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Radiative Energy Transfer

Dr. Amit Sharma

Dept. of Civil and Infrastructure Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur
Email: amit.sharma@iitj.ac.in
Basic definitions
• Photon – Elementary particle that has no mass, no electric
charge, and an indefinite lifetime
• Electromagnetic wave - A disturbance traveling through a
medium, such as air or space, that transfers energy from one
object to another without permanently displacing the medium
itself (consists of electric and magnetic field at right angles to
each other and to the direction of propagation)

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Radiation
• Radiation - Emission or propagation of energy in the form of a
photon or electromagnetic wave
• Radiation is emitted by all bodies in the Universe that have a
temperature above absolute zero (0 K).
• Radiation travels as a wave at the speed of light,
λ=cν
• Energy of a photon is given by,
E = h ν = h c/ λ

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Blackbody - A substance that absorbs all radiation that is
incident upon it i.e. no incident radiation is reflected by a
blackbody.
• No bodies are perfect blackbodies.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Blackbody - A substance that absorbs all radiation that is
incident upon it i.e. no incident radiation is reflected by a
blackbody.
• No bodies are perfect blackbodies.
• Blackbodies not only absorb, but also emit energy in different
wavelengths. Spectral radiant intensity (𝐵λ,𝑇 ) calculated by
Planck’s law:

𝑊𝑚−2 𝑛𝑚−1 𝑠𝑟 −1
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Solar spectrum includes ultra-
Irradiant emission versus wave-
Length for the Sun and the Earth
violet (<380 nm), visible (380-
6000 K 700nm), and infrared (>700 nm)
wavelength regions
• 700nm – 3000 nm is called near-
288 K
or solar-infrared and >3000 nm
(3 μm) is called far- or thermal
infrared
Source – Taken and modified from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling
by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005

• Most infrared radiation from the Sun that reaches the Earth
is near-infrared radiation
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Irradiant emission versus wave-
Length for the Sun and the Earth • Almost all radiation emission
from the Earth is thermal-
6000 K infrared radiation.
• For earth atmospheric studies,
incoming wavelengths of
288 K
interest are shortwave
(ultraviolet, visible and solar-
Source – Taken and modified from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling
by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005 infrared), and outgoing
wavelengths of interest are
longwave (thermal infrared)
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Irradiant emission versus wave- • Solar UV spectrum further
Length for the Sun and the Earth
divided into UV-C (100-280
nm), UV-B (280-315 nm), UV-A
6000 K
(315-380 or 400nm).
• All UV-C and most of the UV-B
288 K
radiation absorbed by the
earth’s atmosphere (e.g. -
Source – Taken and modified from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling
by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005
ozone layer) above troposphere
• Nitrogen gas (N2) absorbs
wave-length less than 100 nm
in the thermosphere 8
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• The peak radiation wavelength emitted at a given temperature
can be found from Wien’s displacement law (Wien’s law)
• Law is derived by differentiating Planck’s equation with respect
to wavelength at a constant temperature and setting the
derivative equal to zero.

λp: peak wavelength of emission from a blackbody.

• Wien’s law states that the hotter a body, the shorter the
peak wavelength of radiation emitted.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• From Planck’s law, we can also get total irradiance emitted by
a blackbody at a given temperature (total energy radiated per
unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per
unit time) on integration;
W/m2
• This is known as Stefan–Boltzmann law where 𝜎𝐵 is Stefan–
Boltzmann constant with value 5.67×10−8 W/m2·K4

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Source of energy: The Sun
Sun Axis

1370 W/m2

Earth

Average solar radiation reaching Earth’s atmosphere (1370 W/m2) can be

derived from Stefan–Boltzmann law
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LIGHT PROCESSES
• Apart from absorption, other processes that affects electro-
magnetic radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere are:
- Reflection
- Refraction
- Dispersion
- Diffraction
- Particle scattering
- Gas scattering

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LIGHT PROCESSES: Reflection
Examples of reflection and refraction • The reflectivity of a surface is
called its albedo, which is the
fraction of sunlight (incident on a
surface) that is reflected
• Albedos depend on the wave-
length of radiation and type of
surface
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J.
Jacobson, 2005
• Albedo of the Earth and atmo-
sphere combined (planetary
albedo) is about 30 % (0.3).
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Refraction
Examples of reflection and refraction • Refraction occurs when a wave
or photon travels through a
medium of one density then
bends as it enters a medium of
another density.
• The angle of refraction related to
the angle of incidence by Snell’s
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J.
Jacobson, 2005
law,

• n is the refractive index and is wavelength dependent 14

LIGHT PROCESSES: Dispersion (Rainbow)

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Source - https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/bvsomih4Ua9xeoL1i2CrdDQqohiJUFv0yxT7foH-wHWtllx5YFG-T0ycM5CHzOP1JCL3v1ySl1LjbHhryRI008KBfn5rSvuF
LIGHT PROCESSES: Dispersion
• The separation of white light into
individual colors by selective
refraction is called dispersion
• Rainbows appear when incident
light is refracted, dispersed,
reflected, then refracted again
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J.
Jacobson, 2005
• Only one wavelength from each
raindrop reaches a viewer’s eye.
• A rainbow appears when individual waves from many raindrops
are seen simultaneously
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Dispersion
• The overall angle between the
incident beam and the beam
reaching a viewer’s eye following
interaction with rain is 40◦ for
blue light and 42◦ for red light.
• Geometry of a rainbow is such
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J.
Jacobson, 2005
that the Sun must be at a
viewer’s back for the viewer to
see a rainbow

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LIGHT PROCESSES: Dispersion (Rainbow)
• Secondary rainbow appears
outside of a primary rainbow
• Develops when light entering a
raindrop undergoes two internal
reflections instead of just one
• Reverse order of the colors seen
Source - https://epod.usra.edu/.a/6a0105371bb32c970b01bb08764ba9970d-pi
in the secondary rainbow

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LIGHT PROCESSES: Dispersion (Rainbow)

Source - https://i.stack.imgur.com/HgSyj.jpg

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LIGHT PROCESSES: Diffraction
Double slit experiment • Diffraction is a process by which the
direction of wave propagation
changes when the wave encounters
an obstruction
• Constructive interference results
when the crests or troughs of two
waves meet, producing a band of
bright light and Destructive
interference results when a crest
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Doubleslit.gif

meets a trough, producing a band

of darkness. 20
LIGHT PROCESSES: Diffraction

https://i.makeagif.com/media/2-13-2016/DezX0n
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Diffraction

https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4W4J87yLzUI/W0cG2G-21pI/AAAAAAAAUlg/fQY7pHCQEa8s_xImU0giUT2NmHkt
H6VjwCLcBGAs/s1600/KlutzyUniqueAlleycat-size_restricted
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Diffraction
Diffraction around a particle • Diffraction bends waves as
they pass by the edge of an
obstruction, such as an
aerosol particle, cloud drop,
or raindrop.
• When a wave encounters an
obstacle, it appears to bend
(diffract) around the obstacle
and a series of secondary
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005

concentric waves is emitted at

the surface of the obstacle
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Diffraction (due to drops)
Solar corona Lunar corona

Source - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_(optical_phenomenon)

• Alternating bands of light and dark caused by constructive

(band of bright light) and destructive interference (band of
darkness) 24
LIGHT PROCESSES: Particle scattering
• Particle scattering is the
Radiative scattering by a sphere
combination of the effects
of reflection, refraction, and
diffraction.

Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005

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LIGHT PROCESSES: Particle scattering
• Particles scatter light
Radiative scattering by a sphere
primarily in the forward
direction.
• Processes that affect
particle scattering the most
are diffraction and double
refraction (e.g. rays C and B)
Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005 • Backscattered light results
primarily from a single
internal reflection (ray E).
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Particle scattering
Radiative scattering by a cloud drop

Source – Taken from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005

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 Smog reduces visibility in winters in north India
• In polluted, cloud-free air,
the main process reducing
visibility is aerosol particle
scattering
• Absorption of visible light
also occurs but only when
soot particles (black carbon
and organic carbon) are
present
Source-https://www.deccanherald.com/sites/dh/files/styles/article_detail/public/article_images/2019/03/21/578584-
1553152801.jpg?itok=KaPgnfy6

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AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH (AOD)
• Aerosol refers to a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid
droplets (i.e. particulate matter) in air.
• Particulate matter in the atmosphere (natural or anthro-
pogenic) can block sunlight by scattering or absorbing light.
• Aerosol optical depth (AOD) is a measure of the attenuation
of the shortwave radiation by aerosols.
• AOD reveals how much sunlight is prevented/obstructed from
reaching the ground by these aerosol particles.
• AOD at a wavelength calculated by Beer-Lambert law:
where,
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law_in_solution.JPG/672px-Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law_in_solution.JPG
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AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH (AOD)
• 𝐼0 : Intensity of monochromatic
solar radiation at the top of the
atmosphere
• 𝐼 : Transmitted intensity through
the atmosphere that reaches the
earth’s surface
• τ : AOD (dependent on wave-
length)
• θ : solar zenith angle (angle
between the sun’s rays and the
Source – Taken and modified from Fundamental of atmospheric modeling by Mark J. Jacobson, 2005

vertical) 31
AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH (AOD)
Spatial distribution of aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 550 nm

Source-N. Ojha, A. Sharma, M. Kumar, I. Girach, T. U. Ansari, et al., ‘‘On the Widespread Enhancement in Fine Particulate Matter Across the Indo-Gangetic Plain 32
Towards Winter,’’ Scientific Reports, 10, April 2020, p. 5862.
 (70%)
(30%) (100%)

(50%)
(12%)
(23%) (8%)
(23%)

(98%)
(5%) (24%)

(104%) (12%)
(7%)
(47%) (116%)

(0.6%)

https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/energy-budget 33
Historic changes in Earth’s temperature
The past 140 years

• Period of cooling during

1940s-1980s?

Figure. Time series of variation in Earth’s surface annual

mean temperature from the 1961-1990 reference period
average. Source – IPCC (2001)
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LIGHT PROCESSES: Gas scattering
• Gas scattering is the redirection of radiation by a gas molecules
• Gases scatter shortest (blue) wavelengths more unlike
aerosol particles which scatter all radiation almost equally

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 LIGHT PROCESSES: Gas scattering
• Color of sun appears whitish
Sun seems to change color due to scattering
(yellowish) during mid day as
only blue light is scattered
giving the sky its blue color
• In the evening as the light
has to travel longer path,
some green light is also
scattered making sun look
orange (reddish)
Source - https://penningtonplanetarium.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/sunlightpath.jpg

• Gas scattering also called Rayleigh scattering (primarily by N2/

O2 molecules as they are most abundant) 36
ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING BY GASES AND PARTICLES
• Scattering redirects radiation whereas absorption removes
radiation from an incident beam
• In both cases, radiation in the beam is attenuated (reduction
in the intensity), thus reducing the quantity of radiation
transmitted

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