THE

ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Emerson G. Parcon
RMT, MSMT, MLS (ASCPi)ᶜᵐ
Nervous System

Overview

1. Functions of the Nervous System 3. Cells of the Nervous

a. Receiving sensory input System
b. Integrating information a. Neurons
c. Controlling muscles and glands b. Glial cells
d. Maintaining homeostasis c. Myelin Sheaths
e. Establishing and maintaining mental activity d. Organization of
Nervous System
2. Divisions of the Nervous System
a. Central Nervous System
b. Peripheral Nervous System
Nervous System

Overview
4. Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways 6. Sensory Functions
a. Resting Membrane Potential a. Ascending tracts
b. Action Potentials b. Sensory Areas of the
c. The Synapse Cerebral Cortex
d. Reflexes 7. Motor Functions
e. Neuronal Pathways a. Motor Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
5. Brain b. Descending Tracts
a. Brain c. Diencephalon
b. Cerebellum d. Cerebrum
Nervous System

Overview
8. Other Brain Functions 10. Enteric Nervous System
a. Communication Between the
Right and Left Hemispheres 11. Diseases and Disorders
a. Speech a. Hydrocephalus
b. Brain Waves and Consciousness b. Meningitis
c. Memory c. Others
d. Limbic System

9. Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System

a. Neurotransmitters b. Functions
Endocrine System
Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the learner will:

1. Describe the regulatory functions of the endocrine system.

2. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
3. Describe the major mechanisms that maintain blood hormone levels.
4. Explain how the hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion from the pituitary.
5. Explain clearly the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus.
Endocrine System
Overview

1. Principles of Chemical Communication c. Regulation of Hormone Levels in

a. Autocrine c. Neurotransmitters the Blood
b. Paracrine d. Endocrine 6. Hormone Receptors and
2. Functions of the Endocrine System Mechanisms of Action
3. Characteristics of the Endocrine System a. Classes of Receptors
4. Hormones b. Action of Nuclear Receptors
a. Chemical Nature of Hormones c. Membrane-Bound Receptors
5. Control of Hormone Secretion
a. Stimulation of Hormone Release
b. Inhibition of Hormone Release
Endocrine System
Overview

7. Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones 9. Diseases and Disorders

a, Pituitary and Hypothalamus a. Diabetes Mellitus
b. Thyroid Gland b. Hyperthyroidism
c. Parathyroid Gland
d. Adrenal Glands
e. Thymus
f. Pineal Gland
8. Other Hormones
Endocrine System
Principles of Chemical Communication

● Chemical messengers
○ Allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body activities.
● Categories
○ Autocrine chemical messengers
■ Stimulates the cell that originally secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells of
the same type.
■ Example: During infection, white blood cells (WBCs) stimulate their own
replication to increase their number rapidly.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Principles of Chemical Communication

● Categories
○ Paracrine chemical messengers
■ Secreted by one cell type into the extracellular fluid and affect surrounding
cells of a different type.
■ Example: During allergic reactions, WBCs releases histamine which stimulates
vasodilation in nearby blood vessels

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Principles of Chemical Communication

● Categories
○ Neurotransmitters
■ Secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another
neuron, a muscle cell, or a glandular cell.
○ Endocrine chemical messengers
■ Secreted by certain glands and cells into the bloodstream, which affect cells
that are distant from their source.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 What type of chemical
communication is shown below?

Neuroendocrine
Endocrine System
Functions of the Endocrine System

● Metabolism
● Control of food intake and digestion
● Tissue development.
● Ion regulation (by regulating blood solute concentration)
● Water balance (by controlling solutes in the blood)
● Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
● Control of blood glucose and other nutrients.
● Control of reproductive functions
● Uterine contractions (during delivery) and milk release (in lactating females)
● Immune system regulation (control of production and function of immune cells)

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Characteristics of the Endocrine System

● Components:
○ Endocrine glands and specialized endocrine cells (all over the body).
● Hormones
○ Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands and cells into the bloodstream
to specific sites called target tissues or effectors where they produce a coordinated
response of the target tissues.
● Endocrinology
○ The study of the endocrine system.

Derrikson, B., & Tortora, G. (2012). Principles of Anatomy & Physiology (13th Ed.). 111 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Endocrine
System

Major Endocrine
Glands and Their
Locations

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormones
Chemical Nature
● Categories of hormones are based on their chemical composition, which influences their
chemical behavior and metabolism.
● (1) Lipid-Soluble Hormones
○ Nonpolar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and fatty acid
derivative hormones (eicosanoids).
○ Transport:
■ They travel in the bloodstream attached to binding (transport) proteins
because of their small size and low solubility which make their elimination rate
reduced and lifespan range longer. The breakdown products are excreted in
the urine or the bile.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormones
Chemical Nature
● (2) Water-Soluble Hormones
○ Polar, which makes them have a rapid onset but short duration of action, and
include protein hormones, peptide hormones, and most amino acid derivatives
hormones.
○ Transport:
■ Many are quite large in size and they travel in the bloodstream as free
hormones because they can be dissolved in the blood and don’t readily
diffuse through the capillary walls.
■ Small water-soluble hormones require attachment to a larger protein to avoid
being filtered out of the blood.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormones
Chemical Nature
● (2) Water-Soluble Hormones
○ Elimination:
■ They have relatively short half-lives because they are rapidly degraded by
enzymes called proteases within the bloodstream. After breakdown, kidney
removes the degraded products from the blood.
■ Target cells also destroy water-soluble hormone when they are internalized
via endocytosis. After lysosomal enzyme breakdown, cells recycle the amino
acids of peptide and protein hormones and uses them to synthesize new
proteins.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormones
Chemical Nature
● (2) Water-Soluble Hormones
○ Carbohydrate attached water-soluble hormones
■ Modification that helps hormones become more stable in the circulation by
protecting them from protease activity.
○ Protein attached water-soluble hormones
■ Circulate in the plasma longer than free water-soluble hormones.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Describe transport and
elimination of water-soluble
hormones.

• Transport – travel as free

or attached to
carbohydrates or protein
• Elimination – free is
degraded by proteases;
degraded by target cells
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation of Hormone Release
● Control by Humoral Stimuli
○ Release of hormones are
stimulated by blood-
borne chemicals such as
glucose, calcium, or
sodium.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation of Hormone Release
● Control by Neural Stimuli
○ Following action potentials, neurons release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse with the
cells that produce the hormone.
○ Neuropeptides - chemical messengers
(hormones) released from neurons directly to
blood and stimulate other cells to release
hormone (releasing hormones).

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation of Hormone Release
● Control by Hormonal Stimuli
○ Hormone secreted stimulates the secretion of
other hormones.
○ Tropic hormones
■ Hormones from anterior pituitary gland
that are part of a complex process in
which a releasing hormone from
hypothamus stimulates their release and
travel to a third endocrine gland and
stimulates the release of a third hormone.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Inhibition of Hormone Release
● Inhibition of Hormone Release by Humoral Stimuli
○ When humoral stimuli stimulate the release of hormone, the same humoral stimuli
will stimulate the release of inhibitory hormone.
○ Example: Aldosterone and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
- raise of blood pressure  adrenal cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone 
blood pressure normalized
- blood pressure goes up  atria of the heart secretes the hormone atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP)  lowers blood pressure.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Inhibition of Hormone Release
● Inhibition of Hormone Release by Neural Stimuli
○ Neurons inhibit (endocrine gland does not secrete hormone) targets just as often
as they stimulate target.
● Inhibition of Hormone Release by Hormonal Stimuli
○ Some hormones prevent the secretion of other hormones.
○ Example: Inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus that prevent the secretion of
tropic hormones from the pituitary gland.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Describe Hormone Release by
Humoral Stimuli

Release of hormones are

stimulated by blood-borne
chemicals such as glucose,
calcium, or sodium.
Endocrine System
Control of Hormone Secretion
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
● Negative feedback
○ A self-limiting system in which hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone
itself or other hormones once the blood levels reached a certain point and there is
adequate hormone to activate the target cell.
● Positive feedback
○ A self-propagating system in which some hormones when stimulated by a tropic
hormone promote the synthesis and secretion of the tropic hormone in addition to
stimulating their target cell. In turn, this stimulates further secretion of the original
hormone.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Negative and Positive Feedback
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of
Action
● Receptors - proteins where hormones exert
their actions by binding.
● Receptor site - the portion of each receptor
molecule where a hormone bind. Each has
unique shape and chemical characteristics
which allow only a specific type of hormone
to bind to it.
● Specificity - the tendency for each type of
hormone to bind to one type of receptor,
and not to others.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Classes of Receptors
● Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
○ Owing to their small size they diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to
nuclear receptors (nucleus and cytoplasm).
○ Examples: Testosterone, estrogen, aldosterone, and cortisol.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Action of Nuclear Receptors
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Classes of Receptors
● Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors
○ Since water-soluble hormones are polar and cannot pass through plasma
membrane, they interact with membrane-bound receptors on the plasma
membrane’s outer surface.
○ Examples: proteins, peptides, some amino acid derivatives (epinephrine and
norepinephrine), and some lipid-soluble hormones.
● Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
○ Receptors have peptide chains that are anchored in the phospholipid bilayer of
the plasma membrane.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Classes of Receptors
● Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
○ Two ways of activating responses:
■ Some receptors alter the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the
plasma membrane. Other receptors alter the activity of intracellular enzymes.
○ Second messengers
■ A chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone or another chemical
messenger binds to certain membrane-bound receptors.
○ Second-messenger system
■ A coordinated set of events of specific cellular processes inside the cell
which is activated by the second messenger
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Membrane-Bound Receptors that Activate G Proteins
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 G Proteins That Interact with Adenylate Cyclase
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Classes of Receptors
● Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
○ Signal Amplification
■ A single hormone activates many second messengers, each of which
activates enzymes that produce an enormous amount of final product.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Explain the process of activating
G proteins by membrane-bound
receptors (attached hormone)
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Hypothalamus
● An important autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain
located inferior to the thalamus.

Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis

● A small gland about the size of a pea that rests in a depression of the sphenoid bone
inferior to the hypothalamus of the brain.
● Connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk called infundibulum.
● Often referred as master gland because it controls the function of so many other
glands.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Two parts:
○ Anterior pituitary – made up of epithelial cells derived from the embryonic oral
cavity.
○ Posterior pituitary – an extension of the brain and is composed of nerve cells.
● Controlled by hypothalamus in two ways:
○ Hormonal Control of the Anterior Pituitary
■ Neurons of hypothalamus produce and secrete neuropeptides transported
by capillary beds and veins (hypothalamic-pituitary portal system) that either
releasing or inhibiting hormones.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Controlled by hypothalamus in two ways:
○ Hormonal Control of the Anterior Pituitary
■ Releasing hormones – stimulates the production and secretion of specific
hormone by anterior pituitary.
■ Inhibiting hormones – decreases the secretion of a specific anterior pituitary
hormone.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Anterior Pituitary
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Controlled by hypothalamus in two ways:
○ Direct Innervation of the Posterior Pituitary
■ Hormones are secreted by the stimulation of neurons within the
hypothalamus which their axons extend through the infundibulum to the
posterior pituitary.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Posterior
Pituitary

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Explain how the hypothalamus
controls posterior pituitary
gland.
Direct Innervation
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Endocrine Glands, Hormones,
and Their Target Tissues

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Endocrine Glands, Hormones,
and Their Target Tissues

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Endocrine Glands, Hormones,
and Their Target Tissues

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland
○ Growth hormone (GH)
■ Stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs by increasing
gene expression.
■ Secretion is controlled by a releasing hormone which stimulates growth
hormone secretion, and an inhibiting hormone which inhibits its secretion.
■ Secretion increases during periods of fasting and exercise and
daily peak levels of secretion occurring during deep sleep.
■ Increases secretion of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) or somatomedins
from liver and other tissues which stimulate the growth of bones and
Regan, J., Russo, A., & cartilage.
VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland
○ Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
○ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
○ Gonadotropins
■ Bind to membrane-bound receptors on the cells of the gonads.
■ Regulate the growth, development, and functions of the gonads.
■ Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
○ Prolactin
○ Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
● Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
○ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
○ Increases water reabsorption by kidney tubules and constriction of blood
vessels which results in less water lost as urine.
● Oxytocin

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
How vasopressin conserves
water in the body?

Increases water reabsorption

by kidney tubules and
constriction of blood vessels
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Thyroid Gland
● Made up of two lobes which are located on each side
of the trachea, just inferior to the larynx connected by a
narrow band called the isthmus.
● One of the largest endocrine glands and appears more red
than the surrounding tissues because of its vascularity.
● Main function is to secrete thyroid hormones which increases
the rate of metabolism in the body.
● Thyroid hormones are synthesized (which requires iodine) and stored in thyroid follicles which they
attached to the thyroglobulin.
○ Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine - contains four iodine atoms and is abbreviated T4.
○ Triiodothyronine - contains three iodine atoms and is abbreviated T3.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Regulation
of Thyroid
Hormone
(T3 and T4)
Secretion

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Thyroid Gland
● Calcitonin
○ Secreted by parafollicular or C cells of thyroid gland.
○ Secreted when blood concentration of Ca2+ becomes too high, and it causes Ca2+
to decrease to their normal range.

Parathyroid Glands
● Four tiny glands embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland.
● Secrete a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is essential for the
regulation of blood calcium levels.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Parathyroid Glands
● Effects
○ PTH binds to renal tubule cells, which increases active vitamin D formation. Vitamin
D causes epithelial cells of the intestine to increase Ca2+ absorption.
○ PTH binds on osteoblasts which in turn causes osteoclast activity to increase and
results to bone tissue reabsorption? resorption releasing Ca2+ into the circulatory
system.
○ PTH binds to receptors on cells of the renal tubules and decreases the rate at
which Ca2+ is lost in the urine.
○ PTH acts on tissues to raise blood Ca2+ levels to normal.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Thyroid and
Parathyroid
Glands

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Regulation
of Calcium
ion Blood
Levels

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
How PTH regulates Calcium
levels?

1. PTH binds to renal tubule cells,

which increases active vitamin D
formation - increase Ca2+
absorption
2. Binds on osteoblasts which in turn
causes osteoclast activity to
increase and results to bone
tissue resorption – increase Ca2+
3. binds to receptors on cells of the
renal tubules and decreases the
rate at which Ca2+ is lost in the
urine
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Two small glands located superior
to each kidney.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Adrenal Medulla
○ Released epinephrine or adrenaline (principal) and norepinephrine in
response to stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system when a person is
excited or physically active and, stress and has low blood glucose levels.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Regulation of Adrenal Medullary Secretions
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Adrenal Cortex
○ Secretes three classes of steroid hormones: mineralcorticoids
(aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), and androgens.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Adrenal Cortex
○ Secretes three classes
of steroid hormones:
mineralcorticoids
(aldosterone),
glucocorticoids
(cortisol), and
androgens.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Adrenal Cortex
○ Secretes three classes
of steroid hormones:
mineralcorticoids
(aldosterone),
glucocorticoids
(cortisol), and
androgens.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pancreas and Insulin
● The endocrine part consists of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) and secrete
three hormones – insulin (beta cells), glucagon (alpha cells), and somatostain (delta
cells) – which regulate the blood levels of glucose.
● Somatostatin
○ inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Structure
of
Pancreas

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Regulation of
Blood Glucose
Levels

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Testes and Ovaries
● Secrete sex hormones: testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.
● Hypothalamus releases releasing hormone which controls the rate of LH and FSH
secretion, in turn, control the secretion of testosterone, estrogen and progesterone
from the ovaries and testes.

Thymus
● Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity.
● Secretes hormone thymosin which aids the development of white blood cells called
T cells and help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
Pineal Gland
● A small, pinecone-shaped structure located
superior and posterior to the thalamus of the
brain.
● Produces melatonin which decrease the
secretion of LH and FSH by decreasing the
release of hypothalamic-releasing
hormones.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Explain the Endocrine Pathway
of Aldosterone.
Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Adrenal Glands
● Adrenal Cortex
○ Secretes three classes
of steroid hormones:
mineralcorticoids
(aldosterone),
glucocorticoids
(cortisol), and
androgens.

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Other Hormones
● Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
○ Hormones that stimulate and regulate the production of digestive juices from
the stomach, pancreas and liver.
● Prostaglandins
○ Widely distributed in tissues of the body, where they function as intercellular
signals for relaxation (dilation of blood vessels) and contractions (of the uterus
during the delivery of a baby) of smooth muscle.
● Erythropoietin
○ Secreted by the kidneys in response to reduced oxygen level where they act
on bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells.
● Estrogen, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
○ Maintain pregnancy and stimulate breast development.
Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
● Type 1 DM
○ Destruction of pancreatic beta cells.
○ Characterized by absolute lack of insulin, an elevation in blood glucose, and a
breakdown of body fats (lipolysis) and proteins.
○ Type 1A (Common) or Juvenile diabetes or immune-mediated DM
■ Autoimmune destruction of beta cells (Genetic predisposition MHC HLA-
DP, HLA-DQ, HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR4) by insulin autoantibodies (IAAs),
islet cell autoantibodies, and anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (anti-GAD).

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
● Type 1 DM
○ Type 1A (Common) or Juvenile diabetes or immune-mediated DM
■ Requires exogenous insulin replacement to reverse the catabolic state,
control blood glucose level and prevent ketosis.
○ Type 1B or Idiopathic diabetes
■ Beta cell destruction with no evidence of autoimmunity.
■ Inherited, found mostly in African or Asian descent.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
● Type 2 DM
○ Presence of hyperglycemia in association with relative insulin deficiency (high, normal or
low).
○ Metabolic abnormalities:
○ (1) Impaired beta cell function and insulin secretion
■ Caused by (1) an initial decrease in the beta cell mass, (2)increased beta cell
apoptosis/decreased regeneration, (3) long-standing insulin resistance leading to
beta cell exhaustion, (4) chronic hyperglycemia can induce beta cell desensitization
termed glucotoxicity, (5) chronic elevation of free fatty acids can cause toxicity to
beta cells termed lipotoxicity, and (6) amyloid deposition in the beta cell can cause
dysfunction.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
● Type 2 DM
○ (2) Peripheral insulin resistance and (3) increase hepatic glucose production.
■ Caused by an increased concentration of free fatty acids (FFAs) which (1) acutely,
act at the level of the beta cell to stimulate insulin secretion, which, with excessive
and chronic stimulation, causes beta cell failure (lipotoxicity); (2) they act at the level
of the peripheral tissues to cause insulin resistance and glucose underutilization by
inhibiting glucose uptake and glycogen storage through a reduction in muscle
glycogen synthetase activity; (3) the accumulation of FFAs and triglycerides reduce
hepatic insulin sensitivity, leading to increased hepatic glucose production and
hyperglycemia, especially fasting plasma glucose levels.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
● Clinical manifestations
○ Most commonly identified signs and symptoms of diabetes are referred to as the three
polys: (1) polyuria (i.e., excessive urination), (2) polydipsia (i.e., excessive thirst), and (3)
polyphagia (i.e., excessive hunger).
○ Other signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia include recurrent blurred vision, fatigue,
paresthesias (abnormal sensation such tingling), and skin infections.
● Diagnostic Tests
○ Based on fasting blood glucose levels (126 mg/dL or higher on two occasions), random
blood glucose tests (unequivocally elevated (≥200 mg/dL) in the presence of classic
symptoms), the results of a glucose challenge test (glucose tolerance test), and glycated
hemoglobin testing (HBA1c).

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
 Pathogenesis of
Type 2 DM

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Give the criteria for diagnosing
DM.

1. fasting blood glucose levels (126

mg/dL or higher on two
occasions),
2. random blood glucose tests
(unequivocally elevated (≥200
mg/dL) in the presence of classic
symptoms),
3. the results of a glucose challenge
test (glucose tolerance test), and
glycated hemoglobin testing
(HBA1c) are high.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Hyperthyroidism
● Causes thyrotoxicosis that results from exposure of tissues to high levels of
circulating thyroid hormone.
● The most common cause is Graves’ disease, which is accompanied by
ophthalmopathy (or dermopathy) and diffuse goiter.
● Other causes are multinodular goiter, adenoma of the thyroid, and, occasionally,
ingestion of excessive thyroid hormone.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
 Regulation of
Thyroid
Hormone (T3
and T4)
Secretion

Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Hyperthyroidism
● Clinical manifestations
○ Related to the increase in oxygen consumption and use of metabolic fuels
associated with the hypermetabolic state and the increase in sympathetic
nervous system activity.
○ Thyroid hormone may heighten the sensitivity of the body to the
catecholamines or that it may act as a pseudocatecholamine which results to
nervousness, irritability, fatigability, weight loss (despite a large appetite),
tachycardia, palpitations, shortness of breath, excessive sweating, muscle
cramps, and heat intolerance.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Hyperthyroidism
● Clinical manifestations
○ The person appears restless and has a fine muscle tremor, has exophthalmos (i.e.,
bulging of the eyeballs seen in ophthalmopathy), or an abnormal retraction of the eyelids
and infrequent blinking such that they appear to be staring. The hair and skin usually are
thin and have a silky appearance.
● Grave’s disease
○ A state of hyperthyroidism, goiter, and ophthalmopathy (or, less commonly, dermopathy).
○ An autoimmune disorder characterized by abnormal stimulation of the thyroid gland by
thyroid-stimulating antibodies (thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins [TSI]) that act through
the normal TSH receptors.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
 Pathogenesis of
Grave’s Disease

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Hyperthyroidism
● Thyroid storm or crisis
○ An extreme and life-threatening form of thyrotoxicosis, often precipitated by
stress such as an infection (usually respiratory), by diabetic ketoacidosis, by
physical or emotional trauma, or by manipulation of a hyperactive thyroid
gland during thyroidectomy.
○ Manifested by a very high fever, extreme cardiovascular effects (i.e.,
tachycardia, congestive failure, and angina), and severe CNS effects (i.e.,
agitation, restlessness, and delirium).
○ The mortality rate is high.

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Endocrine System
Diseases and disorders
Other Diseases

Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
 Explain the Pathogenesis of
Grave’s disease.
An autoimmune disorder characterized by
abnormal stimulation of the thyroid gland by
thyroid-stimulating antibodies (thyroid-stimulating
immunoglobulins [TSI]) that act through the
normal TSH receptors.
Endocrine System
Overview

1. Principles of Chemical Communication c. Regulation of Hormone Levels in

a. Autocrine c. Neurotransmitters the Blood
b. Paracrine d. Endocrine 6. Hormone Receptors and
2. Functions of the Endocrine System Mechanisms of Action
3. Characteristics of the Endocrine System a. Classes of Receptors
4. Hormones b. Action of Nuclear Receptors
a. Chemical Nature of Hormones c. Membrane-Bound Receptors
5. Control of Hormone Secretion
a. Stimulation of Hormone Release
b. Inhibition of Hormone Release
Endocrine System
Overview

7. Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones 9. Diseases and Disorders

a, Pituitary and Hypothalamus a. Diabetes Mellitus
b. Thyroid Gland b. Hyperthyroidism
c. Parathyroid Gland
d. Adrenal Glands
e. Thymus
f. Pineal Gland
8. Other Hormones
Endocrine System
Objectives

1. Describe the regulatory functions of the endocrine system.

2. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
3. Describe the major mechanisms that maintain blood hormone levels.
4. Explain how the hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion from the pituitary.
5. Explain clearly the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus.
Endocrine System
References

● Regan, J., Russo, A., & VanPutte, C. (2011). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology
(9th Ed.). 2 Penn Plaza, New York 10121: McGraw-Hill Education.
● Derrikson, B., & Tortora, G. (2012). Principles of Anatomy & Physiology (13th Ed.). 111 River
Street, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
● Porth, C. M. (2004). Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States (7th Ed.).
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.