REVIEW
Phototransistors
Perovskite-Based Phototransistors and Hybrid
Photodetectors
Chao Xie, Chun-Ki Liu, Hok-Leung Loi, and Feng Yan*
In the past several years, organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites and all
inorganic perovskites have attracted enormous research interest in a variety
of optoelectronic applications including solar cells, light-emitting diodes,
semiconductor lasers, and photodetectors for their plenty of appealing
electrical and optoelectrical properties. Benefiting from the inherent
amplification function of transistors and the pronounced photogating effect,
perovskite-based phototransistors and hybrid photodetectors can provide
very high photoresponsivity and gain, rendering them highly promising
for some specific applications especially ultrasensitive light detection. A
review on the recent progress of phototransistors and hybrid photodetectors
using perovskites as light-sensitive materials is presented. The efforts
and development in 3D and 2D perovskite-based phototransistors, and
perovskite/functional material (e.g., graphene, 2D semiconductors,
organic semiconductors, and other semiconductors) heterojunction-
based hybrid photodetectors are introduced and discussed systematically.
Some processing techniques for optimizing device performance are also
addressed. In the final section, a conclusion of the research achievements is
presented and possible challenges as well as outlook are provided to guide
future activity in this research field.
1. Introduction
Photodetectors are representative optoelectronic devices that
convert optical signals (electromagnetic radiations carrying
energy) into electrical signals (typically photocurrents or photo­
voltages) based on various principles. This class of optoelec-
tronic devices constitute key components of many devices for a
broad range of scientific and industrial applications, including
optical communication, biomedical and video imaging, space
exploration, environmental monitoring, military, and security,
among others.[1–4] High-performance photodetection relies
Dr. C. Xie
School of Electronic Science and Applied Physics and Anhui Provincial
Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Devices
Hefei University of Technology
Hefei, Anhui 230009, China
C. K. Liu, H.-L. Loi, Prof. F. Yan
Department of Applied Physics
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong 999077, China
E-mail: apafyan@polyu.edu.hk
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201903907.
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201903907
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strongly on a semiconductor material to
efficiently absorb incident radiation and
produce electron–hole pairs upon photo-
excitation, as well as a built-in or external
electric field to effectively separate photo-
carriers to generate an electrical output.
Nowadays, photodetection in the UV-
visible to near-infrared (NIR) spectrum
range is dominated by detectors made
from inorganic semiconductors, such
as GaN that operate at UV region from
250 to 400 nm, Si that responds in the
visible-NIR range from 400 to 1100 nm,
as well as InGaAs and related heterostruc-
tures that work in the NIR regime from
900 to 1700 nm.[5,6] While these detectors
have already found crucial applications
in many fields and their manufacturing
technologies have become reliable and
mature, the presence of a number of
severe drawbacks greatly hinders their
widespread to broader applications and
future development of new technolo-
gies and novel conceptual devices. For
instance, photo­detectors made from these
inorganic semiconductors usually rely on a thick material usage
to attain sizeable photo­response, which adds an increase in cost
and also precludes the possibility for use in flexible, stretchable,
and bendable electronics/optoelectronics. Their fabrication pro-
cesses require complicated manufacturing technologies and
expensive facilities, which brings difficulties in device assembly
and leads to high cost. In addition, they need rigorous opera-
tion conditions and these semiconductors in bulk form are also
very frangible.
To circumvent the aforementioned dilemma, extensive
efforts have been invested into developing efficient photode-
tectors with low-cost and new functionalities. In recent years,
a lot of novel optoelectronic materials including 1D and 2D
nanomaterials and organic semiconductors have emerged as
photoactive layers for this purpose.[7–12] Despite their distin-
guished characteristics, it cannot be denied that these materials
have their own shortcomings such as issues regarding unsat-
isfactory uniformity and reproducibility for 1D and 2D nano-
materials, as well as poor thermal/long-term stability and low
charge carrier mobility for organic semiconductors. Therefore,
new optoelectronic materials are urgently required to over-
come the limitations of the above materials for photodetec-
tion. These new materials should offer characteristics such as
high optical absorption efficiency in a broad wavelength spec-
trum, large charge carrier mobility, ease of fabrication, solution
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processbility and preferably, good mechanical flexibility as well

as improved thermal and long-term stability. Chao Xie obtained his B.S.
In the past several years, halide perovskites have and Ph.D. degrees from Hefei
emerged as a new class of revolutionary candidate materials University of Technology in
for the optoelectronic community.[13–15] These materials are 2009 and 2014, respectively.
represented by a general chemical formula ABX3, where A He then worked as a post-
denotes an organic or inorganic (e.g., methylammonium (MA), doctoral research fellow at
formamidinium (FA), cesium, or rubidium) cation, B denotes The Hong Kong Polytechnic
a divalent metal (e.g., lead, tin, or germanium) cation, and University and Hanyang
X denotes a monovalent halide (e.g., chlorine, bromine, University, respectively, for the
iodine, or their mixtures) anion, respectively. The enor- subsequent three years. He
mous interest of exploring halide perovskites in optoelec- is currently an associate pro-
tronic devices was triggered by the first use of perovskite as fessor at School of Electronic
a light absorber in solar cells with a less than 4% efficiency Science and Applied Physics, HFUT. His research interests
in 2009, followed by the rapid enhancement of efficiency by focus on the development of high-performance optoelec-
more than 3-fold to 10–11% in solid-state perovskite solar tronic devices based on novel functional materials (1D
cells in 2012.[16–19] Since then, great research efforts have nanostructures, 2D materials, perovskite materials, etc).
been devoted to both perovskite materials/solar cell develop-
ment and the understanding of fundamental material charac-
teristics and device operational principles. The record power Chun-Ki Liu is currently
conversion efficiency has already reached an amazing value pursuing his M.Phil. study
over 24% in just few years.[20] In addition to the huge suc- under the supervision of
cess in photovoltaics, this group of extraordinary materials Prof. Feng Yan in the Depart-
have also shown great promise in other optoelectronic devices ment of Applied Physics of
(e.g., light-emitting diodes (LEDs), semiconductor lasers, and the Hong Kong Polytechnic
photodetectors),[21–23] arising from their appealing properties University. He received his
including tunable optical properties (optical constants and B.Sc. in engineering physics
bandgap), high optical absorption coefficient in the UV–vis- (2017) from the Hong Kong
ible regime, high charge carrier motilities, long charge carrier Polytechnic University. His
diffusion lengths and lifetimes, low exciton binding energy, current research focuses on
and low-temperature solution processibility.[13–15] In par- high-performance photo­
ticular, photodetectors with different geo­metries and working detectors based on hybrid perovskites and low-dimensional
on varied operational mechanisms (e.g., photoconductors, materials.
phototransistors, and photodiodes) have been widely exploited
based on halide perovskites, and great advancements have
also been witnessed recently: the optimal photoresponsivity Feng Yan has research inter-
(R) is over 109 AW−1, the specific detectivity (D*) exceeds 1016 ests on thin film transistors,
Jones, and the most rapid response time is around 1 ns.[24–27] solar cells, 2D materials,
organic electronics, biosen-
The device performances have already attained a level of com-
sors, and smart materials.
petitiveness over those based on conventional photo­sensing
He received his PhD degree
materials and commercial Si.
in physics from Nanjing
Among various photodetectors, perovskite phototransistors
University in China in
are characterized by high internal photocurrent gain due to the
1997. Then he worked as
inherent amplification function of the transistors.[28] Therefore,
Assistant/Associate professor
this special geometry can provide high photoresponsivities that
at Physics department of
are several orders of magnitude larger than perovskite photodi-
Nanjing University. He joined
odes and photoconductors. What is more, by integrating with
the Engineering Department of Cambridge University in
other functional materials, perovskite hybrid photodetectors
February 2001 as a Research Associate and joined National
can show even higher photoresponsivities due to pronounced
Physical Laboratory in UK in April 2006 as a Higher
photogating effects.[29–31] The heterojunction-based device con-
Research Scientist. He became an Assistant Professor
figurations also allow us to control charge carrier separation
at the Department of Applied Physics of the Hong Kong
and transport processes via rational device design and inter-
Polytechnic University in September 2006 and was pro-
face band alignment tuning, providing a feasible way to further
moted to Professor in 2016.
optimize device performance. These distinct advantages thus
render perovskite-based phototransistors and hybrid photo­
detectors extremely attractive for ultrasensitive photodetec-
tion with some specific applications, for example, ultraweak hybrid photodetectors combing functional materials including
light detection. To date, phototransistors based on perovskites graphene, 2D layered semiconductors, organic semiconduc-
with both 2D layered and 3D structures, as well as perovskite tors, and some other materials, have been extensively explored,

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and studies in this area are also attracting increasing research
interest. Although giant achievements have been attained, there
are still many challenges that confine the application of these
devices and future enhancement in device performance. Exten-
sive review of the progresses in this specific field will be useful
for not only understanding the fundaments of these devices,
but also enlightening unconventional device design in the
future.
In this paper, a review of recent advances in phototransis-
tors and hybrid photodetectors utilizing perovskites as photo-
sensing materials is provided. The efforts and development in
phototransistors composed of 2D layered and 3D perovskites,
and hybrid photodetectors based on perovskite/functional
material (e.g., graphene, 2D layered semiconductors, organic
semiconductors, and other materials) heterojunctions are pre-
sented and discussed systematically. In addition, the emerging
techniques incorporated in this field to optimize device perfor-
mance are introduced as well. Finally, possible challenges and
outlooks are presented to shed light on the future activity in
this research area.
2. Device Geometries and Performance
Parameters
2.1. Principles of Phototransistor
In contrast to the lack of high performance and multifunc-
tionality in photodiode and photoconductor, phototransistor
generally exhibits much higher photoresponse and can simul-
taneously act as transistor and photodetector.[32–37] Compared
to ordinary transistors, modified device design and specific
material selection is generally adopted in order to enhance
the photoresponse.[37,38] Although mechanisms vary among
phototransistors with different structures, they are usually
characterized by the superior gain and the gate-tunable perfor-
mance. The detailed discussion about common phototransistor
structures and requirements for the channel materials will be
given in the following section.
In these devices, incident light serves as an additional gate,
and the electrical gate can be either open-circuited or applied
to modulate the photoresponse characteristics.[39,40] The photo­
carrier generation mechanism of photo field-effect transistor
(photo-FET) and hybrid photo-FET are generally based on
photo­conductive effect.[37,41] Depending on the material proper-
ties and device design, sometimes one type of carriers is inten-
tionally immobilized in the device, while another type is free
to move and contribute to photocurrent.[9,29,42] This is called
photogating effect, which is a special case of photoconductive
effect.[29] Sometimes, photovoltaic effect can also be utilized in
photo­transistor, in which a p-n junction or Schottky barrier pro-
vides a built-in electric field which separates the photogenerated
carriers.[43] For photo bipolar junction transistor (photo-BJT),
incident light functions like applied voltage in normal BJT, in
which a small number of carriers are injected into the base
region to trigger a large current flow between collector and
emitter.[38] The phototransistors based on different structures
and their respective working principles will be discussed in the
following.
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2.2. Phototransistors Based on Different Structures
2.2.1. Photo Field-Effect Transistor (Photo-FET)
In the simplest case, the architecture of photo-FET is the
same as conventional FET, where a metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) structure is adopted.[44] In photo-FETs, the ideal channel
material should simultaneously exhibit both superior mobility
for carrier transport, high photoelectric conversion efficiency
for efficient charge generation, suitable and direct bandgap for
optical absorption.[45] Moreover, it should have a thin profile to
enable full depletion of the channel by applied gate voltage, so
that ultralow dark current can be realized.[5] Figure 1a shows a
typical example of a perovskite based Photo-FET. Both gate bias
and light can modulate the carrier density in the channel. As
light incidents on the device channel area and is absorbed by
the perovskite, electron–hole pairs (e–h pairs) are generated by
photoelectric effect and will be extracted to respective electrodes
by the applied drain–source electric field. The applied gate
voltage can effectively separate the carriers by capacitive cou-
pling, increasing their recombination time. Sometimes, charge
traps in the bulk of the channel or at the interfaces around the
channel selectively trap the photogenerated carriers, realizing
a photogating effect.[42,46] Quantitatively, the photoconductive
gain, which is number of carriers contributable to photocurrent
per photoinduced carrier, can be expressed as[5]
tr t
GP = = r (1)
tt L/v
where tr, tt, L, and v are carrier recombination time, carrier
transit time in transporting layer, channel length, and velocity
of carrier in transporting layer, respectively. However, there
are drawbacks in perovskite-based phototransistors with this
structure. For instance, although the intrinsic mobility of perov-
skite is comparable or even higher than conventional channel
materials like Si and some III–V semiconductors, it remains a
great challenge for researchers to realize a competitive mobility
value in experiment.[47] The experimentally demonstrated field-
effect mobility is typically lower than the calculated value by
several orders. The low mobility reduces the response speed
and responsivity of the perovskite-based photo-FET.[37] To
simultaneously realize both high response and fast response
speed, new design and modification of the design have thus
been developed, which will be discussed below.
2.2.2. Hybrid Photo-FET
Due to the limited practical mobility of perovskite, especially
for those synthesized by solution processes, scientists devel-
oped a modified device structure of the above simple photo-
FET, namely hybrid photo-FET.[29,37,48] The schematic graph of
the device is shown in Figure 1b. The single channel material
in the above photo-FET is replaced by two materials which have
different functions. The top and bottom materials are called
photoactive layer and transport layer, respectively.[5] The photo-
active layer is used to absorb light signal and generate photo­
carriers, while the transport layer is favorable for carriers to
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Figure 1.  Difference phototransistor structures. a) Photo-FET. b) Hybrid photo-FET. c) Barristor-type. Reproduced with permission.[52] Copyright 2012,
American Association for the Advancement of Science. d) Photo-BJT.
move between source and drain contacts, as well as realizing
the electric field modulation by gate electrode. By using this
strategy, the optical and electrical properties of the channel
material can be de-coupled, which opens up vast space for
material selection. Perovskite-based hybrid photo-FET typi-
cally use perovskite as the photoactive layer because they have
tunable direct band gap, strong light absorption, high photo-
electric conversion efficiency, defect tolerance, and long carrier
diffusion length.[49,50] The problem of low practical mobility of
perovskite can be avoided by restricting its function as light
absorber. In these devices, a high gain can be obtained by either
the photogating effect realized by the relative band alignment
of the two layers, or by the capacitive coupling of the transport
channel.[37,41] On the other hand, since materials with supe-
rior mobility can be utilized as transport layer, a much higher
photoconductive gain than normal photo-FET can be obtained.
This claim can be verified by Equation (2)[41]
tr tr
GP = = µVDS
tt L2
where µ is mobility and VDS is applied drain–source voltage. It
can be seen that mobility is proportional to the photoconductive
gain. Thus, extremely high responsivity can be achieved along
with a reasonable response speed, which is generally limited by
charge injection and recombination.[23] Overall, much higher
figure-of-merits could be acquired by this type of device archi-
tecture compared to photo-FET, mainly owing to the synergetic
effect of the materials.[29,37]
2.2.3. Gate-Modulated Schottky Barrier (Barristor) Type
Although most of the phototransistors are based on the
above-mentioned conventional designs, a special design only
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available for 2D materials that do not exhibit Fermi level pin-
ning, such as graphene.[51] Figure 1c illustrates the first device
of this type.[52] By placing graphene on top of a gate dielectric/
gate electrode, the work function of graphene can be effectively
tuned by applying different gate voltage. The nature of the
junction can be thus interchanged between ohmic contact and
Schottky barrier.[53] Therefore, characteristics of the photo­
detector can be either photodiode-like (Schottky barrier) or photo-
conductor-like (ohmic contact).[43] When the device operates in
photodiode region, the photocurrent is generated according to
photovoltaic effect and the active area is the depletion region
around Schottky barrier; when the device operates in photo­
conductor mode, the photocurrent is generated according to
photoconductive effect and the active region is the whole area
which is exposed to light illumination. These devices can also
be categorized as phototransistors since they also exhibit gate-
tunable current and photocurrent. This kind of design is some-
times called barristor.
(2)
2.2.4. Photo Bipolar Junction Transistor (Photo-BJT)
This type of phototransistor is common in commercial market
and has been widely used in various applications.[54] Photo-
BJT is very similar to ordinary BJT. Actually, it is just BJT
without base lead, but with a window (and lens) for incident
light absorption and in a much wider depletion region at the
base–collector junction. The photocurrent generated at base–
collector region then functions like base current for normal
BJT. The small photocurrent can thus be amplified according
to the gain of the photo-BJT. Figure 1d shows a schematic of
a typical npn-type photo-BJT, the light incident on the device
passes through transparent emitter, and is absorbed by base,
base–collector depletion region (the greyed area) and col-
lector.[38] In the area around the depletion region, e-h pairs are
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generated due to photo­electric effect. According to the band
alignment, holes will be trapped in base, while electron moves
to collector. The accumulation of holes in base lowers the bar-
rier height of the emitter-base region so that a large number of
electrons with high kinetic energy in emitter can pass through
base (with a small amount of recombination), to the collector
and are extracted by the external electronics, generating a high
current.[40]
2.3. Performance Parameters
As illustrated in the above section, there are many kinds of
phototransistors available, which all exhibit their respective
advantages and disadvantages. For instance, photogating effect
in hybrid phototransistors can lead to high photoresponse, but
can significantly lower the operation speed due to the trapped
charges. To quantitatively measure and compare the overall
performance of a phototransistor (or photodetector generally),
a series of figure-of-merits are therefore developed and used to
characterize performance of a phototransistor, including photo­
responsivity, gain, specific detectivity, and response time.[55]
Actually, some other indicators are occasionally used to show
the special capability of a device. Since they are not commonly
mentioned in most literatures, especially phototransistors
based on hybrid perovskite, those parameters will not be illus-
trated here.
a) Photoresponsivity is an indication of how responsive is the
photodetector against incident light. It is defined by the ratio
of the photocurrent to the incident optical power on the active
area (A) of the photodetectors, and can be expressed as the
following equation[41,55]
I ph
R= (3)
Pin hybrid perovskite.[41,75–77] Several investigations from different
where Iph and Pin are the photocurrent and incident optical
power, respectively. Photocurrent is defined as the difference in
the device current under light illumination and without light
illumination.
b) Specific detectivity is a parameter to describe the sensitivity
of the phototransistor. It normalizes the device noise-equiva-
lent power (NEP) to A and the electrical bandwidth of device
noise (B). It is given by[55,56]
AB (4)
D* =
NEP
The NEP is defined as the signal power that gives a signal-
to-noise ratio of one at 1 Hz output bandwidth.
Moreover, if one assumes that the dark current is mainly
originated from shot noise, the specific detectivity can be
expressed as[57]
R react as a crystallization-retarding and crystallization-directing
D* =
(5)
2q  d 
I
 A
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where q is elementary charge and Id is dark current.
c) Gain is a parameter that is closely related to responsivity, and
is defined by the ratio of the amount of photogenerated car-
rier to the amount of incident photon on the active area. It
can be expressed as[46]
Rhc
G= (6)
eλ
d) Response time is also a key parameter for phototransistor and
it is a measure on detection speed of the device. Generally,
there are three ways to characterize it. i) The time intervals
(rise time and fall/decay time) between photocurrent level
reaching 10% and 90% (0 to 80% sometimes) of its satura-
tion level upon on/off illumination cycles;[37,39] ii) the light
modulation frequency at which the photocurrent drops
to −3 dB from its stabilized level;[58] iii) the time constants
extracted from the double-exponential function fitting curves
of the temporal response.[46,48]
3. 3D and 2D Perovskite Phototransistors
3.1. 3D Perovskite Phototransistors
3D organic–inorganic hybrid metal halide perovskites MAPbX3
(MA = methylammonium and X = Cl, Br, I) have aroused
interests of scholars in recent years, including MAPbX3-based
photo­conductors and photodiodes.[59–69] Advantages such as
direct band gap, large absorption coefficient, and high carrier
mobility, together with their successful application in solution-
processed solar cells[70–74] have led in-depth investigations into
photodetectors. Nevertheless, MAPbX3-based phototransistors
have drawn relatively less research efforts, in spite of intrinsic
large charge carrier mobilities and ambipolar properties of
groups have even drawn similar conclusion by generally sum-
marizing that obvious FET characteristics from MAPbI3-based
devices can only be obtained at low temperature.[78–80] Though
optimization of perovskite-film microstructures, modification
of source–drain contact, and introduction of less-volatile inor-
ganic cation into perovskites have been proposed and applied
to eliminate negative effects,[76,81] pure 3D MAPbX3-based
photo­transistors obtained at room temperature still require
attentions because of gate-field screening effect induced by the
ion migration and accumulation at the perovskite/dielectric
interface.[82–84]
Li et al. reported fabrication and characterization of bottom-
gate top-contact (BGTC) phototransistors on the basis of ambi-
polar solution-processed MAPbI3 (Figure 2a) and MAPbI3−xClx
thin films in 2015.[41] External light source was applied as the
fourth terminal electrode to further modulate channel cur-
rent controlled by gate electrode, and then ambipolar MAPbI3-
based phototransistors were successfully obtained at room
temperature as shown in the drain current versus gate voltage
(IDS−VGS) curves (Figure 2b). It is suggested that Cl might
agent,[85] leading to growth of perovskite domains, thus trans-
port properties of MAPbI3−xClx films were enhanced.[86,87] The
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Figure 2.  a) Schematic illustration of the BGTC phototransistor with a channel of hybrid perovskite MAPbI3. b) Transfer (VDS = 30 and −30 V) charac-
teristics of a) BGTC MAPbI3 phototransistor, c) BGTC MAPbI3−xClx phototransistor, and d) BGBC MAPbI3 phototransistor device in the dark (black and
red symbols) and under light illumination (blue and magenta symbols). The inset shows the schematic illustration of BGBC phototransistor with a
channel of hybrid perovskite MAPbI3. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC-BY 4.0 International License.[41] Copyright
2015, Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. e) Schematic illustration of the procedure for preparing MAPbI3 plates
on a patterned substrate. f) Schematic illustration of the device arrangement of photodetector arrays with a U-shaped transparent mask under blue
LED illumination (wavelength, 463 nm; power density, 600 mWcm−2). Red dots, devices with photocurrent; grey dots, devices without photocurrent.
g) UV–vis absorption and PL spectra of PbI2 and MAPbI3 microplates. h) Output (VG = 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 V), and i) transfer (VDS = 10, 15, 20,
and 25 V) characteristics of MAPbI3 microplate crystal at 77 K. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC-BY-NC 4.0
International License.[61] Copyright 2015, The Authors, published by American Association for the Advancement of Science.

result discovered that balanced photoinduced carrier mobility
(µ) of doped mixed-halide perovskites was effectively increased
to 1.24 cm2 V−1 s−1 (holes) and 1.01 cm2 V−1 s−1 (electrons).
However, the value of photoresponsivity for the MAPbI3−xClx
device (47 AW−1) measured was lower than MAPbI3 device
(320 AW−1) due to higher dark current applied in the
MAPbI3−xClx thin film (Figure 2c). While the MAPbI3 control
device was fabricated with bottom-gate bottom-contact (BGBC)
structure, transfer characteristics of this device were also meas-
ured at the drain voltages (VDS) of −30 and 30 V (Figure 2d).
The V shape of transfer curves indicated that ambipolar
performance of phototransistors was an intrinsic property of
MAPbI3 independent of device architecture, leading to balanced
µ of 0.17 cm2 V−1 s−1 and high Ilight/Idark ratio of ≈104 for both
hole- and electron-conducting regions (under negative and
positive VGS, respectively). In addition to properties of different
perovskite materials and device architectures, PMMA-protective
layers were demonstrated to form kinetic barriers against the
diffusion of moisture and/or atmospheric oxygen,[86] which
have been considered as an effective strategy for improving
device stability and reproducibility. Not only transfer curves
of a PMMA-protected device immediately following fabrica-
tion and after storing under ambient air for 60 d could lead to
almost the same photo responses, but also relatively larger hole
mobility values were distributed comparing with unprotected
as-fabricated devices. As another important figure-of-merit, the
response time of MAPbI3 phototransistors was less than 10 µs,
which demonstrated that photoresponsivity could be enhanced
without sacrificing response speed by biasing gate terminal of
transistor architecture.
As polycrystalline thin films made from perovskite mate-
rials are soluble in various solvents, the essential lithography
process has limited most studies for integrated perovskite
arrays. Fortunately, specific locations of prepatterned elec-
trodes have offered alternative strategy for developing highly
integrated systems,[88–90] and Wang et al. demonstrated the
first patterned growth (Figure 2e) of regular arrays of MAPbI3
microplate crystals (Figure 2f) with low temperature solu-
tion-processing method in 2015, including seeded growth
process with PbI in hydrophilic regions and further intercala-
tion with MAI vapor in a tube furnace system.[61] The proper-
ties of converted products were investigated in both UV–vis

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Figure 3.  a) Schematic illustration of the phototransistor with a channel of MAPbI3 film. b) Transfer characteristics of photodetector by two annealing
methods (VGS = −5 V). Reproduced with permission.[99] Copyright 2018, Elsevier Limited. c) Schematic illustration of the phototransistor with a channel
of MAPbBr3 film. d) Transfer characteristics of the MAPbBr3/MAPbI3 phototransistors in the dark and under light illumination (500 nm). Reproduced
with permission.[100] Copyright 2018, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

absorption and photoluminescence (PL) spectra as shown in
Figure 2g, which demonstrated that good crystalline quality
of MAPbI3 microplate crystals could be attained through a
gas–solid intercalation. This simple two-step strategy for scal-
able growth of large arrays could generate independently
addressable phototransistor arrays with a U-shaped trans-
parent mask, exhibiting high photoresponsivity of 40 AW−1,
fast response time of 500 µs, photocurrent gain of 100,
and maximum Ion/Ioff ratio of 106 (Figure 2h). While the
transfer characteristics allowed field effect electron mobility
(µe) reaching up to ≈2.5 cm2 V−1 s−1 (backward sweep) and
≈1 cm2 V−1 s−1 (forward sweep) at 77 K, the considerable hyster-
esis (Figure 2i) under various VGS could be attributed to field-
induced ion drift, ferroelectric effect, and trap state filling effect
on perovskites.[41,78]
Thin perovskite single crystals, which are free from any
grain boundary, can present much higher mobility in transis-
tors.[91] As the quality of fabricated polycrystalline perovskite
films could be optimized by adjusting annealing temperature
and duration, organic/inorganic precursor ratio, additives, and
solvent,[92–98] multistep (MS) annealing strategy in MAPbI3
phototransistors was raised up by Cao et al., leading to strongly
improved coverage, smoothness, uniformity, and crystallinity
of hybrid perovskite by restraining defects of pinhole for-
mation.[99] When the devices were treated by one-step (OS)
direct annealing method at room temperature, photoinduced
µ of 0.256 (0.129) cm2 V−1 s−1 for holes (electrons) of MAPbI3
hybrid perovskite photo­transistor (Figure  3a) were measured.
Rising value of µ to 2.32 (1.18) cm2 V−1 s−1, specific detec-
tivity of 8.94 × 1011 Jones, and photoresponsivity of 32 AW−1
were obtained by applying MS annealing method. While the
rise and decay time of MS annealed device were achieved
as 42 µs and 76 µs, respectively, the relatively slow response
time of OS annealed device were measured as 335 and 298 µs.
Notably, in dark and 405 nm laser illumination condition,
both OS and MS annealed devices showed typically ambipolar
behaviors in transfer characteristics (Figure 3b) with high
Ilight/Idark ratio of 104. As for solution-processed MAPbBr3
perovskite films, Yu et al. investigated fabrication and charac-
terization of photo­transistors (Figure 3c) with bipolar behav-
iors.[100] Beside PMMA protected method, coating ultrathin
Al2O3 protective layer between perovskite film and Au elec-
trodes showed enhancements in stability of hybrid perovskite
phototransistors, effectively preventing perovskite channel
from exposing to atmosphere and retarding interactions with
oxygen and water in ambient atmosphere. In addition, it is
observed that performance could be restricted by transferring
Au atom into perovskite channel film during evaporation with
absence of Al2O3 layer. High photoresponsivity of 4 AW−1 was
obtained from this fabricated MAPbBr3 perovskite phototran-
sistor, which was yield from relatively dark current (0.09 nA)
compared with the MAPbI3 channel’s (0.4 nA) as shown in
the Figure 3d. Since the photoresponsivity is calculated by the
ratio of the photocurrent (drain current–dark current) to the
incident optical power on the active area,[41,55] smaller dark cur-
rent shows that MAPbBr3 could be considered as a promising
material for high sensitivity MAPbX3-based phototransistor.
Solution-based fabrication technique such as spin-coating is
the most common method to prepare hybrid perovskite films
because of its versatility and low cost. Influences of controlling
crystal orientation and morphology of MAPbI3 film on BGTC
phototransistors were investigated by Cho et al.,[101] as solution-
processed polycrystalline perovskite films always suffer from
crystal defects to reduce carrier mobility in the channel by carrier
capture, trapping, and scattering. An ionic liquid was suggested
as replacement of traditional solvent due to sharp liquid-to-crys-
talline solid transition of MAPbI3,[102] while traditional perov-
skite processing solvents (DMSO or DMF) generated plumbate
intermediates (1D fibrous material) during crystallization (con-
version of the 2D sheet PbI2 into the 3D cube MA+PbI3−).[103]
By applying thermal-gradient-assisted directional crystallization
method (Figure  4a), it is illustrated that periodic micro­arrays
could be formed spontaneously within large-area MAPbI3
perovskite film parallel to the substrate (Figure 4b), differing
from general polycrystalline MAPbI3 materials. Thermal gra-
dient method could also create orientational MAPbBr3 micro­
wires (Figure 4c), though it was observed that desired reaction
rate of slow and balanced crystallization process of MAPbBr3
was interrupted by relatively fast nucleation and growth rate.
The X-ray diffraction patterns of orientationally pure crystalline
(OPC) and randomly oriented MAPbI3 films were shown in
Figure 4d,e respectively, demonstrating the tetragonal structure
of MAPbI3 perovskite. OPC films were definitely parallel to the
substrate with fundamental (112) or (200) directions, whereas
the randomly oriented films were consistent with general
X-ray diffraction patterns. The trap density (7.9 × 1013 cm−3)

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Figure 4.  a) Schematic illustration of the thermal-gradient-assisted directional crystallization process of a MAPbI3 perovskite. A solution is pulled at
a constant velocity, V, through a thermal gradient, G, generated by local heating at T1. Optical microscope image of the b) OPC MAPbI3 films and
c) directionally grown MAPbBr3 wires by a thermal gradient method. Scale bars: 200 µm. X-ray diffraction of the d) OPC and e) randomly oriented
MAPbI3 films. Illustrations of transistor structure showing the geometry of source and drain electrodes deposited in the direction of the f) backbone
(IDS//) and g) branch (IDS⊥). Transfer characteristics of aligned OPC films measured in the direction of the h) backbone (IDS//) and i) branch (IDS⊥) at
78 K. Reproduced with permission.[101] Copyright 2016, Nature Publishing Group.

of these thin films was measured to be four orders of mag-
nitude lower than polycrystalline films (1017 cm−3). Charac-
teristics of MAPbI3 photodetectors using directional crystal
growth were further investigated along direction of backbone
(Figure 4f, IDS//), showing hole mobility (µh) of 1.3 cm2 V−1 s−1
under illumination at room temperature. The result was one
order of magnitude higher than that of previously reported
polycrystalline perovskite films (0.18 cm2 V−1 s−1) fabricated
with the same device configuration,[41] and even two order of
magnitude higher than that measured in the direction normal
to the backbone (Figure 4g, IDS⊥) (6.1 × 10−3 cm2 V−1 s−1).
Ilight/Idark ratio (≈105) measured in the IDS// direction (Figure 4h)
was higher than the result measured in the IDS⊥ direction
(≈103) (Figure 4i), as well as hole mobilities with two orders of
magnitude difference between the highest (IDS//) and lowest
(IDS⊥) values. Maximum photoresponsivity at 78 K in the IDS//
direction as 6.1 AW−1 was two orders of magnitude higher than
that of the device measured in the IDS⊥ direction (0.047 AW−1),
which was consistent with the photoinduced µ and Ion/Ioff ratio
measured above. Notably, IDS−VGS curves of both phototransis-
tors exhibited a representative ambipolar behavior in spite of
the opposite directions for the crystal growth. All above results
indicated that controllability of thin film directional crystal
growth and preservation of high crystallinity could narrow
down wide disparity in materials properties between single and
polycrystalline perovskites, breaking the bottleneck of higher
device performance.
While inflexible Si/SiO2 substrates as gate electrode and
dielectric layer in traditional phototransistors have been inves-
tigated,[41,61,101] He et al. substituted expensive Si wafer with
low-cost Al electrode as gate electrode, and then isolated active
perovskite layer of the devices from moisture and oxygen by
additional sol-gel SiO2 layer in 2017.[104] This novel architecture
showed that light current (Figure  5a) of all-solution-processed
BGTC MAPbI3 phototransistor with the sol-gel SiO2 protecting
layer was much higher than that without the protecting layer,
and performance of both cases reversed under dark (Figure 5b).
These phenomena resulted from many possible degrading
processes,[105–107] and then conductivity could be enhanced
in dark with reduced absorption coefficient under illumina-
tion,[108–110] as long as the outermost active layer is being exposed
to ambient air directly. With the rising and recovery time of
10 and 25 ms, MAPbI3 phototransistors with sol-gel SiO2 pro-
tecting layer released high photoresponsivity of 10.72 AW−1 and
large specific detectivity of 6.2 × 1013 Jones at the VGS of −40 V
and the VDS of −40 V due to the lower current in dark (Idark)
and higher current under illumination (Ilight). On the basis of
these results, the application of Al gate electrode and sol-gel
SiO2 dielectric layer has further provided a promising way for
flexible photodetectors. By applying HfO2 as gate insulators
to fabricate novel BGTC perovskite phototransistors without
traditional SiO2 layers (Figure 5c), another recent study demon-
strated modulation effects of monochromatic light and electric
field on hysteresis behaviors by Sun et al. in 2017.[111] Highest
photoresponsivity of 1.14 AW−1 and response time of 50 ms,
photoinduced µ of 1.05 (0.84) cm2 V−1 s−1 for holes (electrons),
and Ion/Ioff ratio of ≈104 were attained at an ultralow operation
voltage of 0.1 V. Meanwhile, photosensitive carrier-transport
characteristics about typical ambipolar transport and obvious
shift (hysteresis window, ΔVM) of location of the minimum
current point were obtained under two opposite directions of
VGS swept in MAPbI3 channel (Figure 5d). Independent of the
hysteresis behavior, IDS obtained at the VGS of −3 V (hole-con-
ducting region) was stronger than that at the VGS of 3 V (elec-
tron-conducting region). It indicated that the stronger p-type
behavior in MAPbI3 films, which is similar to conventional
findings of ambipolar BGTC MAPbI3 phototransistors men-
tioned before.[41,99,101] Trap-state filling effects, iron drift, and
ferroelectric polarization in hybrid perovskite have generally led
to hysteresis behaviors,[112–114] which could directly affect device
performances of perovskite-based devices.[115] Sun et al. pointed
out that illumination with different irradiation power and wave-
lengths both have the withdrawal effect on hysteresis behaviors.
While ΔVM versus wavelength curves showed relatively repres-
sive hysteresis behaviors within visible region (470–660 nm)
(Figure 5e), ΔVM showed significance in decrease with rising

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Figure 5. The IDS–VDS curves of BGTC MAPbI3 phototransistors a) at incident illumination and b) in the dark, respectively. Two kinds of devices covered
with or without the sol-gel SiO2 layer have been fabricated for comparison, where the inset presents the diagram of the MAPbI3 phototransistor pro-
tected through the sol-gel SiO2 layer. Reproduced with permission.[104] Copyright 2017, Elsevier Limited. c) Schematic illustration of the MAPbI3-based
photodetector with an HfO2 dielectric layer. d) Hysteresis behaviors were shown in transport characteristics by a sweeping loop with VDS = 1 V. e) Plot
of ΔVM versus wavelength. An average irradiance for these different wavelengths measured by a power meter was 77 µWcm−2. f) Plot of ΔVM versus
irradiance power (660 nm). g) ΔVM and ΔVML were plotted as a function of VDS under A monochromatic light with a wavelength of 660 nm. The inset
is the curve of VTH versus VDS. Reproduced with permission.[111] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

irradiance power (660 nm) (Figure 5f) due to enhancement
of hole-conducting behaviors. Moreover, ΔVM and ΔVML could
be plotted as a function of VDS. As shown in Figure 5g, ΔVM
(min ΔVM  = 0.38 V) under illumination was almost linearly
reduced with increasing VDS (max VDS = 1 V) while ΔVM in dark
remained nearly unchanged (ΔVM  = 2 V). As a result, photo-
controlled data-protection mechanism of transient data-erasing
process could be illustrated by a circuit model, opening up
unique vision for information security.
3.2. 2D Perovskite Phototransistors
3D perovskite-MAPbX3 phototransistors could be a hot topic
for investigation because of high-performance,[41,99–101,104,111]
but toxic Pb2+ elements, sensitivity to moisture and oxygen, and
thermal instability have reduced interests for further develop-
ments.[37,59,116–119] In contrary, 2D perovskites have exhibited
abundant and tunable optoelectronic properties, high quantum
efficiency, and large specific surface area, leading to enhance-
ments of a range of electronic and optical applications.[120–123]
Ruddlesden-Popper phase have been first proposed by Rud-
dlesden and Popper for three compounds with K2NiF4-type
structure in 1950s.[124,125] General formula of such 2D perov-
skite is (RNH3)2An+1MnX3n+1 (n = 1, 2, 3, 4……), where RNH3 is
a large aliphatic or aromatic alkylammonium spacer cation, A
is monovalent organic cation, M is a divalent metal cation, X is
a halide anion, and n represents the number of [MX6]4− octahe-
dral layers within each quantum well.[126] For example, 2D lead-
free perovskite (C6H5C2H4NH3)2SnI4 is an alternating stack of
organic and inorganic layers with n value of 1.[127] The organic
phenylethyl-ammonium cations (PEA+) enable growth of long
organic chains, forming protective layer to block air moisture
and oxygen from surrounding environment.[29,127,128]
2D (PEA)2SnI4 could be synthesized using low temperature
solution-processing method, which fulfill requirements of large
areas, low cost, or mechanical flexibility for optoelectronic appli-
cations.[84,127,129,130] The first hybrid perovskite utilized in FET is
(PEA)2SnI4 with 2D layered structure, which showed low field-
effect mobility of 0.62 cm2 V−1 s−1 in 1999.[127] It is most pos-
sibly because the aromatic ammonium cations in (PEA)2SnI4
could severely hinder the mobility of photocarriers by strong
quantum confinement. In spite of the substantial screening
effect,[80] Mitzi et al. have achieved saturation and linear mobili-
ties of 2.6 and 1.7 cm2 V−1 s−1 by applying melt processed dep-
osition technique in 2002.[131] In addition, mobility could be
further optimized to 15 cm2 V−1 s−1 by buffer layer modification
in 2017.[129]
Chen et al. reported the visible light sensitive BGTC photo­
transistor (Figure  6a) with 2D lead-free perovskite (PEA)2SnI4
thin film fabricated by one-step spin-coating in 2017.[129] Inor-
ganic charge-carrying sheets of 2D (PEA)2SnI4 might extend
in the direction of carrier transport from electrodes under bias
voltage, leading efficient charge injection under light illumina-
tion. Due to the encouraging gate modulation, ultrahigh photo­
responsivity of 1.9 × 104 AW−1 (Figure 6b) was attained by vis-
ible light signals at VGS  = 16 V and VDS  =  −40 V. Saturation
regime µh of 0.76–1.2 cm2 V−1 s−1, Ilight/Idark ratio of 100, and
ultrahigh EQE value of 4.9 × 106% were also achieved, showing
the light-state charge transport was dominated by visible light

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Figure 6.  a) Schematic illustration of (PEA)2SnI4 perovskite phototransistors. b) Transfer (VDS = −40 V) characteristics. R and P versus Vg for the device
under 3 µW cm−2 green light irradiation. c) Two-stage modulation of Ids with negative gate bias: ➀ light-on, ➁ light-off, and ➂ Vg = −40. Reproduced
with permission.[129] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. d) Schematic illustration of the electrical test circuit of a (PEA)2SnI4 transistor. Ferroelectric polariza-
tion related light response properties of the devices based on P(VDF-TrFE)/(PEA)2SnI4 hybrid structure. e–g) The IDS–VDS curves in pristine, polarization
‘‘up’’ and polarization ‘‘down’’ states, respectively. The insets are the schematics of the devices in different polarized directions. h–j) The corresponding
band diagram of the devices in pristine, polarization ‘‘up’’ and polarization ‘‘down’’ states, respectively. All the photoresponse tests were carried out
under the illumination of a 470 nm monochromatic light source. Reproduced with permission.[138] Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry.

triggered charges injection. However, due to the slow release of
trapped electrons and the resulting slow recombination of holes
and trapped electrons, IDS could keep at high illumination state
level without irradiation, indicating the relatively long relaxation
time (step 2) in comparison with the rise time (step 1, 0.45 s)
as shown in Figure 6c. As the metastable state could be accel-
erated by applying negative gate bias,[132–137] VGS was switched
from +30 V to −40 V (step 3) for acceleration of recombination
process, and then IDS could be reduced to dark state level after
VGS returned back into +30 V (step 4). This phenomenon has
offered further potential development of fabricating ultrasensi-
tive 2D perovskite phototransistors or light-triggered memory
devices.[134]
Wang et al. investigated ferroelectric-effect on performance
of BGBC phototransistor (Figure 6d) with same 2D layered
(PEA)2SnI4 as channel layer in 2018.[138] Ferroelectric polymer
poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE))
served as a dielectric insulator layer in the devices, forming
three different polarization states including pristine, polariza-
tion “up,” and polarization “down,” respectively, as shown in
Figure 6e–g. Compared with pristine band diagram (Figure 6h),
hole carriers in phototransistors were either suppressed at “up”
state (Figure 6i) or accumulated at “down” state (Figure 6j) in
channel layer. Fast response speed of 50 ms and high Ilight/Idark
ratio of 100 were achieved under both polarization states. It is
because that molecules in ferroelectric materials were arranged
conventionally after being polarized, creating a built-in poten-
tial throughout whole structure to separate electron–hole pairs.
Band diagram at ferroelectric and semiconductor interface was
manipulated due to different polarized directions under ferro-
electric effect,[139,140] suppressing dark current and enhancing
response time.[141] Smaller threshold swing (440.5 mVdec−1)
explicated weaker hysteresis from smoothness of transfer curve
comparing SiO2 dielectric device (6250 mVdec−1), implying that
localized traps could be strongly suppressed by P(VDF-TrFE)
film with a high performance. Under “up” state during modula-
tion of the polarization, photoresponsivity of 14.57 AW−1 and
specific detectivity of 1.74 × 1012 Jones were further attained.
To conclude, by adjusting halide component,[41,100] crystal
alignment,[101] and annealing method[99] of perovskite mate-
rials, good crystalline quality of perovskite thin films has been
demonstrated in several research groups. Based on the intrinsic
ambipolar behavior, 3D hybrid MAPbI3 phototransistors have
worked under both BGBC[41] and BGTC[41,99,101,111] device archi-
tectures with the best responsivity of >102 A W−1 and fastest
response speed of 10 µs, whereas 1D and 2D MAPbI3 channels

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Table 1.  Summary of performance parameters for pure perovskite phototransistors based on solution-processed perovskite thin films.

Functional materials Ilight/Idark ratio R [AW−1] D* (Jones) Field-effect hole/electron mobility [cm2 V−1 s−1] Rise/fall time (µs) Year Ref.
MAPbX3 104 320 – 0.18 (0.17) 10 (10) 2015 [41]
MAPbI3 106 40 – (2.5) 500 (500) 2015 [61]
MAPbI3 105 6.1 – 1.3 – 2016 [101]
2
MAPbI3 10 10.72 6.2 × 1013 – 10000 (25000) 2017 [104]
MAPbI3 5 × 104 1.14 – 1.05 (0.84) 50000 (50000) 2017 [111]
MAPbI3 104 32 8.9 × 1011 2.32 (1.18) 42 (76) 2018 [99]
MAPbBr3 – 4 – – – 2018 [100]
(PEA)2SnI4 103 1.9 × 104 – 1.2 4.5 × 105 (1 × 107) 2017 [129]
(PEA)2SnI4 102 14.57 1.7 × 1012 – 5 × 104 (5 × 104) 2018 [138]

have shown almost negligible modulation of current density
by gate voltage.[69,142] Fortunately, 2D lead-free (PEA)2SnI4
can be utilized as an environmental friendly phototransistor
channel[127,138] with the maximum responsivity of >104 A W−1
but relatively slow response speed of ≈1 s, exhibiting significant
field-effect conductivity under intrinsic ultrastable perovskite
optoelectronic systems. The main performance parameters
of devices in this section are summarized in Table  1 for com-
parison, and such excellent electric field modulation by gate
electrode of pure perovskite devices are further inducing an
implementation guidance for novel perovskite/semiconductor
hybrid heterostructure phototransistors.
4. Perovskite/2D Material Heterojunctions
2D materials are a family of materials that have layered crystal
structures.[57] Single- or multilayers of crystal can be obtained
either by top-down or bottom-up methods, such as mechan-
ical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition.[9] Their unique
physical properties trigger a great deal of scientific research
interest in the past decade. In point view of electrical proper-
ties, the members of 2D materials can be categorized into:
1) metallic materials like graphene, 2) semiconducting mate-
rials like transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), 3) insu-
lating material like Hexagonal-Boron Nitride (h-BN), and even
4) topological insulator like Bi2Se3.[44,143–145] Many phototran-
sistors are reported based on these materials and their hetero-
structures. However, the ultrathin profile of these materials
significantly reduces their light absorbing capability, which hin-
ders their practical application.[146] In the recent few years, sci-
entists started to look for suitable materials for enhancing light
absorption for these photodetectors.[57] Perovskite is considered
as one of the most promising candidates in this regard.[29] It is
therefore employed as the sensitizing layer for phototransistors
based on graphene (and its oxide) and TMDs.[29,37,48] The recent
development in this field will be discussed in the following.
4.1. Perovskite/Graphene Heterojunctions
As the earliest discovered 2D material, graphene has many
unique physical properties, such as ultrahigh mobility and
superior electrical bandwidth.[147,148] It has thus received sig-
nificant research attention in various optoelectronic applica-
tions.[149] The appealing electrical properties of graphene make
it a very suitable material to be hybridized with perovskite.
Therefore, attempts have been made to combine the superior
photoabsorption ability and long carrier diffusion length in
perovskite with the ultrahigh mobility and fast operating speed
of graphene transistor. [37,43,48,150–158]
The first hybrid phototransistor based on perovskite/2D
material heterojunction was developed by Lee and col-
leagues.[37] As shown in Figure  7a, the hybrid photo-FET uti-
lizes spin-coated MAPbI3 thin film as photoactive layer due to
its outstanding photoelectric conversion characteristics, while
graphene was used as transport layer because of its excellent
charge transport properties. The n-octadecyltrimethoxysilane
(ODTS) layer was a surface modifier to reduce surface charge
traps on SiO2. The pronounced PL quenching of MAPbI3/
graphene bi-layer shown in Figure 7b indicated the efficient
charge separation, which leads to a strong photogating effect
in the resultant device. After photocarriers are produced in the
perovskite layer, according to the relative band alignment, holes
immediately transfer to graphene, while electrons are trapped
in perovskite. As a result, the phototransistor achieved a high
maximum responsivity of 180 AW−1 (Figure 7c) along with rea-
sonable gate-tunable channel current level. Owing to the ultra-
high mobility of graphene, holes can transport for multiple
times in channel before recombining with the trapped elec-
trons. A high gain of ≈500 was therefore observed. The detec-
tivity was also calculated to be ≈109 Jones. They also accessed
the rise time and fall time of the device, which was measured to
be 87 and 540 ms, respectively (Figure 7d).
Later, Wang et al. noted that the above-mentioned device
has a much lower gain than the PDs based on graphene/TMD
heterostructures.[152] They attributed this to the unsatisfactory
quality of the thick perovskite film, which might result in high
bulk recombination rate. The lifetime of the carriers remain
trapped in the film is thus reduced, leading to a low photo-
conductive gain. To solve the problem, they reported another
MAPbI3/graphene hybrid photo-FET.[152] Instead of a contin-
uous perovskite film, they employ island-like structure with
uniform size and distribution on the graphene, as illustrated in
Figure 7e. The obtained responsivity and photoconductive gain
are ≈6.0 × 105 AW−1 (Figure 7f) and ≈109, respectively. Note that

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Figure 7.  a) Device design, b) responsivity and gain, c) PL quenching experiment, and d) temporal response of MAPbI3 film/graphene phototransistor.
Reproduced with permission.[37] Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. Device design of e) MAPbI3 islands/graphene phototransistor and f) its responsivity
and photocurrent as a function of light intensity. Reproduced with permission.[152] Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. g) Device schematics of MAPbI3
nanowires/graphene phototransistor and h) the relationship between responsivity of the device and light intensity. Reproduced with permission.[153]
Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. i) Device design of MAPbI3 film/graphene/Au-NPs phototransistor. j) EQE and responsivity as a function of light intensity
of the device and k) illustration of its working mechanism. l) temporal response of the phototransistors with and without AuNPs. Reproduced with
permission.[154] Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry.

the gain of this device is much higher than that of the one devel-
oped by Lee and co-workers. A rise time of less than 120 ms
and a fall time of less than 750 ms are recorded. They attributed
such improvement to the low bulk recombination rate in the
island structure of perovskite. To confirm this, they also fabri-
cated devices with different perovskite island size and coverage
density. The device with smaller-sized islands and higher cov-
erage density was found to exhibit highest photoresponse.
Several months later, another MAPbI3/graphene hybrid
photo-FET was reported by Spina and co-workers. They engi-
neered the perovskite/graphene contact by forming MAPbI3
nanowire network on graphene surface.[153] The schematic dia-
gram of the device design is shown in Figure 7g. The obtained
responsivity was as high as 2.6 × 106 AW−1 (Figure 7h). With the
same applied electric field, they found that a 10 times respon-
sivity enhancement can be realized when reducing channel
length for five times. Such an improvement can be ascribed to
a more efficient charge collection and this scheme is also ben-
eficial for device miniaturization. However, relatively slow rise
and fall times of ≈55 and ≈75 s are observed. The authors attrib-
uted this to the large number of charge traps in the nanowire
film originated from different surface states. They believed that
both responsivity and response speed could conspicuously be
enhanced upon improvement of the perovskite/graphene inter-
face and reduction of the defect density states.
To seek for performance improvement for the perovskite/
graphene phototransistors without significantly increasing the
perovskite thickness and thus retaining their advantage for prac-
tical utility, Sun et al. proposed a new strategy to further boost
the photoresponse.[154] A layer of Au nanoparticles (Au-NPs)
was modified atop the SiO2/Si surface before the transfer of gra-
phene and spin-coating of perovskite islands (Figure 7i). Due to
the near-field enhancement of Au-NPs, the responsivity under all
measured light intensity increased for ≈100% compared to device
without Au-NPs, as shown in Figure 7j. Moreover, as the photo­
carriers are mostly generated near perovskite–graphene inter-
face (Figure 7k), the recombination rate can be greatly reduced,
leading to a slower drop of responsivity under increasing light
intensity (Figure 7j). Although the highest obtained responsivity
is only ≈2 × 103 AW−1, the researchers demonstrated reliable
enhancement effect by adopting the plasmonic effect. The rising
time of the device is about 1.5 s (Figure 7l).
To enhance the photocarrier separation efficiency at the
perovskite–graphene interface, our group reported an ultra-
sensitive phototransistor based on the multi-heterojunction
of MAPbI3−xClx/poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)/graphene
photo­transistor (Figure 8a).[155] The additional P3HT layer acts
as an electron blocking (and hole transporting) layer for the
photo­ carriers generated in perovskite, effectively separating
the carriers and inhibits carrier recombination (Figure 8b).

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Figure 8.  a) Device design and b) working mechanism of MAPbI3−xClx film/P3HT/graphene phototransistor. c) Responsivity as a function of applied
gate voltage and d) gain as a function of illumination time of the device. Reproduced with permission.[155] Copyright 2017, American Chemical
Society. e) Device structure and working mechanism of MAPbI3–PCBM BHJ film/graphene phototransistor, as well as f) the energy band diagram of
the device. g) Responsivity as a function of illumination intensity for devices with various concentrations of PCBM. Reproduced with permission.[156]
Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH.

Such device design leads to a responsivity as high as
≈4.3 × 109 AW−1 (Figure 8c) along with an ultrahigh gain of
≈1010 (Figure 8d).
Qin and co-workers fabricated a MAPbI3-[6,6]-phenyl-C61-bu-
tyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) bulk heterojunction (BHJ)/gra-
phene hybrid phototransistor.[156] They dissolved PCBM into the
perovskite precursor solution before spin-coating the film onto
graphene. After the film was formed, PCBM was located at grain
boundaries of perovskite crystals, forming bulk heterojunction
(BHJ). In this geometry, PCBM acts as electron trapping site
to enhance the charge separation efficiency, which increases
the effective gain and consequently leads to a 30-fold respon-
sivity enhancement compared to a device without the BHJ.
The device schematics and the energy level diagram are shown
in Figure 8e,f, respectively. A responsivity of ≈8 × 105 AW−1
was obtained for 1% PCBM-doped detector (Figure 8g). The
rise and fall times for this device are 92 and 6203 s, respec-
tively. Note that the fall time is much longer than rise time due
probably to the much slower electron detrapping process from
PCBM aggregates as explained by the authors.
All-inorganic perovskite possesses high quantum yield and
easily tunable bandgap by anion exchange reactions at room
temperature. In light of this, Kwak et al. demonstrated a hybrid
CsPbBr3−xIx nanocrystals (NCs)/graphene hybrid phototran-
sistor (Figure  9a).[157] Figure 8f shows a TEM image of the
NCs. The resultant responsivity and specific detectivity are as
high as ≈8.2 × 108 AW−1 and ≈2.4 × 1016 Jones (Figure 9b). The
rise time and fall time were determined to be 0.81 and 3.65 s,
respectively.
Bessonov et al. reported a phototransistor based on a mixed
MAPbI3-PbS absorbing layer modifying on a graphene tran-
sistor.[158] Figure 9c shows the schematic diagram of the hybrid
device and the energy band diagram illustrating the charge
transfer processes under illumination. Due to the facilitated
localization of holes in the mixed absorber and the excellent
light absorption of both materials, outstanding performance,
including a responsivity of ≈2 × 105 AW−1 (Figure 9d), a specific
detectivity of 5 × 1012 Jones and a gain of > 107 were obtained.
The responsivity and detectivity as a function of illumination
intensity are shown in Figure 8k. The decay time is 0.5–1 s.
Using dual-source vapor deposition method, Chang and
colleagues obtained much smoother perovskite film over the
one obtained by spin-coating technique, which is beneficial for
improving photoresponse performance of perovskite/graphene
hybrid phototransistors.[150] Figure 9e shows the schematic dia-
gram of the device. The poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
atop the perovskite was used to protect the device from oxygen
and moisture in ambient environment. A responsivity of ≈1.73 ×
107 AW−1 (Figure 9f) and specific detectivity of ≈2 × 1015 Jones
are achieved. The corresponding gain is ≈106. The rise and
decay time was obtained by fitting the temporal response by
two-component exponential functions. The fast and slow rise
times are 1.23 and 10.27 s, while the fast and slow decay times
are 0.53 and 4.12 s, respectively.

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Figure 9.  a) Device design of CsPbBr3−xIx nanocrystals/graphene phototransistor and b) responsivity and detectivity as a function of light intensity.
Reproduced with permission.[157] Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. c) Schematic diagram of the MAPbI3-PbS/graphene hybrid channel
and the energy band diagram illustrating the charge transfer directions under illumination, as well as d) the responsivity and detectivity versus light
intensity for the device. Reproduced with permission.[158] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. e) Device schematics of MAPbI3 film/graphene
phototransistor by dual-source vapor deposition and f) responsivity versus different light intensity. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Com-
mons Attribution CC-BY 4.0 International License.[150] Copyright 2017, The Authors, published by Springer Nature Publishing Group.

Conventional 3D perovskites suffer from relatively poor
charge separation ability due to the lack of internal charge
extraction mechanism and unsatisfactory air stability origi-
nated from the easy decomposition under presence of
water vapor and oxygen. These limitations hinder the prac-
tical applications of conventional 3D perovksite/graphene
phototransistors.[159–161] Shao et al. developed a 2D multiphase
perovskite/graphene hybrid phototransistor.[48] The simplified
device structure is shown in Figure  10a. By a two-step ligand
exchange spin-coating process (Figure 10b), they created a
vertically graded (BA)2(MA)n–1PbnI3n+1 heterostructure, where
BA+ = CH3(CH2)3NH3+ and the integer n is the number of lead
iodide octahedral layers between two BA+ organic spacers. The
number of n increases from top to bottom, generating a graded
multiheterojunction of 2D perovskite, as revealed in the energy
level diagram of the device (Figure 10c). The heterostructure
can effectively trap the photogenerated holes in perovskite
layer, while transporting photogenerated electrons to graphene.
Benefiting from the very high mobility of graphene atop ultr-
asmooth h-BN flake, the detector achieved a responsivity of
≈105 AW−1 (Figure 10d) along with a fast response time of less
than 200 ms (Figure 10e). The detectivity was calculated to be
3.3 × 1010 Jones. Note that the responsivity and response speed
of 2D multiphase perovskite/graphene device is far superior to
a control 3D MAPbI3/graphene hybrid device (Figure 10d,e).
Moreover, the 2D perovskite heterostructure-based devices are
more stable in air than 3D perovskite-based devices due to the
surface encapsulation by 2D perovskite small n, which has
excellent air stability.[48]
Cheng et al. developed a barristor-type phototransistor
based on graphene/perovskite/graphene vertical heterostruc-
ture (Figure 10f). The work function of the bottom graphene
that contacts with SiO2/Si can be tuned by gate voltage to
modulate the Schottky barrier for hole injection at bottom
graphene–perovskite interface.[43] As illustrated in Figure 10g,
such effect leads to the high current on/off ratio (≈500) in
transfer curve for VDS = −0.8 V when the device performance
was measured at 77K. When the device works as a photocon-
ductor (VDS = 1 V) in room temperature, a maximum gain and
responsivity of ≈2200 and ≈950 AW−1 can be obtained. The
rise time and fall time were measured to be 22 and 37 ms,
respectively.
A flexible MAPbI3/graphene hybrid photo-FET with respon-
sivity of 115 AW−1 was developed by Dang and colleagues
(Figure 10h).[151] The perovskite/graphene heterojunction was
placed atop flexible Al2O3/polyvinylphenol (PVP)/Al2O3 gate
dielectric. Ni was used as gate electrode and PI was adopted as
substrate. The responsivity of this device is comparable to the
first perovskite/graphene phototransistors that was fabricated
on rigid substrate.[37] Notably, the photoresponse remained
unchanged after bending the device to a radius of 12 mm for
3000 times (Figure 10i), suggesting robust bending durability
of the flexible detector.
Although transfer characteristics are not available, the hybrid
CsPbBr3/multilayer graphene structure for optical-fiber-com-
patible photodetector developed by Chen et al. is potentially
applicable in hybrid photo-FET.[162] The photodetector exhibits
a responsivity of 2 × 104 AW−1.

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Figure 10.  a) Device design of Graded (BA)2(MA)n−1PbnI3n+1 film/graphene phototransistor, b) the fabrication process of the multiheterojunction
film, c) the energy band diagram for the device, d) Responsivity at different light intensities, and e) decay time analysis for the graded 2D perovskite/
graphene and a controlled MAPbI3/graphene device. Reproduced with permission.[48] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. f) Device design
of graphene/perovskite/graphene barristor-type phototransistor and g) the transfer curves of the device for different working conditions. Reproduced
with permission.[43] Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. h) Device design and i) time-dependent photocurrent measurement before and after
bending tests of the flexible MAPbI3 film/graphene phototransistor. Reproduced with permission.[151] Copyright 2016, Elsevier Limited.

4.2. Perovskite/Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) Heterojunctions
Although the hybridization of perovskite and graphene can
lead to high performance phototransistors, lack of band gap in
graphene causes high conductivity and thus high dark current
of the devices.[163] A 2D semiconductor that is closely related
to graphene, namely rGo, has thus received much research
attention. Like its counterparts, rGO also has ultrathin profile,
tunable band structure, and optoelectronic properties.[164] The
fabrication process of solution processable rGO is facile and
favorable for large-area production.[9,165] Motivated by these,
some researchers tried to hybridize perovskite with rGO to pre-
pare high-performance phototransistors.[165,166]
Qian et al. presented a phototransistor based on nitrogen-
doped graphene quantum dots (NGQDs)-perovskite composite
layer and a mildly reduced graphene oxide (mrGO) layer.[165]
The schematic diagram of the NGQDs-perovskite/mrGO
phototransistor is shown in Figure  11a. The perovskite acts
as light absorber and mrGO serves as transport layer. The
NGQDs is an electron acceptor, which optimizes the band
alignment to facilitate electron transfer from perovskite to
mrGO. The energy level diagram is revealed in Figure 11b.
The obtained responsivity and specific detectivity are
1.92 × 104 AW−1 (Figure 11c) and 2.71 × 1013 Jones, respec-
tively. A gain of 1.0 × 104 was recorded. Fast rise and fall times
of 13 and 10 ms, respectively, were attained (Figure 11d).
Moreover, after PMMA passivation, the device can maintain
85% of its initial photoresponse performance after 20 d storage
in ambient air conditions.
Peng and co-workers fabricated a solution processed photo­
transistor utilizing MAPbI3-MoS2 nanoflakes BHJ film as
photoactive layer and rGO as transporting layer.[166] The
schematic and energy band diagram of the hybrid structure
are demonstrated in Figure 11e,f, respectively. When
photocarriers are generated in perovskite, the electrons will
immediately be trapped inside MoS2 in the BHJ film, while
holes will transfer to rGO layer to produce photocurrent. This
strategy thus improves charge separation efficiency in photo­
active layer. The device achieved responsivity and specific detec-
tivity of 1.08 × 104 AW−1 and 4.28 × 1013 Jones, respectively

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Figure 11.  a) Schematic diagram of NGQDs-perovskite/mrGO phototransistor and b) the corresponding energy level diagram. c) Photocurrent and
responsivity under various light intensity and d) transient response of the NGQDs-perovskite/mrGO phototransistor. Reproduced with permission.[165]
Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. e) Device schematics of MAPbI3-MoS2 nanoflakes BHJ film/rGO phototransistor and f) the corresponding energy band
diagram indicating charge transfer directions. g) Responsivity and detectivity as a function of light intensity for the MAPbI3 devices with and without
incorporation of MoS2 nanoflakes. Reproduced with permission.[166] Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH.

(Figure 11g). The maximum gain reached 2.0 × 104. Moreover,
a very short response time of < 45 ms was obtained.
4.3. Perovskite/TMD Heterojunctions
Apart from rGO, another group of 2D semiconductors, TMDs,
is also considered as alternative candidate for transporting
layer in phototransistors. They are a family of semiconducting
layered materials with thickness-dependent moderate band-
gaps and reasonable charge carrier mobility.[9,44] Some works
have been conducted to adopt TMDs to replace graphene
as transporting channel in perovskite/2D material hybrid
phototransistors.[163,167,168]
The first perovskite/MoS2 hybrid phototransistor was
reported by Kang et al., in which the conventional MAPbI3 was
used as the photoactive layer and mechanically exfoliated multi­
layer MoS2 was adapted as transporting layer.[163] As shown in
Figure 12a, under light illumination, both photogenerated elec-
trons and holes in perovskite transfer to MoS2 due to the type-I
heterojunction. Under an applied electric field across MoS2,
electrons and holes transport oppositely in the channel to gen-
erate photocurrent. By additionally applying (3-aminopropyl)
triethoxysilane (APTES) surface treatment to SiO2/Si to provide
n-doping on MoS2, the recombination rate of photocarriers can
be suppressed (Figure 12b). Finally, the recorded responsivity
and specific detectivity of the MAPbI3/MoS2/APTES device
reached 2.11 × 104 AW−1 and 1.38 × 1010 Jones, respectively
(Figure 12c). The rise and decay time for the perovskite/MoS2/
APTES device was 6.17 and 4.5 s, respectively (Figure 12d).
Park and co-workers later also reported a MAPbI3/MoS2
phototransistor with a responsivity and specific detectivity of
1.1 AW−1 and 9 × 1010 Jones, respectively.[167]
Since photodetectors based on the hybridization of perovskite
quantum dot (QDs) and 2D materials were rarely studied and
the expected outstanding performance of the resultant devices,
Wu et al. demonstrated a 0D-2D perovskite-based photo­
transistor, where all-inorganic CsPbI3−xBrx QDs were used as
light absorbing material and MoS2 was adopted as transport
layer (Figure 12e).[168] As revealed in Figure 12f, a type-II band
alignment is formed at the 0D/2D heterojunction. Upon light
illumination, photogenerated electrons in perovskite transfer
to MoS2, while holes remain trapped in perovskite, leading to
pronounced photogating effect. The measured responsivity
and specific detectivity are 7.7 × 104 AW−1 and 5.6 × 1011 Jones,
respectively (Figure 12g). The corresponding gain is 105. Owing
to the more efficient photocarrier extraction of perovskite QDs
than the bulk film, the device exhibited shorter rise and decay
time of 0.59 and 0.32 s.
There are other photodetectors based on perovskite/TMD
heterojunction reported without studying their transfer proper-
ties.[169–171] Although their utilization in phototransistor has not
yet been studied, they are all important potential candidates for
high performance phototransistors. Wang and co-workers fabri-
cated two kinds of hybrid photodetectors based on MAPbI3/1T-
MoS2 and MAPbI3/2H-MoS2 heterostructures, respectively.[169]
The former has a responsivity of 3096 AW−1 and response time of
≈1 s, whereas the latter exhibited a lower responsivity of 142 AW−1
while a faster response time of ≈0.05 s. The higher responsivity
along with a slower response speed of perovskite/1T-MoS2

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Figure 12.  a) Device design and energy level diagram of MAPbI3 film/MoS2 phototransistor and b) illustration of APTES doping process. c) Responsivity
and detectivity as a function of illumination intensity. d) Comparison of response time for MAPbI3 film/MoS2/APTES phototransistor and other con-
trolled device. Reproduced with permission.[163] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. e) Device design of CsPbI3−xBrx QDs/MoS2 phototransistor and f) energy
level diagram illustrating the working mechanism of the device. g) Responsivity, detectivity, and EQE as a function of light intensity of the CsPbI3−xBrx
QDs/MoS2 phototransistor. Reproduced with permission.[168] Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH.

devices was attributed to the facilitated charge transfer due to
the metallic nature and the higher density of defects. Ma et al.
reported a MAPbI3/WS2 hybrid photoconductor. Working on the
photogating effect, responsivity of 17 AW−1 and response time
of < 10 ms were attained.[170] Lu et al. presented a MAPbI3/WSe2
hybrid photodetector, in which laser healing was employed to
passivate unwanted defects in monolayer WSe2.[171] Such a
detector exhibited a responsivity of 110 AW−1.
To conclude, different types of perovskite with various
morphologies have been hybridized with 2D materials,
including graphene, rGO and TMDs, to realize high perfor-
mance phototransistors. The various phototransistors based
on perovskite/2D material heterojunctions have been listed
in Table  2. Among them, spin-coated thin films are used in
majority of the devices, mainly because of the facile fabrication
of high quality perovskite film. On the other hand, graphene
is the most common candidate serving as the transport layer
due to the extremely high mobility and intrinsic high band-
width.[147,148] The perovskite/graphene-based devices gener-
ally exhibit higher responsivity (≈104–≈109 AW−1) and gain
(≈106−≈1010) compared to devices based on other 2D materials,
but the inherent high dark current and slow response speed
(≈0.1−≈100 s) hinder their potential applications in some spe-
cific fields such as high-frequency photodetection.[163] On the
other hand, phototransistors based on perovskite/rGO and
perovskite/TMDs have relatively balanced performance. These
devices typically exhibit moderate responsivity of around
104 AW−1, while having a relatively fast response time in the
scale of millisecond. As can be seen, the trade-off between ultra-
high responsivity and response speed still holds for phototran-
sistors based on perovskite/2D material heterojunctions. New
device designs and novel 2D materials are urgently needed for
the development of perovskite/2D material hybrid phototransis-
tors that can simultaneously possess ultrahigh photoresponse
and superior response speed.
4.4. Perovskite/Black Phosphorus (BP) Heterojunctions
Similar to the 2D materials mentioned, BP is also a promising
candidate for next-generation optoelectronics.[172] The tunable
bandgap and ultrahigh mobility enable them to be excellent
transporting layer in hybrid photo-FET.[173] Our group recently
reported a Schottky Barrier-Controlled hybrid-photo-FET based
on a MAPbI3−xClx/BP vertical heterojunction.[174] Owing to the
strong photogating effect and a field-assisted detrapping pro-
cess originated from the Schottky barrier at source electrode,
ultrahigh responsivity of 108 A W−1, and fast response time of
≈10 ms can be simultaneously achieved.
5. Perovskite/Organic Semiconductor
Heterojunctions
In comparison with inorganic materials, organic semiconduc-
tors (OSCs, e.g., small molecules, conjugated polymers) hold

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Table 2.  Device performance for various phototransistors based on hybridization of perovskite and 2D materials.

Device structure R (AW−1) D* (Jones) Gain Rise/fall time (s) Ref.

MAPbI3 Film/graphene 180 ≈109 ≈500 0.087/0.54 [37]

MAPbI3 islands/graphene 6.0 × 105 – – 0.12/0.75 [152]

MAPbI3 nanowires/graphene 2.6 × 106 – – ≈55/75 [153]

MAPbI3 islands/graphene/Au-NPs 2× 103 – ≈7 × 103 1.5s/– [154]

MAPbI3−xClx film/ P3HT/graphene ≈4.3 × 109 – 1010 – [155]

MAPbI3–PCBM BHJ film/graphene 8 × 105 – – 92/6203 [156]

CsPbBr3−xIx nanocrystals/graphene 8.2 × 10 8

2.4 × 10 16 – 0.81/3.65 [157]

MAPbI3-PbS/graphene ≈2 × 105 5× 1012 >107 –/0.5-1 [158]

MAPbI3 Film/graphene 1.73 × 107 2 × 1015 106 10.27/4.12 [150]

Graded (BA)2(MA)n−1PbnI3n+1 film/graphene ≈105 3.3 × 1010 – –/<0.2 [48]

Graphene/perovskite/graphene 950 – 2200 0.022/0.037 [43]

MAPbI3 film/graphene 115 3× 1012 – –/– [151]

NGQDs–perovskite/mrGO 1.08 × 104 2.71 × 1013 1.0 × 104 13/10 [165]

MAPbI3–MoS2 nanoflakes BHJ film/rGO 1.08 × 104 4.28 × 1013 2.0 × 104 <0.045/<0.045 [166]

MAPbI3 film/MoS2/APTES 2.11 × 104 1.38 × 1010 – 6.17/4.5 [163]

MAPbI3 film/MoS2 1.1 9× 1010 – −/− [167]

CsPbI3−xBrx QDs/MoS2 7.7 × 104 5.6 × 1011 105 0.59/0.32 [168]

MAPbI3−xClx/BP 108 9 × 1013 1010 ≈0.04/≈0.06 [174]

obvious advantages toward cost-effective and high-performance
electronic and optoelectronic devices.[11,175] For example, this
class of materials can be easily prepared on a variety of sub-
strates via solution-based processing methods. Their optoelec-
trical and photophysical properties (e.g., optical absorption,
energy levels, charge carrier mobilities, etc.) can be easily tuned,
both at a material and device level, through modulating the
molecular geometries. What is more, they also have efficient
charge separation at p–n junctions. The distinctive features
provide OSCs with the opportunities to optimize processes of
separation, transport, and recombination of charge carriers, as
well as to complement light absorption, when they are hybrid-
ized with perovskites. In this section, we are going to introduce
the recent achievements of phototransistors and hybrid photo-
detectors based on perovskite/OSC heterojunctions.
To date, several OSCs have been integrated with perov-
skites for assembling phototransistors and hybrid photo-
detectors.[116,176–185] The device geometry involved is usually a
double-layer or blend heterojunction of perovskite and OSC.
Due to appropriate band alignment, charge transfer often
takes place at the interface of perovskite/OSC heterojunc-
tions, which spatially separates photogenerated electrons and
holes and reduces their recombination, leading to improved
photoresponse. In an early study, Chen et al. presented a
hybrid photodetector comprising a double-layer heterojunc-
tion of MAPbI3 perovskite and narrow-bandgap conjugated
polymer poly(diketopyrrolopyrrole-terthiophene) (PDPP3T)
(Figure  13a).[116] With the presence of PDPP3T, the hybrid
photodetector attained a responsivity of 25.5 mAW−1 at visible
regime under a low applied voltage of 1 V, representing about
10 times improvement over control photodetector made from
pure MAPbI3 film (Figure 13b). The responsivity can be
improved to 154 mAW−1 when operating under a weak light
illumination with intensity of 5 µWcm−2. What is more, the
specific detectivity and response speed also reached decent
values of 8.8 × 1010 Jones and 40/140 ms (for rise/decay times),
respectively. In addition to the improved photoresponse, this
device was also characterized by the extended response spec-
trum to the NIR regime out of band-edge absorption of the
perovskite. Upon illumination, the perovskite mainly absorbed
UV–visible light while the PDPP3T can absorb visible-NIR
light to generated excitons, which quickly dissociated into
free electrons and holes under an applied voltage. The exist-
ence of heterojunction interface facilitated dissociation of
photoexcited excitons as well. Benefiting from the staggered
band alignment (the EC/EV of MAPbI3 is slightly higher than
LUMO/HOMO of PDPP3T), electrons were easily transferred
from MAPbI3 to PDPP3T, while holes transported oppositely,
which induced spatial separation of electrons and holes. As a
consequence, the charge recombination was greatly reduced
and lifetimes of holes was prolonged in the perovskite, giving
an improved photoresponse. Flexible photodetectors on plastic
substrates were also assembled, which can retain ≈85% of
their original performance upon being bent to a curvature
radius of only 4 mm or even after 1000 cycles of bending/
straitening tests, showing excellent mechanical flexibility and
robust durability. Afterward, the same group incorporated an
organic dye Rhodamine B (RhB) into MAPbI3 film to form a

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Figure 13.  a) Schematic illustration of fabricating the MAPbI3/PDPP3T hybrid photodetector. b) The spectral responsivity of the MAPbI3/PDPP3T hybrid
photodetector and pure MAPbI3 photodetector in the UV–visible–NIR region under an irradiance of 500 µWcm−2 at a bias of 1 V or 2 V. Reproduced
with permission.[116] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. c) Schematic configuration of the MAPbI3/C8BTBT hybrid heterojunction photodetector. d) Respon-
sivity of the MAPbI3/C8BTBT hybrid photodetector and pure C8BTBT, pure MAPbI3 photodetectors as a function of the light wavelength. e) Energy
band diagram of the MAPbI3/C8BTBT hybrid heterojunction under light illumination. Reproduced with permission.[180] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH.

bulk heterojunction-based hybrid photodetector.[165] Working
on the similar mechanism, the hybrid device reached a respon-
sivity of ≈43.6 mAW−1, which was about ≈5 times higher than
pure MAPbI3-based detector, as well as a fast response speed
of 60/40 ms.
To further improve device performance, dioctylbenzothieno
[2,3-b] benzothiophene (C8BTBT), a small organic semicon-
ducting molecular material with high hole mobility and good air
stability was employed for assembling perovskite-based hybrid
photodetectors.[167–169] For instance, Wang et al. fabricated
bottom-gated C8BTBT thin film FETs, on which a layer of
MAPbI3 was deposited to form hybrid phototransistors, as
depicted in Figure 13c.[179] The devices were sensitive to visible
light illumination in a wide gate voltage region (Figure 13d). It
was found that the device performance was closely related to the
carrier mobility of C8BTBT thin film. The device with a higher
hole mobility due to larger crystalline grains showed nearly
6-fold higher photocurrent, yielding a responsivity of ≈33 AW−1.
As shown by the energy band diagram in Figure 11e, the
matched HOMO of C8BTBT enables efficient extraction of
photo­excited holes generated in the perovskite, while the rela-
tively higher LUMO of C8BTBT can effectively block electrons
and prevent them from diffusing into the organic layer. As a
consequence, the recombination of photocarriers was efficiently
suppressed. In addition, C8BTBT with a higher mobility
would enable a faster hole extraction process that leads to less
opportunity for recombination of photocarriers, which explained
the observed larger photocurrent in device with a higher carrier

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www.advancedsciencenews.com
Figure 14.  a) Schematic diagram of the CsPbBr3 QDs/DNTT hybrid phototransistor. b) Transfer characteristics of the device under light illumination
with different densities. c) Ilight/Idark ratio of the device under various illumination power intensities. d) Responsivity and e) specific detectivity of the
device under various illumination power intensities at different gate voltages. Reproduced with permission.[182] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH.
mobility. Later, Tong and co-workers demonstrated a similar
hybrid photodetector on glass substrate, where C8BTBT was
deposited on top of the MAPbI3 layer.[180] In this device, the
organic layer acted as not only an efficient hole extraction layer
to enhance hole transport, but also a waterproof layer to pre-
vent the perovskite from degradation in ambient conditions.
Consequently, such a device displayed good photoresponse per-
formance, in terms of large Ilight/Idark ratio of 2.4 × 104, high
responsivity of up to 24.8 AW−1, large specific detectivity of
7.7 × 1012 Jones, and fast response speed of 4.0/5.8 ms, as well
as excellent air stability with ≈90% of the device performance
being retained after exposure in ambient conditions without
protection for 20 d. Afterward, the same group presented
flexible photodetectors based on networks of MAPbI3/C8BTBT
bulk heterojunction, which were fabricated via a simple, one-
step solution process.[181] The device showed desirable pho-
toresponse performance with responsivity, specific detectivity,
and response speed reaching 8.1 AW−1, 2.17 × 1012 Jones,
7.1/6.5 ms, respectively. What is more, thanks to the inherent
flexibility of the network structure, the hybrid photodetector
possessed extremely excellent bending durability, and the
photocurrent decreased negligibly (less than 5%) after being
bent for 10 000 cycles at a small radius of 7.5 mm.
Dinaphtho[2,3-b:2′,3′-f ]thieno[3,2-b]thiophen (DNTT) is
another promising OSC for application in perovskite hybrid
photodetectors due also to its high charge carrier mobility and
air stability. Chen and colleagues reported hybrid phototran-
sistors based on a double-layer heterojunction of CsPbBr3
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quantum dots (QDs) and DNTT films (Figure  14a), whose
working mechanism resembles that of the above discussed
hybrid photodetectors.[170] Because of the uniform and ultras-
mooth surface of the QDs film, DNTT layer with well-aligned
OSC molecules can be easily deposited, which enabled high
charge carrier mobility of the film and was profitable for
high photoresponse performance. The transfer curves shifted
gradually with increasing light intensity and the output cur-
rent in both transistor on- and off-state increased significantly
(Figure 14b), indicating a strong photogating effect and also
suggesting high sensitivity of the detector to light illumina-
tion. As depicted in Figure 14c–e, the hybrid phototransis-
tors displayed a gate-tunable photoresponse with maximum
Ilight/Idark ratio, responsivity and specific detectivity attaining
as high as ≈8.1 × 104, ≈1.7 × 104 AW−1, and ≈2.0 × 1014
Jones, respectively. However, the response speed was not
very fast (in the level of second) due probably to the relatively
slow charge transfer between adjacent QDs surrounded by
organic ligands and/or at QDs/OSC interface. In addition,
the device also held quite good long-term stability and revers-
ibility: the output current in both dark and light conditions can
keep almost invariant after storage in ambient environment for
100 d, and time-dependent photoresponse showed negligible
variation after over 1000 cycles of operation.
Taking advantage of the pronounced photogating effect, our
group presented an ultrasensitive hybrid photodetector con-
taining a double-layer heterojunction of MAPbI3−xClx/poly-(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)
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Figure 15.  a) Schematic diagram of the hybrid photodetector based on a MAPbI3−xClx /PEDOT:PSS heterojunction. b,c) show the energy band diagram
and charge carrier distribution of the heterojunction photodetector under illumination. Device responsivity as a function of incident light intensity under
light illumination at wavelengths of d) 598 nm and e) 895 nm. f) Normalized spectral responsivity of the hybrid photodetector and absorption spectrum
of the perovskite film. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International License.[46] Copyright 2017,
The Authors, published by Springer Nature Publishing Group.

(Figure  15a).[46] The operating principle can be described by
the following processes, as shown in Figure 15b,c. Upon light
irradiation, a large number of excitons were produced in the
perovskite layer, which rapidly dissociated into free electrons
and holes due to the low exciton binding energy. Holes were
transferred to the OSC channel due to long carrier diffusion
length of MAPbI3−xClx perovskite and proper band alignment
at perovskite/OSC interface, while electrons were left in the
perovskite layer. The efficient spatial separation of electrons and
holes significantly prolonged carrier lifetimes, which allowed
holes to recirculate multiple times within the PEDOT:PSS
channel, thereby giving a high photoconductive gain. At the
same time, a large concentration of electrons must accumulate
within the perovskite layer because of its much lower electron
mobility and high dielectric constant, which produced a strong
photogating effect on the underlying OSC channel and further
enhanced hole concentration in the channel. As a consequence,
the detector has reached an ultrahigh responsivity of over
109 AW−1 (Figure 15d), along with a high specific detectivity
of ≈1014 Jones in the visible regime, at a low operational bias
voltage of only 0.5 V. What is more, the present hybrid photo­
detector was also very sensitive to NIR illumination beyond
band-edge absorption of the perovskite material (Figure 15e,f),
thanks to photocarrier excitation from valence band to the trap
states within the perovskite bandgap and the ultrahigh photo-
conductive gain. However, the response speed was extremely
slow, which limited a number of potential applications of
the device. Later on, by using electron trapping effect of [6,6]
-phenylC61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), we successfully
improved both responsivity and response speed of a perovskite/
PEDOT:PSS hybrid photodetector.[183] Upon coating a layer
of PCBM, the responsivity increased by ≈44%, reaching an
unprecedented value of 2.46 × 109 AW−1. Meanwhile, the device
showed ≈5 times faster response speed. In addition to the
facilitated photocarrier separation and thereby reduced charge
recombination resulting from the electron trapping by PCBM,
the present geometry can also accelerate drift of holes toward
PEDOT:PSS due to formation of extra built-in electric field, as
well as reduce electron trapping/detrapping probability by elim-
inating trap states on the surface and grain boundaries of the
perovskite. The above reasons interpreted the simultaneously
improved responsivity and response speed.
In summary, hybrid phototransistors and photodetectors
based on perovskite/OSC heterojunctions can be easily prepared
in cost-effective ways benefiting from the solution-based pro-
cessing ability of both perovskite and OSC materials. Due to
the appropriate band alignment at the heterojunction interface
and the tunable material properties of OSCs, these detectors
can normally show improved photoresponsivity or extended
response spectrum. The responsivities can be several times or
even several orders of magnitude higher than pure perovskite-
based detectors. In particular, exploiting the pronounced photo­
gating effect, a MAPbI3–xClx/PEDOT:PSS hybrid heterojunc-
tion photodetector attained an unprecedented high responsivity

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exceeding 109 AW–1. However, high responsivities usually com-
panied with slow response speeds, which needs to be tackled in
future work. In addition, these perovskite/OSC heterojunction
based hybrid detectors can also be assembled on plastic sub-
strates, showing outstanding mechanical flexibility and robust
bending durability.
6. Perovskite/Other Semiconductor
Heterojunctions
In addition to 2D materials and OSCs, also other semicon-
ductors have been integrated with perovskite to form hybrid
phototransistors or photodetectors. So far, the involved semi-
conductors include carbon nanotubes,[35,186–188] thin films, or
nanostructures of metal oxides,[60,189–196] and colloidal quantum
dots.[197] These devices also take advantage of the appropriate
band alignment at heterojunction interface, which facilitates
spatial separation of photocarriers and is thus helpful for
reducing recombination of photocarriers. As a consequence,
they normally exhibited much superior photoresponse perfor-
mance than pure-perovskite based detectors. In this section,
the recent important progresses in hybrid phototransistors and
photodetectors based on perovskite/other semiconductor het-
erojunctions are summarized.
Spina et al. successfully fabricated phototransistors by sensi-
tizing MAPbI3 NWs with individual carbon nanotubes (NTs).[87]
The as-assembled device exhibited abnormal photoresponse
behavior under visible light illumination. The photocurrent was
independent of gate voltage when working at the transistor off-
state, indicating that intrinsic photocurrent generation in the
perovskite NWs dominated the photoresponse. While working
at the transistor on-state, the photocurrent depended highly
on gate voltage, which implies that the photoresponse was
dominated by the charge transport in the carbon NTs. More
interestingly, the channel current showed a nonmonotonous
dependence on light intensity in the transistor on-state, that is
it increased monotonically under low light conditions while it
decreased rapidly to below dark current under high light condi-
tions. As a matter of fact, electron–hole pairs were generated in
the perovskite NWs upon illumination, and holes were injected
into the carbon NTs due to the chemical potential mismatch,
which acted as photodoping and contributed to the photo-
current in the device. The electrons that were not injected into
the NTs, thus constituted scattering centers inhomogeneously
distributed along the NTs. The resulting random potential
would reduce the charge carrier mobility of the NTs and affect
the channel current. At high light intensities, the detrimental
effect of random potential overcompensated the photodoping
and dramatically reduced the channel current. The maximum
responsivity can reach as high as 7.7 × 105 AW–1 under a low
light power of 375 fW. In other study, Li and co-workers pre-
sented the realization of ultrahigh charge carrier mobility in
hybrid perovskite films by coupling MAPbI3−xClx films with
embedded single-walled carbon NTs (Figure 16a).[186] As shown
in Figure 16c,d, the as-prepared composite films showed
remarkable ambipolar behaviors both in dark and under light
illumination. The channel currents under light illumination
were nearly four orders of magnitude higher than those in
dark, indicating high sensitivity of the composite films to light
irradiance. Thanks to the effectively suppressed detrimental
Coulomb scattering due to the formation of the type-II band
alignment at the heterojunction interfaces (Figure 16b) and
the high quality of the composite films, the films obtained
record high mobility values of 595.3 and 108.7 cm2 V–1 s−1,
for photogenerated holes and electrons, respectively. As a

Figure 16.  a) Schematic configuration of the MAPbI3–xClx/carbon NTs hybrid phototransistor. b) Energy band diagram of the hybrid heterojunction
under light illumination. Transfer characteristics of the hybrid phototransistor operating c) in dark and d) under light illumination. Reproduced with
permission.[186] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. e) Schematic illumination of the CsPbBr3 nanosheets/carbon NTs hybrid photodetector. f) Spectral respon-
sivity of the hybrid photodetector under different operating bias voltages. g) Schematic demonstration of the imaging system and the imaging results
of “NUST” logo. Reproduced with permission.[188] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

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Figure 17.  a) Schematic illustration of the step-wise process for the fabrication of MAPbI3 QDs/TiO2 NTs hybrid photodetector. b) Energy band diagram
of the hybrid heterostructure under light illumination. c) Spectral responsivity of the MAPbI3 QDs/TiO2 NTs hybrid photodetector and pure TiO2 NTs
photodetector. Reproduced with permission.[207] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. d) Schematic configuration of the MAPbI3/IGZO hybrid phototransistor.
e) Photoresponsivities as a function of incident light wavelength for MAPbI3/IGZO hybrid and pure IGZO Phototransistors. Reproduced with permis-
sion.[189] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH.

consequence, the device reached high responsivity and specific
detectivity values of ≈1.17 × 104 AW−1 and 3.68 × 1014 Jones
under ≈400 nm illumination, which are about two orders of
magnitude higher than the values for pristine perovskite-based
devices. The device also possessed a fast response speed of
738/912 µs for rise/decay time. At the same time, Zeng group
reported a similar hybrid photodetector by blending CsPbBr3
nanosheets with carbon NTs conductive nanonets, where the
conductive nanonets provided fast carrier tracks to boost charge
extraction and transport (Figure 16e).[188] Resultantly, the device
can exhibit a responsivity of 31.1 AW−1 (Figure 16f), which was
almost 125-fold over pure CsPbBr3 nanosheets based detector,
along with a fast response speed with 16 µs/0.38 ms (for rise/
decay times). Importantly, due to the ultrathin 2D and 1D struc-
tural characteristic of the nanosheets and NTs, the composite
film-based device exhibited impressive flexibility with the photo-
current degraded by only ≈6.4% after more than 10 000 times
of continuous bending test. Such a detector also held extremely
good photostability and reproducibility, and both photocurrent
and dark current can keep almost unchanged after 10 000 cycles
of continuous operation. Furthermore, by deploying the hybrid
photodetector as a point-like detector, a logo image of “NUST”
can be clearly acquired (Figure 16g), suggesting huge promise
of such solution-processed hybrid photodetectors for applica-
tion in the field of optical imaging.
A variety of metal oxides in the form of thin films or nano-
structures including TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, and InGaZnO, have
been employed for assembling perovskite-based hybrid photo­
transistors and photodetectors.[60,189–196] These detectors
can typically show responsivity values in the range of tens of
mAW−1 to tens of AW−1, and response speed ranging from sub-
millisecond to several seconds. As an example, Zheng et al.
incorporated MAPbI3 QDs onto the surface of aligned TiO2
NTs assembled via a coaxial electrospinning technique to form
hybrid photodetectors (Figure 17a).[190] As shown in Figure 17c,
the as-prepared device showed broadband photoresponse from
UV to visible regimes, and the responsivity at visible region was
improved by about three orders of magnitude compared with
a pure TiO2 NTs-based detector. A type-II heterostructure was
formed at the QD/NT interface (Figure 17b), which allowed elec-
trons to move toward the perovskite side while holes to move
toward the TiO2 side upon light illumination. Thus, the spatial
separation of photogenerated carriers dramatically suppressed
charge carrier recombination and improved photo­ response
performance. The device attained responsivity of 1.3 and
0.2 AW−1, specific detectivity of 2.5 × 1012 and 3.8 × 1011 Jones
under 350 and 700 nm illumination, respectively. What is more,
such a heterostructure device demonstrated high transparency
over 85% in the visible region, and excellent mechanical flex-
ibility with photodetecting performance well maintained after
200 cycles of repeated bending at 90°. Afterward, they pre-
sented a similar hybrid photodetector by decorating MAPbI3
film onto the surface of an individual ZnO NW.[191] This device
also showed apparent sensitivity in a wide spectrum region
up to 760 nm with responsivity values reaching 4.00 and
0.75 AW−1 for 380 and 760 nm illumination, respectively.
Du and co-workers developed a hybrid phototransistor by
capping a layer of MAPbI3 film onto an InGaZnO thin film
FET (Figure 17d).[189] The as-prepared device was sensitive in
a broadband spectrum from UV to visible with decent perfor-
mance parameters in terms of a responsivity of 25 mAW−1 and
a specific detectivity of ≈1010 Jones (Figure 17e). In addition,
the hybrid heterostructure also obviated the persistent photo-
conductivity behavior that was usually observed in metal oxide
photo­ transistors, and reached a relative fast response speed
with 0.04/0.1 s rise/decay time. In another work, Sun et al. pre-
pared a similar hybrid photodetector comprising InGaZnO thin
film atop single-crystalline CsPbBr3 NWs network.[182] Such a

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Table 3.  Summary of performance parameters for hybrid phototransistors and photodetectors based on perovskite/OSC and perovskite/other semi-
conductor heterojunctions.
Device structure Ilight/Idark ratio R (AW−1)
MAPbI3 film/PDPP3T – 0.154
MAPbI3 film/C8BTBT 2.4 × 104 24.8
CsPbBr3 QDs/DNTT 8.1 × 104 1.7 × 104
MAPbI3−xClx film/PEDOT:PSS – 1.91 × 109
MAPbI3−xClx film/Carbon NTs – 1 × 104
CsPbBr3 QDs/Carbon NTs ≈106 31.1
MAPbI3 QDs/TiO2 NTs >4 × 104 1.3
MAPbI3 film/InGaZnO – 0.025
CsPbBr3 film/InGaZnO 1.2 × 104 3.794
hybrid heterostructure was highly sensitive in UV and near
UV spectrum regimes, and exhibited much improved photore-
sponse properties than both pure CsPbBr3 NWs- and InGaZnO-
based detectors. The device reached a high Ilight/Idark ratio of
1.2 × 104, a responsivity of ≈3.8 AW−1, and a fast response speed
of 2 ms.
To conclude, hybrid phototransistors based on perovskite/
carbon NTs heterostructures can show high mobility values
of hundreds of cm2 V−1 s−1 for photogenerated carriers, along
with high responsivities of 104–105 AW−1 and fast response
speeds (tens of µs to sub-ms). Such hybrid photodetectors also
held excellent photostability and impressive flexibility/bending
durability, and importantly, they displayed great promise for
optical imaging application. On the other hand, hybrid photo­
transistors and photodetectors comprising heterojunctions of
perovskite and metal oxide thin films or nanostructures usually
exhibited relatively lower responsivity and detectivity values,
in comparison with those of perovskite/carbon NTs hetero-
structure-based devices. Further device performance enhance-
ment via proper material selection and rational device design
is urgently required. The important performance parameters of
some representative hybrid phototransistors and photo­detectors
based on perovskite/OSC and perovskite/other semiconductor
heterojunctions are summarized in Table 3.
7. Conclusion and Outlook
In this review, we have presented an overview of recent exciting
progresses of perovskite-based phototransistors and hybrid
photodetectors. Specifically, the reported works primarily uti-
lize organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites as the light har-
vesting media, which combine the superior advantages of both
organic materials (e.g., solution processbility, structural diver-
sity, plastic mechanical characteristics) and inorganic materials
(e.g., high charge carrier mobilities, good thermal stability,
and substantial mechanical hardness). Such a feature enables
the realization of high-performance perovskite photodetectors
using cost-effective processing techniques. In addition, all inor-
ganic perovskites featuring higher quantum yield and superior
thermal stability have also shown strong potential for applica-
tion in phototransistors and hybrid photodetectors. So far, a
large variety of perovskite-based phototransistors and hybrid
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D* (Jones) Rise/fall time (ms) Year Ref.
8.8 × 1010 40/140 2016 [116]
7.7 × 1012 4.0/5.8 2017 [180]
2.0 × 1014 >1 s 2017 [182]
1.4 × 1014 >1 min 2017 [46]
3.7 × 1014 0.738/0.912 2017 [186]
– 0.016/0.38 2017 [188]
2.5 × 1012 2000/1000 2017 [207]
1010 40/100 2017 [189]
– 2/96 2018 [194]
photodetectors with impressive photoresponse performance
have been realized. Phototransistors based on 3D MAPbX3
perovskite thin films or nanowires can typically show ambipolar
transfer characteristics both in dark and under light illumina-
tion with responsivity values ranging from several to hundreds
of AW−1. On the other hand, 2D (PEA)2SnI4 perovskite-based
phototransistors have achieved peak responsivity as high as
104 AW−1. To further enhance the device performance, especially
photoresponsivity and gain, perovskites have been integrated
with other functional materials including graphene, rGO, 2D
TMDs, OSCs, 1D nanostructures, colloidal QDs, and thin films
of metal oxides to form hybrid heterostructure photo­detectors.
These devices working on the strong photogating effect can
exhibit several orders of magnitude higher responsivity values
(the maximum value: ≈4.3 × 109 AW−1) than those of 3D and 2D
perovskite-based phototransistors. However, devices with ultra-
high responsivities usually display very slow response speed.
Therefore, efforts to attain overall high device performance
are still required in future work. Flexible photo­transistors and
hybrid photodetectors based on pure perovskites or perovskite/
functional material heterostructures have also been realized,
which normally showed excellent flexibility and remarkable
mechanical stability and bending durability, suggesting great
promise for flexible, stretchable, and bendable optoelectronic
applications.
In spite of the remarkable achievements made in this field,
there are still challenges with regard to the future develop-
ment and commercialization of perovskite-based phototransis-
tors and hybrid photodetectors. The first one is ion migration
that induces additional electric field to screen external and/or
built-in electric field and thus can greatly influence the perfor-
mance of perovskite-based photodetectors. Both fast and slow
ion migration processes have been observed in perovskite-
based devices.[198] Through grain boundary passivation, fast
ion migration process including migration of iodine vacancies/
interstitials can be effectively suppressed. Nevertheless, it is
still hard to passivate slow ion migration process, and effective
techniques should be developed in future.
The second issue is the intrinsic instability of organic-inor-
ganic hybrid perovskites due to the incorporation of organic
component, which sets a grand obstacle for practical application
of perovskite-based devices. Such a problem could be partially
solved by encapsulation techniques to protect perovskite-based
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devices from water and oxygen molecules in ambient condi-
tions. More importantly, it is necessary to develop chemically
stable perovskite materials, which allows to fundamentally
address this issue. According to previous reports, there are sev-
eral useful approaches to improve long-term stability of perov-
skite materials: 1) To replace organic cations with inorganic
ones such as cesium to produce all inorganic perovskites;[199]
2) To mix MA, FA, and cesium cations and iodine, bromine,
and chlorine anions to produce perovskites with more ther-
mally and structurally stable compositions;[200–202] 3) To use stoi-
chiometry-tuned reduced-dimensionality (quasi-2D) perovskites
(e.g, (RNH3)2An−1BnX3n+1, PEA2An−1BnX3n+1) as the light har-
vesting materials;[203,204] 4) To alloy lead cation with some
appropriate metal cations (e.g., Ba2+) at the B-site.[205]
The last issue is the incorporation of toxic lead element,
which is harmful to the environment and organisms. Although
alternative elements including tin, copper, and germanium
have been employed to replace lead, the optoelectronic perfor-
mance of the resultant devices based on these perovskites are
far from satisfactory at the current stage. Notably, our recent
work clearly demonstrates that FASnI3 is an ideal lead-free
perovskite material for highly sensitive photodetectors due to
its high carrier mobility.[119] Future studies on their photophys-
ical mechanism and approaches for improving optoelectronic
characteristics are essentially required.
The photoresponse of the majority of the current reported
perovskite-based phototransistors and hybrid photodetectors is
limited to the UV–visible regime due to intrinsic optical absorp-
tion properties of perovskites. The development of perovskite-
based NIR photodetectors is also of paramount importance
because of the enormous applications in many critical areas.
Although the absorption spectrum can be extended to the NIR
range by alloying the perovskites with tin element, the resulting
perovskites are unstable in ambient conditions because of the
easy oxidation of divalent tin cation to tetravalent tin cation.
Due to the ultrahigh gain, photocarrier excitation from valence
band to the trap states within the perovskite bandgap can
induce sizeable NIR photoresponse.[46,155] Specifically, doping
perovskites with proper foreign atoms can introduce appro-
priate trap/defect states within their bandgaps.[206] In addition,
incorporating narrow bandgap conjugated polymers or colloidal
QDs into perovskite films is also a helpful technique to realize
NIR photoresponse.[116,197] Another effective way to attain NIR
photoresponse is to integrate perovskite-based devices with
plasmonic nanostructures reasoned at NIR wavelength region.
Currently, the study of perovskite-based phototransistors and
hybrid photodetectors is just emerging, and more efforts to
understand the fundamental material properties, to design
rational device architectures and to develop new technologies
are required in future work.
Acknowledgements
C.X., C.-K.L., and H.L.L. contributed equally to this work. This
work was financially supported by the Research Grants Council
(RGC) of Hong Kong, China (Project No. PolyU 152068/18E), the
Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Project Nos. 1-ZVGH), and the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant
No. JZ2018HGPB0275, JZ2018HGTA0220).
Adv. Funct. Mater. 2019, 1903907 1903907  (25 of 28)
www.afm-journal.de
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords
hybrid photodetectors, perovskite, photogating effect, phototransistors
Received: May 16, 2019
Revised: June 23, 2019
Published online:
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