HUMAN REPRODUCTION

PRATAP KUMAR SAHOO, LECT.IN.ZOOLOGY

 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION: - Human beings are dioecious i.e. the sexes are separate. In human being reproduction is a
complicated process involving two sexes i.e. Male and Female. Male gametes (sperm) are produced in the male
gonad (testis) by the process of spermatogenesis and female gametes (ovum) are produced in the female gonad
(ovary) by the process of oogenesis. So testis and ovary are primary reproductive sex-organs. The secondary sex-
organs are those which don’t produce gametes and sex hormones but performs important functions connected
with the process of reproduction (such as maturation, storage and transportation). These include prostate gland,
seminal vesicle, vas deferens and penis in male and uterus, vagina and mammary gland in female individuals.
Primary sex organs control the growth of secondary sex-organs. But the growth, maintenance and function of
primary sex-organs are controlled by gonadotrophin hormone of anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
Male Reproductive System of Human
The male reproductive system of man consists of man consists of a pair of testes, a duct system, a copulatory
organ called penis and several accessory glands.

Testis:- In man ,there are a pair of testes(originates from embryonic mesoderm) located in the pouch like
scrotum, attached to the wall of scrotal sac by a small fold of fibro muscular cord called gubernaculum. Each
testis is solid and oval in shape, measuring about 4 to 5cm in length and 10 to 15gms in weight. It is held in
position in position within the scrotal sac by means of compact cord called inguinal cord or spermatic cord.
Scrotal sac is filled with tissue fluid called hydrocoel. Scrotum act as thermoregulator and maintains the testes 2
to 2. 50 C less than abdominal temperature. If the testes don’t descend down in to scrotal sac, then the person
becomes sterile (cryptorchidism).Cavity of scrotal sac is called vaginal coelom which communicates abdomen
through inguinal canal.

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Histology of Testis:- Tetses surrounded by three layer, tunica vaginalis(outer inccomplete layer), tunica
albuginia(middle) and tunica vasculosa (inner). Tunica albuginia projects inside the testis to form a number of
septa. The septa produces about 200-300 conical lobules called testicular lobules. Each lobule has 2-3
seminiferous tubules. Wall of each seminiferous tubule is lined by single layered specialized cuboidal epithelium
called germinal epithelium (form gametes) and sertoli cell/nurse cell/sustentacular cells (provide nourishment to
spermatozoa , secrete hormone inhibin which inhibits secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary and secrete
Androgen binding protein(ABP) that concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous tubules). In between
seminiferous tubules the connective tissue contains blood capillaries, nerve fiber and interstitial cells or cells of
Leydig (which synthesize and secrete testosterone). All the seminiferous tubules of a testis open in tubuli
recti(straight tubes) which converge in to a network of small tubules called rete testis.

Tunica vasculosa

L.S. OF TESTIS

T.S OF TESTIS OF MAN

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Duct system:
Rete testis and Vasa efferentia :- All the seminiferous tubules of a testis open in tubuli recti(straight tubes)
which converge in to a network of small tubules called rete testis. A set of 15 to 20 narrow tubules called vasa
efferentia arise from the rete testis and leads to epididymis .
Epididymis :-It is a long coiled tube about 6 meters and lies along the inner side of each testis .It is differentiated
in to following three part-

(i) Caput/Head epididymis -It receives vasa efferentia.

(ii) Corpus/Body epididymis-It stores sperm temporariy.
(iii) Cauda/Tail epididymis – It continues as vas deferens.

Epididymis serves as a duct for the passage of sperms from testis to vas deferens. Functional maturation and
storage of sperm takes place inside the epididymis. Sperm phagocytosis also takes in epididymis(recycling
center)It contributes 10%to seminal fluid. Testis and epididymis together constitute the testicle.
Vas deferens :- It is muscular tube that arises from cauda epididymis and leaves the scrotal sac and enters the
abdominal cavity through inguinal canal. Vas deferens passes upward and joins with the duct of seminal vesicle
in the abdominal cavity to form ejaculatory duct. Vas deferentia carry sperms.
Ejaculatory duct :- Ejaculatory duct is a short duct formed by the union of vas deferens and duct of the seminal
vesicle. There are two such ducts, one on each side. They enter in to the prostate gland and finally open in to
urethra. They carry sperms and secretion of seminal vesicles.
Urethra :- Urinary bladder opens in to urethra which passes down and runs through prostate gland and penis
.Urethra is about 20cm long and it is common passage both for urine and semen. Hence it is called urinogenital
tract. Urethra includes three parts-
Prostatic Urethra- It is the first part and is surrounded by prostategland. It carries only urine.
Membranous Urethra- It is the second part of the urethra. It lies between prostate gland and penis which carries
both urine and semen.
Penile Urethra- It is the third part of the urethra and is the longest part. It carries both urine and semen. It passes
along the penis and opens to outside at the tip of the as urinogenital aperture.
Penis :- Penis is the male copulatory organ . It is long, cylindrical structure composed of three cylindrical mass
or cord of erectile tissue. Two of the cords which lie dorsally are called copora cavernosa and third one lying
ventrally is called corpus spongiosum.
The terminal sensitive part of the penis is called glans penis.The fold of skin covering the glans penis is called
prepuce.

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Acessory glands :-
➢ Seminal vesicle: These are a pair of sac like structure near the base of the urinary bladder. They
secrete viscous yellow alkaline fluid (pH=7.4) containing, fructose, vitamins, mucus, citrate,
fibrinogen (clotting protein) and prostaglandins. It provides a source of energy and nourishes the
sperms. Prostaglandins stimulate uterine contraction for movement of sperm towards female
oviduct. Its secretion form 60% of total seminal fluid.
➢ Prostate gland : It is a single lobular compact gland. It lies below the urinary bladder encircling
the urethra. It opens to urethra by small ducts. It secretes a milky white slightly acidic fluid
(pH=6.5) containing citric acid, fibrinolysin (proteolytic enzymes),Ca+,phosphate and seminal
plasmin protein(antibiotic for bacteria). It enhances survival of sperms. It also helps in neutralizing
the acidic vaginal secretion of the female. It constitutes 20-25% of volume of semen.
➢ Bulbourethral or Cowpers gland : These are two small, pea sized glands below the prostate
gland. They secrete a transparent, alkaline, viscous fluid which has a lubricating action. It
neutralizes the acidity of urethra and vagina.
Semen is a collection of secretion from above three glands and sperm from testes. It has an
alkaline PH of 7.3 to 7.5.The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to
6ml.Usually 1ml of semen contain 50 to 150ml of sperm.

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Female Reproductive System of Human :-
The female reproductive system in human consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tube/oviduct, uterus,
vagina, and vulva and accessory glands.

External structure of ovaries :- There are a pair of almond shaped structure , one on either side of the
vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Each ovary is about 1.5 to 3cmin long, 1.5 cm breadth and 1cm in
thickness. Ovaries are the primary sex-organ of human female and responsible for producing ova and female sex-
hormone. Ovaries remain attached to uterus by the ovarian ligament. It is also supported by a mesentry called
mesovarium which remain attached with broad ligament of uterus.

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Histology of ovary:-
The ovary is covered by single layer of cuboidal epithelium called germinal epithelium. The germinal epithelium
is covered by visceral peritoneum. Beneath the germianal epithelium is the tunica albuginea, a layer of connective
tissue layer, underlying which is the stroma with outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex contains different
stages of development of ovarian follicle i.e. growing follicle, graafian follicle etc. At birth ovaries contain about
2 million of primary follicle, but 60,000 to 80,000 at puberty and 400 of them develop to ova and rest degenetate
(atresia). A primary follicle from the cortex enters in to medulla, grows and finally becomes mature graafian
follicle which comes back to cortex. Hence both primary and mature follicles are present in cortex. After ovulation
the ruptured graafian follicles is transformed in to a yellowish endocrine gland called corpus luteum . When it
degenerates leaves some white scars called corpus albicans.

Fallopian tube :- A pair of long muscular (10 to12cm) tube extend from ovary to uterus . Each tube can be
divided in to following parts-

(i) Infundibulum :- Distal funnel shaped structure opens in to pelvic cavity by an opening called ostium.
At its free border it is provided with a number of fingers like process called fimbriae which are
provided with cilia. Combined movement of cilia and fimbriae brings the eggs in to infundibulum.
(ii) Ampulla :- It is the widest and longest part of the tube where fertilization occurs.

(iii) Isthmus :- It is the short and narrow proximal part which connects uterus.

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Uterus :- It is a large (7.5cm long and 5cm in width) hollow muscular sac lies in the lower part of the abdominal
cavity specialized for development of the embryo. Cavity of the uterus can expanded about 500 times during
pregnancy. It is differentiate in to following three parts-
(i) Fundus : Upper dome shaped part to which uterine duct /fallopian tube opens.
(ii) Corpus/Body : Main bulk of uterus where usually embryo grows. It is broad anteriorly and narrow
posteriorly.
(iii) Cervix : It is lower part which joins to the anterior wall of vagina.
Cervix communicates with uterus by an aperture called internal O.S and the lower vagina through
external O.S. The walls of uterus are composed of three layers of tissues i.e.
(a) Perimetrium : An outer covering of peritoneum.
(b) Myometrium : A middle layer of smooth muscle fiber.
(c) Endometrium : It consists of connective tissue, mucous gland, blood vessel and ciliated columnar
epithelium. It takes an active role in menstruation.
Vagina :- It is a tube of about 10cm long which extends from cervix to vestibule. Its inner membrane is raised in
to transverse folds called vaginal rugae. Vagina opens in to vestibule through vaginal orifice which normally
covered by a membrane called hymen.
External genital organ/Vulva :-It consists of following parts-
(a) Mons pubis: It is the anterior most fatty area covered with pubic hair.
(b) Clitoris: A small erectile structure lies posterior to mons pubic. It is homologous to penis of male.
(c) Labia majora : These are two thick fold of skin which form boundary of vulva .It contains numerous
hairs ,sweat glands and sebaceous glands. It is homologous to scrotum of male.
(d) Labia minora : Two thinner longitudinal folds skin between the labia majora .Anteriorly thin coverage
to form prepuce and posterior ends fuse to form fourchette. It contains too sebaceous gland.

vestibule

(e)Vestibule : It is a depression in the mons pubis lies in front of the anus. It is actually the space enclosed by
labia minora. It receives upper urethral orifice and lower vaginal orifice. Numerous paraurethral glands or
glands of skine are present around the urethral orifice homologous to prostate glands of male.

(f) Perineum: It is the area which extends from fourchette to anus.

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Accessory glands :
(i) Bathlin gland: These are a pair of gland present on either side of vaginal opening. It secretes a viscous
fluid which helps to lubricate the wall of vagina during intercourse. These are homologous to Cowper’s gland
of male.
(ii)Mammary gland :- A pair of compound tubule-alveolar glands (sweat gland) present in both the sexes
,but functional in females only. At puberty their size increases under influence of estrogen. During pregnancy
breast develop further by stimulation of progesterone and estrogen. After child birth prolactin stimulates
further increase in size.
Each breast has got a small pigmented protuberance called nipple which is encircled by a circular pigmented
area called areola.

Each gland constitutes 15 to 20 lobes separated by connective tissue septa. Each lobe constitutes several
alveoli. Alveoli open in to lactiferous duct of the respective lobe. These ducts converge towards areola and
dilated forming lactiferous sinuses just before the nipple.Each lactiferous sinus opens at the surface of nipple
through independent opening.
Prolactin stimulates production of milk and oxytocin stimulates release of milk from mammary gland.

Mammary gland

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Structure of Graafian follicle :-

Graafian follicle is a formed inside the ovary in which egg is present in secondary oocyte stage. The outermost
layer of mature follicle is fibrous theca externa which followed by a layer called theca interna .The oocyte lying
in the center covered by a vitelline membrane. Arround which a clear thick non-cellular layer is present called
zona pellucid which is further surrounded by celluar layer called corona radiate. The cavity of follicle is called
antrum filled with liquor follicle.

Several follicular cells around the antrum forms a layer called membrane granulose. A mass of granular cells
enclosing the follicle project in to antrum called discus proligerus.This discus proligerus remains attached to the
membrane granulose by germ hill (broad base of follicular cells).

Discus proligerus

Germ hill/

Mature Graafian follicle

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Menstrual cycle: - Menstrual cycle is a periodic discharge of blood, mucus and cellular debris from the
utrerine wall along with unfertilized ovum during reproductive life of a woman. The cycle last for about 28days.
The menstrual cycle or menstruation starts at the age of 12-13 years (puberty) .Onset of menstruation is called
menarche and cessation of menstruation at the age of 45-50 years is called menopause. It is absent during
pregnancy and may be suppressed during lactation. The menstrual cycle involves the following phases-

(i)Menstrual phase: (from 1st day to 5th day)

This phase lasts for about 3-5days in a 28days cycle. The withdrawal of LH causes degeneration of the corpus
luteum and therefore, progesterone production is reduced. The endometrial lining is slough off causing
menstruation.

(ii) Proiferative phase/Post menstrual phase: (From 6th day to 13th day)

The FSH secreted from anterior pituitary stimulates primary follicle to grow in to a graafian follicle and follicular
cells to secrete oestrogen. Under the influence of oestrogen , repair and proliferation of endometrial lining takes
place. The level of oestrogen is maximum in these phases, which inhibits the secretion of FSH and stimulate LH
secretion from anterior pituitary.

(iii)Ovulation phase : (on 14th day )

The ovum is released by the rupture of graafian follicle in the ovary in to the body cavity. This is called ovulation
and it is under the control of LH.

(iv)Post-Ovulation /Pre-menstrual phase : (from 15th day to 28th day)

LH causes ovulation and remaining cells of the ovarian follicle are converted in to corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum secretes progesterone that essential for the maintenance of endometrium. Such an endometrium is needed
for implantation of fertilized ovum.

If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates in to a white mass called corpus albicans. Absence of
fertilization causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to menstruation.

Menstrual calendar
1,2,3,4,5 6,7,8,9 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17, 18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28

menstruation safe period risky period safe period

Osterous cycle:
It occurs in non-primates like cow, goat, horse etc. It is similar to menstrual cycle but the broken endometrium
and other substances don’t pass out. It is reabsorbed in the body. Female permits copulation during oestrous cycle.

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 Human Reproduction
Long questions:

1. Give an account of the human female reproductive system.

2. Give an account of the human male reproductive system.

Short notes:

➢ What is puberty?
➢ Function of sertoli cells.
➢ Function of Interstial cells.
➢ Function of seminal vesicle.
➢ Function of prostate gland.
➢ Function of endometrium.
➢ Composition of semen.
➢ Rete testis.
➢ Epididymis.
➢ Corpus luteum.
➢ Follicular atresia.
➢ Menstrual cycle.
➢ Mammary gland.
➢ Vulva.
➢ Graafian follicle.

Differentiate between:

❖ Menstrual cycle and Oestrous cycle.

❖ Corpus luteum and corpus albicans
❖ Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
❖ Vasa efferentia and vasa deferentia.
❖ Menarche and menopause.
❖ Primary sex organ and secondary sex organ.
❖ Endometrium and myometrium.
❖ Graafian follicle and corpus luteum.
❖ Male urethra and female urethra.
❖ Leydig cells and sertoli cells.

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 Menstrual cycle
Menstrual cycle occurs in primates.
Menstrual cycle consists of proliferative, secretory and
menstrual phase.
During menstrual cycle, sexual receptivity may occur
throughout the menstrual cycle.
Example- Humans and apes
Menarche
It refers to beginning of menstruation at puberty in
primates/ human female.
In human female menstruation begins at about 13years
of age.
It marks the beginning of reproductive phase.
Vas deferens
Carries sperm from epididymis to urethra.
One in number from each testis.
They are long and curved tubes.
They are develop from cauda epididymis.
They are broader and muscular.
Endometrium
It is the inner glandular layer of the wall of uterus.
It is made up of simple columnar epithelium,
endocrine glands and connective tissue.
It undergoes cyclic changes during menstrual cycle
and provide a site for the implantation of the
blastocyst and the development of placenta
Leydig cells
They are present between the seminiferous tubules.
They are found in small groups and rounded in
shape.
They secrete androgen i.e. testosterone.
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Oestrus cycle
Oestrus cycle occurs in non-primate animals.
Oestrus cycle does not possess such phases and is
comparatively less complex than menstrual cycle.
In oestrus cycle, sexual receptivity occurs usually in between
the oestrus cycle.
Example- Cow and Dog
Menopause
It refers to stoppage of menstruation and menstrual cycle.
Menopause starts at the age of about 45-55 years.
It marks the end of reproductive phase.
Vasa efferentia
Carries sperm from testis to epididymis.
Many in number
They are short and straight tubes.
They develop from rete testis.
They are narrow and delicate.
Myometrium
It is thick muscular middle layer of the uterus
It is made up of smooth muscle.
Responsible for the muscular movement during birth or
parturition.
Sertoli cells
They are present in between germinal epithelial cells of
the seminiferous tubules.
They are found singly and elongated.
They provide nourishment to the developing spermatozoa.
It also secretes Antigen Binding Protein (ABP) and
inhibin that suppresses FSH synthesis.
 Asexual reproduction
Only one organism is required for reproduction
(Uniparental).
Reproduction involves amniotic or mitotic cell division
and there are no sex cells or gametes.
The offsprings are genetically same in all respects.
It does not contribute to the process of evolution and
speciation.
Primary sex organs
They produce gametes.
They secrete sex-hormones.
Growth and development of primary sex organ is
controlled by GTH secreted by anterior pituitary.
Testis in male and ovary in female are examples of
primary sex organs.
Corpus luteum
After ovulation, the Graafian follicle changes in to
corpus luteum in the mammalian ovary.
It is made up of luteal cells.
It secretes hormone progesterone and relaxin.
It is yellow in colour.
Graafian follicle
It is formed by the germinal epithelium of the ovary
before ovulation.
It contains antrum filled with follicular fluid.
It consists of oocyte, zona pelucida, cellular
membranous granulose surrounded by the theca
interna and externa.
Its granular cells secrete hormone oestrogens.
Male urethra
It is about 20cm long.
It has three region i.e. prostatic urethra, membranous
urethra and penile urethra.
It opens at the tip of the penis by urinogenital aperature.
It carries urine as well as semen.
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Sexual reproduction
It requires both male and female (biparental)
individuals.
Reproduction involves meiosis to form haploid
gametes from diploid germ cells.
The offsprings may be genetically different from the
parents.
It favours organic evolution and origin of new species.
Secondary sex organs
They don’t produce gametes.
They don’t secrete sex hormone.
Growth and development of secondary sex organ is
controlled by sex hormones secreted by primary sex
organ.
Epididymis, vasa deferentia, penis etc are secondary
sex organ in male and oviducts, uterus, vagina etc are
secondary sex organs in female.
Corpus albicans
If there is no pregnancy the corpus luteum degenerates
in to corpus albicans.
It is made up of a scar tissue or collagen fibres.
It does not secrete any hormone.
It is white in colour.
Corpus luteum
It is formed after the release of secondary oocyte
from the graafian follicle.
It contains blood clot.
It consists of lutein filled cells, fibrin and blood
clot.
It acts as a temporary endocrine gland and secretes
hormone progesterone and relaxin during
pregnancy.
Female urethra
It is 3-5cm in long.
It is not differentiated in to any region.
It opens in to vulva by urinary aperature.
It carries only urine.