Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WIMSA (2004) Biopiracy in The Kalahari
WIMSA (2004) Biopiracy in The Kalahari
WIMSA (2004) Biopiracy in The Kalahari
Editorial staff: Jutta Bangel, Edgar Brüser, Michael Frein, Angela Krug (EED), WIMSA-Team
Photos: WIMSA / Axel Thoma: Cover, p. 4, 6, 9, 13, 15, 19, 22, 24;
Richard Pakleppa: Cover, contents, p. 3, 12, 14, 21, 23; Peter Oszvald: p. 8;
EED / Edgar Brüser: Cover, p. 5, 10, 17
November 2004
Contents
2 Introduction
9 Plant raiders
11 Who is WIMSA?
14 H is for hope
17 An important model
21 Competing locations
Introduction
hroughout the world, indigenous peoples well as providing financial support to the San,
“We [the San] are delighted that a part of our strengthened the San organisations and re-
traditional knowledge is being honoured on stored the confidence in their capabilities.
this historic occasion. For us it is an occasion Since the inception of the Working Group
to celebrate. It is of critical importance to us of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa
that CSIR has acknowledged our traditional (WIMSA) – a regional San advocacy and net-
knowledge of the Hoodia as the source of in- working organisation – representative bodies
formation that started the process leading to such as the WIMSA board, the South African
the granting of the patent in 1995,” were the and Namibian San Council, the San Culture
words of Kxao Moses ‡Oma, the chairperson and Education Committee and the Khwe
of the WIMSA Board, expressing the San com- Language Committee were appointed. Except
munities’ satisfaction with the benefit-sharing for the latter, all San bodies and the WIMSA
Agreement signed in March 2003 between the annual general assembly (AGA) played a cru-
San and the South African Council for Scien- cial role in the decision-making process lead-
tific and Industrial Research (CSIR). ing to the Hoodia benefit-sharing agreement.
Above and beyond the finalised contractual At the 2002 AGA – WIMSA’s highest official
clauses, the real quality of the agreement lay organ – the San delegates from Angola, Nami-
in the negotiation process itself: it featured bia, Botswana and South Africa decided that
various rounds of negotiations, lengthy discus- any benefits deriving from the Hoodia will be
sions and a series of workshops in which a con- shared equally by all of the broader San com-
siderable number of San representative bodies munities in all countries in which they live.
Impoverished and were involved. This procedure formed the very Furthermore they mandated the South Afri-
oppressed: the San in essence of a capacity-building process, which can San Council (SASC) and WIMSA’s legal
Southern Africa
4 Biopirates in the Kalahari?
or once, the Kalahari Desert is green. In a new potato. To her well-trained gaze, just a
are found; the ground floor, with bushes, grass- The huge open-air pharmacy carries a wide
es and creepers; and the upper level, the tree- array of medicinal plants and tonics, like the
tops, including camel-thorns, other overhang- anti-inflammatory Harpago, or Hoodia to give
ing acacias, towering primeval baobabs and sustenance, strength, motivation and stamina
fruit-bearing marula and manketti trees. On for the hunt. Close by, watch out for the poison
every level, food is there for the taking – roots, cabinet, where deadly nerve poisons made from
cucurbits, beans, tubers, honey, seeds and beetle larvae and roots are side by side with the
leaves. The delicatessen section stocks tree materials for quivers, bows and arrows. And
fungi, morama nuts and mopane worms. In everything is free. You just have to find it – and
the drinks department – vitally important in a know how to use it.
semi-arid region with low and erratic rainfall – In the months after the rainy season, the
there are water-storing succulents and tubers, store is fully stocked. The longer the drought,
fruit juices and melons, but also seeds to make the more the risk that certain items will go ‘out
coffee, leaves for tea, and sugary berries for of stock’. Then the menu becomes increasingly
stronger liquor. Elsewhere there are tobacco poor. But even in September or October, fruits
plants and horn for whistles, a range of cos- and nuts can still be found, along with roots
metics, and a full complement of hardware and and tubers which stay fresh under the ground
for months. And there is
always something from
the live meat counter:
kudu, eland antelope,
springbok or warthog.
The San:
expelled and enslaved
Once the ‡Khomani,
Khwe, !Kung, Hai || om,
Ju|’hoansi and other San
tribes were hunters and
gatherers, with the free-
dom of the entire territory
between the Atlantic, the
Cape and the Indian
Ocean. They are known
to be the most ancient
inhabitants of Southern
Africa. Their language
contains distinctive click-
ing sounds, which are
written down with sym-
bols such as !, || or ‡. In
Their livelihoods depend thousands of rock paint-
on their skills as trackers, construction materials like wood, clay and ings, some dating back over 20,000 years,
hunters and gatherers grass; there are tools, string made from plant they recorded scenes of daily life and hunting,
fibres, and extra-hard wooden digging sticks. hunters with bows and arrows and a multitude
For the home, huge baobab fruits make water of wild animals, possibly as a tribute to the
containers; grass and palm can be turned into gods.
baskets and wild cotton into pillows. There is The first incursions into the region were
even a small department for toys, jewellery, made by nomadic pastoralists, African Bantu
amulets and musical instruments, like rattles tribes from the north. From the mid-17th cen-
made of chrysalis cases, seed necklaces and tury, they were followed by European explorers,
bracelets, and ostrich-egg bowls. adventurers and colonialists. Portuguese voy-
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 7
agers landed in the west and the east, the Dutch Not enough land for game
and the English in the south. The Germans, “This will do,” thought the Boer settlers, after
as latecomers to colonialism, made their mark trekking inland with their ox-carts for weeks on
with a brief but bloody period of occupation in end. The savannah must have grown drier and
German South West Africa, present-day Nami- sandier, more barren and more monotonous by
bia. From the coasts, these groups advanced to- the day, and they named the place where they
wards the continent’s interior, on their quest for finally reached a halt Vergenoeg, “far enough”.
land, water, and mineral resources – there were Today the 300 kilometres from Windhoek to
rich pickings of diamonds, semi-precious stones, Vergenoeg, close to the Botswanan border, can
gold, copper and uranium. be covered in three hours. For the most part,
The San (or ‘Bushmen’, the derogatory name the land is as flat as a skillet. But the plains are
given to them by settlers) were driven off their broken up by scattered hilly ridges, scoured
land, away from their ancestors’ graves and smooth by wind and rain. The knee-high
their sacred sites, and enslaved. At times they Bushman’s grass glistens gold in the sun like
were hunted like animals and murdered. They flax, rippling in the wind like an ocean of sand
had their names, their languages and their with small green islands of scrub, dwarfed by
culture taken away, and replaced with Christian towering camel-thorn trees and other acacias.
names in Afrikaans or English. The apartheid The dead straight road is lined with never-
laws in South Africa forced them to conceal ending fences to the left and right. Every few
their identity. Today there are only around kilometres a farmstead looms into view, with
100,000 San left, probably less than one-tenth barns, pens, and a wind turbine for the bore-
of the indigenous population in the pre- hole. They have strangely German names, like
colonial era. Half of them live in Botswana, Loreley and Heimat. Locally, Gobabis District
36,000 in Namibia, and a few thousand in is known as Cattle County.
each of Angola, South Africa, Zambia and Today Vergenoeg is a communal farm. The
Zimbabwe – a dwindling minority everywhere. government bought it back from its white own-
Nowadays very few are allowed to hunt like ers for a princely sum, and the 6000 hectares
their forebears, with the exception of two were split up into a number of ‘posts’. But
thousand Ju|’hoansi in the Nyae Nyae Con- when the land was allocated, most San families
servancy in Tsumkwe District near the Bots- who live here came away empty handed. Only
wanan border. those who owned cattle or, failing that, sheep
Although the San still live on their ancestral and goats, stood a chance. But most San had
land, they have lost control over it and its natu- no livestock, not even chickens. So all they got
ral resources, which were taken over both by was a small plot where they could put up a
the colonisers and by today’s intruders. Some hut out of sticks, corrugated iron and mud,
of the San became herdsmen on livestock farms, with shutters made of rusty tin. Outside, two
for meagre food and primitive lodgings. Others or three dilapidated donkey carts are parked
became servants. Often they ended up as bonds- in the shade of a few trees. Someone has tried
men, similar to slavery. A few of them made use to mark out flowerbeds with stones, but there
of their talent for tracking: their abilities were is not enough water.
in demand by the army of the South African Frits Kamte has proudly written his name in
apartheid regime. They helped track down the large letters on the wooden door, and beneath
fighters of the Namibian liberation movement it, ‘Councillor’. Next door he has improvised
SWAPO. In Namibia, this role is held against an office out of wooden stakes and corrugated
them to this day, and used as justification for iron, equipped with a few threadbare camping
the continuing discrimination they suffer, even chairs. Frits Kamte and his deputy, Augustus
though members of other ethnic groups such Jacobs, have been elected as the representatives
as the Ovambo or the Herero also collaborated of the San in Vergenoeg, but the authorities
with the white South Africans. have yet to recognise them. So among other
things, they may not take part in meetings of
the Land Board Committee which is respon-
sible for land allocation.
8 Biopirates in the Kalahari?
The only work available is as a day labourer food assistance, nobody here could make ends
on one of the farms. Or the odd opportunity meet. The trouble is, access to the great open-
to perform in an exotic dance troupe at the air superstore is barred by the fences of private
nearby tourists’ lodge. The older people, like farms. What is more, the livestock eat the
Frits and Augustus, receive a small pension shelves pretty bare.
of 250 Namibian dollars a month, equivalent Livestock farms and fences have also reduced
to 35 euros or 43 US dollars. Without state wild animal populations. The ostriches, oryx
San Art
Museum in the
Drakensberg dis-
trict, one of the
world’s largest
open-air rock art
galleries and a
UNESCO World Heri-
tage Site, was near-
ing completion –
and the San had not
even been consult-
ed. Petrus Vaalboi,
chairman of the San
Council, considered
this a “grave insult”.
Just in time, the go-
vernment managed
a volte-face: it held
a series of negotia-
tion workshops with
the San, and Petrus
Vaalboi would be
invited to speak at
the opening cere-
mony. Since then,
With the land that farmer David Blaine bought, the San have been the acknowledged owners
years ago, he acquired some bizarre rock for- of South Africa’s “rock art”, and scientists have
mations that look like rugged towers, stacked begun to take its interpretation seriously.
up by giants. On these rocks, some time later,
he discovered drawings – of eland, springbok, Music, paintings or sculptures: at every turn,
and hunters with bows and arrows. Now he there is callous and tasteless marketing of the
earns a living not just from his cattle, but San’s cultural heritage – and even of the San
from lucrative “Bushman Rock Art”: a small themselves. Yet they alone receive none of the
shop sells “San Art” – necklaces, pictures, carv- benefits.
ings. But the descendants of the original “rock
artists”, now farm hands living in dilapidated In the meantime, at least one safeguard has
huts, see not a penny of the money. been introduced: in a change from the past,
filmmakers, authors, researchers and journal-
What David Blaine is doing in a small way, the ists now have to sign an agreement acknowl-
government of South Africa tries to do on a edging the intellectual property rights of the
much grander scale. In the summer of 2002, San. Only after that can they ask their ques-
the South African San Council was shocked to tions and make their films.
discover that the construction of the Didima
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 9
inhibiting mechanism
that is common in
desert plants.
However, as culti-
vation starts to become
a practicable possibili-
ty, high levels of invest-
ment will be required:
in laboratory facilities,
greenhouses and irriga-
tion systems, suitable
agro-ecological condi-
tions, and technical
expertise. Such condi-
tions are most likely
to be achieved on large,
commercial farms.
These are better able
to satisfy the buyers’
many demands simul-
taneously: reliable
delivery, consistent
quality, a stable con-
centration of active
ingredients, and purity.
But in that case, the
Land-use plans should San who gather Devil’s
safeguard the San’s Domesticated Devil’s Claw Claw in the wild would not get a look-in: one
settlement and hunting Rising demand, excessive use, and expanding of their few sources of income would be lost.
rights livestock herds have led to a situation where That does not affect the San alone: it puts
the supply is becoming scarce in certain regions. Namibia’s market-leading position under
Fears that Harpago might be threatened with threat. In neighbouring South Africa, farmers
extinction led German Friends of the Earth have already begun to grow Devil’s Claw com-
(BUND) to apply, in the year 2000, to have it mercially. Farmers in Peru, Turkey or Morocco
included on the list of endangered plant species could follow suit. If competition heightens,
protected under CITES, the Convention on the supply could be increased enough to force
International Trade in Endangered Species of prices down. Effectively, remarks Dave Cole
Wild Fauna and Flora. This would have placed of the non-governmental research centre
restrictions on trade, so Namibia and South CRIAA in Windhoek, “the expropriation of
Africa were quick to quash the initiative. the rights of the original providers of tradi-
However, the venture also made it clear that tional knowledge regarding Devil’s Claw will
if there was to be any further expansion in the have been completed,” – a process begun
promising market for natural remedies, the over a hundred years previously by a German
supply would have to be put on a sustainable colonial soldier named Mehnert. The only
footing. Therefore several companies, includ- winners would be the commercial farming and
ing Salus, tried to domesticate the wild plant pharmaceutical sectors.
gamagu and to propagate it from seeds, offsets
or in the test tube – a far from easy under- Land – the core issue
taking. So far the most successful method Hence, argues Dave Cole, the San as the tradi-
involves warming the seeds in a solution, the tional users must be enabled to participate in
ingredients of which are a closely guarded the economic opportunities offered by the cul-
secret. This outsmarts the germination- tivation of Devil’s Claw. For example, research
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 11
Who is WIMSA?
Luanda
should not be geared solely towards commer- 9,000-square-kilometre area of this region
cial production, but also explore ways of im- was finally declared a ‘Conservancy’. This step
proving the yields of gamagu grown in the wild accords limited rights to San groups to exploit
on communal or state-owned land. Higher, the game and other natural resources as a
more consistent yields, could improve the gath- means of generating income. In order to safe-
erers’ income. guard game stocks from decimation as a result,
“Then the benefits and to protect the environment from degrada-
would be shared tion, joint work will be undertaken to draw up
out more equi- and agree a land-use plan for San settlements
tably,” thinks Dave in the new N‡a Jaqna Conservancy.
Cole. However The first step is to take an inventory. Where
there are consider- are the huts located? Where are there water
able barriers to be holes and vegetable gardens? How much game
overcome: freely is left? After that, discussions take place on
available land, which areas should be used for agriculture and
‘communal land’, as pasture, and which should be reserved as
is scarce, and com- forest and for the collection of ‘bushfood’. The
petition to use it is Ministry of Environment and Tourism has
growing. provided experts to help the WIMSA team,
On the map of which also includes San people, to demarcate
Namibia hanging the borders with satellite positioning and to
on the wall in the plot precise maps. When it comes to ensuring
WIMSA office in sustainable use, “community control is better
Windhoek, only than government control,” says EED profes-
a few white patch- sional and WIMSA coordinator Axel Thoma.
es remain, even Already the !Kung-San in the district of
though the country Tsumkwe West are mulling over plans for the
is sparsely populat- future. Once the game population in the N‡a
ed, with fewer than Jaqna Conservancy has recovered, and bearing
two million people in mind the rock paintings in the nearby hills,
inhabiting an area there is potential for attracting tourists to the
one-and-a-half region. Then they could set up a small lodge
times the size of to accommodate them. In addition, Devil’s
France. Around Claw and other plants could “generate income
40 percent of it on a broad scale,” believes Axel Thoma. Useful
Water – a source consists of farm- experience already exists. In Vergenoeg for
of conflict land, a dense tapestry of small squares, each instance, with advice from WIMSA and the
several thousand hectares in size, connected Namibian Centre for Research-Information-
by a network of good roads. A further 40 per- Action in Africa (CRIAA), gamagu has been
cent are protected reserves such as the Namib harvested for several years without destroy-
Desert, the exclusion zone for diamond mining ing plant stocks. Direct marketing eliminates
and a few large national parks such as Skeleton middlemen and results in better payment. For
Coast and Etosha Pan. The rest is communal smaller quantities there is now even a process
land, as in Otjinene and Tsumkwe Districts; for organic certification. The ‘organic’ market
the latter until very recently was still officially niche holds out the prospect of higher prices,
known as ‘Bushmanland’. These are the giving an incentive for sustainable use and the
remotest regions in the country’s interior, along chance of reversing the downward spiral of low
the Botswanan border, or in the North West. prices and undue exploitation.
The team from Windhoek which WIMSA
sent to Tsumkwe District West has convened Disputed natural resources
a meeting of the !Kung-San. In July 2003, after This concept of sustainable resource use
lengthy wrangling with the government, a sounds like the ideal solution for giving both
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 13
humans and nature a better outlook for the more of the communal land. They persuade or
future in the sensitive environment of the bribe local chiefs to allocate land to them. Or
Kalahari. It combines environmental protec- they ask San groups to let their livestock have
tion, food security and exploitation rights, access to their water supply. Little by little, the
allowing the San to uphold their traditional numbers of cattle coming to the waterhole
way of life, at least to a certain extent. They creeps up. Soon the San no longer have enough
can take what they need from nature’s open- water for their own needs. Cattle and goats do
air superstore, but also have money and ties not confine their grazing to ‘Bushman’s grass’;
with the market economy. they devour anything edible they can find.
Nevertheless, in Bubi se Pos, one of the Then bushfood becomes scarce, so does build-
settlements where the WIMSA team is work- ing material, and so do medicinal plants like
ing on a land-use plan, a heated dispute is in Devil’s Claw. Resources are insidiously expro-
progress. Two Herero men are disrupting the priated. A cow in the Kalahari is like a bull in a
meeting, insulting and threatening the team, china shop.
intimidating the San and holding up the pro- In some regions this dispute over land and
ceedings of the gathering with their endless water, the conflict between San, Herero and
tirades. The Herero do not want a conservancy, Ovambo, between Devil’s Claw and T-bone
let alone land-use plans which limit the amount steak, nature and profit, has already ended in
of pasture available for their livestock. They confrontation. Occasionally it is taken to its
point out their tradition as livestock herders. ultimate conclusion with firearms against bows
The beef cattle bring them good money. And and arrows. More often than not, the San come
export, to South Africa for instance, generates off worse. Then they might resort to the ‘zero
considerable foreign exchange for the state. option’: deliberately torching the Bushman’s
Herero and Ovambo people from the few grass – no pasture, no livestock, no Hereros, no
Land in the Kalahari – fertile, and therefore heavily populated, regions conflict.
a vehemently disputed in the north are encroaching onto more and
resource
14 Biopirates in the Kalahari?
Benefit Sharing
The South African San Council and the CSIR negotiated and
entered into a Memorandum of Understanding during March
2002, in terms of which the parties agreed, inter alia, that
• The CSIR and the San Council, representing the San people in
Southern Africa, and in anticipation of the commercial success
of the patents covering the technology related to products
derived from the Hoodia plant, committed themselves to a
process of negotiations, in order to arrive at a comprehensive
benefit-sharing agreement between themselves as primary
parties.
Known as ‘benefit sharing’, this also has be game or people they track in the bush, so they
extended to indigenous peoples and traditional often give researchers vital clues about useful –
communities, because their ways of life and and highly profitable – properties of nature.
traditional patterns of use, including the culti- Just as they did with Devil’s Claw a century
vation of plants and breeding of animals, have ago. So, once again, the San’s abilities as track-
contributed to the conservation and develop- ers are in demand.
ment of diversity. Added to that, their knowl-
edge, experience, and traditions can be helpful The vital clue
to bioprospectors. Just as the San have an in- “There, look – and here, a really big one!”
fallible eye for the plants they gather and the With boundless energy, Petrus Vaalbooi paces
across the stony hillsides on the edge of the
Kalahari National Park. The knee-high Hoodia
Brokering a consensus plants are somewhat like stacked-up zucchini,
firm and dark green. Except that they are far
The Convention on Biological ish offenders. Or what shape a from smooth, with their prickly spines and
Diversity (CBD) regulates the benefit-sharing arrangement
lengthwise grooves. Petrus Vaalbooi cuts off
protection and sustainable use might take if a genetic resource
a finger-length tip and scrapes off the spines.
of biodiversity and equitable occurs in several countries, as
“In the old days, on the hunt, we didn’t need
distribution of the benefits. A in Southern Africa. It is also
step forward was made in April important for local communities to eat anything else for days on end,” he says,
2002 at the negotiations on the and indigenous peoples to be and takes a bite as if to underline the point.
implementation of the Conven- allowed to make decisions on The farm on which Petrus Vaalbooi and
tion. In the “Bonn Guidelines”, access and benefit-sharing, in other ‡Khomani families live was the property
principles and practical proce- relation to their own genetic of white livestock breeders until a few years
dures were established inter- resources and traditional knowl- ago. After the apartheid regime ended, the
nationally for accessing genetic edge. Many representatives of human rights lawyer, Roger Chennells, nego-
resources and, in return, for ben- NGOs reject such negotiations tiated a land claim on behalf of the ‡Khomani
efit-sharing with countries of outright. They fear that they will with the new South African government. The
origin and local and indigenous ultimately lead to the all-out
petition, based on new land laws, asserted the
communities. These are volun- marketing of natural resources,
rights of the South African San to their old
tary arrangements, however, and and pave the way for biopiracy
“hunting and gathering grounds”. With Roger’s
compliance with them is uncer- in the guise of protection of
tain. biodiversity. Others, in turn, take assistance, the ‡Khomani were successful and
a pragmatic approach and work the government subsequently handed over six
At the next opportunity, there- to strengthen the interests of farms to the San which had previously been
fore, at the World Summit for indigenous peoples and local sold by their white owners: 38,000 hectares of
Sustainable Development in communities within the Conven- their forefathers’ lands. Moreover, they have
Johannesburg in September tion framework. special permission to go gathering in the near-
2002, the Group of Like-Minded by Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. In other coun-
Megadiverse Countries demand- In Kuala Lumpur, irreconcilable tries, though, the San are still struggling to have
ed that internationally binding differences between the indus- their ancestral land rights recognised.
regulations on benefit-sharing trialised and developing coun-
Hoodia’s hunger-suppressing properties
be worked out within the Con- tries led, as so often, to the
had first come to the attention of the South
vention framework. In response, establishment of a working party.
African army. Soldiers out on patrols with San
further negotiations were ini- It will present its report by the
tiated at the 7 th Conference of time of the next conference in trackers saw how they could keep going for
the Parties to the Biodiversity 2006. So it will take some time days without eating any food, other than Hoo-
Convention held in February to put binding commitments in dia. On learning of this, the CSIR set about
2004 in Kuala Lumpur. The prob- place to prevent multinational conducting a systematic search for the active
lems yet to be resolved are corporations from helping them- ingredient. If they help to separate the wheat
numerous. For instance, whether selves to the genetic resources from the chaff or to find the proverbial needle
industrialised countries could and traditional knowledge of in a haystack, such leads are invaluable. They
be bound by greater obligations the South, without offering pay- save time that would otherwise be wasted
to control biopiracy and to pun- ment or obtaining consent. exploring blind alleys during systematic labo-
ratory research – and that reduces costs.
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 17
The benefit-sharing
agreement puts the San Which brings us to the next question: what legitimately entitled to patent. Under the agree-
on a ‘business partner’ is an appropriate, equitable or fair share in the ment, the San become business partners and
footing with research profits, whether for the San or any other pro- receive six percent of the royalties paid by Phy-
institutes and companies vider of indigenous knowledge? How much topharm to the research council for products
credit should be given to the scientific achieve- containing the active ingredient P57. “So as a
ment, and how much to the contribution of negotiator, I feel it ended fair for both sides –
traditional knowledge? equally happy and equally unhappy,” says Roger
Chennells. The negotiations were made more
An important model difficult by the fact that, internationally, there
Sixty million rand were invested in Hoodia are few comparable agreements to refer to.
research, the CSIR contends; a sizeable stake to In any case, says the lawyer, depending on the
place on such a risky outcome. According to success of the enterprise, six percent could be
Roger Chennells, the lawyer facilitating the “a hell of a lot”.
negotiations between the San and CSIR, this For Rachel Wynberg from the South African
issue gave rise to some hard-nosed negotiating. environment and development organisation
But finally, in March 2003, the agreement on BioWatch, however, the amounts seem like
benefit-sharing was signed. As a result, the chicken-feed – “a miniscule sliver of a large,
CSIR recognises the San as owners of the tra- well-iced cake.” She means that the San only
ditional knowledge, as well as the significance receive a share of the CSIR’s fee, not a share
of that knowledge to the research. By the same in the profits, let alone the revenues, from
token, it insists that isolation of the active in- the product itself. What is more, they have to
gredient was its own ‘discovery’, which it was undertake not to make their knowledge about
18 Biopirates in the Kalahari?
Hoodia available to any other commercial Indeed, many other indigenous groups and
users. Nevertheless, even Rachel Wynberg sees holders of traditional knowledge have been
the agreement between the CSIR and the San left empty-handed. With a cancer drug called
as a “historic breakthrough”. Vincristine made from the Madagascar peri-
winkle, the American corporation Eli Lilly
made annual revenues of 100 million US dol-
lars. So far, the countries of origin have seen
Alliance of Megadiverse not a cent of it.
Countries
Protesting their innocence
Hardly anyone would classify Colombia, Accusations of attempted biopiracy were also
Kenya or Indonesia as some of the rich- levelled at the CSIR, one of Africa’s leading
est nations in the world. But they are – research institutions. The patent only came to
they belong to the “megadiverse” group light thanks to alert NGOs, and even then
of countries with the greatest abundance
largely by chance, four years after the exploita-
of plants and animals. The 12 countries,
tion and marketing rights had been licensed
including heavyweights such as China,
to Phytopharm in 1997. The ethno-pharma-
Brazil, South Africa and India, are home
to over 70 percent of the world’s bio- ceutical company which proudly claims “to
diversity. The Group of Like-Minded help tribal people to profit from their know-
Megadiverse Countries first teamed up ledge,” made a statement that, based on infor-
in February 2002 in Cancún, Mexico. By mation from the CSIR, the San people had
joining forces they hope to bring their died out long ago, so it would be impossible
collective weight to bear in their deal- to share future profits with them.
ings with industrialised countries and This provoked outrage, not just from the
big business. With more equitable shar- San but from the international community.
ing of the benefits of their genetic re- So in the end, the CSIR had no choice but to
sources, they could boost their own
negotiate a benefit-sharing arrangement with
development. They do not want to be
the San. After all, South Africa had ratified
mere suppliers of raw materials. Instead
the Biodiversity Convention. The amicable
they hope that technology and knowl-
edge transfer will put them in a position agreement, certain critics say, does no more
to capitalise on their resources them- than legitimise the theft of the San’s intellec-
selves. tual property after the fact. At best, it is a very
lenient punishment. Imagine if a thief could
One of the most important priorities is get away with his crime as long as he gave his
to prohibit biopiracy, the theft of genetic victim a few percent of whatever the receiver
resources. In their Declaration of Can- paid him for the stolen goods.
cún, they demand that countries should In contrast, the CSIR does not see itself as
only authorise a patent if reliable evi- a biopirate. Petro Terblanche is director of
dence is provided of the origins of bio-
the Bio/Chemtek division in charge of bio-
logical source materials, and “prior in-
prospecting. She rejects the accusation out
formed consent” (PIC) has been obtained
of hand. “We thought about benefit-sharing
from the indigenous or local population.
right from the outset,” she asserts. “But first
As the megadiverse countries forcefully we wanted to wait and see whether our re-
underline, the traditional knowledge and search would be really successful.” In view of
cultures of indigenous and local commu- the high risk of failure, it would have been
nities are vital in the conservation and wrong to awaken false expectations.
sustainable use of biological diversity. But this explanation has one serious flaw.
The CSIR had not obtained the San’s “Prior
And they undertake to support these Informed Consent” (PIC) for the research into
communities in translating their knowl- the active ingredient, the patent registration,
edge into economically viable projects.
or the licensing of marketing rights to Phyto-
pharm. Thus it breached a central and
How indigenous people are standing up for their rights 19
elementary principle of
the Convention on Bio-
logical Diversity. It was
a case of LIC rather than
PIC, jokes Roger Chen-
nells, meaning “Late
Informed Consent,”
obtained from the San
after everything had been
settled. “At first we were
very angry when we
heard that we had been
robbed,” agrees Victoria
Geingos, a Hai || om San
woman at the WIMSA
headquarters in Wind-
hoek. “Now at least we
can be glad we will get
something out of it.”
Possibly though, it
could have been more.
“The Hoodia drug has
the potential to be South
Africa’s first blockbuster
drug, and this should
have all been sorted out
before the patent was
awarded,” says Rachel
Wynberg, critically. That
would also have put the
San in a far better bar-
gaining position. And
they would have had the
opportunity to say “No”,
if commercial use were
in conflict with their
religious or cultural
traditions. The active ingredients of natural resources belonging to indigenous peoples
The patent registra- may not be patented and marketed without their consent
quite possible that the San would have ended treated “like the junior partner”. In his view,
up with nothing to show for it. “To criticise the the patent makes the traditional keepers of
San for signing the agreement is like criticising knowledge “invisible”.
a drowning person for accepting a hand to save Plaatfontein, the venue for the meeting,
them from drowning.” was once a private farm but a few years ago it
Joram | Useb, the deputy WIMSA coordina- was handed over to the several thousand San
tor and member of the Hai || om tribe, is struck who had served in the South African army. It
by another important aspect: the agreement now houses a centre for !Xun and Khwe arts
with the CSIR taught the San to “make in- and culture, among other facilities. The meet-
formed decisions about their intellectual prop- ing is to discuss the establishment of the Hoo-
erty and eventually win their right to benefit dia Trust. The trust’s role will be to manage
from the marketing of that property.” and distribute the money that accrues to the
San. It will have trustees from the CSIR and
Counting their chickens WIMSA as well as the San Council.
Petrus Vaalbooi, Andries Steenkamp, Susanna The very thought of the potential windfall
Witbooi and other San representatives from “made us break out in a cold sweat,” says Axel
South Africa, Namibia and Botswana have Thoma, because the figures being tossed
gathered in Plaatfontein near the South African around to begin with were astronomical. By
diamond centre of Kimberley. They have plenty 2006, some estimates say, the diet market could
more questions: What is a patent anyway? Does be worth two billion British pounds, and as
the CSIR have the right to patent the active in- a natural remedy, Hoodia would have an enor-
gredient? They cannot comprehend how any- mous competitive advantage over synthetic
one can be allowed to own and privately profit compounds. A million dollars a year for the
from collective knowledge that is available to San would not be out of the question. “That
everyone. “Why doesn’t the CSIR go fifty-fifty could very easily lead to corruption,” says Axel
with us?” asks Lappies Naftal, a Khwe from the Thoma, explaining his original disquiet. “A few
Caprivi Strip in the far north of Namibia. And make themselves rich, while the poor commu-
Collin Tsima from Botswana objects to being nities out there get nothing.”
The Hoodia Trust is currently being Phytopharm. Near Stellenbosch, not far
established to prevent this. Moreover, the San from Cape Town, the first such farm already
representatives from the different countries exists, growing Hoodia under contract for
have agreed to share benefits among them- an exporter. And other countries like Chile,
selves without regard for national frontiers. with a similar climate to Southern Africa, are
The CSIR will pay the San 6% of all royalties poised in the starting blocks.
that the CSIR itself receives once
the drug is commercially avail-
able. “In the old days, before the
colonial era, there were no bor-
ders between us,” Mathambo
Ngakaeaja, the WIMSA coordina-
tor in Botswana had successfully
argued, “and today we still belong
together.” In that sense, the agree-
ment had already brought about
one direct benefit: “Thanks to
Hoodia, our efforts to unite and
strengthen the San in Southern
Africa have come a long way,” says
Axel Thoma.
At the moment, the worry is
that they are counting their chick-
ens before they have hatched.
Since Pfizer gave back the licence
in July 2003 because the group
was withdrawing from the natural
medicines sector, it is unclear who
will step into the breach. And it
could take four or five years to
market a product that makes any
real money, be it a drug, a ‘novel
food’, a Hoodia drink, a slimmers’
tea or a weight-reducing muesli
bar. Whatever the new product, it
already has competition: a wide
variety of slimming products
allegedly containing Hoodia are
being advertised for sale over the
Internet.
production, propagation, cultivation, process- is charged with taking the ill-fated gift to
ing and export of products by no means con- the end of the world, and getting rid of it. It
fined to Hoodia and Harpago. Numerous other is the beginning of a daring quest through
plants and ingredients are likely to be covered the bush and the modern world. Ultimately
under bioprospecting agreements with the he tosses the bottle over a sheer precipice
San, and under a similar agreement between into the boundless waters of the ocean. And
the CSIR and traditional African healers. they all go back to their happy and contented
With their knowledge and experience, the lives...
San hold the key to these treasures – but the In the same way, the promising partner-
CSIR has the scientists, laboratories, and con- ship with the CSIR more or less landed in the
tacts, and since sovereignty over natural re- laps of the San. It resulted from research work
sources is assigned to states and their govern- in distant laboratories, negotiated by lawyers,
ments under international treaties like the governed by international agreements and
Convention on Biological Diversity, it controls reglations, all stemming from a worldview
the instruments for profiting from them. It completely at odds with that of the San. Un-
holds the power to turn the key into gold. like the family in the film, the San decided to
keep the alien, unexpected and fascinating
Money isn’t everything gift, make use of it, and work together to
In the film, “The Gods Must Be Crazy”, a cola make the best of it.
bottle falls from the sky and lands in the midst How much the San will receive in material
of a San family in the Kalahari bush, remote terms remains to be seen. It is also unclear
from western civilisation. They admire and when there will be any actual money on the
caress the magical, transparent, glittering table. Whether it will be enough to fulfil all
object. Everyone wants to hold it – and an their wishes is doubtful. They are the last link
argument breaks out. At this, one of the men in the chain, the group with the least influence.
Agrarian communities
possess traditional know-
ledge of plants and
medicinal herbs which
harbours vast economic
potential
24 Biopirates in the Kalahari?
One thing is clear: the money will not offer hand, it does their self-confidence good to
a total solution to the San’s wide-ranging eco- realise that their traditional knowledge is very
nomic, social and political problems. valuable, even in far-off Europe, even for the
In other respects though, they have invincible modern world. As a consequence
gained a lot already: their organisation has of the negotiations and developments of the
grown stronger, even across national frontiers. past few years, the
Furthermore, “indigenous knowledge has San in Southern Africa have become more
received a huge boost of understanding,” as experienced and more confident. They want to
Roger Chennells says. On the one hand, it learn more about their endangered traditions,
has wrenched the San themselves out of their languages and cultures, protect them and keep
former oblivion and oppression. On the other them in use. And they have grown warier and
more reticent towards friendly visitors who
show an interest in their traditions, medicinal
plants, music and rock paintings, now that they
know their potential value outside the Kala-
hari. Which means that biopirates will have it
neither cheap nor easy in future.
Uwe Hoering
Biopirates in the Kalahari?
How indigenous people are standing up
for their rights