Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Pipeline corrosion assessment using electromechanical impedance

technique
Amit Thoriya ⇑, Tarak Vora, Pius Nyanzi
Department of Civil Engineering, Marwadi University, Rajkot 360003, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pipelines which transport and distribute petroleum products, oil, and gas, chemical substances, water,
Available online xxxx steam are vital to the economy. And these vital assets’ health is adversely affected significantly by corro-
sion. Moreover, the corrosion of pipelines leads to periodical maintenance which often results in shut-
Keywords: down of operation and even leads to catastrophic failure of pipelines. Hence, an adequate monitoring
Pipelines system is required to detect and monitor corrosion in the pipelines. The Electromechanical Impedance
Accelerated corrosion Based method has emerged as the most promising non-destructive technique because of its ability to
Electromechanical impedance
detect damage at an incipient level. This research work presents corrosion monitoring of mild steel
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) patch
Corrosion
pipelines using the Electromechanical Impedance Method (EMI). The corrosion monitoring was carried
out for full surface corrosion and strip corrosion in mild steel specimens by simulating corrosion through
the accelerated corrosion test. The variation in the conductance signature is used for the qualitative and
quantitative evaluation of corrosion damage. The conductance of specimens is acquired using the LCR
meter at regular intervals of time. Results indicate that the magnitude of conductance signature is
decreased with an increase in the degree of corrosion. The quantification of corrosion amount is evalu-
ated through Root Mean Square Deviation (RMSD), Moving Absolute Percent Deviation (MAPD), and
Correlation Coefficient Deviation (CCD). All three matrices increase with the increase of the corrosion
degree. The RMSD and CCD are consistent with the degree of corrosion. Among the three metrics, the
MAPD has the most pronounced values and showed the highest sensitivity. The results from the study
show promising development in SHM and illustrate the capability to quantify imminent corrosion in
pipelines using damage indices.
Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Applied Research and Engineering 2021

1. Introduction
The pipelines are considered as one of the essential parts of civil
infrastructure, which carries natural oil and gases, water, haz-
ardous materials, and other substances. The length of pipelines
all over the world is approximated as 2,175,000 miles [1]. Further-
more, the length of oil and gas pipelines globally is expected to be
increased by the rate of 7.2% [2]. Hence, pipeline facilities are one
of the most critical elements for the economic growth of any
nation. But, unfortunately, corrosion is one of the most critical fac-
tors which endangers the health and reliability of these critical
assets. As per the NACE 2013, the global cost of corrosion is
approximately estimated as USD 2.5 trillion and USD 276 billion
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amitthoriya@gmail.com (A. Thoriya).
alone for pipeline corrosion. However, the use of currently avail-
able corrosion monitoring techniques can reduce the cost of corro-
sion by 15% to 35%, i.e., between US$375 and $875 billion globally
[3]. Hence, there is a need for structural health monitoring or con-
ditional monitoring for pipelines that can identify and detect the
corrosion at the incipient level so further deterioration can be pre-
vented by corrosion mitigation techniques, which reduces the cost
of corrosion. The polymer adhesive also used to prevent the corro-
sion behaviour of pipelines [4,5].
The non-destructive testing of pipelines is carried out by mag-
netic flux leakage, guided waves, electrochemical impedance spec-
troscopy, linear polarization technique, optical fibre-based
techniques. These methods provide valuable health monitoring
data, but they failed to provide real-time data due to automation
[6]. Hence, this research focuses on real-time health monitoring
of corrosion in pipelines using the Electromechanical Impedance

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.030
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Applied Research and Engineering 2021

Please cite this article as: A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi, Pipeline corrosion assessment using electromechanical impedance technique, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.030
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi
technique (EMI). The current corrosion monitoring technique has
several deficiencies, including high time requirements, the shut-
down of operation during test time, absence of automation, chal-
lenging test procedures requiring massive data management.
However, the EMI technique can provide a practical and easy-to-
use conditional assessment when combined with PZT (Lead Zir-
conate Titanate) sensors.
The EMI technique has emerged as one of the most prominent
techniques for damage detection using PZT transducers bonded
to the host structure due to its ability to detect damage at an incip-
ient level. The EMI method is based on the concept of variation in
mechanical impedance of structure due to change of properties of
structures caused by the damage. After the first proof of concept of
the EMI proposed by Liang et al. [7] in 1994, many research works
have been reported in the last two decades. G. Park et al. [8] were
first to check the suitability of the impedance-based method for
the integrity of bolted civil pipeline structure based on the varia-
tion of structural impedance for damage detection. S. Park et al.
[9] proposed the wireless impedance measurement device for cor-
rosion detection in metallic structures. The variation in resonant
frequency shift was used to quantify the corrosion in the metallic
beam & it was observed that with the increase in corrosion in
the beam, the resonant frequency shift also increased. The quantifi-
cation of corrosion using extracted equivalent structural parame-
ters for reinforced concrete was investigated by V. Talakokula
et al. [10]. They carried out a series of experiments under the accel-
erated corrosion test to detect and quantify corrosion for rein-
forced concrete elements for surface bonded and embedded
piezo patches [11]. The extracted equivalent structural parameters,
i.e., PZT identified mass and stiffness losses, were in good agree-
ment with the actual mass and stiffness losses of the host struc-
ture. The rate of corrosion measured from the PZT-identified
mass loss was also in the range of an actual mass loss of the host
structure. The equivalent parameters extracted from the admit-
tance signature were also used for the diagnosis of carbonation-
induced corrosion [12]. Martowicz et al. [13] used the EMI tech-
nique to detect the loosened bolt in bolted pipeline connections
using the point frequency response function and transferring fre-
quency response function with outlier analysis to quantify the
damage. Zhu et al. [14] used the Structural Mechanical Impedance
(SMI) derived from the raw conductance for corrosion detection
and quantification using RMSD and peak frequency shift in the
steel beam. Wong S.N. [15] used the EMI technique to detect wall
thickness loss for the pipeline. They used the resonant frequency
and root mean square deviation (RMSD) as a damage indicator
for wall thickness reduction. The loos of wall thickness in metallic
structure is also investigated using a re-attachable PZT sensor and
a probabilistic neural network [16]. Zue et al. [17] proposed the
modified EMI technique, which considered the influence of bond-
ing layer between host structure and PZT patch using multiple sen-
sors for crack detection in the pipeline. The damage degree and
location of damage were carried out using the RMSD index. S.N.
Khunte [18] used the EMI technique for the erosion identification
assessment of steel pipelines. Li et al. [19] suggested a corrosion
measuring probe based on the EMI principle, which is manufac-
tured from a circular PZT patch mounted to a metal rod. It was
noticed that as the quantity of corrosion increased, the peak mag-
nitude of the conductance signature decreased. J. Raju et al. [6]
used the concept of equivalent parameters for corrosion assess-
ment and quantification in reusable non-bonded configuration
for the pipeline. Reddypogu et al. [20] conducted a numerical
assessment of the EMI signature in pipes with varying degrees of
damage. They examined a pipe with varying corrosion lengths cir-
cumferentially and varying corrosion breadth and depth.
From the work mentioned above, it has been observed that
many researchers have put their efforts into studying the EMI tech-
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
nique for damage detection in structures. However, a limited num-
ber of research works have been reported for corrosion detection
and especially in pipeline structures. This paper presents a corro-
sion detection assessment of mild steel pipelines using the EMI
technique by considering the real part of admittance under the full
surface and the strip surface corrosion. First, the qualitative assess-
ment of corrosion is discussed based on the magnitude of conduc-
tance signature. Then, the quantitative assessment of corrosion is
carried out based on statistical indices like RMSD, MAPD, and CCD.
2. Theoretical background & methodology of EMI technique
2.1. Theoretical background of electromechanical impedance
technique
A PZT is a piezoelectric material and works on the principle of
piezoelectricity. The electromechanical-impedance technique used
the PZT patches as sensor as well as actuator. The PZT patch used
the electro-mechanical coupling between PZT and structure based
on direct and converse effect. Whenever a PZT patch is subjected to
stress or strain it produces the electric charge which is known as
direct effect and produce a stress or strain whenever subjected to
electric field which is known as the converse effect. Hence, PZT
materials can be used as a sensor (based on direct effect) as well
as actuator (based on converse effect). The PZT patch attached or
embedded into structure excited by an impedance analyzer at a
very higher frequency range and the electric impedance signature
are measured which shows the interaction between the PZT and
the host structure known as electromechanical impedance.
The first theoretical proof of concept of the EMI technique was
proposed by Liang et al. [7]. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a
one-dimensional electromechanical impedance system, which is
modelled as a PZT patch attached to the mechanical impedance
of the host structure. A PZT, when subjected to an alternating volt-
age in direction 3, behaves as a one-dimensional thin bar undergo-
ing axial vibration in direction 1. The electromechanical impedance
of coupled system shown in Fig. 1 in terms of admittance which is
inverse of impedance was introduced by Liang et al. [7] is given in
Eq. (1)
wl
  Z  
tankl

Y
¼ xj b
eT33  d31 Y
E þ d31 Y
E
2 a 2
c ð1Þ
h Zs þ Za kl
where w, l, and h are the dimensions of the PZT patch, Y
E represents
the young’s modulus of PZT patch under the constant electric field,

eT33 represents the complex electric permittivity, d31 denotes the
piezoelectric strain constant, x is the excitation frequency, (tankl/
kl) represents the complex tangent ratio, Za and Zs are the effective
mechanical impedance of sensors and structures, respectively.
Any damage alters the mass, stiffness, and damping of the
structure, which is responsible for the variation in the value of
the mechanical impedance of the host structure. The change in
the mechanical impedance of the host structure can be measured
in terms of the electromechanical admittance through the attached
PZT as proposed by Liang et al. using Eq. (1). Typically, an impe-
dance analyzer or an LCR meter is used to excite the PZT patch in
the high-frequency range of 30 kHz to 400 kHz for the admittance
signature. Then, damage detection is carried out by comparing the
variation of the admittance signature in undamaged and damaged
conditions.
2.2. Damage quantification
Any damage in the structure alters the property like stiffness,
mass, damping of the host structure, and mechanical impedance,
thus changing its value. This variation of mechanical impedance
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi
Fig. 1. A Schematic illustration of Liang’s single degree of freedom structural impedance.
in terms of admittance is used as the damage indicator in the EMI
approach. The quantification of damage severity can be estimated
by the difference between undamaged and damaged state impe-
dance signature. The emergence of a new peak and the lateral
and vertical movement of the conductance signature’s peaks are
often the leading signs of structural deterioration.
Statistical indices are used as a damage indicator based on dif-
ference between pristine and damaged (in present context
between uncorroded and corroded states) conductance signatures.
Many researchers have used various statistical techniques like
RMSD (root Mean Square Deviation), MAPD (Mean Absolute Per-
cent Deviation), and Correlation Coefficient Deviation (CCD). These
indices serve as an indication of damage based on its presence &
severity of damage. The difference between conductance signa-
tures can be quantified by using the RMSD, which shows the differ-
ence of square root of between undamaged and damaged states.
The MAPD presents the average of the deviation at discrete data
points of the conductance signature. The CCD measures the linear
relationships between individual data points of two damage states.
The various damage indices show the greater values when there is
a larger difference between base line and damaged state conduc-
tance signature due to change in properties of structures caused
by damage. Hence, calculated damage indices values reveal the
health state of structure subjected to damage.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uP n
u ðG  G Þ
u id iud
ui¼1
RMSDð%Þ ¼ u n  100
t P
ðGiud Þ2
i¼1
N   centage of mass loss. The mass loss due to corrosion can be found
1 X  Gid  Giud 
MAPDð%Þ ¼  100
N I¼1  Giud 
X MIt
1 N
 
CCDð%Þ ¼ 1  Giud  G
iud Gid  G
id  100
NrO r1 I¼1
where; Giud and Gid represent the pre-damage and post damage
conductance signature, respectively. G
iud and G
id Indicate the mean
values of pre and post-damage conductance values. rO and r1 rep-
resent the standard deviation of pre and post-damage conductance
signature, and N represents the number of data points.
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
3. Experimental setup
As shown in Fig. 2(b), The three mild steel pipes, with 155 mm
length, 90 mm outer diameter, and 5 mm thickness, were chosen
for the full surface corrosion experimental work. While studying
the strip corrosion, a mild steel specimen of 450 mm length,
280 mm outer diameter, and 5 mm thickness was chosen, as
shown in Fig. 2(c). Before the experiments, pipe specimens were
cleaned with a brush and washed with water before bonding PZT
patches. Then, the pipe surface was smoothened with sandpaper,
and a portion (10  10 mm) of it flattened with a grinder to allow
for easy and levelled bonding of the PZT sensors using epoxy adhe-
sive. To allow easy connection of electrical wires for accelerated
corrosion test a 6 mm diameter holes were drilled close to the
top of the specimens, and the initial mass was recorded. PZT 5H
piezoelectric ceramics produced by Central Electronics Limited
(CEL) India, was used for the test because of their excellent sensi-
tivity over a more comprehensive temperature range (10o-210oC).
The PZT size was 10 mm  10 mm  0.2 mm, as shown in Fig. 2(a).
Its physical properties, dielectric properties, electromechanical
data, and frequency constants are presented in Table 1 below.
Typically, corrosion is a prolonged process, and the accumula-
tion of corrosion takes several days to years, depending upon the
exposure conditions. Hence, to complete the study within a rea-
sonable time, an accelerated corrosion test was used for the cur-
rent study. The specimens were placed in a water container
containing distilled water and 3% NaCl solution. As shown in
Fig. 3(a), the corrosion was initiated by applying a constant current
ð2Þ
of 300 (mA/cm2) through the D.C. power supply. The conductance
signature for different specimens was acquired for the 2nd, 7th,
21st, 45th, and 60th days. Simultaneously, the mass loss was also
reported, and the degree of corrosion was calculated as the per-
ð3Þ by Faraday’s law by Eq (5), and the observed mass loss of different
specimens is found to be consistent with the same.
Dm ¼ ð5Þ
ð4Þ ZF
where, M = Atomic weight of metal 56 g for Fe, I = Applied current
Amperes, Z = ionic charge 2 for Fe, F = Faraday’s constant = 96,500 A/
s, t = time duration (s). The EMI signatures of the raw and corroded
pipe specimens were obtained and analyzed using the Keysight
E4980AL precision LCR meter (Keysight Technologies, USA) con-
nected to a computer, as shown in Fig. 3(b).
3
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi
Fig. 2. (a) PZT Patch, (b) Mild Steel Pipe Specimens for the full surface corrosion, (c) Mild Steel Specimen for Strip Corrosion.
Table 1
Properties of PZT 5H.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PZT-5H
Density gm/cc 7.4
Curie Temperature 210C
Dielectric Constant at 1 kHz K3t 3250
Dissipation factor at 1 kHz 0.02
Thickness Mode (Hz-meter) 1950
4. Results and discussions
The selection of frequency range is an essential aspect of dam-
age detection in the EMI technique. Hence, first of all, the conduc-
tance signatures were taken over a wide range of frequencies to
identify the sensitivity and peaks of the signature. As shown in
Fig. 4, most peaks with large amplitudes are present in a frequency
range of 1 kHz to 300 kHz. Hence, the frequency range of 1 kHz to
300 kHz is selected for corrosion detection. In addition, the real
part of admittance, i.e., conductance, was selected for corrosion
detection as it is proven that conductance is more sensitive than
other parameters of the EMI technique.
The corrosion was initiated in mild steel specimens under two
different conditions. First, three mild steel specimens are subjected
to full surface corrosion, where the whole specimens were sub-
jected to accelerated corrosion. In the second case, the strip corro-
sion was applied where only 75 mm strip of the specimen was
subjected to accelerated corrosion test.
4.1. The full surface corrosion
Fig. 4 shows specimens A, B, and C’s conductance signature for
the different corrosion amounts under the full surface corrosion. It
is important to note here that the conductance signatures of all the
specimens are not the same due to various reasons like the slight
variation in the properties of the PZT patch, the thickness of the
epoxy layer, and the variation of properties of different specimens.
Therefore, in the EMI technique, damage detection is carried out by
Fig. 3. (a) Accelerated Corrosion Test (b) Pipe Specimen Connected to LCR meter for Impedance Measurement (c) Corroded Specimens Under Full Surface Corrosion.
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PZT-5H
Coupling co-efficient KP 0.56
K31 0.34
K33 0.68
Piezoelectric Charge constant (C/NX1012) D33 580
Piezoelectric Voltage constant (103 volts-meter/ Newton) g33 20
comparing the damage level signature to its baseline signature of
the respective PZT patch.
From Fig. 4, it can be observed that the increase in corrosion
amount leads to a decrease in the magnitude of conductance signa-
ture, which results in flattened and smoothed curves for all three
specimens. Hence all the specimens have shown the same ten-
dency. The sudden decrease in the magnitude of the conductance
signature even at 2 days corrosion shows the capacity of the EMI
technique to detect the incipient level of corrosion. The change
in mass, stiffness, and damping of pipe specimens due to corrosion
are responsible for the conductance signature variation over the
corrosion exposure period. Hence, corrosion monitoring is possible
by observing the variation in the conductance signature. The over-
all tendency of the three specimens is comparable at varying levels
of corrosion, demonstrating the constancy of the EMI corrosion
monitoring approach. However, the degree of change in the con-
ductance signature varies across specimens. Because of the under
impressed current, all the specimens are not subjected to uniform
mass loss as in ideal condition, and Fig. 3(c) shows the corroded
specimens where different specimens show different amounts of
corrosion.
The shift in peak frequency could also indicate damage due to a
change in structural stiffness [21,22]. However, in the present
study, the peak frequency shift is not consistent and not conclu-
sive. Many parameters are responsible for this kind of behaviour,
and one important reason is the increase in damping, which leads
to a flattened and smoothened curve, as discussed by Li et al. [19].
Hence, in this study, the corrosion assessment is done based on the
variation of the conductance signature using statistical indices.
4
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. Conductance Signature of (a) Specimen-A (b) Specimen-B, and (c) Specimen-C for Different Corrosion Amount.

Fig. 5. RMSD Index for (a) Specimen A, (b) Specimen B, and (c) Specimen C under the full surface corrosion.

The change in the conductance signature is the qualitative indi-
cator for corrosion detection and monitor. However, quantifying
corrosion damage severity at different amounts of corrosion is also
calculated by statistical indicators like RMSD, MAPD, and CCD.
Figs. 5 to 7 shows the values of RMSD, MAPD, and CCD indices
for the different amounts of corrosion. From Figs. 5 to 7, it is
observed that the increase in corrosion increases the damage
indices in most of the cases. The RMSD values are between 7.21%
and 75.89%, The MAPD values are between 8.74% and 531.80%,
and The CCD values are between 0.81% and 22.32%. As shown in
Figs. 8 to 10, RMSD and CCD values based on conductance signa-
ture for Specimens A and C show a consistently increasing trend,
which indicates that corrosion damage has been captured success-
fully. However, for specimen B, RMSD and CCD indices show a
decreasing trend after 2nd-day corrosion and indicate an increas-
ing trend afterward.
The general trend of the RMSD and CCD is increasing in propor-
tion to the degree of corrosion. The MAPD has shown the greatest
sensitivity and accuracy out of the three measures. As a result, all
three of these damage indices may be used to monitor the corro-
sion process. These findings established the viability of the sug-
gested corrosion-measuring technique.
The trend of the conductance profiles of these three specimens
is highly similar. However, the degree of change in signatures var-
ies across different specimens. There are mainly two reasons, first
is the variation of the properties of the PZT patch. The second sig-

5
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. MAPD Index for (a) Specimen A, (b) Specimen B, and (c) Specimen C under the full surface corrosion.

Fig. 7. CCD Index for (a) Specimen A, (b) Specimen B, and (c) Specimen C under the full surface corrosion.

Base depicts the morphology of corroded specimens. Hence, corrosion

2 Days assessment was made by comparing corroded state signature to
7 Days the baseline signature of the respective specimen. Hence, the value
0.006 21 Days of damage indices is not the same for different specimens at the
45 Days same applied degree of corrosion.
0.005 60 Days
Conductance (G)

0.004
4.2. The strip corrosion

0.003
In real-life conditions, pipelines may not be subjected to full
surface corrosion as studied above and may also be subjected to
0.002
local corrosion. However, it’s challenging to generate local corro-
sion in the laboratory, as found in a real-life case. Hence to simu-
0.001
late the local corrosion, the mild steel specimen D was subjected
to corrosion in only a 75 mm strip. Specimen D’s outer surface
0.000
was painted as a bare strip of 75 mm across the pipe length and
0 100 200 300 400 then subjected to a 75 mm wide corrosion strip in the corrosion
Freq (Hz) bath. The conductance signature was acquired on the 2nd, 7th,
21st, 45th, and 60th days in the frequency range of 1 kHz to
Fig. 8. Conductance Signature of Specimen-D for Different Corrosion Amount under 400 kHz. Fig. 8 shows the conductance signature for specimen D
The Strip Corrosion.
under the strip corrosion.
Fig. 9 shows the RMSD, MAPD, and CCD indices values for strip
corrosion of specimen D. The RMSD values are between 25.0% and
nificant reason for this is that the corrosion morphology of each 87.56%, The MAPD values are between 5.93% and 247.25%, and The
specimen might vary during accelerated corrosion testing. In an CCD values are between 2.76% and 22.51%. From the results, it can
ideal condition, the material loss of the mild steel pipeline is uni- be seen that all indices show the increasing trend with the increase
form across all exposed surfaces when an impressed current is of corrosion amount. Again, MAPD is found to be most sensitive as
applied. However, in practice, such regularity is seldom achieved compared to RMSD and CCD values. Hence, the strip or local corro-
owing to material imperfections, as depicted in Fig. 7, which sion can be captured by the EMI technique.
6
A. Thoriya, T. Vora and P. Nyanzi
Fig. 9. Damage Index for the Specimen-D under the Strip Corrosion (a) RMSD, (b) MAPD, and (c) CCD.
5. Conclusion
In this present study, corrosion detection and monitoring are
proposed using the EMI technique. An accelerated corrosion test
was carried out to simulate corrosion for the full surface corrosion
and strip corrosion. The proposed method monitors the corrosion
using statistical indices RMSD, MAPD, and CCD based on the vari-
ation of the conductance signature. From the current study, follow-
ing conclusions can be made for full surface and strip corrosion.
 Results demonstrated that the increase in the degree of corro-
sion leads to the decrease in the magnitude of conductance sig-
nature and gives the flattened and smoothened curves.
 All the three damage indices increase as the amount of corro-
sion increases and hence may be used as an indicator of the cor-
rosion process.
 When the damage indices exhibit an upward trend, the corro-
sion becomes more severe. Among the three matrices, RMSD
and CCD are more consistent with the degree of corrosion.
 Among the three metrics, the MAPD has the most pronounced
values and showed the highest sensitivity.
The results from the study show promising development in
SHM and illustrate the capability to quantify imminent corrosion
in pipelines using damage indices. This research provides a
proof-of-concept for the EMI technique’s capabilities to monitor
mass loss because of corrosion in metal pipeline facilities. The
EMI technique with remote and online monitoring capabilities
can help to increase the efficiency of pipeline integrity manage-
ment, safety, and operations for pipeline operators.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Amit Thoriya: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization,
Investigation, Data curation, Validation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Tarak Vora: Conceptualization, Super-
vision, Writing – review & editing. Pius Niyanzi: Methodology,
Visualization, Investigation, Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
7
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
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