Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Vehicular Communications
www.elsevier.com/locate/vehcom

A tutorial survey on vehicular communication state of the art, and

future research directions
Pranav Kumar Singh a,b,∗ , Sunit Kumar Nandi a,c , Sukumar Nandi a
a
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
b
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CIT Kokrajhar, 783370, India
c
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIT Arunachal Pradesh, 791112, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Vehicular communication enables a variety of safety, infotainment, mobility, and environmental appl-
Received 14 April 2018 ications. Vehicular communication is one of the leading research areas because of its specific applications
Received in revised form 24 March 2019 and characteristics and has attracted great interest from academia, industries, and governments. Our
Accepted 29 May 2019
paper is a comprehensive survey of vehicular communication that covers the state of the art and future
Available online 26 June 2019
research directions. The article is a new contribution in the similar category of tutorials/surveys of
Keywords: the vehicular communication domain with the latest details. State of the art presents the architecture,
Vehicular communication applications, emerging radio access technologies, standardization, and project activities. We review the
Intelligent transportation systems protocol stacks of the intelligent transportation system (ITS) in the USA, Japan, and Europe with their
Communication architecture latest standards. In this paper, we present the emerging radio access technologies such as visible
Applications light communication, mmWave, Cellular-V2X, and 5G for connected and autonomous vehicles and their
Cellular-V2X associated challenges. The new research directions in the emerging areas of this domain, such as seamless
Connected and autonomous vehicle
connectivity, edge, fog, software-defined and named data network, and security are also present. We
believe that our work will help the researchers, developers and government agencies to become familiar
with the latest features of the domain.
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is exchanged between vehicles and other communication entities.

The history of the vehicular communication system centered
around the model proposed by Norman Bel Geddes, in ‘Futurama.’
Futurama was an exhibition held at the New York World’s Fair in
1939. The concept of this model was to build automated road-
ways with the help of communication and control. The four key
objectives of this design are safety, efficiency, comfort, and speed
[1]. The prototype of the proposed automated highway system was
built in 1960 by its sponsor General Motors Corporation.
The vehicular communication system includes vehicles and
other communication entities around it such as roadside units,
clouds, grid and fog networks, the Internet, devices carried by an
individual and a pedestrian, etc. The objective of vehicular com-
munication is to ensure road safety, avoid road accidents, reduce
fuel consumption and carbon emissions, save time and offer a
new level of driving comfort. To achieve these goals, information
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: snghpranav@gmail.com (P.K. Singh), sunitnandi834@gmail.com
(S.K. Nandi), sukumar@iitg.ac.in (S. Nandi).
This type of communication is referred to as Vehicle-to-everything
(V2X) communication [2]. It incorporates communications such as
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), Vehicle-
to-Network (V2N), Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P), Vehicle-to-Device
(V2D) etc.
Vehicle-to-Vehicle. V2V communication is purely adhoc in nature.
This mode of communications is well known with the term Ve-
hicular Adhoc NETwork (VANET) and Inter-vehicle communication
(IVC). If two vehicles are in their communication range, they com-
municate directly; if not, they use multi-hop communication to
forward data.
Vehicle-to-Infrastructure/Network. In this mode, communication
takes place between the vehicle and the roadside communica-
tion/network infrastructure and vice versa. The radio access net-
work infrastructure consists of roadside units (RSUs), Hotspots
(HT) and cellular base stations. The core network infrastructure
includes wired infrastructure and middleboxes such as switches
and routers. The network infrastructure could be cloud, fog, and
grid networks and server farms at service providers, manufactur-
ers, and legal authorities.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vehcom.2019.100164
2214-2096/© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 1. Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) scenario.
Vehicle-to-Pedestrian/Device. V2P is another possible mode of com-
munication that allows communication between a vehicle and a
device carried by a pedestrian, a passenger, and a cyclist.
Thus, V2X enables vehicles to communicate with their sur-
roundings. As shown in Fig. 1, V2I, V2N, V2V, and V2P helps to
optimize traffic flow, and congestion, access cloud, and Internet
services warn vehicles in its proximity for hazards and accidents
and alert pedestrian for possible collision, respectively.
The ITS technologies available today are just a fraction of fu-
ture technologies. Connected and automated vehicle technologies
are some of the main components of future ITS.
The Connected Vehicle (CV) technology uses V2X communication
that allows vehicles to communicate with each other and entities
around them. The connected vehicle technology helps to supply
useful information to the driver, occupants, transportation agen-
cies, cloud and objects in its surrounding (pedestrian, cyclist) for
safety and non-safety related services and applications.
The Automated Vehicle (AV) concept is defined by the U.S. De-
partment of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic Safety Ad-
ministration (NHTSA). As per the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) [3] six levels of automation are defined (Level 0 to Level 5).
In Level 0 there is no automation at all, and the driver does every-
thing. Level 1 automation assists the drivers. Currently, available
automation to the public is Level 2 automation, which is partial,
and where hands on the wheels are musts. Level 5 is fully au-
tomated, or self-driving car and does not require a human driver.
Level 3 to Level 5 automation technologies are in the research
phase. Vehicles with any level of automation have to incorporate
connected vehicle technologies because it is a mainstream reality.
The connected vehicle technology can make future ITS more pro-
ductive, efficient and serve regulatory and consumer demand for
safety, infotainment, and other services.
The impact on safety alone makes vehicular communication a
vital area of research. In this regard, we present the Global sta-
tus report on road safety 2013 [4]. The report covers 182 countries
or almost 99 percent of the world’s population. The total num-
ber of deaths in road traffic across these countries is unacceptably
high and is around 1.24 million per year. More details regarding
the breakdown of road fatalities including road, user type, and the
country can be found in [4].
Due to urbanization, on-road vehicles have increased consider-
ably, increasing C O 2 emissions, accident rates, and fuel consump-
tion. According to the WHO report [5], 90 percent of road accidents
Table 1
Geographical summary of (country-by-country count) of
connected vehicle projects [6].
worldwide take place in the low-and-middle income developing
countries where there is no sign of Intelligent Transportation Sys-
tem (ITS).
From Table 1 it is apparent that the USA, Japan, and Germany
are the leading countries, who are contributing significantly to-
wards ITS-related research and development [6]. Vehicular com-
munication is a vital part of the ITS that can help increase road
safety, improve traffic management and reduce environmental im-
pact. To achieve these objectives the research and development
community of developing nations should contribute to this increas-
ingly important area of research.
1.1. Related works
We have found several excellent surveys/tutorials on the vehic-
ular network/VANET. We categorize these works into two main
categories: a primer and layer-specific surveys. The major sur-
veys/tutorials in the primer category are listed in Table 2. The
layer-specific surveys cover topics ranging from MAC layer [7,8],
routing protocols [9–14], applications [15–17], mobility models
[18,19], security and privacy [20–23] etc.
1.2. Contribution
The challenges related to vehicular network (different mobility
patterns, varying speed, traffic conditions, obstacles, and dynamic
network topology) and its use-cases (related to safety, non-safety,
and infotainment) have attracted considerable interest from the re-
search community to work in this domain. Our survey paper is
the latest version in the primer category that provides the state
of the art of vehicular communication. State of the art covers all
essential entities such as vehicular network architecture, appli-
cations, radio access technologies for connected and autonomous
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Table 2
Related surveys/tutorials.
Year Ref. Topics covered
2008 [24] Application and their requirements, associated challenges,
topology channel feature and models, protocols, architectures
and standards, security and privacy.
2009 [25] Overview, project activities (EU), on-board equipment, wireless
data link (IEEE 802.11p, WiFi, Cellular, Infrared), networking
protocols, applications, future outlook.
2011 [26] Characteristics and applications, standardization efforts, ITS
programs, projects and architectures, associated challenges,
networking solutions.
2012 [27] Overview, wireless access standards (DSRC), Routing protocols,
QoS, broadcasting, security, trials, and deployments in the USA,
Japan, EU, simulation models, tools, and platforms, research
challenges.
2014 [28] Architecture, Communication domains, Wireless access tech-
nology, (GSM,WiFi, DSRC/WAVE, WiMAX, CALM M5), Charac-
teristics, Challenges and, requirements, simulation.
2014 [29] Architecture, standards (DSRC, WAVE), routing protocol, secu-
rity, projects in USA, Europe and Japan, simulators, mobility
models, applications and future research scope.
vehicles, standardization status, and protocol stacks in the USA,
Japan, and Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
survey that covers the latest details of all three dedicated protocol
stacks: the connected vehicle of the USA, cooperative ITS of Europe
and ARIB STD-T109 of Japan. We discuss in detail about the ITS
standardization efforts at the international and regional level. We
also discuss ITS deployment initiatives in developed regions and
their main projects. This study also presents the details of radio
access technologies available in the different regions (Wi-Fi, LTE,
DSRC/IEEE 802.11p) as well as next-generation technologies includ-
ing visible light communication (VLC), millimeter wave (mmWave),
Cellular-V2X (C-V2X). The next generation mobile communication
technology 5G is going to play a significant role in future ITS de-
ployments, so we cover the details of 5G network architecture:
how it is evolving and what are the technologies to be integrated.
We try to maintain the balance in paper organization aiming read-
ers of diverse backgrounds. All the main features surrounding this
domain are present in one solid document. The introduction, ar-
chitecture, and applications section are mainly for readers who are
new in this field and rest other sections for those researchers who
seek details in this domain. The article starts from the importance
of vehicular communication, its objectives, and state of the art, and
ends up with new research directions.
1.3. Survey paper organization
The organization of our paper is in the graphical form and
shown in Fig. 2. The aim is to enable readers to quickly understand
the topics covered in our survey and help them navigate easily in
their area of interest.
2. Vehicular network architecture
In this section, we present the underlying system architecture
of the vehicular network, which is shown in Fig. 3. The communi-
cation scenario illustrated in this architecture is very similar to the
Car-2-Car communication consortium (C2C-CC) [30] proposal. We
describe the given architecture components and types of wireless
access mechanisms used for communication between them.
The system architecture model consists of four distinct com-
ponents: In-vehicle domain, Adhoc domain, Infrastructure domain,
and Service domain.
2.1. In-vehicle domain
The authors of the book [32] have proposed the design of a
new automobile era with vehicles that are smart (with automa-
3
tion), smaller (less fuel consumption and low emission, easier to
park), connected (V2V and V2I connectivity for traffic info and
entertainment), green (electric vehicle) and fun to drive. Their pro-
posal is based on three primary trends – growing urbanization,
the electrification of energy and mobility systems, and the ongoing
digital revolution in telecommunications and information [32]. The
in-vehicle components depend on the types of vehicle: connected
vehicle or automated vehicle. An intra-vehicle system includes the
Communications Control Unit (CCU), the On-board Unit (OBU) and
the Human Machine Interface (HMI).
The CCU handles Layer-1 (Physical Layer) to Layer-3 (Net-
work Layer) Communication. The CCU contains transceiver mod-
ules with radio frequency antenna for each communication inter-
face to enable interactions with different wireless access technolo-
gies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad), WiMAX,
Wi-Fi Hotspots (IEEE 802.11u), Dedicated Short-Range Communi-
cation (DSRC), and cellular connectivity (3G/4G/LTE-A). It enables
integration to different in-vehicle sensors, the global positioning
system (GPS), RADAR, Camera, and Light Detection and Radar (Li-
DAR). It provides data derived from internal communication (via a
Controller Area Network (CAN)) as well as external communication
to the OBU.
The OBU is equipped with hardware (processing, memory, stor-
age, interfacing and communication capabilities) and software to
run various applications. It is also responsible for reliable data
transmission, security, IP mobility, and other essential features
[30]. This computing system is designed to support a wide variety
of ITS applications and services such as hazard-warning, a naviga-
tion system, route information, traffic information, voice, and text
messaging, etc. The OBU provides an interface to HMI for driver
interaction with the system.
The HMI is a user interface that enables drivers to utilize the
capabilities of OBU (Hardware and Software) and CCU (Commu-
nication and control) for different use-cases and provide relevant
information to the vehicle driver and other occupants. It facilitates
the interaction between driver and vehicle. In case of safety-related
events, the driver gets assistance via a display screen/speaker in
the form of text, voice or video message. This interface incorpo-
rates a display, sound system, touch screen, gesture support, voice
recognition, and other intelligence to provide better assistance and
interaction.
2.2. Adhoc domain
The adhoc domain is a special class of Mobile Ad-hoc Network
(MANET), where the wireless network is created spontaneously for
inter-vehicle communication. The two main components are ve-
hicle and RSU. The communication between vehicles can be one
hop or multi-hop and is of adhoc type. The presence of RSUs can
sometimes help extend the range of communication and take part
in forwarding the messages to other vehicles.
2.3. Infrastructure domain
The infrastructure domain includes the roadside wireless in-
frastructure and the backbone wired network with middleboxes.
The roadside wireless infrastructure can be RSUs (DSRC), Base Sta-
tions (eNB) and Wi-Fi Hotspots. The wired network infrastructure
components can be access switches, routers, open flow switches
and controllers (in case of Software Defined Network), edge nodes,
fog nodes, and gateways deployed as a virtual private network
(VPN). These wired and wireless components can be deployed by
ITS authorities, telecoms/service providers, and manufacturers. The
wireless infrastructure is connected to the wired infrastructure to
provide connectivity between vehicles and the service domain.
4 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 2. Organization of the survey paper (graphical view).

2.4. Service domain • Traffic-related services provided by the road administration

The service domain is the top layer of the architecture that
provides services to the vehicles using the infrastructure do-
main via V2I/I2V connectivity. We can classify it into two main
classes:
authorities in urban, rural, and highway zones.
• Generic services such as the Internet, subscription-based ser-
vices, enterprise based service (voice, video, data), an equip-
ment manufacturer based services, energy service (from the
smart grid) and other cloud-based services.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 3. Vehicular network architecture [30,31].
3. Vehicular communication applications
In this section, we present various applications of connected ve-
hicular technologies. The primary goal of vehicular communication
is to provide safety, comfort, and an environment-friendly free flow
movement. Based on data from various studies, surveys, polls and
drivers’ experience, hundreds of applications can be suggested.
The categorization of these applications depends on various fac-
tors such as:
• Target use based: driver-oriented, vehicle-oriented, passenger
oriented and infrastructure-oriented.
• Transmission mode based: Event Driven (ED) or Periodic (P)
[33].
• Communication mode based: V2V, V2I, V2P, and V2N.
• Radio access technology based: DSRC, Wi-Fi, and cellular.
• Delay-tolerance based: delay sensitive, delay-tolerance.
• Vehicle technology based: Connected or autonomous vehicle.
This section outlines the various applications of vehicular commu-
nications. As illustrated in Fig. 4, most of the vehicular applications
fall into two broad categories: safety and non-safety.
3.1. Safety applications
Safety applications advance drivers’ knowledge of their direct
environment, which helps prevent road accidents. Drivers’ direct
environment factors include road accidents, unexpected animals,
obstacles, pedestrians, drivers going in the wrong direction, road
construction and maintenance, road surface, road topology, legal
5
speed limit, weather status, and other factors [34]. Safety can be
provided using both V2V and V2I mode of communication. The
V2V mode of communication is designed mainly for safety-critical,
and V2I is for safety-related applications.
Consider an example shown in Fig. 5.a), a Post-crash or haz-
ard warning: Assuming that a vehicle on the road encounters an
accident with another vehicle, the automatic onboard sensor gets
activated and broadcasts an alert or warning message to other ve-
hicles using the Ad-hoc communication mode. After obtaining the
warning message, other vehicles approaching the location of the
accident on the same route to slow down their speed to prevent
another crash. Such mishaps occur mainly on highways or express-
ways when visibility is low due to dense fog or bad weather. An
accident in such condition results in a series of vehicle collisions.
Safety applications of vehicular communication (V2V and V2I/I2V)
can play an immense role in safeguarding human lives under such
circumstances.
Examples of V2V and V2I communication-based safety appli-
cations are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, respectively. Few other
examples and details of safety applications based on these two
communications (Comm.) are given in the Table 3 [35]. The com-
munication requirements in terms of maximum allowable latency
(L A ) in milliseconds (msec) and the maximum range required for
communication (R M ) in meter (m) is also given for these applica-
tions.
3.2. Non-safety applications
Apart from providing safety, vehicular network technologies al-
low incorporating many other services related to mobility, envi-
6 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Fig. 4. Connected vehicle applications.

Fig. 5. V2V-based safety applications.

Fig. 6. V2I/I2V-based safety applications.

Table 3
Safety applications [35].

Comm. Safety alert/services LA RM

V2V Collision Warning: Post-crash, Pre-crash, ∼20 msec ∼50 m to
Forward, Cooperative to ∼0.5 sec ∼300 m
Blind Spot/Merge Warning ∼100 msec ∼150 m
Do Not Pass Warning ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Lane Change Warning ∼100 msec ∼150 m
Emergency Electronic Brake Lights ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Assistance: Intersection Movement,
Left Turn, ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Co-operative merging

V2I/I2V Reduced Speed/Work Zone Warning ∼ 1 sec ∼300 m

Pedestrian in Signalized Crosswalk Warning ∼100 msec ∼200 m
Curve Speed Warning ∼1 sec ∼200 m
Stop Sign Violation Warning ∼100 msec ∼ 250 m
Stop Sign Gap Assistance ∼100 msec ∼300 m
Traffic Signal Violation Warning ∼100 msec ∼250 m
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 7. Non-safety applications.
ronment, infotainment, vehicular social networking, maintenance,
payment, etc. [36]. We club all these services together into Non-
safety applications category.
Fig. 7 portrays a non-safety application: Fig. 7.a) represents con-
gestion warning scenario in I2V mode. Fig. 7.b) Roadside service
finder: A roadside unit provides information to vehicles in transit
by periodic broadcasting [35]. Suppose a car is in a new location
and needs fuel or some repairs. This app helps the driver find
those and related services nearby.
Fig. 7.c) illustrates traffic signal management and optimal speed
advisory, which is based on Traffic-Light-To-Vehicle Communica-
tion (TLVC) [37]. In this method, a traffic light controller periodi-
cally broadcasts the light scheduling information to nearby vehicles
in I2V mode. Drivers after receiving this information can adjust
their speed so that they can pass the traffic signal when it is green.
This entire mechanism can help avoid stopping and braking and
reduce fuel consumption and carbon emission [37].
The Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) mechanism en-
ables the vehicle to drive in platoon [38,39]. The automated pla-
tooning system can also be made possible with Level-2 automation
by V2V communication. As shown in 7.d), if vehicles can commu-
nicate with each other in V2V mode, drivers can exchange informa-
tion and cooperate. This V2V communication can make the overall
traffic much smoother. If there is a free flow movement on the
road, the fuel consumption and C O 2 emission can be reduced. Ve-
hicles drive together in a compact group (close and safely) face less
air resistance [38].
In infotainment services, the driver can access many services
from its dashboard such as audio, video on demand, live TV, soft-
ware updates, route guidance, navigation, messaging, calling, and
many more. Many of these applications are similar to the appli-
cations that we use on smart-phones. However, Quality of Service
(QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE) is an essential issue in ve-
hicular communication because of its high mobility and dynamic
network topology.
The communication required for most of the non-safety appli-
cations is based on V2I or I2V mode. However, there are some
applications in this category, such as CACC that relies on V2V
communications. Safety applications have a higher priority over
non-safety applications for accessing communication channels. Dif-
ferent types of non-safety applications are shown in Fig. 8.
4. Vehicular Radio Access Technologies (RATs)
Many car-manufacturing companies such as BMW, Ford, Audi,
Mercedes, Fiat, Toyota, Nissan, and General Motors are already ex-
perimenting with the available wireless technologies to provide
both safety and non-safety (mainly Internet access) applications.
Audi and General Motors have the most vehicles with embedded
in-car 3G or 4G/LTE-powered wireless access for the Internet. Tech-
nology companies like Google, Microsoft, and Apple are competing
with each other to provide the best solution for connected car plat-
forms. The two leading radio access technologies (RATs) for V2X
communication are DSRC and cellular networks [40]. Soon, coex-
7
istence/inter-networking of existing and other radio access tech-
nologies may play an essential role in connected and automated
vehicle network. In this section, we discuss RATs for the connected
and autonomous vehicle.
4.1. RATs for connected vehicles
As discussed, connected vehicle RATs allow vehicles to com-
municate in the V2X mode for safety and non-safety applications.
In this survey, we do not cover RATs for intra-vehicle (in-vehicle)
wireless communications such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Radio Fre-
quency Identification (RFID), Near Field Communication (NFC) and
Ultra-Broadband (UWB). More details of intra-vehicle RATs provid-
ing wireless communication between in-vehicle components, for
example, connecting in-vehicle sensors with CCU in wireless mode
are available in [41].
V2V communication helps to efficiently disseminate its col-
lected information from in-vehicle components (from sensors) to
other vehicles via one-hop or multi-hop depending on reachabil-
ity. The V2V mode of communication is a key enabler to pro-
vide safety applications. RATs such as DSRC, Cellular Vehicle-to-
Everything (C-V2X) and Visible Light Communication (VLC) are the
potential candidates for V2V communication.
Infrastructure and network connectivity is a key feature of con-
nected vehicles. This connectivity is required for Internet access,
safety-related information, infotainment applications, eco-friendly
drive, ITS and cloud-based services. The telecoms industry and
academia focus on the development of better RATs that can en-
able connectivity between vehicles and roadside communication
infrastructures. The RATs for V2V (DSRC, C-V2X, VLC) also supports
V2I/I2V communication with some modification at various layers
(PHY, MAC, Network, etc.) of their protocol stack. Apart from these
RATs, the other two promising candidates for infrastructure based
communications are Wi-Fi and Long-Term Evolution-Advance (LTE-
A). In the following subsections, we discuss RATs for inter-vehicle
and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications.
4.1.1. DSRC/IEEE802.11p
The primary radio access technology enabling V2X communi-
cation in a connected vehicle network is DSRC. The main moti-
vation for DSRC deployment is to ensure road safety and traffic
efficiency. The DSRC spectrum is allocated by the Federal Com-
munication Commission (FCC) in the USA, the Electronic Commu-
nications Committee (ECC) of the European Conference of Postal
and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) in Europe and the
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC) in Japan.
The DSRC standards are developed by the IEEE and the Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) in the
USA, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
and European Committee for Standardization (CEN) in Europe, and
the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) in Japan.
The DSRC standards developed in these regions are not compatible
with each other and vary considerably. The current deployment
(in use), allocation and the potential of DSRC spectrum in North
8 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 8. Non-safety application types [36].
Fig. 9. DSRC spectrum allocation in North America, Europe and Japan [43].
America, Europe, and Japan as per International Telecommunica-
tion Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Recommendation
M.1453 [42] are shown in Fig. 9.
The DSRC bands which are already in use for electronic toll col-
lection (ETC) applications are given as follows:
• North America: 902-928 MHz (ASTM E2158-01)
• Europe: 5795-5815 MHz (CEN DSRC)
• Japan: 5770-5850 MHz (ARIB STD-T55)
In the USA, the allocated DSRC spectrum of the 75 MHz
(5.850-5.925 GHz) is divided into seven 10 MHz channels. One of
which is a control channel (CCH), the other six are service channels
(SCH). In addition to these seven channels, 5 MHz is reserved for
future use [44], as shown in Fig. 10. The CCH is assigned num-
ber 178, which is the default and highest priority channel and
mainly used for critical safety applications. SCH channels can be
used for safety as well as non-safety applications. The DSRC uses
channel width of 10 MHz that supports a bandwidth of 3 Mbps to
27 Mbps. It also allows two SCHs to be combined to form 20 MHz
channel width to provide a higher data rate of 54 Mbps. For ex-
ample, channels 174 and 176 (used for medium range services), as
well as channels 180 and 182 (short range services), may be com-
bined to form a single 20 MHz channel for supporting high data
rates.
In Europe, the DSRC spectrum of 30 MHZ (5.875-5.905 GHz) al-
located in 2008 for road safety and traffic efficiency applications
of ITS. Parameters related to the use of this DSRC band are cov-
ered by the European Commission (EC) Decision 2008/671/EC. The
30 MHz DSRC allocation is referred to as ITS-G5A (G5 stands for
the 5 GHz frequency band). ITS-G5A is divided into three 10 MHz
channels. Channel 180 is a control channel (CCH) and used primar-
ily for safety-related applications. The other two channels, channel
176 and 178 are service channels (SCH) and are used for traf-
fic efficiency. ITS-G5B, the 20 MHz (5.855-5.875 GHz) spectrum
is reserved for non-safety Cooperative-ITS applications. It has two
service channels of 10 MHz widths each. ITS-G5C is restricted to
V2I communication and shared with the radio local area network
(RLAN) band, which is used by the Wi-Fi devices. ITS-G5C can
have a channel width of 10 or 20 MHz. In ITS-G5D category, two
more service channels of 5 MHz width each are reserved for fu-
ture Cooperative-ITS systems. These allocations and reservations of
frequency bands for ITS in Europe are shown in Fig. 11 [45].
In Japan, the DSRC spectrum of 80 MHz (5.770-5.850 GHz) has
been used with ARIB STD-T55 (ETC), ARIB STD-T75 (DSRC) and
ARIB STD-T88 (DSRC Application Sub-Layer (ASL)). ARIB STD-T55
and STD-T75 are only available for V2I communications and de-
fine standardization on layers 1, 2 and 7 of the base OSI reference
model. At the physical (PHY) layer, ARIB STD-T75 uses 14 separate
channels of 4.4 MHz widths each. Out of 14 channels, seven chan-
nels are used for the downlink and remaining seven for the uplink.
ARIB STD-T88 developed mainly to support applications based on
V2V and V2I communication. In ARIB STD-T88, the new DSRC-ASL
layer is added on top of the application layer of the ARIB STD-T75
protocol stack. This new standard is primarily intended to provide
multi-application services based on ARIB STD-T75 [46] more eas-
ily. The DSRC-ASL can handle both IP and non-IP applications. In
addition to these three standards, a new standard ARIB STD-T109
(700 MHz Band Intelligent Transport Systems) developed for “Driv-
ing Safety Support Systems.” In 2011, the new frequency range of
755.5-764.5 MHz allocated to ARIB STD-T109 for various types of
ITS applications.
IEEE 802.11p To utilize the DSRC spectrum in a vehicular net-
work, the IEEE 802.11p and Wireless Access in Vehicular Envi-
ronments (WAVE) protocol stack [47] have been developed. The
IEEE 802.11p is an amendment to IEEE 802.11 (IEEE 802.11a) stan-
dard, standardized in 2010 [48] and revised in 2012 [49] to fa-
cilitate V2V and V2I communication. The IEEE 802.11p includes
DSRC based on ASTM E2213-03 standard [50], which specifies the
Medium Access Control (MAC) sub-layer and the PHY layer of the
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 9

Fig. 10. USA DSRC spectrum allocations and its applications [33].

Fig. 11. Europe DSRC spectrum allocations and its applications [45].

Table 4
IEEE 802.11a/p PHY parameter comparison [51].

Parameters IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.11p Changes

Channel Width (MHz) 20 10 Half
Signaling OFDM OFDM No Change
Bit rate (Mbps) 6,9,12,18,24,36,48,54 3,4.5,6,9,12,18,24,27 Half
Modulation mode BPSK, QPSK,16QAM, 64QAM BPSK, QPSK,16QAM, 64QAM No change
Code rate 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 No change
Number of subcarriers 52 52 No change
Symbol duration 4 μs 8 μs Double
Guard time 0.8 μs 1.6 μs Double
FFT period 3.2 μs 6.4 μs Double
Preamble duration 16 μs 32 μs Double
Subcarrier spacing 0.3125 MHz 0.15625 MHz Half

WAVE protocol stack. The PHY layer parameters of IEEE 802.11p
and its comparison with IEEE 802.11a is shown in Table 4.
The IEEE 802.11p MAC extension layer is based on the IEEE
802.11e Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) (IEEE, 2003)
[52], which is an enhanced version and uses the contention and
a prioritization mechanism for QoS support. There are four access
categories (ACs) to assign priorities to different data traffic. They
are AC3 for Voice (VO), AC2 for Video (VI), AC1 for Best-Effort (BE)
and AC0 for Background (BK) Traffic. In a vehicular network, these
ACs can be mapped to different safety and not-safety applica-
tions. Each AC behaves as an independent distributed coordination
function (DCF) node and contend for Transmission Opportunities
(TXOP) [53]. Each AC queue has its own EDCA Function (EDCAF)
and uses different Arbitration Inter-Frame Space Number (AIFSN)
and Contention Window (CW) values (CWmin, and CWmax) as
a contention parameter for the different class of traffic. The IEEE
802.11p defines different contention parameters and AIFS duration
for CCH and SCH intervals for different ACs [33,51]. The AIFS du-
ration helps in implementation of transmission prioritization. The
AC with the least AIFS duration (waiting time) tries to access the
medium first. AC3 (Voice) is the highest priority traffic.
The IEEE 802.11p/ITS-G5 protocol is mostly used in the U.S. and
Europe. In Japan, the IEEE 802.11p is not used with their frequency
band of 5.8 GHz because Japanese law allows only legacy protocols
for use [54].
4.1.2. 4G/LTE-A
3G and earlier 3G technologies (GSM, EDGE, UMTS, HSPA, etc.)
maintain two data paths one for voice and another for data. The
phone calls and SMS were circuit-switched while Internet connec-
tivity was packet-switched. The first version of LTE was launched
in 2008 and is called the LTE Third Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) version 8 (LTE Rel-8). LTE uses a “all-in-one” approach, ev-
erything over IP including voice. The next 3GPP release, Release-9,
offered substantial improvements and the key features are as fol-
lows:
• Enhanced throughput.
• Multi-input Multi-output (MIMO) allows spatial multiplexing
(use of multiple channels in parallel).
• Inter-cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) for better coordina-
tion between base stations.
10 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
• Use of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access
(OFDMA) in the downlink.
• Use of Single-Carrier OFDMA (SC-FDMA) in the uplink.
• Support for both FDD and TDD.
• Significant enhancement in spectrum efficiency.
• Support of small cell deployments: femtocells and picocells.
• High mobility support (terminals speed up to 350 km/h).
LTE-Advanced has been specified in 3GPP Release 10, revised
and enhanced in Release 11 and 12 to further expand the LTE ca-
pabilities. The key feature of the LTE-A is carrier aggregation (CA),
which combines multiple channels either in the same bands or the
different part of the spectrum to provide higher data rate support.
It significantly reduces handover latency by minimizing connection
setup time. In addition to these, it supports higher spectral effi-
ciency (bps/Hz) by utilizing receive diversity and more antennas in
MIMO. For the downlink, MIMO of 8X8 and for uplink MIMO of
4X4 is used. LTE-A uses advanced interference management coor-
dinated multipoint (CoMP) to minimize adjacent cell interference.
The authors of [55] have investigated the suitability of LTE for
different vehicular services including traffic efficiency, safety, com-
fort, and infotainment. In [56], the authors did the study of various
aspects of LTE technology to provide V2X communication. With its
high deployment and support for high mobility and bandwidth,
LTE-A is one of the most promising candidates for V2I communi-
cation.
4.1.3. LTE-A ProSe (3GPP Release 12/13) and C-V2X (3GPP Release 14)
The device-to-device (D2D) communication is direct communi-
cation between user equipment (UEs) of a cellular network with-
out the transmission via its base station. Unlike unlicensed spec-
trum based device-to-device communication such as Wi-Fi Direct
and Bluetooth, the D2D communication operates in licensed spec-
trum. The LTE D2D communications defined as part of proximity
services (ProSe), introduced and revised in the specification of the
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Release 12 and Release
13, respectively [57]. D2D technology is initially introduced for
commercial and public safety services. At present, ProSe is being
enhanced to provide V2V communication for safety-related ser-
vices. Device-to-Device (D2D) communication in 5G is envisioned
as an alternative technology that can compete with, and some-
times complement, IEEE 802.11p/DSRC for vehicular communica-
tion.
The C-V2X is another means for vehicles to communicate with
each other in a wide range of ITS use cases and applications. The
C-V2X is the first LTE technology expansion that focuses on au-
tomotive services and first introduced by 3GPP in its Release 14
specification [58]. From Release 14 onwards, 3GPP is adding addi-
tional functionalities in its LTE network to provide V2X communi-
cation. Features are enhanced at radio access network as well as at
the core network. The primary objective of C-V2X development is
to cover all the ITS use-cases supported by IEEE 802.11p/DSRC and
then expand it to other possibilities.
ProSe D2D In Release 12/13, D2D communication is specified in
three scenarios: in-coverage, partial-coverage, and out-of-coverage.
The primary use cases of ProSe are public safety and other com-
mercial applications. The D2D spectrum is an overlay to cellular
licensed (3GPP Release 12/13) technology. D2D ProSe user equip-
ment (UE) operates in half-duplex mode, and their communication
is based on single-carrier frequency-division multiple access (SC-
FDMA) in the uplink. It supports both frequency division duplex
(FDD) and time division duplex (TDD). ProSe D2D communication
can be either unicast or broadcast.
In Release 13, the QoS support is specified by assigning prior-
ity to each packet. The resource allocation for D2D communication
is supported by two modes: Mode 1 and Mode 2. Mode 1 is a
Fig. 12. ProSe D2D reference architecture [57].
network scheduled mechanism where UE request resources and
Evolved Node B (eNB) provides it for transmission. Mode 2 is an
autonomous mode in which eNB configures D2D resources and
broadcasts it, and UE selects required resources for the transmis-
sion. Similarly, for D2D discovery, we have Type 1 (autonomous)
and Type 2 (network scheduled) mode. In Type 1, UE selects a
resource from the resource pool, and eNB configures this chosen
resource for D2D discovery. In Type 2, resources required for dis-
covery are provided by the eNB. Another challenge for D2D is
synchronization of UEs, which is important for effective commu-
nication. UEs can deliver some synchronization sequence to its
neighbor UEs (out-of-coverage), or some distributed protocol can
be used for local synchronization. The reference architecture of
ProSe D2D is shown in Fig. 12 [57], an advanced LTE architec-
ture (LTE-A) with ProSe. LTE-A ProSe has additional entities such
as ProSe function and ProSe server that is connected to other com-
ponents via new interfaces PC2 to PC4. To implement D2D commu-
nication between UEs, the PC5 interface is introduced and known
as sidelink at the PHY layer. More details about this architecture
can be found in [57,59].
C-V2X The initial standard of C-V2X for inclusion in the 3GPP
Release 14 completed in September 2016. It is an improved ver-
sion of the LTE based D2D communication (ProSe) introduced in
3GPP Release 12. Initially, It focuses on V2V communication and
later on further enhancements to support V2X based safety and
non-safety service requirements [58]. The D2D interface PC5 intro-
duced in Release 12/13 is not suitable for V2X services and needs
to be modified. Thus, to enable V2V communication and address
the two main challenges of a vehicular network: high-speed (up
to 250Kph) and high density (thousands of nodes) [58], a new in-
terface is introduced in Release 14 with changes at the link and
system level [60]. The solutions provided by C-V2X that address
these two challenges are given in Table 5. This overall new design
is scalable for different bandwidths including the bandwidth of 10
MHz. In Release 14, ITS 5.9 GHz band support is also added for
C-V2X.
4.1.4. Wi-Fi
There are approximately 250 million hotspots available world-
wide that account for commercial, community (residential and
commercial) and service provider hotspots [61]. The smart city de-
velopments are one of the key drivers of Wi-Fi deployments. The
primary goal of a smart city Wi-Fi setup is to provide a fast, secure,
seamless and highly available Wi-Fi service to its citizens, whether
static or mobile. Wi-Fi in an unlicensed band (2.4 and 5 GHz) car-
ries more traffic than the cellular in a licensed band. Wi-Fi is one
of the complementary RATs to provide different services, including
ITS services. Recently, Google has bagged its first Wi-Fi deployment
contract under the smart-city mission of India. In the first phase,
Google Station platform to be deployed [62] at 200 strategic lo-
cations across the city. With the urbanization and development of
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Table 5
C-V2X solutions to V2X challenges [58].
V2X Challenges
Significant Doppler shift due to high
speed
Excessive resource collisions due to
random resource allocation mecha-
nism in high density scenario
Lack of source for synchronization in
out-of-coverage scenario (no infras-
tructure)
smart cities, there is a rapid growth in Wi-Fi deployments that
make Wi-Fi a complementary and low-cost solution for V2I/I2V
connectivity.
The protocol stack of Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac) is not de-
signed for vehicular mobility context. However, various amend-
ments to the IEEE 802.11 standard is bringing advancements in Wi-
Fi, such as Fast Basic Service Set Transition (FT-BSS) for fast roam-
ing via IEEE 802.11r, assisted roaming support by IEEE 802.11k,
better network performance with IEEE 802.11v, protection of man-
agement frames by IEEE 802.11w, and better bandwidth, security,
and services-on-demand by Hotspot 2.0 based on IEEE 802.11u.
These advancements make Wi-Fi a potential and competitive can-
didate to provide seamless and secure vehicular connectivity.
4.1.5. Visible Light Communication (VLC) based on LED
As mentioned above, now there is competition in radio fre-
quency based solutions such as DSRC/IEEE802.11p and Cellular-V2X
for vehicular communication. Today, a new wireless optical com-
munication (OWC) technology called visible light communication
(VLC) is of great interest to researchers and engineers. VLC is a
variant of OWC, which uses visible light between 380 and 800
THz (380-780 nm). The VLC technology uses light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) which can be modulated at high speed. Therefore, this tech-
nology has a dual application: lighting (illumination) and commu-
nication. Different from the RF-based solutions (DSRC, C-V2X) that
have a complex structure, licensed and congested band, and high
deployment cost, the LED-based VLC is a less complex, unlicensed,
low cost, reliable, reduced energy, highly efficient, secured [63] and
interference-free solution [64]. Since LED has the characteristics
of a directional line of sight (LOS) (high directivity) propagation,
it can help provide the most accurate position of neighbors [65,
66] and can also be a key enabler for full-duplex communication.
These two features are hard to realize in RF solutions. The scien-
tist at Intel sees an excellent opportunity for VLC in automobiles
for various safety applications such as positioning, adaptive cruise
control, collision avoidance, and cooperative driving and also for
autonomous driving [67]. Thus, LED-based VLC is one of the po-
tential candidates for future V2X communications.
VLC Standardization, PHY and MAC Layer The standard for VLC
is a part of IEEE Wireless Personal Area Networks working group
(IEEE 802.15) and developed and revised as IEEE 802.15.7 standard
[68]. The standard mainly focuses on the PHY and MAC layer spec-
ification of VLC. This short-range OWC (sometimes vary to medium
range) technology has been proposed to provide both V2V (inter-
vehicle) and V2I (roadside infrastructure) communication [69]. In
VLC based vehicular communication, vehicle’s LED headlight, rear
11
Solutions by C-V2X
Enhanced Link Level Design: Number of DeModulation
Reference Signal (DMRS) symbol increased that allows
better tracking of the channel at high speed.
Enhanced System Level Performance: Enhanced trans-
mission mechanism and efficient resources allocation
mechanism used to support high density and meeting
the latency requirements of V2V. Data and associated
scheduling assignments (SA) are now present in the ad-
jacent resource block in the same subframe to reduce
in-band emissions. For better resource allocation, a dis-
tributed algorithm is designed which is based on sensing
with a semi-persistent transmission. It not only senses
congestion on a resource but also estimates future con-
gestion on that resource.
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used for
time synchronization in both in-coverage and out-
coverage scenario.
lights and illuminated roadside devices such as traffic lights and
streetlights work as a transmitter. There are two types of receiver
that can be used in this context: image sensor and the photodiode
(PD). These two technologies have their advantages and drawbacks.
There are three different PHY levels defined in IEEE 802.15.7
specification: PHY I, PHY II and PHY III. These levels differ in terms
of modulation and coding scheme and support data rates ranging
from 11.67 kbps to 96 Mbps for indoor and outdoor communica-
tion in different topologies. For outdoor applications, PHY I level is
suggested that uses on-off keying (OOK) or variable pulse-position
modulation (VPPM) modulation and allow data rate from 11.67
kbps to 266.6 kbps. Thus, in vehicular communication, the max-
imum data rate is presently limited to a maximum of 266.6 kbps
[70].
There are four MAC layer options defined in IEEE 802.15.7 stan-
dard:
(i) Beacon-enabled slotted random access with carrier sensing mul-
tiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
(ii) Beacon-enabled slotted random access without CSMA/CA.
(iii) Nonbeacon-enabled unslotted random access with CSMA/CA.
(iv) Nonbeacon-enabled unslotted random access without CSMA/CA.
For ad-hoc communication (V2V) nonbeacon-enabled access
and infrastructure based communication (V2I/I2V) beacon-enabled
access appears better option [70].
4.2. RAT for autonomous vehicles
The fully automated vehicle tested by Google and Tesla as a
driverless car relies solely on data collected from its sensors. The
raw and multi-domain sensed data is processed by the centralized
controller, the results of which allow the vehicles to make their
own driving decisions. Since they do not rely on other vehicle’s
data, they can see up to a certain distance. These vehicles are au-
tomated, but not connected and have limited sensing capabilities.
The connected RATs can allow automated vehicles to communicate
and enable them to see beyond their sensing capabilities in dif-
ferent directions by leveraging other vehicle’s sensed or processed
data [71]. The automated vehicle with V2X integration referred to
as Connected-and-Automated Vehicles (CAV). To cope with com-
plex, overcrowded and different road conditions and provide better
safety than today, fully automated vehicles must cooperate and
rely on other CAV’s data as well. The key technologies of CAV
such as Light Detection and Radar (LiDAR), RADAR, visual cameras,
high precision position estimators and V2X technology are shown
in Fig. 13. The combination of connectivity and automation can
improve levels of safety, coordination of traffic, comfort, and fuel
efficiency.
12 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 13. Components of connected and automated vehicle.
The data generation rate of the sensors of the autonomous vehi-
cle is in TeraByte per hour driving [71]. The RATs for the connected
vehicle (V2V) such as DSRC, VLC and LTE-A D2D (Release 13/14)
having data rate support in few Mbps cannot support the required
gigabit-per-second (Gbps) data rate. For example, if raw images
of the visual cameras to be exchanged (uncompressed), the RAT
should support 100-700 Mbps throughput [71]. Similarly, in case
of obtaining high-resolution map data in real time from a map
server, latency and throughput are critical factors. Thus, the RAT
for CAV must have the capabilities that can deliver the informa-
tion or raw data at high speed in a reliable way, and within the
defined time limit. Although the technical requirements of CAV ap-
plications are not yet defined, RAT must support low latency, high
data throughput (in Gbps), high reliability, high mobility, and high
density. These requirements are mandatory for the exchange of raw
sensor data and processed data between CAVs. Such communica-
tion not only allows the exchange of data but also extend their
sensing capabilities to make better decisions for safety. Millimeter-
Wave (mmWave) in extremely high frequency (EHF) can be one of
the viable solutions for inter-CAV and CAV-to-infrastructure com-
munication. In addition to DSRC, C-V2X, and VLC, mmWave can be
one of the future RAT solutions for connected vehicle technology
as well.
Millimeter-Wave (mmWave). The region of the mmWave spectrum
is vast that corresponds to 30 GHz to the 300 GHz radio frequency
band, which is much higher (x10) than the spectrum range of
existing RATs for vehicular communication (below 6 GHz). With
mmWave in EHF range, larger and wider channels can be utilized
for communication. These wider spectral channels if facilitated
with better modulations and coding schemes (MCS), beamform-
ing, and MIMO techniques can help reduce interference, improve
spectral reuse, and provide higher data rate support.
MmWave is not a new radio access technology. It was first
introduced and tested 120 years ago, in the year 1897, by an In-
dian scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose [72]. The European project
ITS PROMETHEUS sought to develop V2V communication at 57
GHz between 1987 and 1994. Mmwave has been tested for inter-
vehicle communication in the year 2001 [73] and also available
as IEEE 802.11ad [74]. The IEEE 802.11ad (amendment of IEEE
802.11-2007) approved in 2012, which defines the PHY and MAC
layers to enable high-throughput operation in an unlicensed 60
GHz frequency band. MmWave technology is also used in the cur-
rent autonomous vehicle in its automotive RADAR (70-90 GHz).
RADAR frequency bands range is as follows: 76-77 GHz for long-
range radar (LRR), 77-81 GHz for medium range radar (MRR), and
77-81 GHz for short-range radar (SRR) [75].
The realization of mmWave for CAV and V2X communication
is an emerging area of research. To provide high-speed (Gbps data
rate) communication support to the next generation of V2X and
CAV using mmWave, the research community, manufacturers, and
telecoms companies are exploring three different possibilities:
• Use of mmWave in an unlicensed band with modification of
PHY and MAC layer of IEEE 802.11ad.
• Use of mmWave as cellular based solution: 5G mmWave
• Use of mmWave as a dedicated spectrum and implementation
of new protocol stack: mmWave-V2X
4.2.1. IEEE 802.11ad
The IEEE 802.11ad is the first WLAN technology in the IEEE
802.11 family that uses mmWave in a 60 GHz frequency band and
a wider channel width of 2.16 GHz size. It supports multi-Gbps
data rate (up to 7 Gbps) over short distances (in the range of 10
m). The signal transmitted in the frequency band of 60 GHz re-
quires LOS propagation. These signals are susceptible to mobility
and blockage. Fig. 14 shows the 60 GHz frequency allocation of
mmWave in different regions, the frequency range of IEEE 802.11ad
channels (Channel 1 to Channel 4), and its center frequency (Fc).
The PHY and MAC layer details of IEEE 802.11ad are given as fol-
lows:
PHY Layer: There are four different operating modes defined in
the IEEE 802.11ad PHY layer, which are given as follows:
• Control (C) PHY,
• Single Carrier (SC) PHY,
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) PHY, and
• Low-Power Single Carrier (LPSC) PHY
These PHY modes are designed to meet diverse requirements in
terms of data rate, power consumption, antenna design complex-
ity, and processing capabilities [76]. These modes use the common
frame format that consists four parts: preamble, physical layer con-
vergence procedure (PLCP) header, payload (MAC header + data),
and optional beamforming training (TRN) field. The common frame
structure of IEEE 802.11ad is shown in Fig. 15. The preamble field
of the frame comprises a short training field (STF) and a channel
estimation field (CEF) to synchronize time and channel, respec-
tively and also to detect the type of PHY mode [76]. These PHY
modes use different Golay complementary sequences (Tc) [77,78]
in its preamble for synchronization, data spreading, phase and gain
tracking, beamforming training, and automatic gain control (AGC)
[79]. From Table 6, it is visible that each PHY mode has a different
MCS range and use modulation techniques for the different por-
tion of the frame. The LPSC PHY uses Reed-Solomon (RS) and Block
code (BC) while the rest PHY modes use Low-Density Parity-Check
(LDPC) codes for error correction. From the given MCS index only
0-4 are mandatory. Thus, C PHY (MCS 0) and SC-PHY (MCS 4) are
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 14. IEEE 802.11ad: country wide frequency allocations.
Fig. 15. IEEE 802.11ad: general frame structure.
mandatory for IEEE 802.11ad capable devices to support the data
rate of 1.15 Gbps. The other two PHY modes OFDM and LPSC are
optional.
MAC Layer: IEEE 802.11ad introduces new features at the MAC
layer to support high throughput communication on mmWave.
The new set of Directional Multi-Gigabit (DMG) features of IEEE
802.11ad are given as follows:
• Hybrid Medium Access,
• Clustering,
• Relaying,
• Fast Session Transfer (FST)
• Multi-band operation,
• Beamforming Protocol (BFT), and
• Spatial Sharing
IEEE 802.11ad on mmWave uses directional transmission and
reception of the data with beamforming. Thus, legacy CSMA/CA
medium access mechanism of WLAN that works well with omni-
directional information may not be suitable for IEEE 802.11ad be-
cause it may generate false information with the directional beam.
IEEE 802.11ad uses DMG access mechanism in place of legacy DCF
with CSMA/CA. The two access mechanisms incorporated in IEEE
802.11ad are service period (SP) and dynamic period (DP) chan-
nel access. In SP, the communication is scheduled. The two nodes
communicate with the reserved channel (allocated reserved time
slot), so they do not have to contend for the channel. In DP, polling
based access mechanism is used to allocate channel dynamically. It
is a centralized approach that uses a master-slave protocol. Polling
is performed periodically by the master node (e.g. AP), for any
transmission request by the slave. In both the access mechanism
node is aware of its peer node beam direction, hence it can steer
its antenna beam towards it [80]. More detail about other MAC
layer features mentioned above can be found in [74].
IEEE 802.11ad PHY and MAC layer protocols are designed pri-
marily for indoor use, and it can be revised for highly mobile
vehicular network scenarios. The way in which IEEE 802.11a PHY
13
Fig. 16. mmWave cellular framework.
layer served as the foundation for IEEE 802.11p development
(shown in Table 4) similarly IEEE 802.11ad PHY and MAC features
can also serve as a basis for Gbps data rate support in a vehicular
network. Thus, IEEE 802.11ad can be exploited for mmWave-based
V2X communications.
4.2.2. mmWave as cellular based solution
Fig. 16 illustrates the framework of cellular infrastructure to
support vehicular communication of gigabit-per-second data rates
using mmWave. Inter-vehicle communication (V2V) via PC5 and
the infrastructure based communication (V2I) via the Uu interface
has already been introduced from 3GPP Release 12 (LTE-A) on-
wards. To set up mmWave links, control plane of 4G cellular can be
exploited. MmWave for V2X communications can be used by intel-
ligently redesigning the PHY and MAC layer of the existing cellular
framework.
The Authors in [81,82] have proposed mmWave channel model-
ing at PHY layer that incorporates spatial clusters, path dynamics,
antenna patterns, channel tracking and beamforming algorithms.
The Authors in [83] proposed a novel mmWave MAC layer frame
structure that incorporates several enhancements to the current
LTE network. It includes flexible transmission time interval (TTI)
duration, dynamic control signal locations, highly granular trans-
mission times, extended control messaging, and dynamic hybrid
automatic repeat request (HARQ) to efficiently respond to vari-
ations in channel quality. However, the proposed PHY and MAC
layer needs to be intelligently enhanced to support D2D commu-
nication, high mobility, ultra-low latency, and Gigabit data rates
required for autonomous vehicle communication.
4.2.3. mmWave as a dedicated spectrum
The third option to exploit mmWave for V2X communication is
to have a dedicated spectrum like DSRC. However, a new mmWave
standard dedicated to the V2X requires everything new includ-
ing roadside communication infrastructure, transceivers in vehicles
and signal processing techniques [71].
14 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Table 6
IEEE 802.11ad: overview of different PHY modes.
4.3. Next generation RAT: 5G
The existing RATs, including 4G, does not support latency (1
ms), reliability (nearly 100 percent) and data rate (in Gbps) re-
quired to exchange information between the fully automated ve-
hicle and the infrastructure. To play a driverless vehicle in diverse
geographies and road conditions, we need to have a highly reliable,
scalable, available and flexible network. 5G is intended to meet the
requirements of the autonomous vehicle communication for differ-
ent services, which are impossible with RATs we have today. In this
subsection, we provide various details of the next generation RAT
5G.
4.3.1. 5G spectrum
The Radio Regulations (RR), an international treaty comprise
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which defines
the radio spectrum for worldwide use. The ITU identifies some
of the specific spectrum band allocated for mobile service for In-
ternational Mobile Telecommunications (IMT). The existing mobile
communication technologies, 3G and 4G are called IMT-2000 and
IMT-Advanced respectively. IMT-2020 is an extension of the IMT
family and will be adopted for the next generation of 5G com-
munication. The standardization of IMT-2020 is expected to be
completed by 2020.
The revisions of the RR are made every four years at the World
Radiocommunication Conferences (WRCs). The resolution on the
identification of the frequency band for future IMT development
has already been taken (Resolution 238) at its previous conference
(WRC-15) in 2015 [84]. The frequency bands 24.25 to 27.5 GHz,
31.8 to 33.4 GHz, 37 to 40.5 GHz, and 40.5 to 42.5 GHz for 5G cel-
lular [85] already included in the agenda (item 1.13) of the next
WRC (WRC-19) to be commenced in 2019 [84]. US FCC has pro-
posed 5G spectrum ranges 27.5 to 29.5 GHz, 37 to 40.5 GHz, 47.2
to 50.2 GHz, 50.4 to 52.6 GHz and 59.3 to 71 GHz for consider-
ation at WRC-19. In addition to the 5G cellular frequency band,
next-generation 5G RATs for ITS use cases may be a new agenda
in WRC-19. Most unlicensed band technologies such as Wi-Fi, LTE-
Unlicensed (LTE-U), LTE-Licensed Assisted Access (LTE-LAA) are not
part of the IMT but can play an immense role in ITS based on a
5G heterogeneous network (HetNet).
4.3.2. 5G visions and use cases
There are many organizations/bodies/forums who have devel-
oped visions of 5G, such as:
• Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN) (NGMN Alliance,
February 2015), [86].
• The 5G Forum of Korea (5G Service Roadmap 2022) [87].
• ITU-R (Recommendation ITU-R M.2083-0, “IMT-2020”) [88].
• 3GPP SMARTER (Technical Report 22.891 v14.2.0) [89].
• 5G-PPP (5G Infrastructure Association, February 2015) [90].
• 5G Americas (The Voice of the 5G for the Americas) [91].
The 5G use cases defined by the first four bodies mentioned
above are shown in Fig. 17. The autonomous driving is present in
all 5G vision (marked inside the red rounded rectangle). 3GPP con-
ducts the study on new services and markets technology enablers
(SMARTER) [92] to identify new vertical and market segments. The
use-case development and identification of related service and op-
erational requirements for 5G started in Release 13 (Stage 1) [89]
and are very likely to continue with the upcoming 3GPP releases
(Release 15 and 16). Studies of 5G vision documents prepared by
other organizations, including ITU-R, 5G-PPP, NGMN, etc., helped
3GPP to identify and develop the use cases and requirements of
the 5G.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 15

Fig. 17. 5G Vision: use cases defined by different bodies. (For interpretation of the colors in the figure(s), the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

4.3.3. 5G technical requirements

The 5G network must have the capabilities to support the ex-
tremely diverse set of use cases, applications, and services de-
ployed in different network scenarios. It must provide QoS and QoE
to manifold applications and services and at the same time must
be reliable and secure. In its vision document “IMT-2020 Vision”
[88], ITU-R defines 5G communication capabilities for its intended
use cases in terms of latency, mobility, peak data rate, spectrum
efficiency, and so on. The IMT-2020 (envisioned 5G) capabilities in
comparison to IMT-Advanced (existing 4G) capabilities are shown
in Fig. 18.
The key performance indicators (KPI) define the technical re-
quirements and depend on the particular use-case. IMT-2020 use
cases, such as enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), requires higher
network capacity and a higher peak data rate, ultra-reliable and
low latency communications (URLLC) communications requires
very low latency and high reliability and massive machine type
communications (mMTC) demands energy efficiency and connec-
tion density.

4.3.4. 5G status
ITU-R and 3GPP are the two major organizations working to
standardize the next generation of mobile communication technol-
ogy. ITU-R defines requirements and invites technological propos-
als from 3GPP. ITU-R evaluates the received proposals against its
requirements for approval. To meet ITU’s IMT-2020 requirements
Fig. 18. Key capabilities of IMT-2020: comparison to IMT-advance [88].
for eMBB, mMTC and URLLC use cases, 3GPP has a two-phase de-
velopment plan for deployment of 5G radio access. Each phase is
divided into three stages, stage 1 (overall service description), stage
16 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
2 (architecture definition) and stage 3 (final implementation of the
functionality and the protocol).
5G Phase 1: The study of the potential requirements of 5G New Ra-
dio (NR) started in 2015 and standardization activity initiated in
September 2016 [93]. Phase 1 of 5G development corresponds to
3GPP Release 15, began in March 2017 and is expected to end in
September 2018 (Release 15 freeze time). Phase 1 focuses primar-
ily on all use cases of eMBB and some portion of URLLC (mission-
critical applications).
5G NR is expected to provide new levels of efficiency and ca-
pacity for eMBB use cases and beyond using Non-Standalone (NSA)
or Standalone (SA) modes of operation. Both NSA and SA modes
are under development in Phase 1. The expected completion time
of Phase 1 (stage 3) of the 5G NSA mode was March 2018, and
for the 5G SA mode, it is September 2018. However, Vodafone and
Huawei have jointly completed the world’s first call using the NSA
3GPP 5G NR standard and sub 6 GHz spectrum [94]. After the
completion of Phase 1, now 5G radio access to be commercially
released for all eMBB use cases, and some URLLC use cases.
NSA Mode: The NSA mode uses two RATs, LTE (Release 15 ver-
sion) and 5G NR. 5G NR carriers work as secondary carriers that
help boost data-rate, enhance capacity and reduce latency. The NSA
mode requires a radio level aggregation of the two RATs to provide
dual connectivity between LTE and 5G NR. The 3GPP 5G archi-
tecture shown in Fig. 19.a) result in twelve possible options for
deployment [95]. Option 1 is a legacy 4G architecture in which LTE
eNB is connected to EPC. Thus, there are eleven options left for the
5G deployment. In Phase 1, four options selected for the NSA mode
are 3, 3a, 7, and 7a. The two highest priority NSA architectures for
deployment are Non-Standalone/”LTE assisted” EPC connected op-
tion 3 and 3a. These two architectures are illustrated in Fig. 19.b),
and 19.c), respectively. In NSA modes, the 5G base station (gNB) is
located together with an LTE base station (eNB). In Option 3, the
LTE eNB is the master of the 5G gNB. The eNB and gNB are con-
nected to each other using a new interface Xn. In Option 3a, the
5G NR gNB is connected directly to the LTE EPC via a new inter-
face (1A). The LTE Evolved Packet Core (EPC) works as the core
network while the 5G Next Generation Core (NGC) not deployed
for the use. In addition to the LTE user plane (S1_UP) and the LTE
control plane (S1_CP), there is an additional next-generation user
plane (NG_UP) that connects gNB to UE. We do not cover the other
two NSA architecture options, 7 and 7a.
SA Mode: This mode is a new evolution of mobile communi-
cation technology that will deploy both 5G NR and 5G next gen-
eration core (NGC) network. The scenario of Option 2 shown in
Fig. 19.d) to be used for the standalone architecture. It will be
a new 5G system (5G NR, NG interfaces, 5G NGC network) with
no backward compatibility and no LTE support. Although different
groups are trying to complete the SA mode by September 2018,
however, due to delay in the development of 5G NG Core, it is ex-
pected to be part of Phase 2.
Unlike the backward compatibility history of 3GPP standardiza-
tion, the 5G development of the NR and NGC standards in Phase 1
will be forward compatible with 3GPP Release 16 and beyond [96].
The forward compatibility ensures that more features and the re-
maining use cases can be easily integrated and supported in the
future (in Phase 2).
5G Phase 2: Phase 2 of the 5G development corresponds to 3GPP
Release 16. It will be the full compliance with ITU IMT-2020 re-
quirements and expected to support all identified use cases (eMBB,
mMTC, and URLLC). Phase 2 will be the enhancements to the ca-
pabilities and features of the Release 15 developments. The 5G
evolution studies of Phase 2 have already started in March 2017
and stage 3 scheduled to complete in December 2019. The stan-
dard to be developed in Phase 2 will be the final submission to
ITU for approval.
To satisfy a wide variety of requirements to the services de-
ployed in diverse scenarios, several technological transformations
at the RAN, and in the NGC network of the 5G will take place
[97–101] in Phase 1 and Phase 2. Transformations at 5G RAN in-
clude:
• Utilization of new spectrum above 6 GHz (mmWave up to 100
GHz) [102].
• Advanced beamforming [103] and tracking.
• Advanced channel coding (LDPC codes for data channels and
Polar codes for control channels) [104].
• Massive MIMO [99].
• Advanced multiple access mechanisms (non-orthogonal multi-
ple access (NOMA) [105,106] and contention-based protocols).
• Enhanced frame structure design (low latency and self-cont-
ained sub-frame) [107].
• Advanced interference management [108–110] (coordinated
multipoint (CoMP) communication).
• Scalable radio numerology [111,112].
The Phase 2 RAT is expected to include common design for up-
link, downlink, backhaul and sidelink, unlicensed spectrum access,
D2D communication etc. The RAN shall allow new features to be
added to the 5G NGC network. New features of the 5G core net-
work that are being studied and expected to be included are as
follows:
• Network slicing [113];
• Network Function Virtualization (NFV) [114,115].
• Software Defined Network (SDN) [115].
• Self Organizing network (SON: Self-Configuration, Self-Opti-
mization and Self-Healing)
• Integration of edge and fog computing [116].
• Flexible QoS support [117].
• Multi-connectivity [118,119] support across 5G, DSRC, LTE, and
Wi-Fi.
• Multi-RAT, multi-tier handover (intra-5G and inter-RAT han-
dover) support [120,121].
• Multi-vendor interoperability support [122,123].
• Operator-controlled sidelink (D2D) and operation support (in-
coverage and out-of-coverage) [124].
• Rapid and efficient deployment of network and services and
ultra-dense networks [125,126].
As already mentioned, there is a massive interest in 5G-based
automotive use cases. 5G technology is envisioned to provide bet-
ter vehicle automation and better connectivity for transportation
operation and infotainment services. 5G features such as ultra-low
latency, high mobility, and high bandwidth make it more appeal-
ing for automotive use cases. In particular, the mmWave-based 5G
can be very useful for raw sensor data exchange, high-definition
streaming, 3D map downloading, and many more applications.
4.4. Challenges
The main features of the RATs mentioned above are listed in
Table 7. There are many challenges associated with RATs to fulfill
the unique vehicular communication requirements such as highly
available and reliable performance (i.e., always best connected) in
high mobility, varying density, and non-line-of-sight environments.
Some of the significant challenges associated with these technolo-
gies are given as follows:
Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi has a small coverage and is not designed for high
mobility context, so delay spread due to high mobility is a prob-
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 17

Fig. 19. 5G Architectures: a) possible migration paths, b) option 3: NSA mode (Xn), c) option 3a): NSA mode (1A), d) SA mode.

lem. The residence time of a vehicle in one wireless AP is very
short. The discovery of appropriate access point in minimum time
is a challenging task. When APs are densely deployed in the urban
area, there will be frequent handover and may interrupt ongoing
communications. It may also increase interference and might re-
duce the handover decision quality. The Layer-2 handover latency
in Wi-Fi may disrupt many delay-sensitive applications. Minimiz-
ing the handover latency to the extent that it allows uninterrupted
communication is a significant challenge. Providing security, QoS
and seamless connectivity and dealing with Doppler shift, spread
and multipath effects in densely deployed Wi-Fi of urban scenarios
are some of the most significant challenges.
DSRC/IEEE 802.11p: DSRC/IEEE 802.11p is a half clocked IEEE
802.11a with small modifications at PHY and MAC layer. Many
researchers claim that DSRC is more reliable, secure, mature and
ready to deploy the technology. However, research communities
still see room for improvements to the current DSRC solutions at
PHY and MAC layer [129]. It can provide speeds up to 54 Mbps,
so providing high-speed V2I connectivity and inter-CAV commu-
nication are some of the significant challenges. Its performance
18 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Table 7
Radio access technologies for vehicular communications, adapted from [127,128].
in Non-Line-Of-Sight (NLOS), high-density scenarios and when the
excessive delay spread is present needs to be tested.
VLC: The DSRC based solution has very low market penetra-
tion, which is the biggest challenge and it can block the deploy-
ment. Because LED-based lighting is now being integrated into
vehicles, roadside infrastructures (traffic lights), buildings, etc., the
VLC technology can be a cost-effective solution and can also have
the largest market penetration. However, VLC technology is still in
its infancy and requires a lot of efforts to overcome the associ-
ated challenges and to make it suitable for vehicular communi-
cations (outdoor). There are challenges associated with LED-based
VLC [130] because of its high directivity, short range (smaller than
DSRC) and the requirement of LOS. The short range OWC sig-
nal propagation is more sensitive to weather conditions, such as
rain, fog, and snow [66]. These weather conditions, mainly fog can
severely affect the performance because it blocks the passage or
deviates the LED lights. These deviations and disturbance are due
to the combination of scattering, reflection and absorption [131].
Some of the research areas could be: how to increase the cover-
age (from 10 s of meters to 100 s of meters) and data rate support,
how to make it robust to the noise (other light sources such as
sun, lamps, etc.), and enhance its performance in mobility (aligning
emitter and receiver) and in weather conditions (fog, rain droplets,
snow etc.).
Cellular-V2X: The DSRC/IEEE 802.11p allows reliable low la-
tency V2V and V2I communication for the basic safety messages
exchange. While DSRC/ITS-G5 seems imminent in the U.S.A and
Europe, the researchers believe that C-V2X to show steady growth
in future. 3GPP stakeholders and many other working groups are
trying to enhance C-V2X’s initial design and architecture for its
widespread adoption. The main challenge for C-V2X is to have ded-
icated spectrum needed for V2V communication. The inter-vehicle
communication at high relative speeds via C-V2X may face two key
challenges: higher Doppler spread and frequency shift. Other key
challenges are: managing resources in high-density scenarios (ran-
dom allocation of resources may result in excessive collisions) and
ensuring reliability for in-coverage and out-coverage communica-
tion.
mmWave: Although mmWave has generated a lot of interest in
vehicular communication, the characteristics of mmWave channels
raise many concerns. These challenges are detailed in the study
[132] and are given as follows: Frequent beam formation and pe-
riodic beam tracking are needed to track vehicles over time and
maintain beam alignment. It is essential but incurs overhead be-
cause of the high mobility. mmWave has a very small range of
communication and rapid and sudden channel variations. Thus, the
residence time of the vehicles in a mmWave cell is very short
and is subject to frequent handovers. Other challenges are Doppler
spread due to high mobility and channel variations, highly sensi-
tive to blockage (high penetration loss), and traffic density, inaccu-
rate context information, high path loss etc.
5G: 5G is an emerging technology, which is unexplored for ap-
plications that require ultra-reliable low-latency communication.
5G architecture for vehicular communication is expected to be
multi-tier (a mixture of macro, Pico, and femtocells) and multi-
RAT (LTE, Wi-Fi, DSRC, mmWave) based approach. Such a hetero-
geneous network may pose considerable and diverse challenges.
Some of them could be ensured fairness, availability, reliability and
seamless connectivity, support for diverse QoS requirements, re-
source provisioning, interference cancellation, coexistence and in-
tegration of diverse technologies etc.
5. Standardization activities
In this section, we describe ITS standardization activities car-
ried out in international standardization organizations (SDOs) and
regional SDOs in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Table 8
lists the main SDOs at the international and regional levels. Inter-
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
national SDOs work on ITS related recommendation, reports, and
standardization. In many countries, ITS studies on advanced radio
and V2X communications are underway to improve road safety,
transport efficiency, and comfort. At the regional level, the main
ITS developments emerge from the USA, Europe, and Japan, and
contribute significantly to the ITS deployment.
5.1. International level SDOs
At the International level, ITU, ISO, and IEEE are the main SDOs
involved in the standardization process of the ITS. Their objective is
to accelerate the ITS deployment process and provide harmonized
ITS standard across the globe by minimizing variations, reducing
the cost and proving interoperability between architectures and
equipment.
5.1.1. ITU
ITU is an ICTs specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).
ITU is based on public-private partnership and currently has a
membership from 193 countries (Member States) and nearly 800
private sector and academic institutions (Sector Members, Asso-
ciates, and Academia).
ITU comprises three sectors, ITU-R (Radiocommunications), ITU-
T (Telecommunications Standardization) and ITU-D (Telecommuni-
cations Development).
ITU-R Study Groups (SGs) develop the technical agendas for WRC
and global standards (Recommendations) and prepare reports and
handbooks on radiocommunication matters. ITU-R Study Group 5
(SG 5) focuses on Terrestrial services, and its lower body Working
Party 5A (WP 5A) [133] deals with the standardization of ITS and
develop recommendations. The WP 5A covers studies related to the
land mobile service, wireless access to the fixed service, amateur
and amateur-satellite services. It does not cover IMT systems. The
WP 5D [134] covers IMT Systems such as IMT-2000, IMT-Advanced
and IMT-2020.
ITU-R initiated ITS standardization process in 1995. Subse-
quently, in 1997, ITU-R Recommendation “M.1310” [135] presented
wireless requirement aspects of ITS in the objectives and require-
ments of Transport Information and Control Systems (TICS). Ta-
ble 9 outlines various ITU-R recommendations for ITS. In addi-
tion to these recommendations, ITU-R published the report, ITU-R
M.2228-0, and ITU-R M.2228-1 [136] in 2011 and 2015, respec-
tively. These reports cover characteristics, requirements and the
status of advanced ITS radio-communication system in Japan, Ko-
rea, and Europe.
ITU sector ITU-T coordinates recommendations for standardiza-
tion and research against the telecommunication technologies, and
it’s usages. It provides a forum for the creation of global ITS com-
munication standards to enable fully interoperable ITS deployment.
ITU-T study group SG 16 (Multimedia) [142] work on the stan-
dardization of multimedia that includes coding, systems, security,
mobility, QoS, and applications. It also covers ITS related multime-
dia standardization in its process.
5.1.2. ISO
ISO is an independent, non-governmental, international organi-
zation based in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1947 and
works closely with ITU and International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion (IEC). It is recognized globally and has a membership of 162
national standards bodies. It has published more than twenty-one
thousand international standards and related documents and is
one of the world’s largest international standard developer. “ISO
standardization covers almost every industry, from manufactured
product and technology to food safety, agriculture, and healthcare.”
ISO Technical Committee 204 (ISO TC 204) founded in 1992. TC
204 is within the ISO and covers the overall system and infrastruc-
19
ture aspects for ITS standardization. It also takes into account ITS
standard related development work of other international SDOs,
including SAE, ITU, IEEE, etc. The scope of ITS related standardiza-
tion defined in ISO TC 204 is as follows: “The standardization of
information, communication and control systems in the field of ur-
ban and rural surface transportation that includes intermodal and
multimodal aspect, public and commercial transport, traveler infor-
mation, emergency, and commercial services in ITS field.” TC 204
has subcommittees in which Working Groups (WGs) are present.
As listed in Table 10, twelve WGs are currently active under TC
204, which are led by nine countries. ISO TC 204 has published 247
standards, and 88 standards are under development (As of October
2017). ISO TC 204 has twenty-eight participating (P) members and
twenty-nine observing (O) members.
Apart from ISO TC 204, there is another ISO technical commit-
tee, TC 22, which works for the standardization of road vehicles. It
is one of the oldest TC founded in 1947 (time of the ISO Founda-
tion). ISO TC 22 has published 855 international standards, and 235
ISO standards are under development (As of September 2017). ISO
TC 22 has twenty-eight P-members and forty-three O-members.
Under TC 22, there are eleven subcommittees (SCs) that corre-
spond to SC 31 to SC 41.
Since TC 22 and TC 204 both carryout automobiles related stan-
dardization, TC 22 has pointed out duplicated contents in stan-
dardization activities related to the driving control. Thus, in June
2014 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) signed between ISO
TC 22 and TC 204 to cooperate to solve the duplicate standard de-
velopment related issues and promote standardization activities.
5.1.3. IEEE
The IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organiza-
tion for the advancement of technology [144]. It is incorporated
under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York
[145]. It has more than 423,000 members in more than 160 coun-
tries around the world. The association aims to promote innova-
tions, create and expand international markets, protect the health
and public safety, enable advancements of education and technol-
ogy for humanity and the profession.
The IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) is a leading consen-
sus building and standard making organization, not formally au-
thorized by any government. IEEE-SA contributes to the develop-
ment and advancement of global technologies through the IEEE.
IEEE-SA facilitates the development of national and international
standards in health care and biomedical, power and energy, in-
formation technology and robotics, transportation, home automa-
tion and telecommunication, nanotechnology, etc. As of September
2017, IEEE had more than 1,100 active standards with over 600
standards under development.
As shown in Fig. 20, IEEE-SA has many standardization activities
related to transportation which includes standards for ITS, wired
connectivity, connected, automated and intelligent vehicle, traffic
safety and transportation electrification.
ITS-related standardization in IEEE. IEEE-SA standardization activity
on ITS can be divided into three categories:
• IEEE Wireless Standards: IEEE-SA 802 committee conducts
standardization activities related to the Local Area Network
(LAN) and Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). The 802 com-
mittee has two Working Groups (WGs): (i) Wired (IEEE 802.3),
(ii) Wireless technologies (IEEE 802.11/15/16/20/21/22). There
are many Task Groups (TGs), who work under IEEE 802.11
WGs. As listed in Table 4, the Task Group p has enhanced
IEEE 802.11a and issued the IEEE 802.11p standard for vehicu-
lar communication.
• IEEE 1609 Family: In addition to the Wireless WGS, the IEEE
1609 family of standards for WAVE define the architecture and
20 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 8
SDOs involved in ITS: international and Regional.

International International Telecommunication Union ITU

SDOs The 3rd Generation Partnership Project 3GPP
International Organization for Standardization ISO
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE
American Society for Testing and Materials International ASTM International
Society of Automotive Engineers International SAE International
Internet Engineering Task Force IETF

Regional SDOs USA American National Standards Institute ANSI

Europe European Committee for Standardization CEN
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization CENELEC
European Telecommunications Institute ETSI
Japan Japanese Industrial Standards Committee JISC
Association of Radio Industries and Businesses ARIB
Korea Korean Agency for Technology and Standards KATS
Telecommunication Technology Association TTA

Table 9
ITU-R recommendations outline for ITS.

ITU-R Recom- Year (Introduced- Name of the Document (Main) Scope (Main)
mendations Revised-Main)
ITU-R M.1452-2 2000 (M.1452-0) – Millimetre wave vehicular collision avoidance Provides system requirements, technical and operational
[137] 2009 (M.1452-1) – radars and radiocommunication systems for in- characteristics of mmWave radiocommunication for ITS
2012 (M.1452-2) telligent transport systems applications. applications. Covers vehicular collision avoidance radar
operating in the 76-77 GHz and 77-81 GHz bands, and
integrated mmWave for ITS applications in the 57-66
GHz range for V2V and V2I
ITU-R M.1453-2 2000 (M.1453-0) – Intelligent transport systems – dedicated short Outlines the technologies and characteristics for DSRC in
[138] 2002 (M.1453-1) – range communications at 5.8 GHz the 5.8 GHz band. Describes technical and operational
2005 (M.1453-2) characteristics of active and a backscatter method DSRC
technologies available for ITS, and the DSRC-application
sub-layer (DSRC-ASL) for DSRC and IP based applications.
ITU-R M.1890 2011 Intelligent transport systems – Guidelines and Replaces ITU-R M.1310. Provides the guidelines for radio
[139] objectives interfaces requirements of ITS.
ITU-R M.2057-0 2014 Systems characteristics of automotive radars Specifies the system (technical and operational) charac-
[140] operating in the frequency band 76-81 GHz for teristics of automotive radars operating under the radi-
intelligent transport systems applications olocation service in the frequency band 76-81 GHz for
ITS applications.
ITU-R M.2084-0 2015 Radio interface standards of vehicle-to-vehicle Identifies specific radio interface standards of V2V and
[141] and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications V2I communication for ITS applications.
for Intelligent Transport System applications

Table 10 Details of Wireless WGs and other IEEE standards related to ITS
ISO TC 204 working groups for ITS standards [143]. are listed in Table 11. In 2014, the IEEE-SA boards established new
Working Title Convenor standards coordinating committee (SCC) called IEEE SCC42 [146]
Group for transportation. Over thirty IEEE Societies and Councils sup-
WG 1 Architecture USA port IEEE SCC42. IEEE P2040 standard series of IEEE SCC42 covers
WG 3 ITS database technology Japan the standardization aspects of connected, automated and intelli-
WG 4 Automatic vehicle and equipment Norway
identification
gent vehicles technologies.
WG 5 Fee and toll collection Sweden Together, these standards help provide the foundation for im-
WG 7 General fleet management and Canada plementation of safety and non-safety applications in ITS. Many
commercial/freight
national levels ITS projects use these standards for their deploy-
WG 8 Public transport/emergency USA
WG 9 Integrated transport information, management Australia ments. Regional SDOs collaborate with International SDOs to de-
and control velop the harmonized standard for ITS cooperative system.
WG 10 Traveller information systems UK
WG 14 Vehicle/roadway warning and control systems Japan
WG 16 Communications USA 5.2. Regional level SDOs
WG 17 Nomadic Devices in ITS Systems Korea
WG 18 Cooperative systems Germany

As shown in Fig. 9, different countries/regions use different ra-

standardized set of services and interfaces for secure V2V and
V2I wireless communications.
• IEEE 1616: It is the first universal standard for motor vehicle
event data recorders (MVEDRs). It is similar to the black boxes
used in aircrafts to monitor crashes.
dio frequencies for ITS due to regularity constraints. In the USA,
the ASTM, IEEE and SAEstandards have been adopted. In the Asia-
specific region (Japan and Korea), the well-known SDOs are ARIB
and TTA. In Europe, ETSI, CEN, and CENELEC have been officially
recognized as regional SDOs that coordinate their standardization
activities with ISO and ITU. This section of our paper covers the
major standardization activities in the USA, Europe, and Japan.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 20. IEEE standards for transportation.
Table 11
IEEE standards related to ITS by Wireless Working Groups of 802 committee.
Approved IEEE Wireless Standards related to ITS Space
WGs Details
IEEE WLAN standardization, which is enhanced by Task group p as
802.11 IEEE 802.11p standard [48] and revised to IEEE 802.11-2012
standard [49] for DSRC based V2V and V2I communication.
IEEE Standardization family for Wireless Personal Area Network
802.15 (WPAN). Example IEEE 802.15.4 [147] standard that defines the
PHY and MAC sublayer specifications for low-data-rate wireless
connectivity, low-power, and low-complexity short-range radio
frequency transmissions. It can be used with static and moving
devices. In-vehicle sensors use this technology for intra-vehicle
communication.
IEEE Standardization family for Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
802.16 (WMAN). The WG for 802.16 standards family was established in
1999 and it is commercialized under the name “WiMAX”. Many
WiMAX standards are still active for example 802.16.1a-2013
[148]. V2I connectivity can be provided using this technology.
IEEE Standardization family Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
802.20 (MBWA). The main standard (base) of MBWA was published in
2008 and no longer actively developed. It can provide broadband
IP wireless communication to high-speed vehicles [149].
IEEE Standardization for vertical handover. WG started work in 2004
802.21 and published the standard in 2008. The standard enables seam-
less handover between the homogeneous and heterogeneous
network (WLAN, WMAN, 3GPP, 3GPP2) [150].
IEEE Standardizations family for Wireless Regional Area Network
802.22 (WRAN). The WG was formed in 2004 and published the main
standard in 2011. The standard enables use of cognitive radio
(CR) technologies to allow sharing of geographically unused tele-
vision broadcast service spectrum in non-interfering basis [151].
5.2.1. ITS standardization in the USA
The ANSI is a non-profit organization established in 1918. It fa-
cilitates the development of standards in the United States. ANSI is
the official representative of the USA to the ISO. The ITS standard
store of ANSI contains standards set of IEEE, ISO, and SAE. The
21
U.S. Department of Transportation’s (USDOT) is an active partici-
pant in connected vehicle standardization. In the USA, connected
vehicle technology standards are primarily released by IEEE, SAE
International and National Transportation Communications for ITS
Protocol (NTCIP). The ITS standards which are used to deploy “Con-
nected Vehicles” in the USA are listed as follows:
• SAE J2735 and SAE J2945/1.
• IEEE 1609 family Standard (Includes IEEE Std 1609.2, 1609.3,
1609.4, 1609.11 and IEEE 1609.12) [152].
• IEEE 802.11p [48,49].
The protocol stack of the connected vehicle standard is shown
in Fig. 23.b). The existing connected vehicle system may require
changes in one or more standards of the WAVE protocol stack. The
U.S. DOT’s ITS Joint Program Office (JPO), National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA), and other SDOs including the SAE,
the IEEE, and the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP) are
working together to enhance and publish these connected vehicle
system standards.
5.2.2. ITS standardization in Japan
The JISC is an official representative of Japan to international
SDOs ISO and IEC. It serves as the lead agency for ITS-related activ-
ities, based on cabinet approval. An ITS Standardization Committee
and several Technical Committees carry out standardization activi-
ties for ISO TC 204 on behalf of JISC. The technical committee is led
by the Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan (JSAE) and com-
prises about thirty members, including experts, liaison officers, and
WG representatives.
In Japan, the SDO ARIB promotes research and development
of new radio systems and advances the harmonization of interna-
tional standards and related activities in the fields of telecommu-
nications and broadcasting. The major activities of ARIB related to
the ITS Japan are the development of DSRC standards, discussed in
22 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 21. European standards organizations.
Section 4.1.1. We consider the details of the current ARIB STD-T109
standard in the next Section 6.2. ARIB is a merger of the Research
and Development Center for Radio Systems (RCR) and Broadcast-
ing Technology Association (BTA). It was established in 1995 and
comprises 189 regular and 25 supporting members. It also has 14
companies affiliated with the conference committee (As of Octo-
ber 2017). It is an organizational partner of 3GPP and participating
SDO of the Global Standard Collaboration initiative.
5.2.3. ITS standardization in Europe
In Europe, standards are being developed by the SDOs officially
recognized by the European Union (EU). These SDOs are known as
European Standards Organizations (ESOs) and are given as follows:
• European Committee for Electro-technical Standardization
(CENELEC).
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
CENELEC takes care of electro-technical part of standardization,
CEN is responsible for multi-sector (wide range of fields and sec-
tors) including transport and ICT applications standardization, and
ETSI for ICT and its related areas. Fig. 21 shows these three stan-
dardization bodies as ESOs. ETSI is a not-for-profit organization and
has more than 800 member organizations and companies from 68
countries across five continents worldwide. CEN is an association
that brings together the National SDOs of 34 European countries,
which includes all EU Member States. CEN is also recognized by
the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
In 2010, the European Commission issued standardization Man-
date M/453 [153] to ESOs for the development of a Cooperative ITS
(C-ITS) Systems standardization in the European Community. The
primary objective is to prevent conflicts in national standards, sup-
port interoperability and provide a common co-operative system of
ITS. In 2013, CEN and ETSI completed the work and announced Re-
lease 1 C-ITS standardization package.
These ESOs cooperate closely with each other and also work in
close collaboration with other international SDOs, including ISO,
IEEE, IEC, and SAE International. Their goal is to achieve inter-
nationally harmonized standards of ITS that are now essential to
interoperability on a global scale.
At European level, technical committees of the ESOs for ITS re-
lated standardizations are given as follows:
• CEN: CEN/TC 278 for ITS and CEN/TC 226 Machine Readable
cards
• CENELEC/TC 226 Road equipment
• ETSI – ETSI TC ITS (ETSI’s Technical Committee for ITS)
CEN/TC 278 and ETSI TC ITS have a number of WGs each re-
sponsible for a specific ITS domain. CEN/TC 278 cooperates closely
with ETSI TC ITS and its international counterparts ISO TC 204 to
improve the efficiency of standardization. Total there are 17 WG
Fig. 22. Alignment of the CEN and ISO working groups for ITS standardization [154].
under CEN TC 278, of which WG 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16 and 17
(urban ITS) are active and WG 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13 and 14 are in-
active [154]. Fig. 22 shows the alliance of the working groups of
CEN TC 278 and ISO TC 204 for the standardization of ITS [154].
CEN and ETSI in co-operation with the ISO have developed various
standards for C-ITS Release 1, which we discuss in the next Sec-
tion. These standards are validated and enhanced by many Field
Operational Tests (FOTs) and European projects.
The ITS standardization efforts in Europe are accompanied and
pushed by C2C-CC (an industry consortium initiated by automobile
manufacturers) [30], equipment suppliers, research organizations,
ERTICO (a European public/private partnership of companies and
institutions) [155], and ETSI’s center for testing and interoperability
(ETSI-CTI). Their primary objective is to develop and deploy ITS in
the EU.
In the US, Japan, and EU, joint efforts are underway to de-
velop harmonized vehicle standards so that government, automak-
ers, and technology developers can adopt a common conceptual
and technological framework. Some of the key stakeholders have
signed memorandums of cooperation (MOCs): US-EU, US-Canada,
US-Japan, and US-South Korea towards harmonization of connected
vehicles and communication standards. There is also active coop-
eration between international SDOs IEEE, SAE, and ISO and are
working towards harmonization and developing a single harmo-
nized set of standards.
6. Protocol stacks
Over the last decade, vehicular communication is shifted from
pure research to deployments in the developed regions such as the
USA, Japan, and Europe. In the USA, the research on the connected
vehicle is entering into real-world deployments. Pilot projects in
the Tampa, Wyoming and New York regions are being rolled out.
The V2V communication over DSRC will soon be mandatory. Japan
is expanding its deployment of V2I to IVC, and Europe in its Phase
1 is working to deploy connected driving in the EU. In this section,
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 23. ITS protocol stack is the USA, Japan and Europe.
we discuss the ITS protocol stacks of these regions shown in Fig. 23
in comparison with the OSI reference model.
6.1. ITS protocol stack of USA: connected vehicle
The connected vehicle standards are designed to support low
latency V2X communication and enable safety and mobility ap-
plications. DSRC (mentioned in section 4.1.1) has been allocated
to be used to provide reliable low latency communications. The
Connected vehicle protocol stack components in are shown in
Fig. 23.b). The key component of the stack is WAVE protocol family.
There are two types of plane available: (i) data plane for proto-
cols to carry higher layer information (ii) management plane for
management functions to indirectly support information transport.
The protocol stack consists of a common set of IEEE 802.11p (PHY,
MAC sublayer), MAC sublayer extension (IEEE 1609.4), and link
layer control (LLC). The protocol stacks above LLC are dual protocol
stacks.
The protocol stack of the connected vehicle standard are sum-
marized as follows:
6.1.1. PHY and MAC sublayer: IEEE 802.11p
This layer includes IEEE 802.11p that supports V2V and V2I
communication. It is designed to support high mobility of the ve-
hicle at speeds up to 200 km/h and communication range up to
1000 meters. The IEEE 802.11p standard works on allocated DSRC
frequency band 5.850-5.925 GHz in North America. The objective
of the DSRC allocation is to improve the mobility and safety of all
forms of surface transport, including rail and maritime transport.
IEEE 802.11p, an enhanced version of IEEE 802.11a, operates “out-
side the context of a basic service set” (OCB) to support the high
mobility communication. The re-association and re-authentication
phases of 802.11 Wi-Fi take time and increase the overall han-
dover delay. Thus, providing seamless connectivity (low latency
and fast access) is a challenging task in Wi-Fi. In OCB mode, the
802.11 Wi-Fi scanning, re-association and re-authentication phases
are disabled, allowing the vehicle to seamlessly access services
while crossing different RSUs.
As per IEEE Std. 802.11-2012[49], the MAC header of each
transmitted frame includes source and destination MAC addresses.
It supports unicast, broadcast and multicast MAC destination ad-
dresses. However, multicast MAC addressing is not required by IEEE
1609 standards. The packet transmission is based on the user’s pri-
ority (UP), which is used by the EDCA to schedule packets.
23
6.1.2. MAC sublayer extension: IEEE 1609.4-2016, multi-channel
operation
The standard [156] specifies an extension of the IEEE 802.11
MAC sublayer for a multi-channel operation. It allows WAVE de-
vices to efficiently switch between channels. The multichannel
operation achieved through channel coordination between WAVE
devices. The channel access can be continuous (CCH or SCH), al-
ternative (CCH and SCH), or immediate. Continuous channel access
does not require coordination, while access to alternate channels
requires channel coordination (based on a synchronized time in-
terval). The CCH is reserved for WAVE short messages (WSM) and
management information exchange only while SCH can be used for
all message types supported by WAVE systems. The Immediate ac-
cess allows OBU to switch to the SCH immediately for a defined
duration. Immediate access supports an OBU to perform a trans-
action during the time it is in the range of the RSU of a service
provider.
Other features of this layer include multi-channel synchroniza-
tion, use of IEEE 802.11 facilities (EDCA), use of timing advertise-
ment frames, and maintenance of Management Information Base
(MIB). In order to protect the privacy of the device operator, the
standard also allows readdressing the local WAVE MAC addresses.
6.1.3. Network and transport layer:IEEE 1609.3-2016, networking
services
The standard [157] defines services at Layer 3 (network) and
Layer 4 (transport layer). It specifies two data plane in the protocol
stack: TCP/UDP (clearly not specified in the standard) over the In-
ternet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) and the WAVE Short Message Pro-
tocol (WSMP). The standard specifies two EtherType values (a field
in LLC header) to distinguish between IPv6 and WSMP. The WSMP
is a highly efficient messaging protocol and designed primarily for
optimized operation in a vehicular mobility environment. WSMP
is utilized mainly for safety and fee collection scenarios. It is well
suited for message-based applications and in an intermittent con-
nectivity. The messages used by WSMP are known as WAVE Short
Messages (WSMs). WSMP allows applications to control physical
properties used in message transmission. For example, application
can select channel number and define transmitter power. The ap-
plication at source also provides a Provider Service Identifier (PSID:
a globally unique value resides in the WSMs header) and the MAC
address of the destination device. The PSID helps deliver WSMs to
the intended receiving entity which may be an application, service
24 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
or higher layer protocol. If the PSID value of a message is not of
local interest, that message can be ignored.
A WAVE device advertises available services by sending beacon
message (periodic messages) known as WAVE Service Advertise-
ments (WSA). Using WSA, an RSU can broadcast information to an
OBU, which it may require to access an application. WSM can be
sent on either type of channel, while IP traffic is restricted to SCH
only. This helps to offload high-volume IP traffic from the CCH. The
CCH provides a common channel for signaling to WSM and IP data
both.
All WAVE devices use IPv6 address, which distinguishes be-
tween the link-local address type and the global address type.
A link-local address is not a globally unique address and config-
ured automatically by the device using its link-local prefix. It is
not routable and valid only for communications within the same
network segment. The global address is routable and can be used
to route packets across different networks. IPv6 supports all three
types of addresses unicast, multicast and anycast required by the
standard. It also supports special multicast addresses. If the ap-
plication is IPv6 communication based, the WSA may include the
IPv6 address of the service provider and the port number of its
application.
The various features of this layer are transmission and mon-
itoring of WSA, assignment of channel access, use of WSMP for
safety-critical applications, use of streamlined IPv6, use of LLC sub-
layer and EtherType Protocol Discrimination (EPD), maintenance
of MIB, and exchange of specific management related information
among WAVE devices.
6.1.4. Security: IEEE 1609.2-2016-security services for applications and
management messages
The standard [158]) specifies communications security of WSAs
and WSMs. It also specifies security services to the higher lay-
ers. The security services are provided with the help of processing
function of Secure Data Service (SDS), and management function
of Station Security Management Entity (SSME).
Secure Data Service (SDS): The SDS provides communications
security services to the entities at the higher layer (including ap-
plications) that produce and consume secured protocol data unit
(SPDUs). In the context of the 1609.2 standard [158], these entities
are called Secure Data Exchange Entities (SDEEs). These SDEEs in-
teract with the SDS via the secure interface called Secure Service
Access Points (Sec-SAPs). The SAPs provide an interface to SDEEs
and other WAVE entities.
The standard specifies that the generic security services of a
communication system such as authentication, non-repudiation,
integrity, replay protection, and relevance checking are provided
by signing and verification. The signing and verification are done
with the producer’s permissions indicated using digital certificates.
The standard does not provide privacy service, however, other fea-
tures such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), Datagram TLS (DTLS),
RF fingerprinting, readdressing of MAC and IP addresses after a
certain duration, etc can be used to protect the privacy. The stan-
dard provides confidentiality service by symmetric authenticated
encryption. The standard allows the use of the Elliptic Curve Digi-
tal Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) for signing and the Elliptic Curve
Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES) for encryption.
Station Security Management Entity (SSME): The SSME stores
certificates and related information about each certificate such as
the data, previous revocation information (if any), expected revoca-
tion information (if any), verification status (verified and trusted),
trust anchor etc. The stored certificate information at SSME re-
lates to: (i) Locally held certificates: The corresponding private key of
the certificate is stored by the SDS. (ii) Certificate Authorities (CAs) based
certificates: The corresponding private key of the certificate is not stored
by the SDS. It belongs to peer SDEEs and to CAs.
The SSME has two interfaces (SAPs) using which other WAVE
entities communicate with it. These to SAPs are SSME-Sec-SAP and
SSME-SAP. The communication via these two interfaces is done to
obtain and update security management information. The SSME-
Sec-SAP is primarily used by the SDS, while SSME-SAP is used by
the SDS and other entities.
The SSME-SAP allows SDEEs to update (add and delete) certifi-
cate or related information and inform SDEEs about managed cer-
tificates. It helps to check the certificate verification. The SSME-SAP
trust on the information provided to the SSMEs. The SSME-Sec-SAP
interface can be used to get the information about replayed PDUs.
It can also be used in peer-to-peer certificate distribution and its
configuration.
6.1.5. Application service layer: IEEE 1609.11-2010-Over-the-air
electronic payment data exchange protocol
The standard [159] specifies the application service layer and
profile for Payment and Identity authentication, and payment data
transfer for DSRC based applications using IEEE 802.11p and WAVE
protocols. It defines a basic level of technical interoperability for
electronic payment equipment, mainly OBU and RSU. Example use
case Electronic Toll Collections: At a tollbooth, an RSU acts as a
Payee Unit, and OBUs of the vehicles act as Payer Units. The toll
transaction is carried out reliably and safely when the vehicle
passes the tollbooth at highway speeds.
6.1.6. Safety application message sublayer: SAE J2735 DSRC message set
dictionary
The standard [160] specifies a message set, and its data frames
and data elements, specifically for use by applications intended to
utilize the DSRC for V2V and V2I based safety message exchange. It
includes the detailed specifications of each message and the details
required to interpret and correctly implement this message. The
connected vehicle system to be deployed in the USA are expected
to use the message set defined by this standard for safety applica-
tions and collision avoidance use cases discussed in Section 3.1.
Safety applications utilize the DSRC/IEEE 802.11p to exchange
messages between WAVE devices (OBUs and RSUs). The standard
allows vehicles to periodically broadcast their status information
using Basic Security Message (BSM). Status information can include
information such as sender location, speed, heading, acceleration,
and other key information. The OBU of the receiver after reception
of the BSM determines the state of collision (exists or not) and
informs the driver via HMI. The same features are supported in
Europe C-ITS using the cooperative awareness message and the de-
centralized environmental notification message. The standard de-
velopments for SAE DSRC and WAVE protocol stack are developed
cooperatively.
6.1.7. On-board system requirements for V2V safety communications:
SAE J2945/1
The standard [161] specifies the onboard system requirements
for V2V safety communications system for light vehicles. It also in-
cludes standards profiles, functional requirements, and minimum
performance requirements. The system which is defined in the
standard is capable of transmitting and receiving the BSM (SAE
J2735) over WAVE devices.
6.1.8. Identifier allocations: 1609.12-2016
It records the Provider Service Identifier (PSID) and other iden-
tifiers such as Object Identifier (OID), Management ID and Ether-
Type. These IDs are used by WAVE protocols (IEEE 1609 family of
standards) [162].
The standard defines three PSID values for BSM-based applica-
tions. First PSID value is intended for the BSM derived from the
sensor data of the vehicle. These messages meet defined accuracy
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
requirements. The second PSID value is also intended for vehicle
BSMs for which data are not available at the defined accuracy level.
The third value is mainly used for messages composed by OBUs of
tracked vehicles such as trains. The receiver can effectively distin-
guish between the three classes of BSM using the corresponding
PSID values present in the WSMP header. As of now, total nine
PSID values have been allocated for SAE J2735.
6.1.9. Management plane
The management services are introduced at different entities of
the data plane to run the system effectively. These services provide
various functions at the corresponding layer level, including time
synchronization for channel coordination, processing of requested
services, advertising generation and it’s monitoring, the configu-
ration of the local IP stack, and so on. The two main manage-
ment entities introduced are (i)Extension of MAC sublayer manage-
ment entity (MLME) of IEEE 802.11 (ii) WAVE Management Entity
(WME). The first one is specified in the standard IEEE 1609.4 [156]
and the second one is in IEEE 1609.3 [157]. The SDS described in
6.1.4 can be invoked by the WME or by entities at a higher layer.
The generation and monitoring of WSAs are done within the man-
agement plane and by the WME. However, WSAs are transported
by the WSMP as requested by the WME.
An improved implementation of the connected vehicle system
may require changes in one or more standards of the WAVE proto-
col stack. The U.S. DOT’s ITS Joint Program Office (JPO), National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), other SDOs, the
SAE, the IEEE, and the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP)
are working together to enhance and publish aforementioned stan-
dards of connected vehicle system.
6.2. ITS protocol stack of Japan: ARIB STD-T109
The proposed ITS protocol stack of Japan ARIB STD-T109 is
shown in Fig. 23.c) and details are summarized below. In com-
parison to the 5.8 GHz band, the ARIB STD-T109 operates in 700
MHz band reaches longer distance and supports Non-Line of Sight
(NLOS) communication. It supports both V2V and V2I communica-
tion and suitable for V2V communication at blind intersections.
The wireless communication specified in ARIB STD-T109 at the
physical layer is very similar to IEEE 802.11p, however, operates
using frequency of 760 MHz [163]. The standard is based on the
OSI reference model and specifies the Layers 1, 2 and 7, and Inter-
Vehicle and Roadside-to-Vehicle Communication (IVC-RVC) Layer.
The IVC-RVC Layer specifies necessary system functions of Layers
3, 4, 5 and Layer 6 of the OSI reference model. The primary ob-
jective of the system is to reduce the number of road accidents,
reduce traffic congestion and assisting drivers to identify nearby
vehicles and pedestrians.
6.2.1. Physical layer: ARIB-PHY
The standard specifies technical requirements of the PHY layer
that includes the structure of the frame, channels, and signals, etc.
The transmission methods used are given as follows:
• Operating frequency: 755.5 MHz–764.5 MHZ (Single channel)
• RF Channel Width: Less than 9 MHz.
• Modulation: BPSK/OFDM, QPSK/OFDM, 16QAM/OFDM.
• Forward Error correction: Convolution code R = 1/2, 3/4.
• Data transmission rate: 3, 4.5, 6, 9, 12, 18Mbps.
• Media access control: CSMA/CA.
• Duplex Method: TDD.
25
6.2.2. Data link layer: ARIB-MAC + IEEE802.2 LLC + Subnetwork Access
Protocol (SNAP)
It specifies a MAC sublayer and a logical link control (LLC) sub-
layer. The MAC sublayer uses physical carrier sense (PCS) and the
virtual carrier sense (VCS) function to judge the condition of the
medium. The PCS function is provided by Clear Channel Assess-
ment (CCA) and VCS is provided by the transmission inhibition
period, which is defined based on the information of the IVC-RVC
layer. The main functions of the ARIB-MAC sublayer are generation
and transmission of MPDU, control of CSMA, management of the
1-second cycle timer and insertion of the transmission time to the
transmission frame.
6.2.3. IVC-RVC layer: IVC-RVC layer
It generates and maintains control information in order to di-
vide time into V2V communication (IVC) periods and I2V commu-
nication (RVC) periods. It provides the required control information
needed for transmission control to Layer 2. It is like using TDMA
on top of CSMA/CA, medium access scheme [163]. This time divi-
sion based scheme prevents interference between an IVC and an
RVC communication. Base stations and vehicles carry out commu-
nications normally in control cycles of 100000 μs each. Each of
these cycles is divided into control 16 smaller periods of length
6250 μs. The RVC periods allocated after every 390-time units for
the duration of 0 μs-to-3024 μs. The base station transfers the RVC
period information to surrounding mobile stations. During the RVC
period, no vehicles are allowed to access the channel. Vehicles are
allowed to compete for access to the channel using CSMA/CA dur-
ing the remaining time in each cycle. Base stations synchronize
their clocks from external time sources like GPS. Vehicles synchro-
nize its local clock based on the transmission timestamp received
from a base station. Main Services of the layer are as follows:
• Generation of IVC-RVC protocol data unit (IPDUs).
• Sending and receiving IPDUs.
• and RVC control (Transmission Inhibition period control).
• Maintaining RVC Period Information
6.2.4. Application layer
It provides a communication control method and services for
the application. It specifies a method for transmission and recep-
tion of data through the IVC-RVC Layer. The standard covers fol-
lowing subject:
• Application layer framework and structure.
• Services to enable data transfer and remote operations.
• Common encoding rules to translate data into local syntax
with an abstract syntax defined by Abstract Syntax Notation
One (ASN.1) into transfer syntax and vice versa.
6.3. ITS protocol stack of Europe: C-ITS
The C-ITS reference architecture follows well-known OSI ISO
layer model. The OSI model has been simplified and extended
to define the reference architecture of the ITS station. The Euro-
pean reference architecture C-ITS is defined in ETSI EN 302 665
[164] and ISO 21217 [165]. The ISO 21217 standard specifies the
reference architecture for the ITS station and called the Commu-
nications Access for Land Mobile (CALM) station architecture. As
shown in Fig. 24, CALM has six domains: Applications, Manage-
ment, Access, Networking & Transport, Facilities, and Security. The
Fig. 23.d) shows the protocol stack of the C-ITS station used in Eu-
rope. This protocol stack has been used and enhanced by many
European ITS projects.
The core element of the C-ITS is ITS station and its function
element (subsystem) are given as follows:
26 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 24. ITS station reference architecture (ISO 21217) [164].
• Personal ITS sub-system; in hand-held devices.
• Roadside ITS sub-system; on gantries, poles, etc.
• Central ITS sub-system; part of an ITS central system.
• Vehicle ITS sub-system; in cars, trucks, etc., in motion or
parked.
The OSI communication layer representation of C-ITS reference
architecture are as follows:
• Access Layer: OSI Layers 1 and 2
• Networking & Transport: OSI Layers 3 and 4
• Facilities: OSI Layers 5, 6 and 7.
Similar to the connected vehicle stack, the security entity of the
C-ITS provides security services. The management entity manages
the communication of the ITS station and the application entity
provides an ITS service to its users via a set of ITS applications.
We discuss the details of the C-ITS protocol stack layers defined in
their respective standards.
6.3.1. Access layer: ETSI ES 202 663
The standard [166] specifies the PHY and MAC layer of 5 GHz
ITS using IEEE 802.11 as the base standard. It covers frequency
ranges ITS-G5A, ITS-G5B, and ITS-G5C. The physical transmission
in ITS-G5 is derived from IEEE 802.11p (based on IEEE 802.11a).
The basic adhoc mode functionality of ITS-G5 is similar to IEEE
802.11p and works OCB mode. OCB enables the exchange of data
frames between ITS-G5 stations that are not members of a BSS. The
OCB mode disables the scanning, association, authentication and
other management procedure to simplify the operation. Stations
can exchange data immediately and directly without any delay due
to management frame exchange. At MAC layer ITS-G5 uses same
CSMA/CA with one MAC entity per channel. The scheme is ex-
tended by QoS support via EDCA. The other standards at this layer
are given as follows:
• ETSI TS 102 724: The standard [167] is a part of MAC Exten-
sion Layer and specifies details of the channel usage in the
ITS-G5A and ITS-G5B bands. It also includes multichannel op-
eration support, which controls an ITS-G5 transceiver to tune
to a specific SCH in a dual mode. The first mode is fixed to
the CCH, and the other mode may dynamically switch among
SCHs. The standard includes:
– CCH and SCH operation for ITS-G5.
– Usage of ITS-G5 channels for road safety and traffic effi-
ciency.
– ITS-G5 transmit and receive policies, channel selection, and
configuration.
– Per-traffic-stream and per-channel rate control.
– Reference usage scenarios and parameters.
– ITS-G5 adjacent channel interference considerations.
• ETSI TS 102 687: The standard [168] specifies the Decentral-
ized Congestion Control (DCC) mechanisms on the access layer
that includes:
– Transmit power control (TPC) per packet,
– Transmit rate control (TRC) and
– Transmit datarate control (TDC).
The latter two methods modify the average transmit power by
modifying the duty cycle of the ITS-G5 station. In addition to
these two, the DCC sensitivity control (DSC) mechanism adapts
the clear channel assessment (CCA) to resolve local channel
congestion. A transmit queueing concept and transmit access
control (TAC) introduces priority to the packets. The packet
with the highest priority is handled less restrictive. The DCC
mechanisms rely on channel state information, which is ob-
tained using channel probing.
6.3.2. Networking and transport layer: ETSI EN 302 636 series
The series covers standards for network and transport layer,
referred as GeoNetworking protocol standards. It is a network pro-
tocol that resides in the network and transport layer of C-ITS pro-
tocol stack. Various Parts of this layer are given as follows:
• Part 1 (ETSI EN 302 636-1): Requirements
• Part 2 (ETSI EN 302 636-2): Scenarios
• Part 3 (ETSI EN 302 636-3): Network Architecture
• Part 4: Specifies the Networking Protocols defined in following
subparts :
– Subpart 1 (ETSI EN 302 636-4-1): Media-Independent Func-
tionality.
– Subpart 2 (ETSI TS 102 636-4-2): Media-dependent func-
tionalities for ITS-G5.
• Part 5 (ETSI EN 302 636-5-1): Transport Protocols Subpart 1:
Basic Transport Protocol (BTP).
• Part 6 (ETSI EN 302 636-6-1): Internet Integration; Subpart
1: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over GeoNetworking Protocols
(GN6).
The GeoNetworking protocol executes on adhoc router speci-
fied in Part 3 to provide packet routing based on geographical
addresses. It must fulfill the requirements specified in Part 1 and
work in scenarios specified in Part 2. It provides services to the C-
ITS Transport Protocol, such as the Basic Transport Protocol (BTP)
specified in Part 5, and the GeoNetworking to IPv6 Adaptation Sub-
Layer (GN6ASL) specified in Part 6.
6.3.3. Facilities layer: ETSI TS 102 894-1
The standard [169] specifies the users and applications require-
ments, the layer structure, functional requirements etc. The facil-
ities layer is a middleware between the application and the net-
work & transport layer of the C-ITS protocol stack. It has multiple
facilities and provides services to the upper layer. It interacts with
the lower layers and with the security and management entities of
the ITS station. The ETSI standards specify the functional architec-
ture of this layer and specify the requirements and specifications
of the identified facilities. Facilities are mainly classified into two
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
categories, common and domain to provide core and specific ser-
vices, respectively. The domain facilities include applications, in-
formation, and communication support. In addition to these three
supports, administrative support is included in common facilities.
The relevant standards of C-ITS messaging by ETSI are as follows:
• Cooperative Awareness Message (CAM): ETSI EN 302 637-2.
• Decentralized Environmental Notification Message (DENM):
ETSI EN 302 637-3.
CAM and DENM are the basic safety messages (similar to BSM)
that notify an ITS station about their state (speed, direction, loca-
tion) and events (road hazard warning, etc.), respectively. In addi-
tion to CAM and DANM, some other messages standardized by CEN
TC 278 in collaboration with ISO TC 204 are given as follows:
• Signal Phase and Timing (SPaT)
• Map Data (MAP)
• Signal Request Message (SRM)
• Signal Status Message (SSM)
• Probe Data (ISO TR 20025)
• In-Vehicle Information (IVI ISO/TS 19321:2015).
The first four messages are standardized as ISO/TS 19091 [170]
that encompasses their data structures and data elements for var-
ious V2V and V2I communication based use cases. The SPaT pro-
vides intersection’s signal data and the MAP provides data of the
road topology. The SRM requests preemption or priority services
for selected vehicle groups and the SSM provides the current sta-
tus of the signal (internal state) to all vehicles in range. For probe
data, standardization work is in progress. IVI is used to exchange
data between ITS-S and includes information such as contextual
speed, vehicle restrictions, road works warnings, lane restrictions,
location-based services, road hazards warnings, etc. Other Stan-
dards at this layer are:
• ETSI TS 102 894-2: Common Data Dictionary (CDD) for appli-
cation and facilities layer
• ETSI EN 302 895: Basic Local Dynamic map (LDM) (Vehicle
oriented).
6.3.4. Application layer: ETSI TR102 638
The standard [171] specifies Basic Set of Applications (BSA) for
vehicular communication. Identified BSA for initial C-ITS deploy-
ment are classified into four groups and are given as follows:
• Active Road Safety (Cooperative awareness and road hazard
warning).
• Co-operative traffic efficiency (Speed management and Coop-
erative navigation).
• Co-operative local services (Location based service).
• Global Internet services (Communities service and ITS-S lifecy-
cle management).
The standard also specifies minimum requirements for follow-
ing three groups of safety applications:
• Road Hazard Signalling (RHS): ETSI TS 101 539-1
• Intersection Collision Risk Warning (ICRW): ETSI TS 101 539-2
• Longitudinal Collision Risk Warning (LRCW): ETSI TS 101
539-3
6.3.5. Security: ETSI TS 102 940
The standard [172] specifies the security architecture and se-
curity management for ITS communications. Security functional
elements and reference points are identified to provide security.
27
Different standards developed for the security entities are given as
follows:
• ETSI TS 102 731 defines security services.
• ETSI TS 103 097 specifies security header and certificate for-
mats for ITS specifically to secure ITS-G5 communication.
• ETSI TS 102 867 specifies the mapping of IEEE 1609.2 security
within the C-ITS.
• ETSI TS 102 941 based on the architecture and services defined
in TS 102 940 and 102 731, it specifies the trust and privacy
management.
• ETSI TS 102 942 to avoid unauthorized access to ITS services
the standard specifies authentication and authorization ser-
vices.
• ETSI TS 102 943 specifies services to ensure the confidentiality
of information.
6.3.6. Management: ETSI TS 102 687 and ETSI TS 103 175
In order to ensure proper functioning of ITS, the DCC com-
ponents are introduced. As already mentioned, it is a cross-layer
management function i.e. located on several layers of the ITS-S
reference architecture. ETSI TS 102 687 defines a framework that
includes DCC architecture and their mapping and interfacing. It
consists four DCC components:
• DCC located at the access layer (DCC_access)
• DCC located at the networking and transport layer (DCC_net)
• DCC located at the facilities layer (DCC_app)
• DCC located in management layer (DCC_mgmt)
The functionalities of the DCC_access component are already dis-
cussed in the Access layer part.
The ETSI TS 103 175 [173] specifies the functionality of the DCC
component residing in the management plane (DCC_mgmt). The
objective of the DCC operation is to:
• Evaluate the load of the active radio channels.
• Optimize the radio channel usage by managing the ITS-S DCC
parameters.
• Keep track and help the exchange of DCC parameters that
cannot be conveyed via the data plane between the different
layers. It also defines an ITS-S internal management to eval-
uate the congestion status for the ITS-G5 channels based on
information from different layers.
The second phase of the C-ITS development is focusing on inter-
operable deployment with cooperative, connected and automated
mobility (CCAM) [174] in the European Union.
7. Project activities
7.1. ITS projects in the USA
The ITS revolution begins with an explanation of the needs and
challenges that motivated the start of the ITS. The first research
program, “California PATH Program” in North America was founded
in 1986. In 1991, the US Congress initiated the Intelligent Vehicle
Highway Systems (IVHS) program via Intermodal Surface Trans-
portation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). The main objectives of this pro-
gram are to improve road safety, increase efficiency, conserve fossil
fuel and reduce pollution of the U.S. national road infrastructure
[175]. The responsibilities of the IVHS program was entrusted to
the United State Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). In 1996,
the IVHS service framework prepared by the U.S. DOT, and Intelli-
gent Transportation Society of America (ITSA) and finally named
National Intelligent Transportation Systems Architecture (NITSA).
28 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Till date, this framework is considered one of the master plans
for ITS in the U.S.A. NITSA acknowledged and accepted wireless
communications as a key component in their implementation of
ITS services [175]. Now, all R&D works associated with U.S. DOT
is managed and controlled by Research and Innovative Technology
Administration (RITA) [176].
The two key priorities of U.S. DOT’s current ITS research pro-
gram are (i) Realization of Connected Vehicle implementation (ii)
Advancement of Automation technology.
The seven US DOT’s offices led by ITS Joint Program Office (JPO)
for ITS program coordination are given as follows:
• Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
• Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA)
• Federal Transit Administration (FTA)
• Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
• Maritime Administration (MARAD)
• St. Lawrence Seaway
A summary of the major ITS projects in the USA is given in
Table 12.
7.2. ITS projects in Japan
Japan has a long history of ITS and connected vehicle tech-
nology. The history of Japanese ITS research and development [6]
[184] are:
• 1973: Comprehensive Automobile Traffic Control System
(CACS)
• 1980: Trial operation of Highway Advisory Information Radio
system (HAIR)
• 1984: Road Automobile Communication System (RACS)
• 1989: Advanced Mobile Traffic Information and Communica-
tion System (AMTICS)
• 1991: Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV).
These projects have contributed to the development of the Ve-
hicle Information and Communication System (VICS).
In 1990, three government agencies, the Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications (MPT), the National Police Agency (NPA) and
the Ministry of Construction collaborated in the implementation of
the VICS. In 1991, these agencies began their work jointly with the
industry. Finally, in 1996, VICS services were launched. The year
1996 was the golden period in the history of ITS in Japan.
In 1994, Vehicle, Road and Traffic Intelligence Society (VER-
TIS) was formed. In 1996, an overall framework for ITS Japan was
created as a result of joint efforts of five government ministries,
academic experts, industries, and associations. In 1996, the world
first successful test of the control system was carried out on a pub-
lic road, involving 25 companies. 11 vehicles operated continuously
for 11 km. In 2001, Electronic Toll Collection System (ETC) service
was launched. Later in 2001, VERTIS became ITS Japan. In March
2011, Japan launched an ITS Spot Service nationally. These projects
have an exceptional impact on traffic and carbon emissions. Due to
VICS, C O 2 emissions reduced by 2.4 million tonnes in 2009. ETC
eliminates traffic congestion and reduces C O 2 emissions by about
210,000 tonnes each year [184], and also helpful in relaxed driv-
ing. The main objectives of ITS Japan are to integrate people, roads,
and vehicles to solve traffic problems such as congestion, road ac-
cidents, and environmental degradation [184].
Four government bodies of Japan who have jointly finalized a
“Comprehensive Plan for ITS” are:
• MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism
• NPA: National Police Agency
• MIC: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
• METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry
A summary of major ITS projects in Japan is given in Table 13.
7.3. ITS projects in Europe
The Eureka PROMETHEUS Project (PROgraMme for a Euro-
pean Traffic of Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety,
1987-1995) was the largest R&D project ever in the field of
driverless cars [195] [196]. Car manufacturers from six European
countries headed this research programme. The primary goal of
PROMETHEUS was to create concepts and solutions (use of micro-
electronics, information processing, and artificial intelligence) for
efficient, safe and eco-friendly road traffic system. The European
Union (EU) comprises twenty-eight sovereign States or member
countries, each having its own legislative and judicial bodies. Na-
tional Governments, the European Commission (EC) or both, spon-
sor most of the public research.
The primary objective of European ITS projects is to address
three significant transport challenges: providing road safety (re-
ducing the number of road accidents), reducing energy consump-
tion (C O 2 emissions contribute to mitigating climate change), and
reducing traffic congestion (efficiency and comfort).
The main instrument for funding research and development
projects in the European Union is the Framework Programme (FP).
Most of the ITS related projects are funded under the EU Frame-
work Programme(FP) in category ’ICT for Transport’. FP project in-
formation is available on the European Commission’s community
research and development information service web page at [197].
The main European ITS projects of FP6, and FP7 are presented
in Table 14, and Table 15, respectively.
8. Future research directions
In this work, we provide a comprehensive survey of the state
of the art, capturing latest details, standardization efforts and
emerging technologies. However, vehicular network is evolving
with traditional network, wireless access for vehicular environ-
ment (WAVE), Cooperative ITS (C-ITS) protocol stacks, Internet-of-
Vehicle (IoV), Software Defined Vehicular Network (SDVN), Vehic-
ular Named Data Network (VNDN), and Mobility-First architecture.
These new emerging architectures and technologies offer great op-
portunities for the researchers to contribute in this domain and
take it to new heights. In this section, we discuss some of the key
areas that are largely open to research communities.
8.1. Seamless V2I connectivity in Multi-Tier and Multi-RAT
ITS has now become an essential part of smart cities and, in
order to provide ITS services, we need seamless connectivity with
low latency, high throughput and high packet delivery ratio. Vehi-
cles must be enabled to run applications and use services seam-
lessly. Providing connectivity in a vehicular network with rapid
topological changes, random vehicle speed, variable node density
is a challenging task, and V2V and V2I communications suffer in
terms of high packet loss, high delay or low throughput. Now the
question is: How do we enable vehicles with seamless connectiv-
ity, i.e. continuous connectivity with Quality of Service support?
The first approach is to deploy RSUs to ensure seamless con-
nectivity. As already mentioned, deployment of a large number of
RSUs is not a practical approach due to the high cost of deploy-
ment and maintenance. Having many RSUs deployed can cause
interference in the form of co-channel and adjacent channel inter-
ference. Therefore, this approach for seamless connectivity needs
to be fully investigated.
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 29

Table 12
Main US ITS projects.

US ITS Projects Start-End Goal

PATH [177] 1986- The first several years of PATH research are divided into three primary
(California Ongoing categories: Navigation,automation and road electrification.
Partners for Later in 2005–2006, PATH had been reorganized into four program-
Advanced Transit matic areas to align with Caltrans interests: traffic operations, transit
and Highways) operations, transportation safety and policy and behavior.
Transportation Safety Research, Traffic Operations, Sustainability, Modal
Applications, Integrated Corridor Management, Automated and Con-
nected Vehicles and Berkeley Deep Drive are the main research do-
mains of PATH.
Starting in Summer 2015. California PATH plans a new initiative
on advanced computer vision and machine learning for autonomous
transportation.

Vehicle Safety 2002- Eight high potential benefit safety application scenarios are selected:
Communications 2004 1) Traffic Signal Violation Warning 2) Curve Speed Warning 3) Emer-
(VSC) [178] gency Electronic Brake Lights 4) Cooperative Forward Collision Warning
5) Intersection Collision Warning 6) Left Turn Assistant 7) Lane Change
Warning 8) Stop Sign Movement Assistance.
DSRC has been proposed as a potential catalyst for a number of vehicle
safety applications.

IntelliDrive(sm)/VII 2004- Verify and enhance WAVE/IEEE 1609 features.

(Vehicle 2009 Vehicle to Vehicle communication for Safety Applications.
Infrastructure
Integration) [179] Vehicle to Infrastructure for Safety, Mobility and Environment.

CICAS (Cooperative 2004- Develop and demonstrate cooperative intersection collision avoidance
Intersection 2009 systems for both violations and gaps; to warn drivers about likely vi-
Collision olations of traffic control devices and to help them maneuver through
Avoidance cross traffic and inform other drivers (i.e., potential victims) about im-
Systems) [180] pending violations as well as identify pedestrians and cyclists within
an intersection.

Vehicle Safety 2006- Implementation and testing of vehicle safety system using Dedicated
Communications 2009 Short Range Communications (DSRC) at 5.9 GHz and vehicle position-
Applications [181] ing.Explore possible improvements in this autonomous vehicle-based
safety systems that can facilitate new communications-based safety
applications.

SafeTrip21 [182] 2008- In order to accelerate the deployment of near-market-ready ITS tech-
(Safe and Efficient Ongoing nologies capable of delivering safety and mobility benefits, numerous
Travel through operational tests and demonstration have been carried out.
Innovation and Demonstration is about, How better use of information, navigation,
Partnership for the communications, technologies and protocols can make a measurable
21st century) impact. For example, How it can reduce vehicle crashes and traf-
fic congestion, enhance transit use and ride sharing, promote motor
freight efficiency and safety, allow convenient electronic payment op-
tions, moderate environmental impacts and reduce unnecessary motor
fuel consumption in both urban and rural settings.

Vehicle-to-Vehicle 2009-Ongoing Facilitates the deployment of the Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication-

(V2V) based safety systems that should enhance safety across the vehicle
Communications fleet within the USA.
for Safety [183] Enabling each vehicle on the roadway to communicate with each other.
Based on the set of data collected and the communications, a new
generation of active safety applications and systems needs to be im-
plemented.

The second approach is to enable vehicles to access any net-
work (heterogeneous network). To do this following needs to be
done:
• Equip the OBU of vehicles with multiple network interface
cards (NICs) to provide connection to the latest available wire-
less access technologies such as IEEE 802.11p, LTE-Pro, and
Wi-Fi.
• Build vehicular heterogeneous networks (5G) that can be com-
binations of Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.11p, and cellular networks using
link layer aggregation and other methods to provide connec-
tions everywhere.
• Implementation of secure and seamless connectivity options,
either by fast handover (horizontal and vertical handover in
the 5G heterogeneous network [217]), or by Multipath TCP
(MPTCP) [218], Multipath IP (MPIP) [219], etc.
The implementation of a vertical handover involves three steps:
handover initiation, handover decision, and handover execution.
The selection of proper metrics and methods for seamless han-
dover decision in a vehicular network is an important area of
research. The main objective of vertical handover is to preserve
connectivity, maintain QoS, and limit the number of unnecessary
vertical handovers. Several metrics used by researchers to trig-
ger handover decisions are: Received Signal Strength (RSS) [220],
Signal-to-Noise and Interference Ratio (SINR) [221], location [222]
and QoS guarantees [223]. Whether the traditional approach can
be applied in the vehicular network or not, and how to imple-
30 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 13
Main Japanese ITS projects.

Japanese ITS Start-End Goals

projects
Electronic Toll 1993- Use of Identical OBU for all ETC operations and provided by different
Collection Systems Ongoing road operators. The system uses DSRC (ARIB STD-T75) communication
[185] [186] [187] for transmitting data at high-speed and in a robust manner. Uniform
transponder and payment card are used on any toll network.
Broaden serviceability to all types of vehicles.
Both the Prepayment and post-payment charge offers are provided.

VICS (Vehicle 1996- Aim is to provide real-time road traffic information about congestion
Information and Ongoing and regulation to the drivers.
Communication Processed Information in the form of text or graphic from the VICS
System) center, is delivered via three communication and broadcasting media:
FM Multiplex broadcasting, Radio wave beacon and Infrared beacon.

Advanced Safety 1991- Methods and devices which provide increased traffic safety and
Vehicle (ASV) Ongoing make the vehicles more friendly to humans (V2I/I2V and V2V
[6] [188] [189] communication).
Phase-vise Active safety(preventive): OBU observes sensor data about the traf-
ASV-1:1991-95 fic situation and driving conditions, makes decisions and supports the
ASV-2:1996-00 driver or even takes control of the vehicle to prevent an accident.
ASV3: 2001-05
ASV4:2006-10 Both 5.8 GHz DSRC and 700 MHz ITS communications in V2V com-
ASV5:2010-15 munications are used to send alerts or warning to the drivers about
potential collisions with other drivers.

Smartway [6] 2004- To build a road system with communication infrastructure (RSUs) using
[190] 2007 DSRC 5.8 GHz for exchanging information among cars, drivers, pedes-
trians and users in I2V mode.

DSSS To prevent traffic accidents at intersections by issuing visual and audi-

(Driving Safety ble warnings.
2006-
Support Systems) DSSS alerts drivers based on information collected from various road-
ongoing
[6] [191] [192] side sensors (detects cars, motorcycles, and pedestrians that are not in
the driver’s sight), road configuration, traffic signal and regulations.
Road-to-vehicle cooperative system on local roads (Vehicle-
Infrastructure communication based on the IR light beacon).

ITS-Safety 2010 [6] 2008- To achieve the required applications of vehicle-infrastructure coopera-
[193] 2011 tive systems by March 2011.

ITS Spot [194] 2009- To Provide three basic services: i) Dynamic Route Guidance ii) Assisting
Ongoing Safety Driving ii) ETC and in addition to these some additional services
including internet access.
ITS Spots installed mainly on expressways and services are provided
via 5.8 GHz DSRC.

ment handover decisions in the heterogeneous vehicular network

for seamless connectivity remains an open research problem.

8.2. Internet-of-Vehicle: edge, fog and cloud computing

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is an inevitable convergence of

the IP, mobile networks and the Internet of Things. It is a con-
verged technology with the following components in its domain:
smart things (embedded in-vehicle sensors), multi-services edges
(Wi-Fi, LTE, 802.11p), fog nodes, distributed intelligence, IP/MPLS
Core (Security, QoS, Multicast, Network Services, and Mobile Packet
Core) and Vehicular Cloud (IoT analytics, virtualization, authentica-
tion and applications) (Fig. 25). IoV introduce numerous physical Fig. 25. Internet-of-vehicles: Edge, Fog and Vehicular Cloud.
objects into cyberspace offering a great research opportunity in
online privacy protection and security services. IoV is an emerging
field with numerous research possibilities, notably on its architec- and service performance. However, considering the limitations of
tures and services, as well as in its sub-domains such as mobile backhaul and backbone networks (in terms of capacity and delay),
edge, fog computing, privacy, security and trust, QoS, big data anal- if cloud servers are placed far away from the vehicles it may cause
ysis & processing, machine learning based intelligence, smart grid serious performance degradation (efficiency of the off-loading con-
etc. tent) [224]. MEC is considered as a promising technology which
Mobile-Edge Computing (MEC). As the number of vehicles on road can enable many of the 5G use cases mentioned in Section 4.3.2,
increases and V2X applications evolve, the data volume continue including V2X and automated driving. It can be very useful to push
to increase. The cloud computing for vehicular network is consid- the cloud services, applications and data to the edge of the vehicu-
ered as a new paradigm and greatly improves resource utilization lar network (radio access network). This would help in off-loading
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164 31

Table 14
Main European ITS projects (Under the FP6).

European ITS projects Start- Goals

End
COMeSafety 2006- Have an eSafety Forum for all issues related to V2V and V2I communi-
(Communications 2009 cations as a basis for cooperative intelligent road transport systems.
for eSafety) [198] Coordination and consolidation of research results and their implemen-
tation.
Support to worldwide harmonization.
Support to frequency and spectrum allocation.

COOPERS (CO-OPerative 2006- Improve road safety by using direct and latest traffic information com-
SystEms for Intelligent 2010 munication between infrastructure and motorized vehicles on a section
Road Safety) [199] of motorway.

CVIS (Cooperative 2006- To Design develop and test new technologies so that vehicles can com-
Vehicle-Infrastructure 2010 municate with each other and with the nearby RSUs.
Systems) [200]
SEVECOM (Secure 2006- To define a stable and future-proof solution to the security issues asso-
Vehicular 2008 ciated with vehicular communication and inter vehicle communication.
Communication) To Identify all possible threats and specify an architecture and security
[201] mechanisms.
Define cryptographic primitives which can cover specific operational
environment.

SAFESPOT [202] 2006- Prevention of road accidents via a safety margin assistant. Detect po-
2010 tentially dangerous situations in advance and sensitize drivers to the
surroundings in space and time.
V2V and V2I communications are used for making safety information
available to the drivers.
Improving safety information in its the precision, reliability and quality.

NoW (Network on 2004- Developing a vehicular communication system based on Adhoc and
Wheels) [203] 2008 WLAN technology for car-to-car and car-to-infrastructure communica-
tion. This vehicular communication must be used primarily for road
safety and infotainment applications.
Two main technologies used: WLAN (IEEE 802.11) and GPS-based
positioning.

AIDE (Adaptive 2004- Generate knowledge and develop methodologies for man-machine in-
Integrated Driver- 2008 terface technologies necessary for the safe and efficient integration of
vEhicle interface) ADAS, MS and nomadic devices into the driving environment.
[204]
APROSYS (Advanced 2004- Development and introduction of critical technologies to improve pas-
Protection Systems) 2009 sive safety for all European road users in all types of accidents and
[205] emergencies.

data, services and applications and bring them in close proximity
to the vehicles, i.e. at the RSU. Thus, minimizes latency, enables
faster access and satisfy QoS requirements and help to enhance
road safety, improve efficiency and convenience, optimize invest-
ment and deliver services with better QoE. MEC is not widely
explored in vehicular context and offers opportunities for the re-
searchers. The sub-domains in which researchers can contribute
are given as follows: [225].
Fog node facilitates efficient data processing, analysis and storage,
reduce the amount of data to be routed to the cloud, minimized
latency and improves response time. It provides great support for
mobility due to its proximity to the host (vehicle), improves QoS
and provides an enhanced QoE. The most important research chal-
lenges associated with Fog computing are [226,227] given below.
These must be addressed to make it suitable for vehicular network
context.

• Efficient MEC deployment.
• Provisioning of uninterrupted services to high speed vehicles.
• Reliability, availability, and fault tolerance.
• Security of applications and data and maintaining privacy.
• Scalability in varying densities.
• Load balancing.
• Support for multiple deployment scenarios (Multi-RAT)
Fog-Computing. Fog can provide most of the services (platform,
computation, storage, etc.) data and applications to end-users that
a cloud can. Data is processed and managed at the close proximity
of the host, rather than routing it to a central server farms or data
center in the cloud. Fog is, essentially, a middle level between the
edge and cloud (Fig. 25). It is deployed in a distributed fashion and
in close proximity of the host device to support mobility. Fog con-
nects several edge nodes and serve them on behalf of the cloud.
• Task scheduling: How, when, what and where should be con-
sidered?
• Data management: Efficient algorithms to shuffle data among
devices.
• Implementation of pre-fetching the data to minimize latency.
• Efficient resource/service provisioning in varying density and
high mobility.
• Load balancing and service selection.
• Scalability: Algorithms should be functional over a large scale.
• Maintaining data consistency across cloud and edge nodes.
• Security and privacy issues.
Vehicular Cloud. Nowadays, vehicles are equipped with powerful
resources such as computing, wireless communication interfaces
(LTE, Wi-Fi, and DSRC), storage (large volume hard disks), sensing
devices (sensors inside the car), GPS and short-range rear collision
32 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Table 15
Main European ITS projects (under the FP7).

European ITS projects Start-End Goals

PREDRIVE C2X
(Preparation for
driving implementation
and evaluation of C2X
communication
technology) [206]
Years
2008- Develop an integrated simulation model for cooperative systems that
2010 provides a holistic approach to estimating expected benefits in terms
of safety, efficiency, and environment.
Broad dissemination activities planned to communicate the public
about the benefits of vehicle technology in cooperative systems and
to reach out to all relevant European stakeholders.

GeoNET [207] [208]
2008- Implementation and formal testing of a networking mechanism as a
2010 single software module to be incorporated into Cooperative Systems.
Allow transparent IP connectivity between a vehicle and the road side
infrastructure, even in cases when delivery is multi-hopped or cached
along the way.
Use of geographic addressing and the routing mechanism to distribute
the packets to nodes within a selected destination area.

iTETRIS [209] [210]
2008- Development of a large-scale and long-term simulation tool for the
2011 evaluation of cooperative traffic management applications. The simula-
tor couples traffic and network simulation in a closed-loop for detailed
analyses of the effects and performance evaluation of cooperative ap-
plications on traffic flow, travel time, emissions, etc.

ROSATTE (Road safety 2008- Establishment of an efficient and assured quality data supply chain
attributes exchange in- 2010 from public authorities to commercial map providers for safety-related
frastructure in Europe) road content.
[211]

PRESERVE (Preparing 2011- Bring secure, privacy-protected V2X communication closer to reality by
Secure Vehicle-to-X 2015 providing field testing to a security and privacy subsystem.
Communication Provide comprehensive protection to in-vehicle sensors, onboard net-
Systems) [212] [213] work and V2V/V2I communication, and the receiving applications.

PRECIOSA (Privacy
enabled capability in
co-operative systems
and safety applications)
[214]
2008- Demonstration of co-operative system s compliance with future privacy
2010 regulations. It is done using a sample application that can be endowed
with technologies for proper privacy protection of location related data.
Define an evaluation approach to co-operative systems in terms of
communication and data storage privacy.
Define a privacy aware architecture for co-operative systems, involving
appropriate trust models and ontologies, and a privacy verifiable archi-
tecture for V2V and V2I.
Define and validate guidelines for privacy aware co-operative systems.
Investigate the key challenges for privacy.

DRIVE C2X [215]
2011- Create a harmonized testing environment in Europe for cooperative
2014 systems through Field Operational Tests (FOTs).
Coordinate the tests carried out in parallel throughout the DRIVE C2X
community.
Evaluate cooperative systems.
Promote cooperative driving.

COLOMBO 2012- Reduce congestion and its impact on everyday life in urban
(Cooperative 2015 environments.
Self-Organizing System The development of smarter urban transport systems, with the aim of
for low Carbon disseminating good practices towards more efficient urban transport.
Mobility at
low Penetration Bring together technologies, methods and combine well-established
Rates) [216] modeling tools such as vehicular pollutant emissions (PHEM), traffic
simulation (SUMO) and vehicular communication (iTETRIS and ns-3).

radars. In other words, we have powerful computers running on
the wheels. According to recent studies, these resources are under-
utilized because most of the time the vehicles are either parked
in the parking lot or driveway. One of the emerging research top-
ics is to use these underutilized computing, and physical resources
of vehicles for local vehicular cloud services or empower existing
cloud services for various applications.
8.3. Software Defined Vehicular Network (SDVN)
The main problem with the traditional network is that we have
to manually configure and manage every networking an internet-
work device installed in the network. It also causes high latency
in route recovery because it is based on the distributed mecha-
nism. The SDN has been designed to solve these problems of the
traditional networks by introducing centralized and programmable
mechanism to maintain, manage and configure every single device
on the network. The core intelligence and management features
of the network are provided by the SDN controller, which inter-
acts with the data plane using southbound interfaces (SBI) and
with the applications using northbound interfaces (NBI) (Fig. 26).
It separates the data plane from the control plane, which simpli-
fies network configuration and management task. The instructions
 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164
Fig. 26. Software defined vehicular network architecture: 5G HetNet with SDN.
which are received from the applications are converted into rules,
which are executed by the devices after receiving it via the control
plane (providing programmability).
The key components of the SDVN architecture (Fig. 26) could
be:
• SDN-enabled vehicle: that act as per the control message.
• SDN RSUs (HetNet): SDN agents are installed.
• RSUs Controller: SDN Controller that control set of RSUs.
The vehicular network can also take advantage of the various
features of the SDN such as programmability, flexibility and cen-
tralized control. It can help in resource provisioning, optimization,
routing, multipath connectivity, handover, channel allocation etc.
It can offer different services to the vehicular network related to
safety and non-safety. However, the adoption of SDNs in a vehic-
ular network is not so simple because of the high mobility of the
vehicle and the frequent topology changes. The following given ar-
eas could be the some of the future research directions in this
domain.
• Inclusion of intelligence to predict the movement of the vehi-
cle for mobility management.
• Allocation of the resources based on the context.
• Integration of heterogeneous network technologies.
• Integration of Fog and Edge nodes to support real time appli-
cations.
• Intra and inter-domain handover.
• Support for real time authentication in high mobility scenario.
• Fault-tolerance and scalability.
• Providing security and privacy in SDVN.
8.4. Vehicular Named Data Network
Named Data Networking (NDN) [228] (basis of Content-Centric
Networking (CCN [229])) is a newly proposed Internet architecture
and has already been tested in VANET [230]. The communication
mode of VNDN is shown in Fig. 27.
In VNDN, four major entities are:
• Producer of Data: Producer can be a content server or vehicle
itself (for example data produced by the vehicle’s sensor).
• Consumer: Vehicle generating the interest for safety and non-
safety related information.
33
Fig. 27. Vehicular named data network: V2V and V2I.
• Forwarder: A vehicle actively participating in communication
and forwarding packets.
• Mule: Vehicle storing the contents in its cache (content store)
and carries data across distance (while no connectivity avail-
able).
In VNDN, a vehicle can play any of the above given roles [230].
Each node in the NDN maintains three major data structures:
Pending Interest Table (PIT), Content Store (CS), and Forwarding
Information Base (FIB). When a vehicle wants to fetch some con-
tent it generates Interest packet for that and check the CS for data.
If data is present in its CS it fetches it, else checks its PIT (same
Interest already forwarded but not satisfied). If it is a new Inter-
est, the Interest packet is forwarded towards the data producer(s)
according to the FIB. When data is found, the corresponding node
finds the matching PIT entry and forwards the Data packet to all
downstream interfaces present it its PIT entry. After forwarding, a
node removes the corresponding PIT entry, and caches the copy of
the data in its CS. When the PIT entry for that Data packet is not
matched, it is assumed to be unsolicited and is dropped from it. In
this communication IP address is not used [228]; Interest packets
use the names of the content and are routed based on the names
carried in it. The Data packets follows the reverse path set up by
the Interest packets at each hop.
This technology is a future of communication architecture and
it will be an emerging area of research for vehicular communica-
tions. The VNDN is not widely explored, the key domains, in which
one can contribute are as follows:
• Efficient Naming and Content Caching.
• Better mechanisms for Interest forwarding and data dissemi-
nation.
• Congestion Control Mechanisms.
• Content Pre-fetching for V2I communication.
• Better replacement policies for PIT.
• Integration of other technologies such as SDN [231] and Mo-
bile Edge Computing [232].
• Security and Privacy
8.5. Security and privacy
As the vehicles are becoming intelligent (CAV), equipped with
sensors, Engine Control Unit (ECU), Controller Area Network (CAN
bus), integrated processors, application softwares and V2X connec-
tivity, the attack surface is also increasing. Like any other system in
the network, CAVs are also susceptible to cyber-attacks and hacks.
34 P.K. Singh et al. / Vehicular Communications 18 (2019) 100164

Any breach of security in CAVs can have disastrous consequences. Table 16

We now discuss some of the well known automotive hacks done Simulators for vehicular network.
by different research groups. Features Traffic Simulator Network Simu- VANET Simula-
In 2010, a group of researchers [233] conducted lab experi- lator tor
ments, and successfully demonstrated malfunctioning of the ve- Federated SUMO [238] ns-2 [239], MOVE[241]
hicle’s functions (disabled brakes, stopped the engine, and falsify QualNet [240]
speedometer information) by injecting some messages on the CAN SUMO ns-2 TraNSLite [242]

bus. They did it by physically accessing the vehicle. Netstream GTNetS MobiREAL [243]
In 2011, the same group analyzes the external attacks and dis- VanetMobisim ns-2, QualNet , —–
cussed how it could be done remotely [234]. They mentioned that [244] GloMoSim
SUMO OPNET [245] —–
vehicle’s telematics connectivity can be remotely exploited to in- Modeler
ject messages on the CAN bus. JiST/SWANS STRAW [246] —–
In July 2015, tech magazine Wired [235] reported that a cou- SUMO ns-3 [247] —–
ple of security researchers hacked a Jeep Cherokee by exploiting a
Bidirectional SUMO ns-2 TraNS [248] us-
loophole in its entertainment system which was connected to the
Coupled ing TraCI
Internet. They changed the radio station and the air conditioning,
SUMO ns-3 iTETRIS using
locked the doors and operated the windscreen wipers, and finally
iCS [249]
killed the engine and slammed the brakes. Fiat Chrysler Automo-
SUMO OMNeT++ [250] Veins Using
biles had to recall 1.4 million vehicles. TraCI [251]
Security cannot be an afterthought and it should not be taken
VISSIM [252] JiST/SWANS VSimRTI [253]
for granted because it can put lives at risk, so one of the biggest
Modified ver- JiST/SWANS VGSim [255]
challenges is to ensure security and privacy in a vehicular com- sion of Nagel and
munication system. Vehicular network is evolving as SDVN, VNDN, Schreckenberg
and Mobility first architecture. However, the security and privacy (N-S) model [254]
of the CAVs are still in its infancy. Developing secure in-vehicle in-
Emulator SUMO —- Mininet-WiFi
formation system, providing security services and at the same time [256,257]
preserving location privacy are the hot topics for the research. Few
Embedded Tightly Integrated Together GrooveNet
important areas of research in this domain could be:
[258]
EstiNet [259]
• Identifying internal & external attacks/threats and security vul-
nerabilities of CAVs and their impacts.
• Developing approach to secure Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) tween network and traffic simulators. Designing and developing a
of CAVs that includes ECU, CAN bus, FlexRay, Telematics, etc., realistic simulation tool that can help virtualization of the existing
[236]. real scenarios of road traffic and vehicular communications (with
• Providing security services to aforementioned vehicular net- SDN, fog, and edge support) is an important area of research.
work architectures.
• Developing intrusion detection system to detect the attacks 9. Conclusion
that targets in-vehicle system security gaps.
• Developing system to recognize the abnormal activity: mal- This paper provides a comprehensive survey of a vehicular com-
functioned component or malicious activity. munication system. The vehicular network architecture and com-
• Preserving location privacy of the vehicles in the VANETs. ponents, various applications, radio access technologies for a con-
• Designing approach to detect the misbehaving vehicles in the nected and autonomous vehicle such as DSRC, VLC, LTE-A, Wi-Fi,
vehicular network, its nature of misbehavior (malicious, selfish and C-V2X are discussed in detail. We presented the details of the
or compromised) and mechanism to prevent it [237]. next-generation 5G network, including its spectrum, use cases, ar-
chitectures, and status. We highlighted the standardization efforts
8.6. Simulation and traffic modeling of IEEE, ISO, ITU, ETSI, CEN, and SAE. The resulting ITS protocol
stacks as a connected vehicle, ARIB STD-T109 and Cooperative-ITS
In order to contribute to something new or to improve the ex- in the USA, Japan, and Europe are also discussed. Some of the
isting technologies of vehicular communication, we must carry out key ITS projects piloted in these three regions are discussed. We
experiments in a realistic scenario. Research using test beds in this started from vehicular network architecture, its applications and
field is very costly and is not a feasible approach for analyzing the ended up with extensive future research directions. We hope that
performance of a new methodology in all forms of mobility (rural, this survey will provide a meaningful insight and will be helpful
urban, highway) with variable density. It is therefore necessary to for the researchers, developers and government agencies.
have realistic modeling of traffic flows and mobility. It will allow
researchers to conduct in-depth experiments and help them accel- Declaration of Competing Interest
erate their work. The simulation tools listed in Table 16 allow us
to simulate various vehicular communication scenarios and some The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
of them (ns2 and ns3) are extensively used in this field. However, cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
these tools have their own limitations. As mentioned earlier, vehic- influence the work reported in this paper.
ular communication technologies are evolving very rapidly at RAN
and at the core level. Most of the available tools focus only on a References
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