COMPLEX ANALYSIS

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF JOS

24th July, 2021

INTEGRATION
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. When we integrate, we start with the
derivative and then find the expression from which it has been derived.

Integration is an act of bringing together smaller components into a single system that functions
as one.

Constant of integration:

d 4
( x ) =4 x 3 ∴∫ 4 x 3 dx=x 4
dx

d 4
( x +2 ) =4 x 3 ∴∫ 4 x 3 dx=x 4+ 2
dx

d 4
( x −5 )=4 x 3 ∴∫ 4 x 3 dx=x 4 −5
dx

C the constant of integration is added to the end of the integration since the value is not known.

Standard integrals:
d n
a. ( x )=n x n−1replacing n by (n+1), d ( x n+1 ) =(n+1) xn −1
dx dx

∴
dx n+1( )
d x n+1
=x
n

n +1
x
∴∫ x dx =
''
+C
n+ 1
This is true except when n=-1, for then we should be dividing by 0.
d
b. dx ( sinx )=cosx ,
∴∫ cosx dx=sinx +C
 d
c. dx
( cosx )=−sinx ,

d
∴ (−cosx )=sinx
dx
∴∫ sinxdx=−cosx+C

d
d. dx ( tanx )=sec
2
x

∴∫ sec xdx=tanx +C
2

d x
e. dx
( e ) =e x
∴∫ e x dx =e x +C
d 1
f. dx
( lnx )=
x
1
∴∫ dx=lna +C
x

d x
g. dx
( a )=ax lna
ax
∴∫ a dx=
x
+C
lna
 Revision:
1. Integration is the reverse process of differentiation
 2. Because constants have a zero derivative we find that when we reverse the process of
differentiation we must introduce an integration constant into our result.
3. Such integrals are called indefinite integrals

Examples:
1.
x7
a. ∫ x 6
dx=
7
+c

b. ∫ 3 e dx=3 e +C
x x

6
c. ∫ x dx=6 l nx +C
d. ∫ 5 sinx dx=−5 cosx +C
x −3 +1
e. ∫ x −3
dx=
−3+1
+C

−2
x
¿− +C
2

2.
a. Determine, I =∫ 4 x dx , given that I =25 when x=3
2

π
b. Determine, I =∫ 2 cosxdx , given that I =7 when x= (radians)
2

c. Determine, I =∫ 2 e dx, given that I =50.2 when x=3

x

Solution:
3
x
a. I =∫ 4 x2 dx=4 +C
3
3
3
∴ 25=4 +C , C=−11
3
x3
∴∫ 4 x 2 dx=4 −11
3
b. I =∫ 2 cosxdx=2 sinx+c
∴ 7=2+C , C=5
∫ 2 cosxdx =2 sinx+5
 I =∫ 2 e dx=2 e +C
x x
c.
3
∴ 50.2=2 e +C=40.2+ C
C=10
∴∫ 2e dx=2 e +10
x x

INTEGRATION OF POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS

These are integrated term by term with the individual constants of integration
consolidated into one symbol C for the whole expression.
∫ ( 4 x 3 +5 x2 −2 x +7 ) dx
3
5x
¿ x4+ −x 2+ 7 x+C
3
Example:
If I =∫ ( 8 x 3−3 x 2+ 4 x−5 ) dx determine the value of I when x=3 , given that x=2 , I =26
Solution:
I =∫ ( 8 x 3−3 x 2+ 4 x−5 ) dx
4 3 2
I =2 x −x +2 x −5 x +C

When x=2 , I =26

26=2∗2 4−23 +2 ¿ 22−5∗2+ C

26=32−8+ 8−10+C

C=26−22=4

∴ C=4

When x=3 ,
I =2∗3 −33 +2¿ 3 2−5∗3+ 4
4

I =162−27 +18−15+ 4

I =142

Example:

Determine the value of

I =∫ ( 4 x 3−6 x 2−16 x+ 4 ) dx when x=−2, given that at x=3 , I =−13

Solution:

I =∫ ( 4 x 3−6 x 2−16 x+ 4 ) dx
4 3 2
I =x −2 x −8 x +4 x +C
 4 3 2
−13=3 −2¿ 3 −8 ¿ 3 + 4∗3+C

C=20
4 3 2
I =(−2) −2(−2) −8 (−2) + 4(−2)+20

I =16+16−32−8+20

I =12

FUNCTIONS OF A LINEAR FUNCTION OF x

To integrate a ‘function of a linear function of x’, simply replace x in the corresponding

standard result by the linear expression and divide by the coefficient of x in the linear
expression.

Examples

[
1.∫ ( 4 x−3 ) dx Standard integral ∫ x 2 dx=
2 x3
3
+C ]
( 4 x−3 )3 1 ( 4 x−3 )3
∴∫ ( 4 x−3 )2 dx= × + C= +C
3 4 12

2. ∫ cos 3 xdx [ Standard integral ∫ cosxdx =sinx+ C ]

1 sin 3 x
∴∫ cos 3 xdx=sin 3 x . +C= +C
3 3

3.∫ e dx [ Standard integral ∫ e x dx=e x +C ]

5 x+2

1 e 5 x+ 2
∴∫ e
5 x+2 5 x+2
dx=e × +C= +C
5 5

Example:

1. I =∫ ( 9 x 3 +11 x 2−x−3 ) dx , given that when x=1, I =2

2. Determine the following integrals:
a. ∫ ( 1−4 x ) dx
2

b. ∫ 5. e 1−3 x dx
c. ∫ 3 sin ⁡(2 x +1)dx
Solution:
 4 3 2
x x x
1. I =∫ ( 9 x 3 +11 x 2−x−3 ) dx=9 +11 − −3 x +C
4 3 2

¿ ((( 94x + 113 ) x− 12 ) x−3) x +C

Given I =2 when x=1 we find that:
29
+C 2=
12
−5 x4 x3 x2 5
So that C= and I =9 +11 − −3 x−
12 4 3 2 12
2.

a. [
∫ ( 1−4 x )2 dx Standard integral ∫ x 2 dx=
3
x3
3
+C ]
( 1−4 x ) 1 −( 1−4 x )3
∴∫ (1−4 x ) dx=
2
× +C= +C
3 (−4 ) 12

b. ∫ 5. e 1−3 x dx [ Standard integral∫ 5 e x dx =5 e x+C ]

1 −5 1−3 x
∴∫ 5. e 1−3 x dx=5. e1−3 x × + C= e +C
(−3 ) 3

c. ∫ 3 sin ⁡(2 x +1)dx [ Standard integral∫ sinxdx=−cosx+ C ]

1
∴∫ 3sin ⁡(2 x+1)dx=3(−cos ⁡(2 x +1))× +C
2
3
¿− cos ( 2 x+1 ) +C
2

INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

7 x+ 8
Expression such as ∫ 2
dx do not appear in the list of standard integrals.
2 x +11 x+5

7 x +8
Expression such as 2 can be expressed in partial fractions which are simpler in
2 x +11 x +5
structure.

7 x +8 7 x +8 3 1
= = + so that
2 x +11 x +5 ( x+ 5 )( 2 x+ 1 ) x +5 2 x+ 1
2
 7 x+ 8 3 1
∫ 2 x2 +11 x+5 dx=∫ x+5 dx +∫ 2 x +1 dx
These partial fractions are ‘functions of a linear function of x’, based on the standard integral
1
∫ x dx , so the result is clear:
7 x+ 8 7 x +8 3 1
∫ 2 x2 +11 x+5 dx=∫ ( x+5 )( 2 x−1 ) dx=∫ x +5 dx +∫ 2 x +1 dx
1
¿ 3 ln ( x+ 5 )+ ln ( 2 x +1 ) +C
2

Exercises:

Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:

4

a. ∫ 3 x 5 dx
2
π
2
b. ∫ (sinx−cosx)dx
0
1

c. ∫ e2 x dx
0

Solution:
4 6 4
x
a. ∫ 3 x dx=[3
5
]
2 6 2

{ }{ }
6 6
4 2
=3 −3
6 6
=2048-32
=2016
π
2
b. ∫ (sinx−cosx)dx=[ −cosx−sinx ] 0
π/2

{ π
2
π
}
- −cos −sin − {−cos 0−sin 0 }
2
={−0−1 } — 1−0
=0
 [ ]
1 1
e2x
c. ∫ e dx =
2x

0 2 0

{ }{ }
2x 0
e e
= −
2 2
2
e 1
= −
2 2
2
e −1
=
2

AREAS UNDER CURVES

Consider the area A of the figure bounded by the curve y=f (x ), the x-axis and the two vertical
lines through x=a and x=b (whereb> a).

To evaluate the area A you need to consider the total area between the same curve and the x-axis
from the left up to some arbitrary point P on the curve with coordinates (x , y ) which we shall
denote by A x .
Area δ A x is the area enclosed by the strip under the arc PQ where Q has the coordinates
( x +δx , y +δy ) . If the strip is approximated by a rectangle of height y and width δx then
δ A x ≈ yδx . This means that:

δ Ax
≈y
δx

The error in this approximation is given by the area of PQR in the figure to the right, where the
strip has been magnified.

If the width of the strip is reduced then the error is accordingly reduced. Also, if δx → 0 then
δ A x →0 and:

δ Ax d Ax d Ax
→ so that, in the limit, =y
δx dx dx

Consequently, because integration is the reverse process of differentiation it is seen that:

A x =∫ ydx

The total area between the curve and the x−axis up to the point P is given by the indefinite
integral.
 ❑

If x=b then Ab = ∫ ydx (the value of the integral and hence the area up tob ) and if x=a then
( x=b )
❑
Aa = ∫ ydx (the value of the integral and hence the area up toa ). Because b> a, the difference in
( x=a )

these two areas Ab −A a gives the required area A . That is:

❑ ❑ b
A= ∫ ydx− ∫ ydx which is written A=∫ ydx
( x=b ) ( x=a ) a

The numbers a and b are called the limits of the integral where the right-hand limit is at the top
of the integral sign and the left-hand limit is at the bottom.

Such an integral with limits is called a definite integral. Notice that in the subtraction process
when the integral is evaluated, the constant of integration disappears leaving the numerical value
of the area.

Example:

To determine the area bounded by the curve y=3 x 2 +6 x+ 8, the x−axis and the ordinates x=1
and x=3 .

3 3
3
A=∫ ydx=∫ ( 3 x + 6 x+8 ) dx=[ x +3 x +8 x ]1
2 3 2

1 1

3
A=[ x +3 x +8 x ]1
3 2
¿ { 27+27+ 24 } −{ 1+ 3+8 }=78−12=66 unit 2

Example 2: Fine the area bounded by the curve y=3 x 2 +14 x +15, the x−axis and the ordinates at
x=−1 and x=2.

2
y=3 x +14 x +15

−1 0 1 2 3 x

2 2
A=∫ ydx=∫ ( 3 x +14 x +15 ) dx
2

−1 −1

2
¿ [ x + 7 x +15 x ]−1
3 2

∴ A= {8+ 28+30 }− {−1+7−15 }=66− (−9 )=75 unit 2