vertically straight
Lumbar spine—normal curve = slightly convex to anterior, vertically straight
Pelvis—level with posterior superior iliac spines in same transverse plane
Hip joints—neutral position = not flexed, extended, adducted, or abducted
Lower extremities—feet straight and parallel, knees in line with 2nd and 3rd toes, leg vertical at right angle to sole of
foot

Transitional and dynamic postural assessments—look at posture during movement; gain quick impression of athlete’s
overall functional status; overhead squat, single-leg squat, pushing/pulling assessments, LESS test

CHECKPOINTS FOR THE OVERHEAD SQUAT

Probable Overactive Probable Underactive
View Checkpoint Compensation Possible Injuries
Muscles Muscles
Soleus Med. gastrocnemius Plantar fasciitis
Lat. gastrocnemius Med. hamstring Achilles tendinopathy
Biceps femoris (short head) Gluteus medius/maximus Medial tibial stress
Feet Turn out Tensor fascia latae (TFL) Gracilis syndrome
Popliteus Ankle sprains
Sartorius Patellar tendinopathy
(jumper’s knee)
Anterior
Adductor complex Med. hamstring
Biceps femoris (short head) Med. gastrocnemius Patellar tendinopathy
TFL Gluteus medius/maximus (jumper’s knee)
Move inward
Knees Lat. gastrocnemius Vastus medialis oblique Patellofemoral syndrome
(valgus)
Vastus lateralis (VMO) ACL injury
Anterior tibialis IT band tendonitis
Posterior tibilias
Continued…
Piriformis
Biceps femoris
Move outward Tensor fascia latae (TFL)
Gluteus minimus
Gluteus medius
Soleus
Gastrocnemius
Excessive forward Hip flexor complex
lean Abdominal complex (rectus
abdominis, external
oblique)
Hip flexor complex
Erector spinae
Latissimus dorsi
Low back arches
LPHC
Lateral
Hamstrings
Adductor magnus
Rectus abdominis
External obliques
Low back rounds
Latissimus dorsi
Pectoralis major/minor
Shoulders Arms fall forward
Coracobrachialis
Teres major
Peroneal complex
Lat. gastrocnemius
Foot flattens
Biceps femoris (short head)
Foot Tensor fascia latae (TFL)
Soleus
Heel of foot rises
Adductors complex
Med. hamstring
Gluteus maximus
Anterior tibialis
Gluteus maximus
Erector spinae
Intrinsic core stabilizers
Gluteus maximus
Hamstrings
Intrinsic core stabilizers
(transverse abdominis,
multifidus,
Hamstring, quad, & groin
transversospinalis,
strain
internal oblique, pelvic
Low back pain
floor muscles)
Gluteus maximus
Erector spinae
Intrinsic core stabilizers
(transverse abdominis,
multifidus,
transversospinalis,
internal oblique, pelvic
floor muscles)
Hip flexor complex
Latissimus dorsi
Mid/lower trapezius Headaches
Rhomboids Biceps tendonitis
Posterior deltoid Shoulder injuries
Rotator cuff
Anterior tibialis Plantar fasciitis
Posterior tibialis Achilles tendinopathy
Med. gastrocnemius Medial tibial stress
Gluteus medius syndrome
Anterior tibialis Ankle sprains
Patellar tendinopathy
(jumper’s knee)

Posterior Adductor complex Gluteus medius, (same side Hamstring, quad, & groin
Tensor fascia latae (same of shift) strain
side of shift) Anterior tibialis Low back pain
Gastrocnemius Adductor complex SI joint pain
Asymmetrical
LPHC Soleus (opposite side of shift)
weight shift
Piriformis
Bicep femoris
Gluteus medius (opposite
side of shift)
CHECKPOINTS FOR THE SINGLE-LEG SQUAT
Probable Overactive Probable Underactive
View Checkpoint Compensation
Muscles Muscles
Adductor complex Med. hamstring
Biceps femoris (short head) Med. gastrocnemius
Tensor fascia latae (TFL) Gluteus medius/maximus
Move inward
Knee Lat. gastrocnemius Vastus medialis oblique
(valgus)
Vastus lateralis (VMO)
Anterior tibialis
Posterior tibilias
Quadratus lumborum Adductor complex (same
(opposite side) side)
Hip hike
TFL/Gluteus minimus Gluteus medius (same side)
LPHC (same side)
Adductor complex (same Gluteus medius (same side)
Hip drop side) Quadratus lumborum
(opposite side)
Anterior
Internal oblique (same Internal oblique (opposite
side) side)
External oblique (opposite External oblique (same
Inward trunk
side) side)
rotation
TFL (same side) Gluteus medius/maximus
Adductor complex (same
side)
Upper body
Internal oblique (opposite Internal oblique (same
side) side)
External oblique (same External oblique (opposite
Outward trunk
side) side)
rotation
Piriformis (same side) Adductor complex (same
side)
Gluteus medius/maximus

CHECKPOINTS FOR THE PUSHING AND PULLING ASSESSMENTS

Probable Overactive Probable Underactive
Checkpoint Compensation
Muscles Muscles
Hip flexors
LPHC Low back arches Intrinsic core stabilizers
Erector spinae
Upper trapezius
Shoulder
Shoulders elevate Sternocleidomastoid Middle and lower trapezius
complex
Levator scapulae
Upper trapezius
Head migrates
Head Sternocleidomastoid Deep cervical flexors
forward
Levator scapulae
Performance assessments—assess overall athletic performance; measure stability, strength, power, speed, agility,
quickness, and metabolic conditioning
Stability assessments—double-leg lowering test, Sorensen erector spinae test, single-leg STAR balance excursion test,
Davies test
Strength assessments—upper extremity strength (bench press), 185 lb. bench press (basketball), lower extremity
strength (squat), pull-ups, push-ups
Power assessments—power clean, rotation medicine ball throw, overhead medicine ball throw, standing soccer throw,
double-leg vertical jump, single-leg vertical hop, double-leg horizontal jump (long jump), single-leg horizontal hop (long
jump on single leg)
SAQ assessments—Shark skill test, 10-yard sprint, 20-yard sprint, 30-yard sprint, 30-yard sprint measured 0-10
yards/10-30 yards for acceleration speed/maximal speed, 40-yard sprint, lower extremity functional text (LEFT), 5-10-5
test, 5-0-5 test for horizontal agility, 7 x 30-meter sprint test, ¾ court sprint (basketball), pro-lane agility drill (basketball),
T-drill
Metabolic assessments—300-yard shuttle, 20-meter multistage shuttle test, 1-mile run
Chapter 4: Flexibility Training Concepts

Flexibility—normal extensibility of all soft tissues; allows for full range of motion and optimal neuromuscular efficiency
in all functional movement

Atrophy—loss in muscle fiber size

Sarcopenia—decrease in muscle fiber numbers
Cumulative injury cycle—cycle where injury induces inflammation, muscle spasm, adhesions, altered neuromuscular
control, and muscle imbalances

Reciprocal inhibition—muscles on one side of a force-couple relax

CAUSES OF MUSCLE IMBALANCES
(antagonist) to allow the agonist to produce movement
• Pattern overload • Lack of core strength
Altered reciprocal inhibition—when overactive/tight muscle
• Poor technical skill • Immobilization
causes decreased neural drive to its functional antagonist • Aging • Cumulative trauma
Synergistic dominance—when a synergist muscle for a movement • Decreased recovery and • Lack of neuromuscular
regeneration following control
pattern takes over for a weak or inhibited agonist
activity • Postural stress
Arthrokinetic dysfunction—biomechanical dysfunction in two • Repetitive movement
articular partners that leads to abnormal joint movement and
proprioception

All-or-none principle—when a muscle fiber is stimulated to contract, it contracts completely

Elasticity—spring-like behavior of connective tissue that enables it to return to original shape or size when forces are
removed; like a spring
Elastic limit—smallest value of stress required to produce permanent strain in soft tissue
Plasticity—residual or permanent change in connective tissue length due to elongation; like soft plastic
Viscoelasticity—fluid-like property of connective tissue; allows slow deformation with imperfect recovery after
deforming forces are removed; like memory foam
Davis’ law—soft tissue models along the lines of stress
Wolff’s law—bone in a healthy person will adapt to the loads placed upon it

Golgi tendon organs (GTO)—mechanoreceptors in the musculotendinous junction; sensitive to changes in tension and
the rate of that change; prolonged stimulation causes autogenic inhibition
Muscle spindles—mechanoreceptors; major sensory organs of muscle; sensitive to changes in length and the rate of
that change
Joint receptors—mechanoreceptors in the joints; signal joint position, movement, and pressure changes

Autogenic inhibition—inhibitory action to muscle spindles from prolonged GTO stimulation

Myotatic stretch reflex—motor response in the spinal cord when a muscle is stretched very quickly; muscle spindle
contracts, stimulates primary afferent fibers, causes extrafusal fibers to fire and develop tension to protect the muscle

Integrated flexibility continuum—corrective, active, and functional flexibility; full range must be addressed to
counteract atrophy and other physical changes from aging, immobilization, or injury
Corrective flexibility—stretching techniques to correct postural dysfunction, muscle imbalance, and joint
dysfunction; includes self-myofascial release, static stretching, and neuromuscular stretching; used in Stabilization
Level of OPT model
Active flexibility—stretching techniques to improve soft tissue extensibility in all planes of motion; employs
reciprocal inhibition; includes self-myofascial release, active-isolated stretching, and neuromuscular stretching; used
in Strength Level of OPT model
Functional flexibility—stretching techniques to improve optimum neuromuscular control throughout full range of
motion; dynamic movements at realistic speeds; includes self-myofascial release and dynamic stretching; used in
Power Level of OPT model

Self-myofascial release (SMR)—focuses on neural and fascial systems; alleviates myofascial trigger points; identify
tender spots/knots and apply pressure with foam roller, hold for 30 seconds
Static stretching—low-force, long-duration movements; utilizes autogenic inhibition; take stretch to point of tension
and hold for 30 seconds
Active-isolated stretching—uses agonists and synergists to dynamically move a joint through a range of motion; look
just like static stretches; 1-2 sets, hold stretches 1-2 seconds for 5-10 repetitions
Neuromuscular stretching—influences both autogenic and reciprocal inhibition; passively move athlete’s limb to first
point of resistance and athlete applies isometric contraction for 7-15 seconds, athlete then relaxes letting limb move
into deeper range of motion, hold for 20-30 seconds, repeat 3 times; a.k.a. proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF)
Dynamic stretching—exercises that use force production and momentum to take a joint through full range of motion
STRETCHING TIPS FOR STRENGTH AND PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT

1. As a warm-up, static stretching prior to a strength training routine or competition should only be used on areas
that are determined as tight/overactive from the assessment process.

2. Static stretching, if incorporated before a strength workout or as a warm-up prior to competition, should be
followed by active-isolated and/or dynamic stretching to improve neuromuscular efficiency.

3. Static stretching should be used post-workout or event to return muscles to normal resting lengths and should
be performed on the major muscles used during the workout or event.

4. Static stretching is contraindicated prior to activities requiring maximal effort unless muscle imbalances are
present.

5. Active-isolated and/or dynamic stretching can be used:

a. As a warm-up by themselves if no muscle imbalances are present.
b. As a warm-up after static stretching if muscle imbalances are present.
c. Prior to activities requiring maximal effort.
Chapter 5: Metabolic Energy System Training

Pulmonary ventilation—process which brings oxygen from the air, across the alveolar membrane, and into the blood to
be carried by hemoglobin
Cardiac output—amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
Stroke volume—amount of blood pumped from the ventricles with each contraction

Aerobic system—use of carbohydrates and fat in the presence of

oxygen to produce ATP; most efficient
Anaerobic system—ATP production without using oxygen; high
power, limited capacity; ATP-CP, glycolysis
ATP-CP system—uses creatine phosphate instead of carbohydrates to
rapidly produce ATP
Glycolysis—uses glucose and glycogen to produce ATP without
oxygen
Anaerobic threshold—point at which the body can no longer meet its
demand for oxygen and anaerobic metabolism predominates; a.k.a.
lactate threshold

Maximal heart rate calculation:

Simple estimate = 220 – age
Regression formula = 208 – (0.7 × age)
Karvonen method = [HRmax – resting heart rate] x desired % for training + resting heart rate

Heart rate training zones:

Zone 1—builds aerobic base; warm-ups and recovery; 65-75% HRmax; RQ of 0.80 to 0.90
Zone 2—increases anaerobic and aerobic capacity by straddling energy systems; 76-85% HRmax; RQ of 0.90 to 1.0
Zone 3—only used in interval training; increases speed, power, metabolism, and anaerobic capacity; 86-95% HRmax;
RQ greater than 1.0

Steady-state training—consistent, prolonged intensity

Long-slow distance—maintains slower speed over longer distances
Race pace—pace in time or percent of HRmax an athlete would use in competition
Percent of HRmax pace—intensity determined based on actual or estimated HRmax
Interval training—high-intensity efforts with bouts of recovery between each exertion; work to rest ratios ranging from
1:1 to 1:5
High-intensity interval training (HIIT)—best for advanced athletes; intervals with as high as 90% VO2peak (HR zone 3);
increases synthesis of new mitochondria, mitochondrial biogenesis, and mitochondria fat oxidation, as well as body’s
ability to spare glycogen and delay fatigue
Repeated sprint training—maximal effort sprints up to 10 seconds with complete recovery between; enhances power,
power-endurance

Stage training—breaking up metabolic training to enable development of foundational fitness and coordinate
progressions over time
Stage 1: aerobic endurance—develop foundation of aerobic endurance; long, slow, steady-state training; intervals
in HR zones 1 and 2
Stage 2: anaerobic endurance—combines race pace, percent of race pace, and HIIT workouts to promote aerobic
endurance and enhance high-intensity (anaerobic) endurance
Stage 3: anaerobic power—higher percentages of race pace; HIIT workouts; gradual inclusion of repeated sprints;
promotes improved anaerobic power and power-endurance
Stage 4: sport-specific training—linear, multidirectional, and sport-specific drills used as conditioning; training that
mimics competitive circumstances

METABOLIC ENERGY SYSTEM TRAINING PERIODIZATION

• Off-season: steady-state training should be used for base training

• Preseason: increasing intensities through interval training to prepare for the season

• In-season: light-to-moderate sport-specific training to maintain gains

• Post-season: light steady-state training for active recovery

Chapter 6: Core Training Concepts

Core—structures that make up the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex

Core stability—overall LPHC stability derived from local and global stabilization musculature
Local core stabilizers—muscles attaching directly to vertebrae
Global core stabilizers—muscles attaching from spine to pelvis; movement muscles that help stabilize LPHC with
isometric contractions
Movement system—core muscles that attach the spine or pelvis to the extremities

STABILIZATION AND MOVEMENT SYSTEMS

Local Stabilization System Global Stabilization System Movement System

Transversus abdominis
Internal oblique
Lumbar multifidus
Pelvic floor muscles
Diaphragm
Quadratus lumborum Latissimus dorsi
Psoas major Hamstrings
External oblique Quadriceps
Portions of the internal oblique The deep longitudinal sub-
Rectus abdominis system:
Gluteus medius • Erector spinae
Adductor complex: • Thoracolumbar fascia
• Adductor magnus • Sacrotuberous ligament
• Adductor longus • Biceps femoris
• Adductor brevis The posterior oblique sub-
• Gracilis system:
• Pectineus • Gluteus maximus
• Latissimus dorsi
• Thoracolumbar fascia
The anterior oblique sub-
system:
• Oblique muscles (internal
and external)
• Adductor complex
• Hip external rotators
The lateral sub-system:
• Gluteus medius
• Tensor fascia latae
• Adductor complex
• Quadratus lumborum

Drawing-in maneuver—drawing the navel in

toward the spine; recruits local core
stabilizers
Bracing—co-contraction of the abdominal,
lower back, and gluteal muscles
Functional strength—ability of neuromuscular system to produce dynamic eccentric, concentric, and isometric
stabilization actions quickly and efficiently during functional movement

Core-stabilization exercises—little-to-no motion through the pelvis and spine; used in Stabilization Level of OPT model
Core-strength exercises—more dynamic eccentric and concentric movement of spine; full ROM using drawing-in and
bracing; used in Strength Level of OPT model
Core-power exercises—improve core musculature rate of force production; dynamic force at functionally applicable
speeds; used in Power Level of OPT model

CORE PROGRAM DESIGN PARAMETERS

OPT Level Phase(s) Example Exercises Sets/Reps Tempo Rest
1–4 Core-stabilization
Leg floor bridge 1–3 sets ×
Stabilization 1 Slow (4/2/1) 0–90 s
Prone iso-abs 12–20 reps
Floor cobra
0–4 Core-strength
Tubing rotation 2–3 sets × Medium
Strength 2, 3, 4 0–60 s
Floor crunches 8–12 reps (3/2/1 – 1/1/1)
Bench knee-ups
0–2 Core-power
Rotational chest pass 2–3 sets ×
Power 5, 6 Explosive 0–60 s
Medicine ball 8–12 reps
Overhead throw
Chapter 7: Balance Training Concepts

POSTURAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Neuromuscular efficiency—neuromuscular system to allow the agonists, antagonists, synergists, stabilizers, and
neutralizers to work together in all three planes of motion
Proprioception—cumulative neural input to the CNS from all mechanoreceptors that sense position and limb movement
Kinesthesia—conscious awareness of joint movement and position resulting from proprioceptive input

Mechanoreceptors—neural receptors embedded in connective tissue; convert mechanical distortions of the tissue into
neural codes
Ruffini afferents—joint receptors mechanically sensitive to stress; activated during extreme extension and/or rotation
Paciniform afferents—widely distributed around joint capsule; sensitive to local compression and tensile loading
Golgi afferents—in ligaments and menisci; high-threshold, slow-adapting; mechanically sensitive to tensile loads
Nocioceptors—afferents located in articular tissue; sensitive to mechanical deformation and pain

Dynamic joint stabilization—ability of kinetic chain to stabilize a joint during movement

Multi-sensory condition—training environment that provides heightened stimulation to proprioceptors and
mechanoreceptors
Controlled instability—training environment as unstable as can be safely controlled
BALANCE TRAINING PARAMETERS

Exercise Selection Variables

• Safe • Plane of motion
• Progressive ▪ Sagittal
▪ Easy to hard ▪ Frontal
▪ Simple to complex ▪ Transverse
▪ Known to unknown • Range of motion
Balance-stabilization exercises—little joint motion of
▪ Stable to unstable ▪ Full the balance leg; used in Stabilization Level of OPT
▪ Static to dynamic ▪ Partial model
▪ Slow to fast ▪ End-range
▪ Two-arm/leg to single-arm/leg • Multi-sensory Balance-strength exercises—eccentric and concentric
▪ Stable to unstable ▪ Half foam roll movement of the balance leg; full ROM; used in
▪ Eyes open to eyes closed ▪ Foam pad Strength Level of OPT model
• Systematic ▪ Balance disc
• Proprioceptively challenging • Type of resistance Balance-power exercises—hopping from one foot to
▪ Floor ▪ Body weight another, hopping on same foot; requires optimal
▪ Balance beam ▪ Dumbbells reactive joint stabilization; used in Power Level of OPT
▪ Half foam roll ▪ Tubing
model
▪ Foam pad ▪ Cable
▪ Balance disc • Body position
▪ Two-leg/stable
▪ Single-leg/stable
▪ Two-leg/unstable
▪ Single-leg/unstable
• Speed of motion
• Duration
• Frequency
• Amount of feedback

BALANCE PROGRAM DESIGN PARAMETERS

OPT Level Phase(s) Example Exercises Sets/Reps Tempo Rest
1–4 Balance-stabilization 1–3 sets ×
Single-leg balance 12–20 reps
Stabilization 1 Slow (4/2/1) 0–90 s
Single-leg balance reach (or single-leg
Single-leg lift/chop 6–10 ea.)
0–4 Balance-strength
Single-leg squats
2–3 sets × Medium
Strength 2, 3, 4 Single-leg Romanian 0–60 s
8–12 reps (3/2/1 – 1/1/1)
deadlift
Step-up to balance
0–2 Balance-power
Controlled (hold
Single-leg hops 2–3 sets ×
Power 5, 6 landing position 0–60 s
Single-leg box hop-ups 8–12 reps
for 3–5 seconds)
Single-leg box hop-downs
Chapter 8: Plyometric Training Concepts

Stretch-shortening cycle—active stretch (eccentric contraction) followed by an immediate shortening (concentric

contraction) of the same muscle
INTEGRATED PERFORMANCE PARADIGM
Plyometric training—exercises involving an eccentric
contraction immediately followed by an explosive
concentric contraction
Phases of plyometric exercises—eccentric (loading
phase), amortization (transition phase), and concentric
(unloading phase)
Eccentric phase—pre-stretching muscle prior to
activation; increases muscle spindle activity
Amortization phase—electrochemical delay in
transition from eccentric to concentric muscle action
Concentric phase—concentric force production
immediately after amortization phase

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING PARAMETERS

Exercise Selection Variables
• Safe • Plane of motion
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
• Done with supportive shoes ▪ Sagittal
• Performed on a proper ▪ Frontal
training surface ▪ Transverse
▪ Grass field • Range of motion
▪ Basketball court ▪ Full
▪ Tartan track surface ▪ Partial
▪ Rubber track surface • Type of resistance
• Performed with proper ▪ Medicine ball
supervision ▪ Power ball
• Progressive • Type of implements
▪ Easy to hard ▪ Tape
▪ Simple to complex ▪ Cones
▪ Known to unknown ▪ Boxes
▪ Stable to unstable • Muscle action
▪ Body weight to loaded ▪ Eccentric
• Activity-specific ▪ Isometric
▪ Concentric
• Speed of motion
• Duration
• Frequency
• Amplitude of movement
Plyometric training adaptations—enhanced muscle spindle activity, desensitization of the GTO, enhanced
neuromuscular efficiency, increased strength, improved muscle activation, improved muscle coordination

Plyometric-stabilization exercises—establish optimum landing mechanics, postural alignment, and reactive

neuromuscular efficiency; used in Stabilization Level of OPT model
Plyometric-strength exercises—improve dynamic joint stabilization, eccentric strength, rate of force production, and
neuromuscular efficiency; used in Strength Level of OPT model
Plyometric-power exercises—entire spectrum of muscle actions and contraction velocities; performed as fast and
explosively as possible; used in Power Level of OPT model

PLYOMETRIC PROGRAM DESIGN PARAMETERS

OPT Level Phase(s) Example Exercises Sets/Reps Tempo Rest
0–2 Plyometric-stabilization
Squat jump with Controlled (hold
1–3 sets ×
Stabilization 1 stabilization landing position 0–90 s
5–8 reps
Box jump-up with for 3–5 seconds)
stabilization
0–4 Plyometric-strength
2–3 sets ×
Strength 2, 3, 4 Power step-ups Repeating 0–60 s
8–10 reps
Lunge jumps
0–2 Plyometric-power
2–3 sets × As fast as
Power 5, 6 Depth jump to bounding 0–60 s
8–12 reps possible
Hurdle jump to sprinting
Chapter 9: Speed, Agility and Quickness Training

Speed—the “rate of performance” of an activity

Linear speed—ability to move in one intended direction as fast as possible
Stride rate—amount of time needed to complete a stride cycle; limited by stride length

Drive phase—point of stride when foot first contacts the ground

Recovery phase—point of stride when leg swings from the hip while foot clears the ground
Support phase—point of stride when runner’s weight is carried entirely by the foot

Over-speed (assisted) drills—running drills using an apparatus or downhill surface grade that assists in accelerating
movement; athlete adapts to higher rates of acceleration
Resisted speed drills—athlete moves against increased horizontal or vertical load; improves running drive-phase force
production and stride length

AGILITY/MDS PROGRESSION MODEL

Agility—ability to change direction or orientation based on

rapid processing of internal or external information, accurately
without significant loss of speed
Multidirectional speed (MDS)—ability to create speed in any
direction or body orientation
Components of agility training—body control and awareness,
recognition and reaction, starting and first step, acceleration,
footwork, change of direction, stopping

Quickness—ability to execute movement skills in a comparatively brief amount of time

Reaction time—time elapsed between an athlete’s recognizing the need to act and initiating the appropriate action
Total response time—summation of the reaction time and the time it takes to execute movement
 DRILLS FOR SPEED, AGILITY/MDS, and QUICKNESS

• Resisted knee drives • Superman

Specialized strength exercises for
speed
Technique and specialized drills for
linear speed
• Supine heel pushes
• Tube walking
• Reverse calf raises
• Marches
• A-skips
• Cycling B-skips
• 1/3/5 wall drill
• Weighted arm swings
• Towel pulls
• Standing arm swings
• Push-up sprints
• Resisted sprints
• Assisted sprints

• Lateral A-skips Zig-zag


• Lateral 1/3/5 wall Ali shuffle

drill Ali crossover

• Line-stop W-weave

deceleration drill Upper body agility

(linear and lateral) drill
Technique and specialized drills for • Agility ladder drills: • Cone agility drills:
agility and multidirectional speed  Jumping jacks  5-10-5 drill
 1-in’s  T-drill
 2-in’s  Box drill
 Side shuffle  Modified box drill
 Out-out-in-in
 In-in-out-out
 Side skiers
• Partner mirror drill
• Turn and grab card
Specialized drills for quickness
drill
• Agility ball drill

SAQ PROGRAM DESIGN PARAMETERS

Work/Rest
OPT Level Phase(s) Example Exercises Sets Reps (yards)
Ratio
3–4 technique drills 3–4 1:3
Stabilization 1 15–20
3–5 speed of movement drills 2–4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
2–3 technique drills 3–4 1:3
Strength 2, 3, 4 15–20
5–7 speed of movement drills 2–4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
1–2 technique drills 3–4 1:3
Power 5, 6 15–20
7–10 speed of movement 2–4 1:5
drills (linear/MDS)
Chapter 10: Integrated Resistance Training

Principle of Specificity—states the body will adapt to the specific demands placed upon it; a.k.a. specific adaptations to
imposed demands (SAID) principle
Mechanical specificity—the weight and movements placed on the body
Neuromuscular specificity—speed of contraction and exercise selection
Metabolic specificity—energy demand required for a specific activity

Principle of overload—training stimulus must exceed current capabilities to elicit adaptations

Principle of variation—training programs must have progressive, systematic variations to produce optimal development
Principle of individualization—fitness programs should be unique for each individual athlete

Intermuscular coordination—ability of neuromuscular system to allow optimum motor unit recruitment and
synchronization within a single muscle using single-joint exercises
Intramuscular coordination—ability of neuromuscular system to allow all muscles to work together using multiple-joint
exercises

General Adaptation Syndrome—the Human Movement System’s ability to adapt to the stresses placed upon it; three
phases:
Alarm reaction phase—the initial reaction to a stressor; activates protective processes within the body
Resistance development phase—body increases functional capacity as it adapts to the stressor
Exhaustion phase—prolonged or intolerable stressor produces exhaustion or distress; can lead to reduced
performance and increased risk of injury

ADAPTIVE BENEFITS FROM RESISTANCE

Henneman’s size principle—smaller motor units are recruited
TRAINING
before larger, more powerful ones
• Physiological
Progressive outcomes of resistance training—stabilization, ▪ Improved cardiovascular efficiency
muscular endurance, hypertrophy, strength, and power ▪ Beneficial endocrine and serum lipid regulation
▪ Increased bone density
▪ Increased lean body mass
Modalities—tools used to provide a source of resistance or ▪ Decreased body fat
proprioceptive challenge to an exercise; e.g., kettlebells, ▪ Increased metabolic efficiency
dumbbells, sandbags, medicine balls, suspension trainers, ▪ Decreased physiological stress
• Performance
bands and tubing, sleds, half foam rolls, foam pads, balance
▪ Increased tissue tensile strength
plates, wobble boards, etc. ▪ Increased power
▪ Increased endurance
Resistance training systems:
Single-set—one set for each exercise
Multiple-set—multiple sets for each exercise
Superset—two exercises performed in rapid succession
HIIT—brief bursts of vigorous exercise separated by periods of rest or recovery
Split-routine—isolates and works different sections of the body on different days; traditional resistance training
model
Vertical loading—performing one set for each exercise or body part and repeating; used with circuit training
Horizontal loading—performing all sets for an exercise of body part before moving on to the next

Stabilization exercises—improve neuromuscular efficiency and stability by performing exercises in unstable, yet
controllable training environments; used in the Stabilization Level of the OPT model
Strength exercises—designed to enhance prime-mover strength by performing exercises in a more stable training
environment; emphasis on prime mover musculature and heavier loads; used in the Strength Level of the OPT model
Power exercises—designed to improve rate of force production and overall muscular power by performing exercises as
fast and explosively as can be controlled; used in the Power Level of the OPT model
Chapter 11: Olympic Lifting for Performance Enhancement

Olympic competition lifts—snatch, clean and jerk

Olympic derivative lifts—power snatch, power clean, snatch and clean pulls, back squat, snatch dead lift

Olympic lifting prerequisites—high levels of flexibility, mobility, stability, neuromuscular control, and optimal posture

Maximum strength—the greatest amount of force generated; typically, during a 1RM lift
Reactive strength—a ready response of the necessary strength to a given stimulus
Power endurance—ability to sustain high power output for an extended period of time

Universal Athletic Position (UAP)—static starting position for many sports; fulfills SAID principle criteria for using
Olympic lifts in training; ¼ squat with feel flat on ground, weight on balls of feet, hands in front, hips back, knees over
toes, shoulders over knees, neutral spine
Neutral spine—posture in which no exaggeration of any normal spine curvature is present
Hip hinge—spine remaining stiff and neutral while movement occurs about the hip joint
Deep catch position—maximum triple flexion squat used during “the catch” phase of Olympic lifts; dorsiflexion = 20
degrees, knee flexion = 135 degrees, hip flexion = 120 degrees

Phases of the snatch—getting set, first pull, shift, top pull, amortization, and catch
Phases of the clean and jerk—getting set, first pull, shift, top pull, catch/amortization/possible rebound, get
set/dip/drive of the jerk, catch, and recovery

Olympic lifts for OPT—use derivative lifts and teach competition lift technique during Phase 4; use competition lifts and
power derivatives during Phases 5 and 6
Chapter 12: The Science of Periodization and the OPT Model

ACUTE VARIABLES OF TRAINING

Program design—purposeful system developed to help an Training
individual achieve a specific goal Repetitions Repetition tempo
frequency

Acute variables—important components that specify how each Sets Training volume Training duration
exercise is to be performed
Training intensity Rest interval Exercise selection

Training volume—amount of physical training performed within a specified time

VOLUME CONTINUUM

Stabilization/Strength Endurance: 36–75 (repetitions/exercise)

Hypertrophy: 27–36 (repetitions/exercise)

Strength: 18–24 (repetitions/exercise)

Power: 12–20 (repetitions/exercise)

TRAINING VOLUME ADAPTATIONS

High Volume (Low Intensity) Low Volume (High Intensity)
• Increased muscle cross-sectional area • Increased neuromuscular efficiency

• Improved blood lipid serum profile • Increased rate of force production

• Improved lean body mass • Increased motor unit recruitment

• Decreased body fat • Increased rate coding

• Increased metabolic rate • Increased motor unit synchronization

Periodization—division of a training program into smaller, progressive stages

Linear periodization—starting with high-volume, low-intensity training, progressing to lower-volume, higher-
intensity training; usually over a period of months; following OPT phases in order from 1 to 6
Undulating periodization—more frequent changes in volume and intensity; alternating OPT phases weekly or even
daily; easy way to meet demands of varying sports seasons; best used with already well-trained athletes
Block periodization—focusing on one training adaptation for a given time, usually one month, followed by a large
change in acute variables to focus on a different goal
Training plan—specific outline to meet an athlete’s goals; details form of training, length of time, future changes, and
specific exercises
Macrocycle—generalized plan spanning one year; shows progression between OPT phases
Mesocycle—generalized plan of one to three months; shows which OPT phases are used each day of each week
Microcycle—specific workouts that span one week; shows which exercises are required each day

Neural demand—the challenge an exercise places on the balance and stabilization systems of the kinetic chain

EXERCISE PROGRESSION CONTINUUM

Stabilization Lower Body Upper Body
Two-leg stable
Floor ↓
↓ Staggered-stance stable Two-arm
Sport beam ↓ ↓
↓ One-leg stable Alternating arms
Foam pad ↓ ↓
↓ Two-leg unstable One-arm
Balance disc ↓ ↓
↓ Staggered-stance unstable One-arm with trunk rotation
Wobble board ↓
One-leg unstable

Corrective exercise—training designed to correct muscle imbalances, joint dysfunctions, neuromuscular deficits, and
postural distortion patters; may have to start athlete here first before programming in OPT Phase 1

Phase 1: Stabilization Endurance—creates optimal levels of stabilization strength and postural control; use with
beginner athletes and in between periods of higher-intensity training with advanced athletes

PHASE 1: STABILIZATION ENDURANCE TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Rest Interval Frequency Duration
Component Selection
Flexibility 1 1-3 30 sec hold n/a n/a 3-7/week 4-6 weeks SMR and static
1-4 core-
Core 12-20 1-4 Slow 4/2/1 n/a 0-90 sec 2-4/week 4-6 weeks
stabilization
12-20
1-4 balance-
Balance or 1-3 Slow 4/2/1 n/a 0-90 sec 2-4/week 4-6 weeks
stabilization
6-10 (SL)
3-5 sec hold 0-2 plyometric-
Plyometric 5-8 1-3 n/a 0-90 sec 2-4/week 4-6 weeks
on landing stabilization
Continued…
3-4 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 3-5 speed of
SAQ Controlled n/a 2-4/week 4-6 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
1-2 stabilization
Resistance 12-20 1-3 4/2/1 50-70% 0-90 sec 2-4/week 4-6 weeks
progression

Phase 2: Strength Endurance—hybrid form of training that promotes increased stabilization endurance, hypertrophy,
and strength; uses supersets of a more-stable strength exercise followed by a stabilization exercises with similar
biomechanical motions

PHASE 2: STRENGTH ENDURANCE TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Rest Interval Frequency Duration
Component Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 1-2 sec hold n/a n/a 3-7/week 4 weeks SMR and active
Medium
Core 8-12 2-3 3/2/1 – n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks 1-3 core-strength
1/1/1
Medium
1-3 balance-
Balance 8-12 2-3 3/2/1 – n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks
strength
1/1/1
1-3 plyometric-
Plyometric 8-10 2-3 Repeating n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks
strength
2-3 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 5-7 speed of
SAQ Controlled n/a 2-4/week 4 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
Strength /
(Str) 2/0/2
Resistance 8-12 2-4 70-80% 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks stabilization
(Stab) 4/2/1
supersets

Phase 3: Hypertrophy—training to maximize muscle growth; high levels of volume with minimal rest periods

PHASE 3: HYPERTROPHY TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Rest Interval Frequency Duration
Component Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 1-2 sec hold n/a n/a 3-7/week 4 weeks SMR and active
Medium
Core 8-12 2-3 3/2/1 – n/a 0-60 sec 3-6/week 4 weeks 0-4 core-strength
1/1/1
Medium
0-4 balance-
Balance 8-12 2-3 3/2/1 – n/a 0-60 sec 3-6/week 4 weeks
strength
1/1/1
Continued…
0-4 plyometric-
Plyometric 8-12 2-3 Repeating n/a 0-60 sec 3-6/week 4 weeks
strength
2-3 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 5-7 speed of
SAQ Controlled n/a 2-4/week 4 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
2-4 Strength Level /
Resistance 6-12 3-5 2/0/2 75-85% 0-60 sec 3-6/week 4 weeks
body part

Phase 4: Maximal Strength—focuses on increasing total load placed upon the tissues of the body; improves motor unit
recruitment, rate of force production, and motor unit synchronization

PHASE 4: MAXIMAL STRENGTH TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Rest Interval Frequency Duration
Component Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 1-2 sec hold n/a n/a 3-7/week 4 weeks SMR and active
Medium
Core 8-12 2-3 n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks 0-3 core-strength
1/1/1
Medium 0-3 balance-
Balance 8-12 2-3 n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks
1/1/1 strength
0-3 plyometric-
Plyometric 8-10 2-3 Repeating n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks
strength
2-3 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 5-7 speed of
SAQ Fast n/a 2-4/week 4 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
As fast as
1-3 Strength Level /
Resistance 1-5 4-6 can be 85-100% 3-5 min 2-4/week 4 weeks
body part
controlled

Phase 5: Power—high-force, high-velocity training to increase rate of force production; uses supersets of a maximal
strength exercise followed by a light-load, high-speed power exercise with similar biomechanical motions

PHASE 5: POWER TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Rest Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Frequency Duration
Component Interval Selection
SMR and dynamic
Flexibility 10-15 1-2 Controlled n/a n/a 3-7/week 4 weeks
3-5 exercises
As fast as
Core 8-12 2-3 can be n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks 0-2 core-power
controlled
Balance 8-12 2-3 Controlled n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks 0-2 balance-power
Continued…
As fast as 0-2 plyometric-
Plyometric 8-12 2-3 n/a 0-60 sec 2-4/week 4 weeks
possible power
1-2 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 7-10 speed of
SAQ Fast n/a 2-4/week 4 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
(S) 1/1/1 (S) 85-100% 1-2 min btw
(S) 1-5 (P) As fast as (P) up to pairs Strength / power
Resistance 3-5 2-4/week 4 weeks
(P) 8-10 can be 10% BW or 3-5 min btw supersets
controlled 30-45% 1RM circuits

Phase 6: Maximal Power—high-velocity training for further increases in power; use only with athletes who require
maximum power for their sports; must have optimal levels of stabilization-strength and eccentric strength

PHASE 6: MAXIMAL POWER TRAINING—ACUTE VARIABLES

Training Rest Exercise
Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Frequency Duration
Component Interval Selection
SMR and dynamic
Flexibility 10-15 1-2 Controlled n/a n/a 3-7/week 4-6 weeks
3-5 exercises
Core n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Balance n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Plyometric n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
1-2 technique drills
3-4 1:3
15-20 7-10 speed of
SAQ Fast n/a 2-4/week 4 weeks
yards movement drills
2-4 1:5
(linear/MDS)
As fast as 30-45%
Resistance 10 4-6 can be Max 10% 3-5 min 1-2/week 2 weeks 4-6 Power exercises
controlled BW
Chapter 13: Injury Prevention for the Athlete

Active warm-up—submaximal activity that facilitates a 1-

WARM-UP PROTOCOLS
degree Celsius increase in internal core temperature
• 12-15 min
• Submaximal, non-fatiguing activity Common foot injuries—Achilles tendonitis, plantar fasciitis,
• Stretching
metatarsal stress fracture
• Sport-specific movements
• Injury prevention techniques Foot injury prevention techniques—Achilles tendon stretch
• Gradual intensity and movement specificity progression (bent knee), Achilles tendon stretch (straight knee), resisted
• Increase from half-tempo to game pace dorsiflexion, towel crunches
• Also use for extended breaks in athletic events

Common ankle injuries—lateral ankle sprain, medial ankle sprain, syndesmotic (high ankle) sprain
Ankle injury prevention techniques—restore closed-chain dorsiflexion through stretching, strengthen ankle
musculature, use functional activities (e.g., hopping, lateral, and cutting movements), progress acute variables over
several weeks

Common knee injuries—patellofemoral pain (PFP) syndrome, anterior cruciate ligament injuries
Knee injury prevention techniques—hip strengthening (e.g., tube walking), proprioceptive-balance training, plyometric
agility training; technique-movement awareness training

Common low back injuries—disc injury, muscle strain/ligament sprain, sacroiliac joint (SIJ) dysfunction
Low back injury prevention techniques—strengthening of lumbar spine, lower limbs, and abdominal muscles;
correcting imbalances throughout the body; improving overall neuromuscular control

Common shoulder injuries—shoulder impingement, shoulder instability

Shoulder injury prevention techniques—SMR, static, and neuromuscular stretching; isolated strengthening of
underactive scapular muscles

Concussions—1.6-3.8 million occurrences per year, reaching epidemic status; when the brain hits the inside of the skull
due to impact or drastic motion of the head
Concussion prevention techniques—strengthening of the head, neck, and cervical structures; use manual resistance
(MR) if neck flexion/extension machine not available

Injury rehabilitation protocol—three graded stages defined by an athlete’s symptomology and trajectory of recovery
Stage 1—injured area managed by athletic trainer and sports medicine staff; strengthen non-traumatized areas
using iso-lateral or single-limb training
Stage 2—athlete regains pain-free ROM and cleared by medical staff; therapeutic and progressive in nature;
increases blood circulation to injured area to promote continued healing; keep joint stress minimal
Stage 3—focused on returning injured area to baseline or greater than pre-injury strength level; additional focus on
increasing metabolic conditioning
Chapter 14: Performance Nutrition

Performance nutrition—combination of strategies to enhance performance through specific food and nutrient choices,
timing, and quantities

Carbohydrates—primary fuel source during DAILY CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE

activity; exercise while carbohydrate-depleted RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ATHLETES
increases stress hormones and reduces immune Typical American diet 4-5 g/kg/d
function; consumed in grains, fruits and
vegetables, legumes, dairy General training needs 5-7 g/kg/d

Glycogen—carbohydrate stored within muscle and

Endurance training needs 7-10 g/kg/d
liver tissue; depleted over two hours of exercise,
or a 15-hour fast Ultra-endurance training needs 11 g/kg/d or more

Fiber—non-digestible carbohydrate; soluble and

insoluble types; beneficial for healthy gut and immune system function
Glycemic Index (GI)—rating of carbohydrates based on how rapidly they raise blood sugar; higher-GI carbs raise blood
sugar faster
Glycogen supercompensation (carbohydrate loading)—can almost double muscle glycogen concentrations; most
effective for intense endurance activities over 90 minutes; consume typical meals for 3 days followed by 3 days of a
high-carb diet just before competition
DAILY PROTEIN INTAKE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
Protein—supports growth and maintenance of ATHLETES
body tissues; synthesizes enzymes, hormones, and Moderately active adults 0.8 g/kg/d
other peptides; builds antibodies; maintains fluid
and electrolyte balance, repairs exercise- Strength athletes 1.6-1.7 g/kg/d
associated muscle damage, provides energy and
glucose; consumed in meat, poultry, fish, eggs, Strength athletes (vegetarian) 1.7-1.8 g/kg/d

beans, nuts, dairy

Endurance athletes 1.2-1.4 g/kg/d
Gluconeogenesis—metabolic pathway that
generates glucose from non-carbohydrate Endurance athletes (vegetarian) 1.3-1.5 g/kg/d
substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and
All exercising individuals 1.4-2.0 g/kg/d
glucogenic amino acids
Whey proteins—collection of globular proteins
isolated from whey, a by-product of cow’s-milk cheese making; highest biological value of any protein
Casein—predominate phosphoprotein accounting for nearly 80% of proteins in milk and cheese
Essential amino acids—must come from food; cannot be synthesized by the body
 Fats—maintain function and elasticity of cell membranes,
DAILY FAT INTAKE GUIDELINES
support structure and function of nervous system, produce
• 20-35% of daily energy intake hormones, regulate body temperature, assist with vitamin and
 10% from saturated fatty acids
carotenoid absorption, protect vital organs; saturated,
 10% poly-unsaturated fatty acids
 10% mono-unsaturated fatty acids
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated types; consumed in
• Very low fat (<15%) diets show no performance benefit meats, poultry, fish, oils

Micronutrients—vitamins and minerals; play key roles in metabolism, bone health, hemoglobin production, immune
function, and protection from oxidative damage

TERMS RELATED TO DAILY NUTRIENT INTAKE RECOMMENDATIONS

Dietary Reference Intake—family of four nutrient reference values; RDA, AI, EAR, and TUL; primary goals are to prevent nutrient
DRI
deficiencies and reduce risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease
Recommended Daily Allowance—average daily dietary intake level that adequately meets nutrient requirements of nearly all
RDA
healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group
Adequate Intake—used when an RDA cannot be determined; recommended intake value based on observed or experimentally
AI
determined nutrient intake estimates of a group of healthy people
Estimated Average Requirement—used to assess dietary adequacy; basis for the RDA; daily nutrient intake value estimated to
EAR
meet half of a healthy individual’s requirement
Tolerable Upper Level—highest level of daily nutrient intake not likely to pose a risk of adverse health effects for almost all
TUL
individuals in the general population; potential risk of adverse effects increases as intake increases above TUL

Antioxidants—nutrients that help remove free radicals from the body and reduce oxidative stress; e.g., vitamins E and C,
beta-carotene, selenium; can become toxic at high doses

Daily energy balance—when sufficient calories are consumed to match daily energy expenditure
Inter-day energy balance—body composition can be impacted by meal and snack frequency; avoid energy deficits
throughout the day by consuming smaller, more frequent meals

Pre-exercise meal—should contain sufficient fluids to maintain hydration, be low in fat and fiber to encourage gastric
emptying, be high in carbohydrates to optimize glycogen stores, contain moderate protein, and be made of familiar
foods so as to not upset the stomach; consume meal with 200-300g carbs 3-4 hours before exercise

Sports drinks—drinks containing 4-8% carbohydrates improve performance; use before morning workouts and for
athletic events lasting longer than 1 hour

Muscle fuel recovery—consume high-GI carbs and proteins in a 4:1 ratio within 30-45 minutes immediately after
exercise to maximize glycogen replenishment, promote anabolic processes, and enhance recovery

Insulin—substance responsible for transporting glucose and amino acids into cells and initiating glycogen and protein
synthesis; muscle cells are most insulin-receptive immediately after exercise
Performance effects of hydration—dehydration of greater than 2% body mass can decrease aerobic exercise
performance, visuomotor tracking, short-term memory, response time, coordination, attention, and mental focus

FLUID REPLACEMENT GUIDELINES

Before
14-22 oz. fluid 2 hours before exercise
Exercise
During
6-12 oz. water or sports drink every 15-20 min of exercise
Exercise
After
16-24 oz. water or sports drink for every pound of body weight lost during exercise
Exercise

Symptoms of dehydration—thirst, discomfort, fatigue, flushed skin, muscle cramps, apathy, dizziness, headache,
nausea, vomiting, chills, shortness of breath

Hyponatremia—abnormally low levels of blood sodium; a.k.a. water intoxication; caused by overdrinking hypotonic
fluids combined with excessive sodium loss (sweat)

APPROPRIATE NUTRITIONAL DISCUSSION TOPICS FOR THE SPORTS

PERFORMANCE PROFESSIONAL

• Food preparations methods

• Healthy snacks
• Statistical information on the relationship between
chronic disease and the excesses of deficiencies of specific
nutrients
• Vitamins and minerals as essential nutrients
• Food guidance systems: USDA MyPlate
(www.choosemyplate.gov)
• Carbohydrate, protein, and fat basics
• Nutrients contained in foods or supplements
• Importance of water and hydration status
Chapter 15: Ergogenic Aids

Ergogenic aid—something that aids (enhances) TYPES OF ERGOGENIC AIDS

athletic performance
Mechanical Lightweight running shoes, aerodynamic bicycle
Acute ergogenic aids—have immediate effect
on mental and physiological functions; e.g.,
Psychological Treatments from a sport psychologist, mental imaging
caffeine
Chronic ergogenic aids—enhance strength and Physiological Blood doping, pH buffering with alkaline salts
muscle mass adaptations when consumed over
a period of weeks in conjunction with training; Pharmacological Drugs, herbs, and other botanicals

e.g., creatine
Nutritional Special diets, foods, food components, and nutrients

Nutritional ergogenic aids—when macro- and/or micro-nutrients are consumed as part of a performance enhancement
strategy; e.g., amino acids, sports drinks, vitamins, and minerals
Non-nutrient ergogenic aids—creatine, beta-alanine, nitric oxide boosters, stimulants, anti-catabolic substances,
prohormones, androgenic anabolic steroids, blood doping

Ergolytic substance—a substance shown to be detrimental to exercise performance

ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Essential Non-essential Conditionally essential amino acids—normally
• Leucine • Alanine synthesized in the body but can be required in the diet
• Isoleucine • Arginine* under certain physiological conditions or pathological
• Valine • Asparagine
states
• Lysine • Aspartic acid
• Tryptophan • Cysteine* Commonly supplemented amino acids—branched chain
• Threonine • Glutamic acid amino acids (BCAAs) of leucine, isoleucine, and valine,
• Methionine • Glutamine*
glutamine, lysine
• Phenylalanine • Glycine*
• Histidine • Proline*
• Serine
• Tyrosine*
*Conditionally essential

Vitamin supplementation—ergogenic only if the athlete has an inadequate dietary intake of a vitamin; excessive intake
of some can seriously damage health
Mineral supplementation—ergogenic only if the athlete has a predisposing deficient of a mineral; most commonly
deficient = iron, zinc, sodium, calcium
Female athlete triad—syndrome identified by the combination of eating disorders, amenorrhea, and decreased bone
mineral density; caused by not meeting energy and calcium needs during training
Amenorrheic athletes—female athletes with the absence of a menstrual period during reproductive ages

Creatine—naturally synthesized in the body from amino acids methionine, glycine, and arginine; phosphorylated form
rapidly regenerates ATP from ADP to maintain high-intensity effort; supplementation increases muscle creatine levels,
can enhance brief, high-intensity efforts

Beta-alanine—non-proteinogenic amino acid; precursor to carnosine; increases acid-buffering capacity to stave off
muscle soreness; helps body work at high levels for longer

Nitric oxide boosters—substances that increase nitric oxide concentration in the blood; activates dilation of blood
vessels; may improve nutrient delivery and waste removal; citrulline converted to arginine in the kidneys; increases
training volume, lowers fatigue, reduces muscle soreness

Stimulants—wide variety of legal (caffeine) and illegal (ephedrine, amphetamine, cocaine) options; caffeine is most
widely used, is an acute ergogenic aid, and most effective when consumed at 3 to 6 mg/kg body weight; side effects =
insomnia, nervousness, nausea, rapid heartbeat and breathing, convulsions, diuresis, headache, anxiety, chest pain,
irregular heart rhythm; over 50 stimulants banned by WADA

Anti-catabolic substances—substances that promote muscle synthesis and prevent muscle breakdown; amino acids and
proteins, HMB

Prohormones—substances that promote increased

anabolic hormone concentrations in the body; DHEA,
most effective with older athletes
Androgenic anabolic steroids—designed to mimic the
effects of testosterone; banned by all major athletic
organizations; promote building of muscle mass and
strength, reduce body fat; risk of serious adverse
health effects
SUPPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES
• Avoid supplements that have proprietary blends
• Use multi-ingredient supplements that have been tested for safety and
efficacy
• Stick to blends that have ingredients shown to be effective, as they have
generally been tested alone and in combination
• Go with science, not hype
• Look for straightforward formulas from respected companies

Blood doping—increases VO2max and enhances endurance; involves removing blood, centrifuging it to concentrate red
blood cells, then injecting it back into the athlete, thus increasing red cell concentration and enhancing oxygen carrying
capacity; unethical and banned by all major athletic organizations; EPO supplementation has similar effects, also banned

Supplementation guiding questions—“Does it work?”, “Is it safe?”, “Is it legal or ethical?”

Chapter 16: Performance Psychology

FOUR PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF CONCENTRATION Limited channel capacity—ability to only hold a

• Focusing on relevant cues in the environment (selective attention)
• Maintaining attentional focus over time
• Having awareness of the situation
• Shifting attentional focus when necessary
limited amount of information in the mind at one
time
Concentration—maintaining awareness and focus on
relevant cues over a period of time and shifting focus
as necessary

Selective attention—ability to focus on relevant cues

Relevant cue—task-associated piece of information that may signal a need for action
Irrelevant cue—a distraction; cue that takes attention away from the task

RELEVANT VS. IRRELEVANT CUES

Example Athlete Relevant Cues Irrelevant Cues

• Tension in arms and legs • Beautiful houses on the route

Marathon runner
• Stride length • Dinner with friends later

• Hand placement on the bar • Audience

Olympic weightlifter
• Pre-lifting routine • Performance of previous lifter

Situational awareness—ability to assess environmental surroundings and make appropriate decisions based on the
situation, often under pressure and time demands

Strategies to improve concentration:

Self-talk—inner and spoken dialogue that forms our thoughts and shared ideas
Routines—help athletes transfer attention from irrelevant to relevant thoughts; increase likelihood athletes will not
be distracted internally or externally; helps stay automatic without interference of conscious awareness
Self-monitoring—observation of one’s self in a systematic way, typically to produce more desirable behaviors
Imagery—creating mental images of performance to enhance motivation, confidence, attention and focus, and
acquisition of new skills, reduce competitive anxiety, psych-up for training or competition, and build competitive
plans and strategies

Motivation—the direction and intensity of one’s efforts

Interactional model—motivation is comprised of a combination of personal and situational factors
Intrinsic motivation—focuses on the athlete’s love and enjoyment of participating
Extrinsic motivation—external rewards for performance; e.g., trophies, prizes, accolades
Optimal arousal—optimal blend of psychological and physiological activity in a person; a “psyched-up” mind state;
intensity continuum from no arousal at all (deep sleep) to complete arousal (frenzied)

Relaxation response—cognitive relaxation technique of meditating without spiritual or religious aspects

Coping—process to manage stress when feeling overwhelmed

Problem-focused coping—focuses directly on the cause of a stressor
Emotion-focused coping—focuses on regulating the emotional response to a stressor

COMMONLY USED COPING STRATEGIES

Coping Strategy Description
Though control Blocking distractions, using coping thoughts such as “I can do it!”

Rational thinking Taking a rational approach to one’s self and the situation

Task focus Narrowing focus

Positive focus and orientation Focusing on belief in one’s ability

Social support Encouragement from coaches, family, friends, and teammates

Pre-performance mental preparation
Mental practice, pre-performance routines, and relaxation strategies
and anxiety management
Time management Making time for personal growth and daily goals

Training hard and smart Applying work ethic; taking responsibility for one’s training

Relationship-oriented leadership style—focused on developing interpersonal relationships

Task-oriented leadership style—focused on getting the task completed

THE TARGET MODEL

Coaching model used to create a mastery-oriented motivational climate

• Tasks—focuses on learning and downplays competition and social comparisons

• Authority—allows athletes to participate in the decision-making process
• Reward—bases rewards on improvement, not social comparison
• Grouping—creates cooperative learning climates within groups (not competing against each other)
• Evaluation—focuses evaluations on personal improvement, not just on who is the best
• Timing—provides feedback immediately after an athlete performs the task