Volcanoes and

Related Hazards
GEOL 430: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

University of Southeastern Philippines

College of Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Geology Program
Bo. Obrero, Davao City
Outline
 Nature of Volcanic Activity
 Volcanic Eruptions
 Volcanic Landforms
 Volcanic Hazards
 Predicting Eruptions and Minimizing the Risks
 Early Warning and Evacuation
Nature of Volcanic Activity
Volcanic activity is commonly perceived as a process that produces a picturesque,
cone-shaped structure that periodically erupts in a violent manner.

 Although a considerable amount of volcanic activity takes place at

divergent boundaries along spreading centers, volcanoes are mostly found
along convergent boundaries.
 Volcanoes are also found in the interior of plates where rising plumes of
mantle material cause the overlying lithospheric plate to partially melt,
creating blobs of magma that rise upward though weak zones within the
plate, such is referred as “hot spots”
Ex. Hawaii and Yellowstone area of the Rocky Mountains
 The type of magma and consequent type of eruption of a volcano
depends on the tectonic setting it is formed.
 Three types of magma i.e., basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magmas.
Location of active volcanoes and
their relationship to tectonic plate
boundaries. Most volcanoes derive
their magma from subduction
zones or from the upper mantle in
what are referred to as hot spots.
Hot spot volcanoes in an oceanic
setting produce basaltic magma,
and those on continents generate
more rhyolitic magma. Depending
on the tectonic setting, subduction
zone volcanoes will erupt basaltic,
andesitic, or rhyolitic magmas.
 Basaltic magmas contain the most iron
and magnesium and are derived from
ferromagnesian-rich rocks from the
upper mantle that contain very little
water. They either rise up from hot spots
and divergent plate boundaries, and
form from subduction in oceanic-
oceanic settings which eventually forms
volcanic arcs.
 However, when the rocks undergo
partial melting, the magma tends to be
andesitic as it contains less iron and
magnesium but more silica (SiO2).
Andesitic magmas can also be formed
through assimilation.
 Because continental crust is thicker and
composed of granitic minerals with
even higher proportions of SiO2,
assimilation can lead to rhyolitic
magmas that are highly enriched in
silica. The viscosity of magma increases with increasing SiO2 and decreasing temperature.
Basaltic magmas are the least viscous because they form in the upper mantle where
 As the silica content increases, so is the the temperature is high and the SiO2 content of the rocks is relatively low. Andesitic
magma’s resistance to flow (viscosity) and rhyolitic magmas form at much shallower and cooler depths and under
processes that cause the melt to become enriched in SiO2.
which in turn results to more explosive
volcanic eruptions.
 Magma also contains various types
of gas molecules that form when
minerals within a rock body begin
to melt.
 These gases remain dissolved
within the magma until the
magma gets near the surface,
where the decreased pressure
allows the gases to escape—similar
to how carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
in a soda remains dissolved until
the can is opened.
 Higher content of dissolved gases
within a magma will result to a
more explosive volcanic eruption.
 Imagine when one cubic meter of
rhyolitic magma, with just 5%
dissolved water, moves from being Percent breakdown of gases escaping from magmas at a hot spot and a
confined at depth to the surface subduction zone volcano. Water vapor and carbon dioxide are typically the most
abundant gases, but notice the dominance of water in andesitic magma that is
environment, it will expand to an commonly found at subduction zones. Also note how the andesitic magma is
incredible 670 cubic meters! relatively cool compared to the basaltic magma.
 Volcanic Eruptions
 Magma chamber- a zone of molten material where
magma accumulates and occurs at a considerable
depth.
 The confining pressure caused by the overlying rocks
gives the molten material within the magma
chamber a tremendous amount of fluid pressure.
 As magma rises and encounters less confining
pressure, it expands and pushes outwards on the
surrounding rocks, thereby creating fractures and
faults and subsequent earthquakes. The fractures
and faults also provide a pathway for the magma to
the surface.
 If the overlying rocks at some point are no longer Molten rock eventually accumulates in what is called
capable of containing the fluid pressure, then a magma chamber. The weight of the overlying
column of rock creates overburden pressure, which is
significant amounts of magma can make its way to offset by the magma’s fluid pressure. As magma
the surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption continues to rise and encounters less overburden, the
fluid pressure is able to open fractures, creating
possible pathways to the surface. At the surface the
pressurized magma is allowed to expand freely.
Volcanic eruptions occur when pressurized magma breaches the surface. Explosive eruptions (A) are
associated with more viscous and gas-charged magmas in which the dissolved gases rapidly
decompress, ejecting rock and ash into the atmosphere. Nonexplosive eruptions (B) are associated with
hot fluid magma containing less dissolved gas, in which case the eruption generates lava fountains and
lava flows.
Cont’d

 Subduction zone volcanoes tend to erupt in an explosive manner because their

andesitic magmas usually contain large volumes of dissolved gas—mostly water
vapor. Hot spot volcanoes located in the interior of continental plates also erupt
violently, as their rhyolitic magmas usually contain abundant water.
 Eruptions create pulverized rock that is ejected along with the lava which is
collectively known as pyroclastic material.
 Tephra are solidified lava and pulverized rock.
 The finest material, called volcanic ash, can travel hundreds, even thousands,
of miles before falling back to Earth’s surface.
Volcanic Landforms
-can provide information on the relative proportion of lava and pyroclastic material in ancient
eruptions which is indicative of the gas content and viscosity of the magma itself.

Here are some volcanic landforms to note:

 Lava flow – formed when lava eventually cools and solidifies into an
igneous rock body
 Lava dome - are steep-sided mounds that were formed from viscous lava
(rhyolitic lava); lava domes can act like a plug when it begins to solidify
and thus allow pressure to build in the magma chamber and result in a
more explosive eruption.
 Continental flood basalt- formed when large volumes of basaltic lava will
flow onto the surface along large fracture zones.
 Volcanoes – an accumulation of extrusive materials around a vent
(sometimes a fault or fracture) through which lava, gas, or pyroclastics are
ejected. The following are the three types of volcanic cones: cinder,
composite, and shield.
A volcanic vent can coincide with a fault or fracture, resulting in a linear extrusion known as a fissure eruption (A). In
other cases the vent is a single opening whereby the ejected material creates the familiar cone-shaped feature
known as a volcano (B).
Cont’d.

 Cinder cones- relatively small and is formed when lava is ejected into the
air and cools into pyroclastic material called cinders, which then fall and
accumulate around the vent.
 Composite Cone- also known as “stratovolcano”; are come-shaped
volcanoes with steep slopes consisting of alternating layers of pyroclastic
material and lava flows. It is generally associated with viscous ad gas-
charged andesitic magmas that generally erupt in an extremely explosive
manner,
 Shield Volcanoes- are exceptionally large landforms composed primarily of
basaltic lava flows. It has a broad cross-sectional shape due to the low
viscosity of basalt which can travel considerable distances from the vent
and spread out over large areas. Eruptions are quiescent as basaltic
magma contains small amounts of dissolved gases and has a low viscosity.
Shield volcanoes (A) are composed primarily of basaltic lava flows that accumulate over geologic time.
Photo shows Mauna Loa (B) in the Hawaiian Islands, which sits over a hot spot, providing a steady supply of
magma that has allowed it to grow to 14,400 feet (4,400 m) above sea level.
Composite volcanoes (A) are composed of alternating layers of pyroclastic material
and lava flows. Viscous andesitic lavas tend to form short and thick flows that
enable the volcano to maintain steep slopes and reach great heights. Composite
cones are typically quite symmetrical, like Mount Fuji (B) in Japan.
Cont’d.

 Crater – a circular depression where lava and pyroclastic material is being

ejected.
 Caldera – a circular depression that forms after an eruption when large
volumes of magma are ejected from a shallow magma chamber, leaving it
relatively empty and thus causing it to subside/collapse.
Calderas form (A) when magma is ejected from a shallow magma chamber,
leaving its roof unsupported and eventually causing it to collapse or subside. Photo
(B) shows the water-filled caldera of Crater Lake in the Cascade Range in Oregon.
Volcanic Hazards
 The way in which humans respond to potential volcanic threats depends on
several factors, in particular the frequency at which eruptions occur and the
availability of habitable living space.
 Some civilization have lived for thousands of years on the flanks of an active
volcano because of its critical resources such as fertile soils, lush forests, and
supplies of freshwater.
 When enough time passes between eruptions, people may become
complacent because the probability of an event is low, or even worse, become
unaware of the risk altogether.
 Violent eruption and lava flow are some of the primary hazards near a volcano.
However, there are secondary hazards that can reach considerable distances
such as, mudflow, lahar, suspension of volcanic ash and toxic gases into the
atmosphere, tsunamis, and landslides,
Some notable volcanic eruption catastrophes in human history and the primary hazard
responsible for most of the deaths
Cont’d.
 Lava Flows
- occurs whenever magma reaches
the surface and begins to move across
the landscape. Because lava is a high-
density fluid that is very hot, 1,100–
2,100°F (600–1,150°C), nearly everything
in the path of a flow will either be
pushed over, buried, or incinerated
- how fast and how far a flow will
travel is largely determined by the slope
of the land surface, volume of lava
being emitted at the vent, and the
lava’s viscosity
Lava flows cause considerable damage when they bury valuable
real estate and infrastructure, such as the highway and personal
property shown in (A). Flows are also destructive when they
encounter combustible materials, causing them to catch fire, as in
the case of Volcanoes National Park Visitor Center in Hawaii (B).
Cont’d.
 Explosive Eruption
- the explosive power typically comes from
highly compressed gases (primarily water) dissolved
within andesitic and rhyolitic magmas. These gases
then violently expand when the magma breaches
the surface and encounters the low-pressure
conditions of the atmosphere. Even gas-poor
magmas can generate large steam explosions
should the magma suddenly come into contact with
a significant volume of groundwater or seawater.
- explosive eruptions can generate tsunamis,
but the most common hazard from these events is
pyroclastic material and hot gases that get blasted
away from a volcano;
- the shock wave then pulverizes rocks making
up the volcano into smaller fragments, hurtling them
upward and outward at great speed along with
superheated gases and blobs of lava.
Composite cones that have lost their summits are a testament to the
enormous power of expanding gases in volcanic eruptions. Photo
showing Mount St. Helens in 1982, where 1,300 feet (400 m) of its
summit was lost during the 1980 eruption. Note the new dome
growing within the crater.
Cont’d.
 Pyroclastic Flow
- a dry avalanche consisting of hot rock fragments, ash, and superheated
gas, all rushing down the side of a volcano at great speed
- a typical flow consists of two parts: a tumbling mass of large rocks
overlain by a turbulent cloud of finer material
- can form during explosive or nonexplosive eruptions, they are almost
always associated with more viscous, SiO2 rich magmas.
Pyroclastic flows are dry, hot
avalanches where large rock
fragments tumble along the
ground surface and are overlain
by a flowing cloud of finer
fragments and droplets of lava.
Mixed with these materials are
superheated gases, creating a
flow that will obliterate and
incinerate everything in its path.
The illustrations show some of the
ways pyroclastic flows form during
either explosive or nonexplosive
events.
 Cont’d.

 Perhaps the most famous example of a

pyroclastic flow is the one that struck Pompeii,
Italy, a thriving Roman resort city on the flanks
of Mount Vesuvius. In 79 AD a series of
pyroclastic flows rushed down from this
stratovolcano, completely burying the city and
its inhabitants.
 Another incident happened in 1902 wherein
the City of Pierre on the Island of Martinique
had been decimated by the eruption of Mt.
Pelée (a stratovolcano which is 7 kilometers
away from the city). The eruption which
triggered a pyroclastic flow claimed the entire
population of 30,000 and only two people
survived along with a few sailors whose ships
are anchored offshore.
St. Pierre was a thriving seaport on the island of Martinique in the
Caribbean. In 1902 a pyroclastic flow raced down nearby Mount
Pelée and incinerated the city and its entire population of 30,000
Cont’d.
 Volcanic Ash
- jagged rock and glass fragments less than 2 millimeters in
diameter which are propelled into the atmosphere following a volcanic
eruption and are transported by wind at considerable distances prior to
deposition.
- inhaling the fine particles is particularly dangerous to children or
adults with cardiac or respiratory conditions
- additional weight of the ash can destroy crops and cause
buildings to collapse
- can also ruin crops when it is impractical to wash off before
processing, or when it disrupts pollination and changes the acidity of
soils
- can contaminate surface water
- when washed off from the landscape, sediment load of
streams/rivers will increase thereby, increasing the frequency and
severity of flooding
- causes considerable damage to mechanical and electrical
equipment due to its abrasive property
- may trigger regional to global cooling; Ex. Mt. Pinatubo’s Ash clouds can turn day into night. Deposits of
eruption (1991) led to a 0.25 degrees Celsius drop in global temperature ash can add weight to buildings, damage
while the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia resulted a moving parts in mechanical devices, and
maximum of 3 degrees Celsius drop in temperature and was lead to mudflows during heavy rains. Ash also
creates economic losses in agricultural and
subsequently dubbed as “the year without summer”
forestry activities.
Cont’d.
 Mass Wasting on Volcanoes
1. Volcanic Landslide
- also called as debris avalanche, occurs whenever steep
flanks of a volcano become unstable and results rapid downslope
movement of rocks, debris, and/or snow/ice. It is often triggered by
heavy rains or earthquakes.
- corrosive gases and groundwater within a volcano can
breakdown feldspar-rich rocks into much weaker clay minerals,
thereby making slopes more prone to landslide
2. Volcanic Mudflows
- also called a lahar or debris flow, is a mixture of ash, rock,
and considerable amounts of liquid water. Ash and rock may
comprise 60 to 90% by weight may resemble a river of wet concrete.
- Because of its fluid nature, it tend to rush down stream The height of a mudflow generated during the
valleys that lead away from a volcano, reaching speeds of 20 to 40 Mount St. Helens eruption is clearly marked on
miles per hour (30–65 km/hr). the trees—note the person for scale.

- more destructive compared to ordinary river floods

because of its fairly dense and viscous flow; can easily rip up trees
and transport large boulders far downstream
Cont’d.
 Volcanic Gases
- volcanic gas is mainly composed of water vapor (H2O), followed by carbon
dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which together account for over 95% of all
volcanic gases
- volcanic gas cloud is hazardous to humans is simply because it contains no free
oxygen (O2). Therefore, should a volcanic cloud descend into a populated area it poses
an asphyxiation (i.e., suffocation) risk to people.
-Because volcanic gases are typically quite hot, severely burned skin and lung tissue
is another life-threatening hazard.
- release of toxic volcanic gases may happen even with the absence of any
volcanic activity. An example was the 1986 incident in Oku volcanic field in Cameroon,
Africa, wherein clouds of CO2 gas silently moved down the slopes and quickly suffocated
2,000 people and thousands of livestock in a 20-km radius around the two-water filled
craters.
Cont’d.
 Tsunami
- Tsunamis also form when
volcanoes explode violently in an
oceanic setting and may
subsequently strike coastal
communities far from the volcano
itself. Ex. Eruption of Krakatau in
Indonesia last 1883.
- Volcanic landslides may
also generate large tsunamis

Large scarps (A) and an extensive debris field (B) offshore of the
Hawaiian Islands point to an enormous landslide that likely
generated a large tsunami. The green areas on the map are above
sea level, representing the islands of Oahu and Molokai.
Predicting Eruptions and Minimizing the
Risks
 Predictive Tools
1. Geologic History
- makes use of of the size, shape, composition, and layering characteristics
of the particles of a volcanic deposit to infer the history of a particular volcano and
subsequently device mitigating measures should there be a nearby exposed
population to volcanic hazards. Ex. The discovery of mudflow deposits around Mt.
Rainier led geologists to voice their concern about the safety of communities
located on top of these deposits.
2. Topographic Changes
- monitoring changes in the topography or shape of a volcano; the
presence of pressurized magma commonly causes the volcano to swell or inflate.
- accurately surveying changes in the shape of a volcano over time can
give an idea to the position of magma within a volcano as well as the volume
moving into the magma chamber.
Cont’d.
3. Seismic Monitoring
- is an excellent tool for predicting eruption as
earthquake activity invariably increases as magma moves
toward the surface.
- strain accumulates when rising magma forces
its way through crustal rocks, creating what geologists call
magmatic earthquakes (sometimes called harmonic
tremors); magma pushes its way to the surface, the
resulting earthquakes vibrate in a steady and rhythmic
(i.e., harmonic) manner.
- magmatic earthquakes have relatively low
magnitudes and occur in distinct swarms, which may last
an hour or more and consist of tens to hundreds of small
earthquakes. This stands in sharp contrast to more
powerful tectonic earthquakes that take place very
abruptly and last a minute or two at most

4. Monitoring of Volcanic Gases

- regular monitoring of gases (ex. H2O, CO2,
SO2) to look for changes in gas chemistry that may
indicate a possible eruption.
- However, volcanic gases do not always
originate from fresh magma moving up from depth. Other
sources include heated groundwater and older magma
leftover from a previous eruption.
The monitoring of magmatic earthquakes and gases are
key tools used in predicting volcanic eruptions. Portable
seismographs record the rhythmic vibrations of magmatic
earthquakes and allow scientists to track the magma body
as it pushes upward through the fractured rocks. Measuring
the chemistry of gas samples collected at the surface helps
determine whether the magma is new, hence potentially
more explosive.
Cont’d.
5. Geophysical and Groundwater
Changes
- In addition to ground deformation,
earthquakes, and release of volcanic gases, rising
magma can also change the physical properties
of rocks—
called geophysical changes—as well as the
temperature and chemical
composition of groundwater.
For example, temperature of both rocks and
groundwater will increase as magma approaches
the surface. Moreover, because magmatic gases
and
fluids commonly flow outward from the magma
chamber along fracture systems, water samples
from wells typically show an increase in acidity
and sulfur content as magma gets closer to the
surface. Finally, the electrical resistance of rocks
will often change due to increased temperatures The monitoring of magmatic earthquakes and gases are
and circulation of conductive fluids and gases key tools used in predicting volcanic eruptions. Portable
within the volcano. seismographs record the rhythmic vibrations of magmatic
earthquakes and allow scientists to track the magma body
as it pushes upward through the fractured rocks. Measuring
the chemistry of gas samples collected at the surface helps
determine whether the magma is new, hence potentially
more explosive.
Early Warning and Evacuation
 The best way to minimize the risks associated with volcanic hazards is to use the
aforementioned predictive tools in order to produce reliable eruption forecasts .
 The forecasts then provide an early warning so that officials can implement
emergency response plans and allow people to safely evacuate.
 Regular monitoring and the use of adequate sensitive ground-based instruments
allows baseline data to be collected and analyzed to aid scientist in increasing
the reliability of eruption forecasts and development of early warning systems.
 A delay in the issuance of forecasts and subsequent evacuation orders may
lead to a large loss of life. Also, should an evacuation order be given an
eruption does not occur, there is a tendency that people will be less inclined to
evacuate the next time, which may also lead to unnecessary deaths.
 One should keep in mind that the decision to evacuate is further complicated
by the fact that evacuations are highly disruptive to the local economy and
create serious hardships for individual citizens. Evacuations involve more than
science; they include sensitive political and economic issues as well.
 Volcano Alert Levels (PHIVOLCS)
Alert Level Level of Unrest
0 – No Alert Quiet. All monitored parameters within background levels
1 – Abnormal Low Level Unrest. Slight increase in seismicity. Slight increase in
SO2 gas output above the background level. Very faint glow
of the crater may occur but no conclusive evidence of
magma ascent. Phreatic explosion or ash puffs may occur.
2 – Increasing Moderate Unrest. Low to moderate level of seismic activity.
Unrest Increasing SO2 flux. Faint/intermittent crater glow. Swelling of
edifice in flow of wells and springs during rainy season.
3- Increased Relatively high unrest. Volcanic quakes and tremor may
Tendency Towards become more frequent. Further increase in SO2 flux.
Hazardous Occurrence of rockfalls in summit area. Vigorous
Eruption steaming/sustained crater glow. Persistent swelling of edifice.
4 – Hazardous Intense unrest. Persistent tremor, many “low frequency”-type
Imminent Eruption earthquakes. SO2 emission level may show sustained increase
or abrupt decrease. Intense crater glow. Incandescent lava
dome, lava fountain, lava flow in the summit area.
5 - Hazardous Hazardous Eruption ongoing. Occurrence of pyroclastic flows,
Eruption tall eruption columns and extensive ashfall.
Description
No eruption in foreseeable future. Entry in the 6-km radius Permanent
Danger Zone (PDZ) is not advised because phreatic explosions and ash
puffs may occur without precursors.
No eruption imminent. Activity may be hydrothermal, magmatic or
tectonic in origin. No entry in the 6-km radius PDZ.
Unrest probably of magmatic origin; could eventually lead to eruption. 6-
km radius danger zone may be extended to 7 km in the sector where the
crater rim is low.
Magma is close to the crater. If trend is one of increasing unrest, eruption is
possible within weeks. Extension of Danger Zone in the sector where the
crater rim is low will be considered.
Hazardous eruption is possible within days. Extension of Danger Zone to 8
km or more in the sector where the crater rim is low will be recommended,
Pyroclastic flows may sweep down along gullies and channels, especially
along those fronting the low part (s) of the crater rim. Additional danger
areas may be identified as eruption progresses. Danger to aircraft, by way
of ash cloud encounter, depending on height of eruption column and/or
wind drift.
Keep safe everyone! May God bless you all!