Slide 20-30

ME F418: Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion
Lecture No. 20
Dr. Md. Qaisar Raza, Course: ME F418 Dt:05.03.22, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Interplanetary Trajectories
Hohmann Transfer
• For interplanetary transfer, assuming that planetary orbits about the sun are circular and
coplanar, Hohmann demonstrated that the path of minimum energy is an ellipse tangent to
both planetary orbits, This path is called a Hohmann Transfer orbit.
• The transfer itself consists of an elliptical orbit with a perigee at the inner orbit and an apogee
at the outer orbit
• This is a two-impulse elliptical transfer between two co-planar circular orbits
• This operation requires a velocity increment (of relatively high thrust) at the initiation (planet A
at time t1) and another at termination (planet B at time t2)
• Both increments equal the velocity differences between the respective circular planetary
velocities and the perigee and apogee velocities which define the transfer ellipse
Assumption:
The velocity changes of the
spacecraft, due to the propulsive
effects occur instantaneously, since,
the burn time of the rocket is much
smaller than the period of the orbit
Walter Hohmann.
Source: Smithsonian Institution.
Interplanetary Trajectories contd…
Elliptic Orbit
𝑎 is the semi major axis of the ellipse, and 𝜇 is the

Earth’s gravitational constant, 3.986 × 1014 m3/sec2
Ellipse’s shape factor e as the

eccentricity of the ellipse, 𝑒 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 Τ𝑎
Another property of an elliptical orbit is that the
product of velocity and instantaneous radius
remains constant for any location x or y on the
ellipse, namely, uxRx =uyRy = uR
Velocity of the transfer orbit at
Hohmann
departure from Earth or perigee
Transfer 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
2 1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
𝑉𝜋 = 𝜇𝑆 − Ellipse 2
𝑅1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠

arrival on Mars or apogee Sun 𝑉𝜋
2 1 Mars
𝑉𝛼 = 𝜇𝑆 − Earth
𝑉𝛼 𝑅1
Velocity of the circular orbits or orbital velocity
𝐶1
𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑆
𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐶2
∆𝑉 at departure (perigee):
2 1 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉𝜋 = 𝑉𝜋 − 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝜇𝑆 − − Energy in different orbits or orbital energy
𝑅1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑅1
𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉 on arrival (apogee): 𝐸1 = − 𝐸2 = −
2𝑅1 2𝑅2
𝜇𝑆 2 1 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉𝛼 = 𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑉𝛼 = − 𝜇𝑆 − 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =−
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 2𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠
Problems
A satellite is launched from a circular equatorial parking orbit at an altitude of 160 km into a
coplanar circular synchronous orbit by using a Hohmann transfer ellipse. Assume a
homogeneous spherical Earth with a radius of 6371 km. Determine the velocity increments for
entering the transfer ellipse and for achieving the synchronous orbit at 42,200 km altitude.
Method of Patched Conics
• In patched conics, one multi-body Hohmann
problem is break down into multiple 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Transfer 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
two-body problems. Each body has a 2
Ellipse
"Sphere of Influence" (SOI)
• Sphere of Influence (SOI), or a
Phase II
spherical region around the body where Phase III
the gravity of that body dominates any Sun 𝑉𝜋
SOI SOI
spacecraft
• When a spacecraft exits a planet's SOI, Mars
Earth
we can then ignore that planet's gravity 𝑉𝛼 𝑅1
for our calculations and use a different
Phase I
body instead which is sun in this case 𝐶1
𝐶2 𝑅2
Phase I: Geocentric escape (a hyperbola)

Phase II: Heliocentric transfer (an ellipse)
Phase III: Planetocentric capture (a hyperbola)
Rp = Semimajor axis of the smaller object's (usually a planet's) orbit around

the larger body (usually the Sun)
Lecture No. 21
Interplanetary Trajectories
Hohmann Transfer
• For interplanetary transfer, assuming that planetary orbits about the sun are circular and
coplanar, Hohmann demonstrated that the path of minimum energy is an ellipse tangent to
both planetary orbits, This path is called a Hohmann Transfer orbit.
• The transfer itself consists of an elliptical orbit with a perigee at the inner orbit and an apogee
at the outer orbit
• This is a two-impulse elliptical transfer between two co-planar circular orbits
• This operation requires a velocity increment (of relatively high thrust) at the initiation (planet A
at time t1) and another at termination (planet B at time t2)
• Both increments equal the velocity differences between the respective circular planetary
velocities and the perigee and apogee velocities which define the transfer ellipse
Assumption:
The velocity changes of the
spacecraft, due to the propulsive
effects occur instantaneously, since,
the burn time of the rocket is much
smaller than the period of the orbit
Walter Hohmann.
Source: Smithsonian Institution.
Elliptic Orbit
𝑎 is the semi major axis of the ellipse, and 𝜇 is the

Earth’s gravitational constant, 3.986 × 1014 m3/sec2
Ellipse’s shape factor e as the

eccentricity of the ellipse, 𝑒 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 Τ𝑎
Another property of an elliptical orbit is that the
product of velocity and instantaneous radius
remains constant for any location x or y on the
ellipse, namely, uxRx =uyRy = uR
Hohmann
departure from Earth or perigee
Transfer 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
2 1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
𝑉𝜋 = 𝜇𝑆 − Ellipse 2

arrival on Mars or apogee Sun 𝑉𝜋
2 1 Mars
𝑉𝛼 = 𝜇𝑆 − Earth
𝑉𝛼 𝑅1
Velocity of the circular orbits or orbital velocity
𝐶1
𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑆
𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐶2
∆𝑉 at departure (perigee):
2 1 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉𝜋 = 𝑉𝜋 − 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝜇𝑆 − − Energy in different orbits or orbital energy
𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉 on arrival (apogee): 𝐸1 = − 𝐸2 = −
2𝑅1 2𝑅2
𝜇𝑆 2 1 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉𝛼 = 𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑉𝛼 = − 𝜇𝑆 − 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =−
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 2𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠
Problems
A satellite is launched from a circular equatorial parking orbit at an altitude of 160 km into a
coplanar circular synchronous orbit by using a Hohmann transfer ellipse. Assume a
homogeneous spherical Earth with a radius of 6371 km. Determine the velocity increments for
entering the transfer ellipse and for achieving the synchronous orbit at 42,200 km altitude.
Method of Patched Conics
• In patched conics, one multi-body Hohmann
problem is break down into multiple 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Transfer 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
two-body problems. Each body has a 2
Ellipse
"Sphere of Influence" (SOI)
• Sphere of Influence (SOI), or a
Phase II
spherical region around the body where Phase III
the gravity of that body dominates any Sun 𝑉𝜋
SOI SOI
spacecraft
• When a spacecraft exits a planet's SOI, Mars
Earth
we can then ignore that planet's gravity 𝑉𝛼 𝑅1
for our calculations and use a different
Phase I
body instead which is sun in this case 𝐶1
𝐶2 𝑅2
Phase I: Geocentric escape (a hyperbola)

Phase III: Planetocentric capture (a hyperbola)
Rp = Semimajor axis of the smaller object's (usually a planet's) orbit around

the larger body (usually the Sun)
Method of Patched Conics contd…
Phase I: Geocentric escape (a hyperbolic escape) Earth’s
Initially spacecraft is in in 𝜇𝐸 Velocity
parking orbit with orbital velocity 𝑉𝑜,𝑃 = 𝑟𝑝 E
At P we have impulsive burn, as a result the
velocity at the periapsis of the hyperbolic escape
trajectory, become
2 1 𝑟𝑝
𝑉𝐻𝑦𝑝,𝑃 = 𝜇𝐸 −
𝑟𝑝 𝑎𝐻𝑦𝑝
Towards Sun 𝑉𝐻𝑦𝑝,𝑃 Departure
Velocity at the exit of earth’s SOI or escape P Hyperbola
velocity along hyperbolic trajectory (at point E) Parking Orbit 𝛽 Trajectory
2 1 Departure
𝑉∞,𝐸 = 𝜇𝐸 − 𝑅𝑆𝑂𝐼,𝐸 Hyperbola
𝑅𝑆𝑂𝐼,𝐸 𝑎𝐻𝑦𝑝
Periapsis
From energy conservation principal on
1
hyperbolic trajectory between point P and E 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 2
𝑟𝑝 𝑉∞,𝐸
2 𝑟𝑝 = Radius of parking orbit 1+
𝑉𝐻𝑦𝑝,𝑃 2 𝜇𝐸
𝜇𝐸 𝑉∞,𝐸 𝜇𝐸 = Gravitation constant of earth
− = 𝑅𝑆𝑂𝐼,𝐸 = Radius of sphere of influence of earth
2 𝑟𝑝 2
𝑎𝐻𝑦𝑝 = Semi major axis of hyperbolic trajectory

𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Velocity of the transfer orbit at Hohmann 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
2
perigee and apogee Transfer Ellipse
Phase II
2 1
𝑉𝜋 = 𝜇𝑆 − Phase III
Sun 𝑉𝜋
SOI SOI
2 1 Mars
𝑉𝛼 = 𝜇𝑆 −
𝑅2 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 Earth
𝑉𝛼 𝑅1 Phase I
Velocity of the circular orbits or
orbital velocity 𝐶1
𝜇𝑆 𝜇𝑆
𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝐶2 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
∆𝑉 at perigee and apogee
𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = Semi major axis of Hohmann transfer ellipse
2 1 𝜇𝑆
∆𝑉𝜋 = 𝑉𝜋 − 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝜇𝑆 − − 𝜇𝑆 = Gravitation constant of earth
∆𝑉𝜋 = Incremental velocity or impulse requirement
𝜇𝑆 2 1 of the spacecraft at departure from earth
∆𝑉𝛼 = 𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑉𝛼 = − 𝜇𝑆 −
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠
Phase III: Planetocentric capture (a hyperbolic capture)
Hohmann Transfer Application
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM or Mangalyaan) Trajectory
• ISRO used Hohmann Transfer

Orbit to send the MOM from Earth
to Mars
1. Geo Centric Phase
2. Helio Centric Phase
3. Martian Phase
https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission/mars-orbiter-mission-profile
MOM documentary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmIksl0FdZQ
Type I and II Trajectories Voyager 2 Trajectory
If the interplanetary trajectory carries
the spacecraft less than 180 degrees
around the sun, it's called a Type-I
Trajectory. If the trajectory carries it
180 degrees or more around the sun,
it's called a Type-II.
Gravity Assist Trajectories

Gravity can be tapped to accelerate
spacecraft on so-called "gravity-assist"
trajectories. Spacecraft such as
Voyager, Galileo, and Cassini use a
planet's gravity during a flyby to
slingshot it farther into space
Voyager spacecraft was launched on

a Type-II Hohmann transfer orbit to
Jupiter
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter4-1/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4fVnCbZxf0 Interplanetary Hohmann Transfers
https://ai-
solutions.com/_freeflyeruniversityguide/patched_conics_transfer.htm#modelingapatchedconic
stransfer Interplanetary Transfer: Method of patched conics
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-07-dynamics-fall-2009/lecture-
notes/MIT16_07F09_Lec17.pdf Interplanetary Transfer: Method of patched conics
Lecture No. 22
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM or Mangalyaan) Trajectory
• ISRO used Hohmann Transfer

Orbit to send the MOM from Earth
to Mars
1. Geo Centric Phase
2. Helio Centric Phase
3. Martian Phase
https://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission/mars-orbiter-mission-profile
MOM documentary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmIksl0FdZQ
Type I and II Trajectories Voyager 2 Trajectory
If the interplanetary trajectory carries
the spacecraft less than 180 degrees
around the sun, it's called a Type-I
Trajectory. If the trajectory carries it
180 degrees or more around the sun,
it's called a Type-II.
Gravity Assist Trajectories

Gravity can be tapped to accelerate
spacecraft on so-called "gravity-assist"
trajectories. Spacecraft such as
Voyager, Galileo, and Cassini use a
planet's gravity during a flyby to
slingshot it farther into space
Voyager spacecraft was launched on

a Type-II Hohmann transfer orbit to
Jupiter
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter4-1/
Important References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4fVnCbZxf0 Interplanetary Hohmann Transfers

https://ai-
solutions.com/_freeflyeruniversityguide/patched_conics_transfer.htm#modelingapatchedconic
stransfer Interplanetary Transfer: Method of patched conics
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-07-dynamics-fall-2009/lecture-
notes/MIT16_07F09_Lec17.pdf Interplanetary Transfer: Method of patched conics
Book: Introduction to Space Flight, Author: Francis J. Hale
Rocket Propellants
Characteristic of a Rocket Propellants
Desirable properties of the propellant
1 𝑅𝑜 𝑇𝑐
𝐶∗ =
𝛤 𝑀𝑊
• The specific impulse (𝐼𝑠𝑝) was seen to be proportional to 𝐶 ∗ ,
• Higher values of temperature and smaller values of molecular mass and specific heat
ratio of the combustion products, generated by the propellant, were seen desirable in
order to achieve large values of 𝐶 ∗
• For obtaining higher values of 𝑇𝑐 (combustion temperature), the energy released by the
chemical reactions has to be as large as possible and the 𝐶𝑃 (specific heat) of the
combustion gases must be small.
• The 𝐶𝑃 of a gas increases as its molecular structure becomes more complex.
Characteristic of a Rocket Propellants contd…
• The specific heat in J/mole K does not change very significantly with change of temperature.
It depends on whether the gases are monoatomic, diatomic, tri-atomic or more complex
• Mono-atomic and di-atomic gases in the combustion products are, therefore, to be preferred
as they would provide higher combustion temperatures for a given value of energy released
in a chemical reaction in comparison to gases having more complex molecular structure
• A smaller value of 𝛾 was seen to be desirable for obtaining higher values of 𝐶*. Combustion
gases having more complex chemical structure are, therefore, to be preferred from the point
of view of specific heat ratio. The influence of 𝛾 on 𝐼𝑠𝑝, however, is weaker than the influence
of temperature and molecular mass.
• The general practice is, therefore, to choose propellants which give higher temperatures and
lower molecular mass of combustion products.
Heat of Combustion
• The heat of formation ∆𝐻𝑓0 (also called enthalpy of formation) is the energy released (or
absorbed), or the value of enthalpy change, when 1 mol of a chemical compound is formed
from its constituent atoms or elements at 1 bar (100,000 Pa) and isothermally at 298.15 K
or 25℃.
• Heat of formation is a property characterizing the chemical structure of the substance.
• Heat of combustion refers to the energy liberated in a chemical reaction
• The heat of combustion ∆𝐻𝑐 is given by [– (Σ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0 − Σ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0 )] and goes to
increase the temperature of the combustion products.
• The values of heats of formation of CO2, CO and O2 as –394, –110 and 0 kJ/mole
respectively, we get the heat of combustion as
at 25ºC and 1 atms. pressure
Heat of Combustion contd…
• Consider the generalized representation of a chemical reaction
Σ 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 = Σ 𝑛𝑖𝑀𝑖
Reactants Products
where 𝑛𝑖 is the mole of species 𝑀𝑖 appearing as a product and reactant. The heat of
combustion is the net change in the heat of formation of the products from that of the
reactants
• The values of heats of formation of CO2, CO and O2 as –394, –110 and 0 kJ/mole
respectively, we get the heat of combustion as
at 25ºC and 1 atms. pressure
Selection of Rocket Propellants
• It is seen that the completely oxidised substances, e.g. CO2, H2O and Al2O3 have large
negative values of ∆𝐻𝑓0 .
• It is desirable that the propellants used and the mixture ratios are such that these
completely oxidised substances are formed during the combustion as against the under-
oxidised CO and the dissociated products, such as, OH, H and O
• ∆𝐻𝑓0 of the elements, e.g., hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen at 25ºC and one atmospheric
pressure, and carbon(s) at 25ºC is, by definition, zero.
Selection of Rocket Propellants contd…
• The propellant hydrazine (N2H4) and
Heat of formation in kJ/mole for some propellants
explosives, such as, RDX and HMX
have positive heats of formation.
RDX and HMX are cycloaliphatic
compounds. RDX is
cyclotrimethylene trinitramine
[(CH2)3(NNO2)3] while HMX is Propellants (Fuels)
cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine
[(CH2)4(NNO2)4]
• Substances having positive ∆𝐻𝑓0 , though
suited from considerations of energy ammonium
release, are generally unstable and tend perchlorate
to react spontaneously and are, therefore,
hazardous. The trend, therefore, is to
nitroglycerine
choose the reacting propellants with
rather small negative values of ∆𝐻𝑓0 .
• Hydrazine (N2H4) and mono-methyl
hydrazine (MMH – CH3N2H3) have
mildly positive values of ∆𝐻𝑓0 and are
widely used since they do not
spontaneously react.
Propellants (Oxidisers)
https://www.scielo.br/j/jatm/a/jg5XF3Ls6mb98g9WXwVK3Zw/?lang=en
• A term ‘mixture ratio’ is defined to denote the ratio of the mass of the oxidiser and mass of
fuel taking part in the combustion. It is denoted by the symbol MR.
• Stoichiometry composition (MR)st refers to the amount of fuel and oxidiser which leads to
the fuel being completely oxidised (i.e. forming completely oxidised products)
• When MR < (MR)st, the proportion of fuel is more than stoichiometric, i.e. the composition
used is fuel rich and vice-versa
• The energy release from the chemical

reactions will be maximum at the
stoichiometric mixture ratio (since completely
oxidised products of combustion with large
negative values of heat of formation are
obtained)
• The maximum temperature is obtained in the
fuel-rich mixture close to the stoichiometric
mixture ratio due to the decrease in the
values of specific heats at fuel-rich mixture
• Maximum values of specific impulse is obtained for fuel-rich mixture ratios instead of
stoichiometric mixture ratios
• The use of fuel-rich mixture ratios for propellants is followed in most of the existing
rockets.
• Theoretical specific impulse for various propellant combinations as function of engine
mixture ratio for a combustion pressure of 100 bar and an area ratio (Ae/At) of 45.
• A high combustion temperature, a low isentropic exponent as well as a low molecular

weight of the exhaust gases is preferable
• The highest performance delivers LOX/LH2 followed by the hydrocarbons whereas the
specific impulse values decrease with higher carbon content. Storable propellants show the
lowest performance
Lecture No. 23
Rocket Propellants
Summary
1 𝑅𝑜 𝑇𝑐
𝐶∗ = ∆𝐻𝑐 = Σ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0 − Σ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0
𝛤 𝑀𝑊
𝑇𝑐 ∝ ∆𝐻𝑐
Higher 𝐶 ∗ results in higher 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ∝ 1/𝐶𝑝
• High value of combustion temperature 𝑇𝑐 and lighter molecule of combustion gas (small
molecular mass) results in higher 𝐶 ∗
• For higher 𝑇𝑐 , magnitude of ∆𝐻𝑐 should be large and 𝐶𝑝 of the combustion gases should be
small, since heat of combustion is used to raised the temperature of the gasses
• For high ∆𝐻𝑐 , ∆𝐻𝑓0 of the product of combustion should be more negative. Completely
oxidised substances, e.g. CO2, H2O and Al2O3 have large negative values of ∆𝐻𝑓0
• Positive value of ∆𝐻𝑓0 for reactants or propellant also leads to higher ∆𝐻𝑐 , however, such
propellant are generally unstable and tend to react spontaneously and are, therefore,
hazardous. The trend, therefore, is to choose the reacting propellants with rather small
negative values of ∆𝐻𝑓0 .
• Hydrazine (N2H4) and mono-methyl hydrazine (MMH) have mildly positive values of ∆𝐻𝑓0
and are widely used since they do not spontaneously react.
Summary
1 𝑅𝑜 𝑇𝑐
𝐶∗ = ∆𝐻𝑐 = Σ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0 − Σ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑓0
𝛤 𝑀𝑊
𝑇𝑐 ∝ ∆𝐻𝑐
Higher 𝐶 ∗ results in higher 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ∝ 1/𝐶𝑝
• Dissociation is an endothermic process, dissociation of molecules at high temperature,

such as CO2 and H2O into CO, OH, H2, H and O results in decrease in combustion
temperature 𝑇𝑐
• The energy release from the chemical reactions will be maximum at the stoichiometric
mixture ratio, however, the maximum temperature is obtained in the fuel-rich mixture close
to the stoichiometric mixture ratio due to the decrease in the values of specific heats at
fuel-rich mixture
• Maximum values of specific impulse is obtained for fuel-rich mixture ratios instead of
stoichiometric mixture ratios
• General practice is to use fuel rich mixture ratio [MR < (MR)st] of propellants, i.e., oxidizer
and fuel
• Theoretical specific impulse for various propellant combinations as function of engine
mixture ratio for a combustion pressure of 100 bar and an area ratio (Ae/At) of 45.
• A high combustion temperature, a low isentropic exponent as well as a low molecular

weight of the exhaust gases is preferable
• The highest performance delivers LOX/LH2 followed by the hydrocarbons whereas the
specific impulse values decrease with higher carbon content. Storable propellants show the
lowest performance
• The energy release from the chemical reactions decreases due to dissociation.
• Dissociation increases significantly at lower pressures due to the reduced resistance from
the neighboring molecules. The dissociation results in a reduced temperature at the lower
pressures.
• The effect of dissociation is to bring down the molecular mass, Mw, at the lower range of
pressures
• The specific heat ratio, 𝛾 , of the gases, however, increases at the lower chamber
pressures due to the formation of the less complex products of combustion.
LOX-LH2 LOX-LH2
• The maximum 𝐼𝑠𝑝 occurs at fuel-rich mixture ratios much lower than the stoichiometric
mixture ratio of 8.0.
• The mixture ratio corresponding to maximum 𝐼𝑠𝑝 is seen to progressively increase as the
chamber pressure increases. At smaller values of pressure for which the dissociation is
more significant, the peak value of 𝐼𝑠𝑝 occurs at mixture ratios which are considerably
fuel rich.
• A fuel-rich mixture ratio would, therefore, be desirable to achieve higher specific impulse.
The choice of the optimum value of mixture ratio would vary with the chamber pressure.
Other criteria
• Propellant density: A higher density propellant will also occupy a smaller volume and
thus bring down the structural mass of the rocket
• Stability of Fuel and Oxidiser: Propellant should not spontaneously react and explode.
Propellants having positive heats of formation are usually less stable.
• Storability, Corrosiveness and Toxicity: Propellants based on the hydrazine family are
carcinogenic and call for special precautions in their production, storage and handling.
Oxidisers, such as nitric acid and di-nitrogen tetroxide, emit toxic fumes. It would be
preferable to choose propellants which are easy to handle and are not harmful to
humans and the environment. Specially insulated containers are required to store liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen
• Cost
Propellant selection for two-way communication between Earth and Mars

(SpaceX Starship)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbH1ZDImaI8
Problem
A fuel-rich mixture of kerosene and oxygen at a mixture ratio of 2.5 is burnt in a rocket chamber. If the
molecular formula for kerosene is given by C12H24, determine:
(a) Temperature of the combustion products
(b) Molecular mass of combustion products.
The boiling temperature of water is 100ºC and the latent heat of vaporization is 40 kJ/mole at 100ºC.
Kerosene CO2 CO H2O (l) H2O (g)
∆𝐻𝑓0 (kJ/mole) -159 -390 -112 -286 -
Cp (J/moleK) - 63 37 90 58
Problem
Determine the heat generated from the combustion of liquid hydrogen (LH 2) at a temperature of 20 K and
liquid oxygen (LO2) at 80 K at a mixture ratio of 6. Dissociation of the combustion products could be
neglected. The standard heat of formation of H2O is –286 kJ/mole. The following are the thermophysical
properties of LH2 and LO2:
LH2 GH2 LO2 GO2
𝑇𝐵(K) 22 - 90 -
Cp (kJ/kmoleK) 16 30 54 29
Latent Heat 892 6800

(kJ/kmole)
Solid Propellant
Solid propellants are classified into the following four categories:

(a) Double-base or homogeneous propellants,
(b) Composite or heterogeneous propellants,
Nitroglycerine (NG)
(c) Composite modified double-base propellants, and
(d) Nitramine propellants.
Double-base Propellants
• The propellants comprise nitrocellulose (NC) and nitroglycerine (NG) mixed together at the
molecular level to form a homogeneous substance in the presence of a few additives
comprising a plasticiser, such as, diethyl phthalate and triacetin, and stabiliser, such as,
diphenylamine.
• Plasticisers not only increase the fluidity but also make the propellant less sensitive to ignition
from impact.
• The double-base propellant is also known as ‘homogeneous propellant’, ‘mixed propellant’ or
‘colloidal propellant’. It is also known by the trade name ‘Cordite’.
• NC and NG can be used singly as propellants since they have both oxidiser and fuel in them.
These are known as single base propellants
Solid Propellant contd…
Composite Propellants (Oxidizers + Polymeric fuel)
• The propellant is heterogeneous
with a solid crystalline oxidizer
dispersed in a polymeric fuel.
• Metal aluminium powder is also
added to enhance the energy
released during combustion
• Polymer binds together the discrete crystalline oxidizer particles and the metal powder to
form a tough rubbery mass. Polymeric fuel is also known as binders.
Oxidizers:
• Commonly used oxidizers are
Ammonium Perchlorate (AP),
Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3)
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3).
• AP dissociates easily and is not very hygroscopic, and hence is preferred
• More energetic oxidisers, such as, hydrazinium nitroformate [N2H5C(NO2)3] are being
investigated for high performance composite propellants
Polymeric fuel:
• It consists of hydrocarbons containing C, H and O atoms (sometimes N and S also).
• HTPB and PBAN binders are most widely used
Polybutadiene acrylic acid acrylonitrile (PBAN): For large rockets, such as, the
solid rocket booster of the Space Shuttle
Hydroxy Terminated Poly Butadiene (HTPB): High performance propellants

make use of HTPB.
Glycidyl Azide Polymer (GAP): Contain larger percentage of hydrogen and

provide higher performance.
Polyurethanes and PVC have been used in the past, they give poor performance
Composite Modified Double-base Propellant
• The addition of AP crystals to double-base propellants reduces its fuel-richness and
improves its specific impulse.
• The energy release could be significantly increased by adding HMX instead of AP in the
double-base propellant. HMX is an abbreviation for ‘Her Majesty’s Explosive’ and is cyclo
tetra methylene tetra nitramine [C4H8N4(NO2)4].
• The propellants formed by adding AP or HMX to double-base propellants are known as
Composite Modified Double-Base (CMDB) propellants.
• CMDB propellants are more rugged than the composite propellants and are used for
missile propulsion. They have also been used for the upper stage solid propellant rockets.
Nitramine Propellants
• High explosives, such as, HMX and RDX are added to fuel binder comprising HTPB or
GAP instead of AP and cured to form Nitramine propellants.
• During combustion, the hydrocarbon gases from the polymer combine with the fuel-rich
products of HMX and RDX to form low temperature products.
• The polymeric binder acts as a coolant instead of burning the fuel-rich products of HMX
and RDX
Lecture No. 24
Problem
Determine the heat generated from the combustion of liquid hydrogen (LH2) at a temperature of 20 K and
liquid oxygen (LO2) at 80 K at a mixture ratio of 6. Dissociation of the combustion products could be
neglected. The standard heat of formation of H2O is –286 kJ/mole. The following are the thermophysical
properties of LH2 and LO2:
LH2 GH2 LO2 GO2
𝑇𝐵(K) 22 - 90 -
Cp (kJ/kmoleK) 16 30 54 29
Latent Heat 892 6800

(kJ/kmole)
Liquid Propellant
• Liquid propellants comprise liquid fuels and liquid oxidizers, also known as bipropellants
Fuels + Oxidizers
Kerosene, Liquid oxygen,

Hydrazine (N2H4), N2O4
Mono-methyl Hydrazine (MMH) HNO3
Hydrogen Red Fuming Nitric Acid (RFNA): HNO3 +15% NO2
Unsymmetrical Di-methyl
Hydrazine (UDMH)
Aniline (C6H7N) Propellants Classification as per Isp,SL
Xylidine (C8H11N)
Liquid Propellant contd…
• Both aniline and xylidine react spontaneously with nitric acid (HNO3) when brought in
contact in the liquid phase.
• The energy release with aniline and xylidine is low since the heats of formation ∆𝐻𝑓0 of both
the fuels (about –100 kJ/mole) and HNO3 (about –200 kJ/mole) are somewhat large and
negative. These propellants are used only when high performance is not a requirement.
• HNO3 is very corrosive. The addition of about 0.5 to 0.8 per cent of hydrofluoric acid (HF) to
RFNA inhibits the corrosion of the storage vessel and the inhibited RFNA is termed as
Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA). IRFNA with aniline and xylidine have been
extensively used in the past especially for low performing missiles.
• Hydrazine (N2H4) has a positive heat of formation and dissociates in the presence of a
catalyst to liberate heat. It is, therefore, sometimes used as a single propellant without the
need for an oxidizer and is, therefore, called a monopropellant
• N2H4 combines readily with oxidizers, such as, HNO3 and N2O4 giving much higher heat
release than RFNA
• Mono-methyl hydrazine (MMH) is a preferred fuel since its combustion with N2O4 is more
stable than hydrazine and the handling of MMH is also much easier.
• UDMH is also widely used with oxidizer N2O4, especially, for boosters. However, the Isp is
lower than that obtained with MMH
• The fuel kerosene has also been extensively used with LO2. Values of Isp are higher than
obtained with propellant combination MMH/UDMH – N2O4
• Kerosene, unlike the hydrazine based fuels, is not a chemical compound and consists of
several hydrocarbon fractions. It is predominantly paraffin
• Kerosene used for rocket applications has been known as Rocket Propellant (RP)
• Kerosene is used with LO2 in a large number of rockets and is referred to as semi-
cryogenic propellant, since, kerosene is a liquid at the ambient temperatures while LO2 is
a liquid only at cryogenic temperatures,
• Two propellant combinations comprising Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) with LO2 and with Liquid
Fluorine (LF) fall in high energy propellant
• The use of Fluorine has been difficult in view of its toxicity and high reactivity, The only
high energy propellant used in practice is LH2-LO2
• The addition of metal powders to liquid propellants does not show very significant
improvements unlike in the case of solid propellants. This is because with metal addition,
the molecular mass of the combustion products increase significantly for liquid propellants.
• Liquefied hydrocarbon gases, such as, liquid methane (CH4) and liquid propane (C3H8)
have lower negative values of heat of formation as compared to kerosene. They give
higher Isp and could be potential propellants for the future
• Propellants are said to be hypergolic if spontaneous reaction takes place when the fuel
and oxidizer are brought in contact.
• The semi-cryogenic propellant Kerosene-LO2 and cryogenic propellant LO2-LH2 are non-
hypergolic and require an ignition device to initiate the combustion.
• The cryogenic LF-LH2 propellant combination is hypergolic since fluorine is highly
reactive.
• Rockets which use a single propellant (monopropellant), such as hydrazine or hydrogen
peroxide for generating hot gases and hence the thrust are known as ‘monopropellant
rockets’
• Hydrazine (N2H4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), can be readily decomposed either by
a catalyst or by applying heat, can be used as monopropellant
Hybrid Propellants
• When fuel and oxidizer are in different phases, the propellant combination is termed as
hybrid.
• Hybrid propellants generally comprise a liquid oxidizer and a solid fuel.
• The fuel is a polymer as in the case of solid propellants. The liquid oxidizer could be LO2,
HNO3 or N2O4.
Liquid Propellant
Rockets
Propellant Tank
• In liquid bipropellant rocket engine systems the propellants are stored in
separate oxidizer and fuel tanks within the flying vehicle.
• Monopropellant rocket engine systems have only one propellant tank
• There may be one or more high-pressure auxiliary gas tanks, the gas being
used to pressurize the propellant tanks
• Tank location and design affect CG of the rocket
• Tank Material: Aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, alloy steels, and fiber-
reinforced plastics etc
Ullage:
• Any gas volume above the
propellant in sealed tanks
• Accommodate for the thermal
expansion of the propellant liquids,
• Accumulation of gases that were
originally dissolved in the propellant
or, the by product of slow chemical
reactions within the propellant
during storage.
• Usually range between 3 and 10%
of tank volumes.
Propellant Tank contd…
Expulsion Efficiency
• Propellant that can be expelled or available for propulsion divided by the total amount of
propellant initially present.
• Typical values are 97 to 99.7%.
• Losses consist of unavailable or residual propellants left in tanks after rocket operation,
trapped in grooves or corners of pipes, fittings, filters, and valves, or wetting the walls,
retained by surface tension, or caught in instrument taps.
• Residual propellant is not available for combustion and treated as inert mass
Cryogenic Propellant Tank

• Ice formation on the tank surface due to condensation of ambient
moisture which is undesirable
• Ice are shaken off or tend to break off during the initial flight which
can damage the vehicle
• With liquid hydrogen it is even possible to liquefy or solidify the
ambient air on the outside of the fuel tank
• Air is evacuated from the tank prior to loading any cold cryogenic
propellant to avoid forming solid air particles and ice from any
existing moisture which may plug the valves and pipelines etc
• Initially small amount of cryogenic liquid is admitted in the tank and
pipelines to absorb the heat from the relatively warm hardware prior
to engine start and the vapor formed is vented out
• All cryogenic tanks and piping systems are therefore vented during countdown on the
launch pad, equipped with pressure safety devices
• Cryogenic propellant tanks are usually refilled or topped off just before launch to replace
the evaporated and vented cool-down propellant
Tank Classification
• For pressurized feed systems (propellant tanks)
o Heavy tank with thick wall
o Operating pressure 1.3 - 9 MPa
• For high-pressure stored gases (used to

expel the propellants), the tank pressures
need to be much higher
o 6.9 and 69 MPa
o Usually spherical for minimum inert mass
• For turbopump feed systems

o 0.07 - 0.34 MPa
o Lighter tank with thin wall
Sloshing
• Sudden acceleration and maneuvering of rocket may cause sloshing of the propellant
• Can make the rocket unstable/uncontrolled due to irregular shift in CG
• Can uncover a tank’s outlet and allow gas bubbles to enter into the propellant tank
discharge line
• It can greatly increase unavailable or residual propellants and thus some reduction in
vehicle performance
• A series of internal baffles can be used to reduce the magnitude of sloshing
• Propellant expulsion devices
can also be used to minimize
the effect of sloshing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39CB511Y1dQ
Positive Expulsion Devices
Propellant Ullage Problem
• In the gravity-free environment of space, stored liquids will float around in a partly emptied
tank and may not always cover the tank outlet, thus allowing gas to enter the tank outlet or
discharge pipe. This can severely affect rocket performance
• The positive expulsion tank design are used to address propellant ullage problem
• These devices mechanically separate the pressurizing gas from the liquid propellant in the
propellant tank
• Positive expulsion devices can be categorized as
o Inflatable flexible bladders, or Thin movable
and flexible metal diaphragms
o Movable pistons
https://exrocketman.blogspot.com/2021/08/propellant-ullage-problem-and-solutions.html
Positive Expulsion Devices contd…
Movable pistons Inflatable flexible bladders, or

Thin movable and flexible metal diaphragms
Other benefits
• Prevents pressurizing gas from dissolving in the propellant and propellant vapors from mixing
with the gases
• Mechanical separation prevents chemical reactions between hot gases and propellants, and
prevents propellant vapors from diffusing into the (unheated) pressurant lines and freeze, and
reduces the heat transfer to the liquid
• It minimizes sloshing, thus, permits the center of gravity (CG) to be accurately controlled
Positive Expulsion Devices contd…
Surface Tension Devices
• Surface tension devices use capillary attraction for supplying liquid propellant to the tank
outlet pipe
• Often made of very fine (300 mesh) stainless steel wire woven into a screen and formed into
tunnels or other shapes
• These screens are located near the tank outlet and, in some tanks, tubular galleries are used
designed to connect various parts of the tank volume to the outlet pipe sump
The combination of surface tension screens,
baffles, sumps, and traps is called a
propellant management device (PMD) or
liquid acquisition device (LAD)
http://pmdtechnology.com/PMD%20Types.html
Hartwig, J. W. (2017). Propellant management devices for low-gravity
fluid management: past, present, and future applications. Journal of
Vanes Spacecraft and Rockets, 54(4), 808-824.
Screens
Propellant Feed System
• Propellant feed systems have two principal functions: .

o To raise the pressure of the propellants and
o To supply propellant at design mass flow rates to one or more thrust chambers
• Generally classified as
o Gas pressure feed system
o Turbopump feed system
Gas Pressure Feed System
• Gas at ambient temperature, contained in a
tank at high pressure, is supplied to the fuel
and oxidizer tanks through a pressure
regulator to expel propellants from the tanks
• Typical inert gases used are helium, nitrogen,
and air
• Components: A high-pressure gas tank, a gas
starting valve, a gas pressure regulator,
propellant tanks, propellant valves, and feed
lines, filling and draining provisions, check
valves, filters, flexible elastic bladders, and
pressure sensors or gauges, are also often
incorporated.
• Gas pressure feed systems give superior
performance over turbopump systems when
o total impulse or propellant mass is relatively low
o the chamber pressure is relatively low
o the engine thrust-to-weight ratio is low (usually
less than 0.6)
o there are repeated short-duration thrust pulses
Regular Mode
Gas Pressure Feed System contd…
Blow-down mode
• In blow-down mode, the gas or vapor column is stored above the liquid surface in the tank,
known as ullage volume, is directly pressurized
• Propellant tanks are relatively larger
• No separate high-pressure gas tank and no pressure regulator.
• Gas pressure in the propellant tank progressively decreases as the liquid fuel or oxidizer is
expelled from the tank
Blow-down Mode
Gas Pressure Feed System contd…
Lecture No. 25
Turbopump Feed System and Cycles
• The propellants are pressurized by means of separate pumps, which in turn are driven by
one or more turbines
• The turbopump is a high-precision, accurately balanced piece of high-shaft-speed (rpm)
rotating machinery. It consists usually of one or two centrifugal pump(s) and turbines.
• Turbopump required enormous amount of power which cannot be provided an electrical
motor
• Based on the propellant flow it can be broadly classified into
o Gas Generator Cycle (Open Cycle)
o Topping or Staged Combustion Cycle (Closed Cycle)
o Expander Cycle
o Miscellaneous Cycle
Gas Generator Cycle (Open Cycle)
• Part of the propellants from the fuel and oxidizer tanks is diverted to the gas generator or
pre-burner, where hot gases are generated and these hot gases are expanded in the
turbine. The turbine drives the pumps
• The mixture ratio of the propellants is chosen such that temperature of the gases in the gas
generator is well within the acceptable limits of less than about 1000 K.
• Exhaust gas from the turbine is released to ambient
through auxiliary nozzle with no significant thrust
Gas Generator Cycle (Open Cycle) contd…
• SpaceX Merline (Propellant- LOX/RP1) engine uses this configuration
• It used fuel-rich mixture in pre-burner to maintain the temperature of the turbine below 1000K
• Black smoke from the auxiliary nozzle exhaust due to unburnt fuel
• Limitation: Involves loss of some propellant since exhaust from turbine is not producing
thrust, therefore, less efficient but simpler in construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbH1ZDImaI8&t=737s
Topping or Staged Combustion Cycle (Closed Cycle)
• Exhaust gases from the turbine are sent to

the main combustion chamber of the rocket,
where they are further mixed with additional
quantities of fuel or oxidizer and burnt to high
temperatures
• Improves thrust generation
• Provide higher values of specific impulse.
• More efficient
• The mixture ratio of propellants in the gas
generator or pre-burner is either fuel-rich or
oxidizer-rich to provide low values of turbine
inlet temperatures
Topping or Staged Combustion Cycle (Closed Cycle) contd…
• The exhaust gas from the turbine containing excess unburnt fuel (i.e., pre-burner which
runs with fuel-rich mixture, let’s say LOX-RP1) cannot be directly routed to the combustion
chamber
• Coking: Carbon content at high temperature and pressure form carbon polymers or soots
• Soot particles may clog the propellant injector and damage the rocket engine
Oxidizer Rich Pre-burner Fuel Rich Pre-burner
• Challenge: Superheated high pressure • Developed by Americans
oxygen can damage the turbine blades • Can be used with LOX-LH2 propellant
• High strength special alloy is developed • Uses dual shaft and dual pre-burner
by Soviet to sort out this problem and • Any leakage of H2 into oxygen side of
they developed closed cycle with the pump shaft results in fire
oxidizer rich mixture in pre-burner • Limitation: Design of LOX Turbopump
• Can be used with RP1 propellant seal to prevent the leakage of LH2 to
• Limitation: Heavy pump design LO2 side
Helium Seal
Closed Cycle fuel Rich Pre-burner
Full Flow Stage Combustion Cycle
• The need of highly precised helium seal arrangement is eliminated
• It uses two pre-burner, one fuel rich and another oxidizer rich
• Fuel rich burner power fuel pump and oxidizer rich pre-burner power oxidizer pump
• The challenge of high pressure superheated oxygen is resolved by SpaceX by
developing special allow SX500 which can sustain high pressure super heated oxygen
Summary of Open and Closed Cycle
Rocketdyne Aerojet
Blue origin Rocketdyne
Saturn V rocket
Soviet New Glenn SLS rocket
SpaceX rocket
Atlas V rocket For Starship
SpaceX
Falcon 9
Falcon Heavy
Rocketdyne Aerojet
Blue origin Rocketdyne
Saturn V rocket
Soviet New Glenn SLS rocket
SpaceX rocket
Atlas V rocket For Starship
SpaceX
Falcon 9
Falcon Heavy
Expander Cycle
• No gas generator or pre-burner
• Volatile propellants, such as, liquid oxygen,
liquid hydrogen or liquid propane are
circulated around the combustion chamber
and nozzle for cooling which generates vapor
of the propellant
• The vapor is used to drive the turbine before
it is admitted in the combustion chamber for
burning.
• Limitations on the amount of liquid fuel or
oxidizer that can be vaporized using the hot
chamber walls
• Used for smaller liquid propellant rockets
operating at low chamber pressure
Miscellaneous Cycle
Gas Generator with Bleed Combustion Tap-off Cycle

• Exhaust from the turbine can be admitted in • Combustion gases could also be taken
the divergent portion of the nozzle to from the main thrust chamber for driving
generate additional thrust the turbine
Performance of Feed System Cycle
𝑚ሶ 𝑂 = total mass flow rate of oxidizer Gas Generator

Cycle (GGC)
𝑚ሶ 𝐻 = total mass flow rate of hydrogen/fuel
𝑚ሶ 𝑂,𝐺𝐺 = mass flow rate of oxidizer going to gas generator
𝑚ሶ 𝐻,𝐺𝐺 = mass flow rate of hydrogen going to gas generator
𝑚ሶ 𝑂 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑂,𝐺𝐺 = mass flow rate of oxidizer going to main

combustion chamber
𝑚ሶ 𝐻 − 𝑚ሶ 𝐻,𝐺𝐺 = mass flow rate of hydrogen going to main
combustion chamber
𝑇𝐺𝐺 = temperature of the fuel-rich gases generated
in the gas generator
𝑇𝑂𝑇 = temperature of the gases leaving turbine
Power generated by the turbine

(1)
Power requirement of the pump

Combined volumetric
(2) flow rate of LH2 and
LO2 into the pump
Performance of Feed System Cycle contd…
From equation (1) and (2)
(3)
where, turbo-pump efficiency
Overall mixture ratio
Mixture ratio in main

combustion chamber
Mixture ratio in gas

generator
On simplifying equation (3), we get
(4)
Assuming isentropic
expansion in the turbine
Fraction of the propellant flow rate through the gas generator,
(5)
From equation (4) and (5), we get
(6)
𝑇𝐺𝐺 = 900 K
η=0.6
rp=15
RGG=0.6
From equation (5)
From above equations, we get
For expander cycle, there is no gas

generator
f=0 RMC = R
Fraction of Flow through Gas Generator Variation of Mixture Ratio of the Main
at Different Chamber Pressures and Combustion Chamber with Change of the
Mixture Ratios Overall Mixture Ratio and Chamber Pressure
Performance of SCC
Equation (1) to (6) discussed for GGC will

also hold for SCC
RMC = R
Problem
A cryogenic liquid propellant rocket using liquid hydrogen for fuel and liquid oxygen for oxidizer works on a gas
generator cycle. The overall mixture ratio of the rocket is 4.0 while the mixture ratio in the gas generator is 0.6. The
temperature of the hot gases in the gas generator (corresponding to the mixture ratio of 0.6) is 700 K. The pressure
ratio across the turbine is 3. Find the fraction of the propellants required to be supplied to the gas generator and the
mixture ratio in the main thrust chamber. Also determine the rate of consumption of each propellant.
Efficiency of the turbo-pump system is 0.6 and that of pump is 0.7. The power required by the pump is 2500kW. The
specific heat ratio and molecular mass of the products of combustion of the gas generator are 1.35 and 3.3 kg/kmole.
The densities of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are 75 and 1140 kg/m3 respectively. The pressure rise across the
liquid hydrogen pump and liquid oxygen pump can be taken to be 5 MPa.
Lecture No. 26
Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine (LPRE)
RS-68 rocket engine with a Russian RD-191 liquid propellant rocket engine
gas generator cycle operating on a staged combustion cycle
(Aerojet Rocketdyne)
Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine (LPRE) contd…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3isXaIQ3Lkk
Problem
A cryogenic liquid propellant rocket using liquid hydrogen for fuel and liquid oxygen for oxidizer works on a gas
generator cycle. The overall mixture ratio of the rocket is 4.0 while the mixture ratio in the gas generator is 0.6. The
temperature of the hot gases in the gas generator (corresponding to the mixture ratio of 0.6) is 700 K. The pressure
ratio across the turbine is 3. Find the fraction of the propellants required to be supplied to the gas generator and the
mixture ratio in the main thrust chamber. Also determine the rate of consumption of each propellant.
Efficiency of the turbo-pump system is 0.6 and that of pump is 0.7. The power required by the pump is 2500kW. The
specific heat ratio and molecular mass of the products of combustion of the gas generator are 1.35 and 3.3 kg/kmole.
The densities of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are 75 and 1140 kg/m3 respectively. The pressure rise across the
liquid hydrogen pump and liquid oxygen pump can be taken to be 5 MPa.
Propellant Pressurization in Turbopump feed System
• The supply pressure of
propellants from the tanks to
pump is restricted to about 2 to 5
atmospheres
• Cavitation would occur when the
pressure falls below the vapor
pressure of the propellant
• Cavitation is avoided by placing
an inducer pump (also called
booster pump) prior to the main
pump to increase pressure and
prevent cavitation
• NPSH is required to be high
enough to prevent cavitation. It
can be increased by increasing
the tank pressure
𝑁𝑠 =
Gas Pressure Feed System Analysis
Considering the expulsion of a single propellant at
pressure pP from a tank of volume VP completely filled with
propellants
Pressure regulator maintains a constant value of pressure

pP in the propellant tank
𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑜 = Initial temperature and pressure of gas inside the gas

bottle/auxiliary tank
𝑇𝑟 𝑝𝑟 = Final temperature and press. of gas in the gas bottle after it expand
through addition volume of Vp once all the propellant is consumed
𝑇𝑝 𝑝𝑝 = Final temperature and press of gas in the propellant tank after it expand
through addition volume of Vp once all the propellant is consumed
Considering adiabatic expansion, 𝑄ሶ = 0

𝑄ሶ = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
−𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑊
Gas Pressure Feed System Analysis contd…
Simplifying after substituting in the

above equation
We get,
A gas stored at high pressure p0, low molecular mass

Mw (which gives higher value of the specific gas
constant R = R0/Mw) and high temperature T0 is
advantageous, as smaller mass of gas would be required
Problem
Determine the volume of gas bottle required to pressurize the propellant tanks containing UDMH and N2O4 in a high
thrust liquid propellant rocket operating in a gas generator cycle. The gas used is helium and is stored in the gas
bottle at a pressure of 32 MPa and a temperature of 300 K. The volume of the UDMH tank and N2O4 tank is the
same and is 15,400 liters. Both fuel and oxidizer are supplied to the pumps at a rate of 110 liters/s. The supply
pressure of UDMH is 0.37 MPa, while that of N2O4 is 0.34 MPa. Two separate pressure regulators are used, which
reduce the pressure of the helium gas from the gas bottle pressure to 0.37 MPa for UDMH tank and 0.34 MPa for the
N2O4 tank.
You can assume the UDMH and N2O4 tank to be completely filled with propellants. The pressure loss in the feed-
lines and flow control components can be neglected. The pressure of the residual gas in the bottle is 5 MPa.
Propellant Injectors
• The injector admits the fuel and oxidizer in proper proportions and at the specified flow rates
inside combustion chamber for the burning to take place
• It breaks up the liquid fuel and liquid oxidizer into fine droplets to facilitate their vaporization
(a process called atomization) and provides the necessary motion for adequate mixing of the
fuel and oxidizer vapors in order to have efficient combustion, hence, thrust
• Various kind of rocket

propellant injectors are
o Showerhead injectors
o Impinging Jet Injectors
o Coaxial Injectors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aa4ATJGRqA0
Showerhead Injectors
• Propellant streams flow in the straight line
• Relies on the turbulence of the gases for mixing
• Poor mixing, hence, poor performance
• L/D ratio affects flow pattern and velocity profile Orifices in a
of liquid jet Showerhead
Injector
L/D > 2
L/D < 2
Impinging Jet Injectors
• In this injectors orifices are inclines such that, liquid jets formed in the sharp-edged orifices
are made to impinge on one another to generate droplets by impact
Doublet
Lecture No. 27
Propellant Injectors
• The injector admits the fuel and oxidizer in proper proportions and at the specified flow rates
inside combustion chamber for the burning to take place
• It breaks up the liquid fuel and liquid oxidizer into fine droplets to facilitate their vaporization
(a process called atomization) and provides the necessary motion for adequate mixing of the
fuel and oxidizer vapors in order to have efficient combustion, hence, thrust.
• Various kind of rocket

propellant injectors are
o Showerhead injectors
o Impinging Jet Injectors
o Coaxial Injectors
Showerhead Injectors
• Propellant streams flow in the straight line
• Relies on the turbulence of the gases for mixing
• Poor mixing, hence, poor performance
• L/D ratio affects flow pattern and velocity profile Orifices in a
of liquid jet Showerhead
Injector
L/D > 2
L/D < 2
Impinging Jet Injectors
• In this injectors orifices are inclines such that, liquid jets formed in the sharp-edged orifices
are made to impinge on one another to generate droplets by impact
• Improved atomization and mixing as compared to shower
head injectors
• It has various configuration based on the number of holes
and its position, such as, doublet, triplet, quadruplet etc
Doublet
Impinging Jet Injectors contd…
Doublet
• Atomization and mixing is sensitive to the mass flow
rate of propellant
• This configuration has been used in various rockets
such as Atlas, Thor, Titan, and Saturn V among
others.
Triplet
• Three jets impinge on each other to form spray fan
• Results in a more homogeneous distribution of droplets
• Unlike doublet, mixing is not influenced by changes in the mixture ratio
• The net direction of the fan does not change when the mixture ratio is varied
• This configuration is used in XLR 81 (Agena) upper stage, lunar module ascent engine, etc.
Quadraplet
• In this configuration, four jets impinge to form a spray fan.
• The high performance obtained with triplet elements has not been demonstrated in practice
with the quadruplets
• This configuration is used in LR 87 rocket engine etc
Splash Plate Injector
• Instead of impinging multiple jets of fuel and oxidizer one on the other, the jets are
atomized by impinging them on flat metal surfaces in the combustion chamber. The metal
surfaces are known as splash plates
Mixture Ratio through Injector
The mass flow rate through the orifice is:
𝑚ሶ = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝜌 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑝𝑐
If we have nOX number of oxidizer orifices

each having an area AOX in the injector head
and if the pressure drop across each of them
is ΔpOX, the net oxidizer mass flow rate is
The mixture ratio of propellants supplied to the

combustion chamber is
Coaxial Injectors
Coaxial Swirl Injectors
• Propellant at the core flows in swirling
motion and at the exit it collides with
another propellant which may be moving
axially or swirling motion as well in
annular space
• Used in SpaceX raptor engine
• Very efficient mixing
Coaxial Injectors contd…
Coaxial Pintle Injectors
• A body placed in the center is used to generate a thin annular liquid sheet
• Annular liquid spray fans are formed by injecting the liquid fuel and liquid
oxidizer coaxially
• Pintle can be adjustable, therefore, geometry of the injector can be
changed during operation
• This configuration was used in Apollo rocket engine, Merline engine of Multi-element
Falcon 9 (SpaceX) Coaxial Injector
• Can be used as valve
as well
• Propellant stream can
hit the wall of the
combustion chamber
resulting in the
formation of hot spot
Miscellaneous Injection
Viking Engine
Ariane 124
Combustion Chamber
• The oxidizer and fuel, metered into the combustion chamber at the required flow rates and at
the specified values of mixture ratios by the injector, are mixed and burned in the combustion
chamber
• The hot products of combustion are exhausted at high velocities through the nozzle. The
chemical reactions continue in the nozzle
• The droplets formed in the near-injection region move at high velocities in the direction of the
spray fan. The flow process here is three-dimensional
• The vaporization of the droplets, the mixing of the vapors and combustion starts here with
axial and cross flows viz., a three-dimensional flow field
• The relative distribution of the fuel and oxidizer droplets would produce variable mixture ratios
in the three-dimensional combustion zone adjacent to the injector
Three-dimensional Zone followed by Stream

Tube Flow in Combustion Chamber
Combustion Chamber contd…
• Non-uniform mixture ratios, distinctly different from the overall mixture ratio of the propellants
at injection, exist in the transverse direction along the radius of the chamber
• These variable mixture ratios feed into the multiple annular stream, wherein combustion
progresses
• Non-uniform distribution of mixture ratio and incomplete evaporation of droplets tend to
decrease the generated thrust
• Length of the chamber is not long enough in liquid propellant rockets for turbulence to
develop and mixing to take place between the individual stream tubes.
• Individual stream tubes could be analyzed and the composite performance of all the stream
tubes is used for determining the net performance

Non-uniform Distribution of Mixture Ratio
• Non uniform distribution of propellant mixture reduces the thrust
xi= fraction of the propellant flow in • 𝐶0∗ corresponding to the overall

stream tube i mixture ratio say (MR)0
Ci*= characteristic velocity corresponding • The efficiency due to the distribution
to ith tube of mixture ratios is
the net mass weighted value of C* obtained with
all the stream tubes

• The non-uniformity in mixture ratios is defined by a distribution parameter DR given below
• DR = 1 refers to uniform distribution. The amount of the departure from unity signifies the
non-uniformity
• A homogeneous distribution of mixture ratios

would provide the maximum ηC*,dist of one
Variation of C* Efficiency from

Distribution Due to Changes in
Distribution Parameter and
Overall Mixture Ratio
Incomplete Vaporization
• The size of the droplets formed in the spray and the
vaporization rates of the droplets govern whether the
droplets are completely vaporized in the given length of
the combustion chamber
• The C* efficiency due to incompleteness of vaporization is
Reduction in C* Due to
Combined Influence of Distribution and

Combustion of Hypergolic Propellant
• Reaction in liquid phase to
produce heat
• Vaporization of the liquid fuel–
oxidizer mixture
• Initiation of chemical reactions in
gaseous phase without any aid of
external ignition energy
• Formed burnt gas that mixes with
other vapor
• Intense mixing of fuel and oxidizer
in gaseous phase can form
turbulent premixed flame/flamelets
in the combustion chamber
• Generation of final combustion
products
Combustion of Non-hypergolic Propellant
• Liquid phase mixing during atomization

process, no chemical reactions in the
liquid phase
• Vaporization of liquid propellant
droplets
• Mixing of propellant in gas phase, this
can form premixed flame
• Exothermic reactions during the gas
phase reactions
• Final combustion products
These complex processes are tentative

in nature, which need further research
with the help of advanced optical
diagnostic and numerical tools in future
Combustion Hypergolic and Non-hypergolic Propellant
ti = ignition delay time
Total residence time

or propellant
Hypergolic combustion Non-hypergolic combustion
tlc = The time for liquid-phase reaction • Specific volume starts increasing at B due
to vaporization of liquid propellant caused
trg = Time during which propellants and their
by atomization and heat transfer from the
combustion products will be in gas phase in
combustion zone
combustion chamber
• Ignition initiates at C, resulting in increased
Two characteristic times, tlc and residence rate of increase in specific volume of gases
time for gaseous phase combustion trg can • Specific volume gets accelerated beyond
be used for the determination of the length point C till point D as the exothermic
of combustion chamber chemical reactions are initiated.
Lecture No. 28
Combustion Hypergolic and Non-hypergolic Propellant
ti = ignition delay time
Total residence time

for propellant
Hypergolic combustion Non-hypergolic combustion
tlc = The time for liquid-phase reaction • Specific volume starts increasing at B due
to vaporization of liquid propellant caused
trg = Time during which propellants and their
by atomization and heat transfer from the
combustion products will be in gas phase in
combustion zone
combustion chamber
• Ignition initiates at C, resulting in increased
Two characteristic times, tlc and residence rate of increase in specific volume of gases
time for gaseous phase combustion trg can • Specific volume gets accelerated beyond
be used for the determination of the length point C till point D as the exothermic
of combustion chamber chemical reactions are initiated.
Combustion Chamber Geometry
• The length of the combustion chamber needs to be adequate for the vaporization, mixing
and chemical reactions to be completed
• A characteristic length L* defined as the ratio of the chamber volume to throat area
• L*, in practice varies between 0.8 m and 1.2 m for the different liquid propellant rockets
• With smaller values of L*, the vaporization, mixing and reactions do not get completed
giving rise to a reduced value of ηC*
• The characteristics length L* can be related to the total residence time
• For simplicity, the ignition time ti can be neglected as it is small as compared to residence
time in gas phase for certain cases
Combustion Chamber Geometry contd…
𝑚𝑔 = mass of the gas in the combustion chamber
𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate of gas leaving the
combustion chamber or nozzle
Assuming the specific heat ratio 𝛾 to remain

constant across the entire combustion zone
up to the throat of the nozzle
• For design of liquid-propellant rocket engine, the specific heat ratio 𝛾 can be considered as 1.25;
then we can evaluate the combustion chamber volume Vc easily by knowing the residence time
in gas phase trg
• For most cases, experimental studies indicate that the residence time in gas phase trg varies
from 2 × 10−3 to 7 × 10−3 s. To evaluate the volume accurately 𝑓1(𝑡𝑖 ) should be evaluated
• It is still not possible to develop expression for residence time function 𝑓1(𝑡𝑖 ) it depends on the
injection system chamber pressure, turbulence level, type of injector and its arrangement, and
type of propellants used in liquid-propellant rocket engine
• The characteristic length L* can also be obtained experimentally
• Characteristic length L* is dependent on the nature of propellant
• The choice of proper shape of combustion chamber is quite important in determining the
performance of the liquid rocket engine
• A long combustion chamber with a smaller cross-sectional area can incur high pressure
losses due to higher frictional and gas dynamic losses
• Shorter combustion chamber with higher cross-sectional area can have higher zone of
atomization and vaporization, leading to poorer combustion due to shorter mixing and
combustion time
• Spherical shape is considered to be the best among all three shapes as it has the
o highest volume-to-surface area ratio
for the same material strength and
chamber pressure
o minimum wall thickness required for
same level of chamber pressure
o lesser cooling surface and weight
o complex to manufacture
• To overcome manufacturing problem near-

spherical shape is preferred in European
engine where as American and most
countries still prefers spherical shape
Vaporization of Droplet and Evaporation Constant
𝑟
The rate of evaporation of the droplet
𝑌𝐹∞
𝐷 𝑟𝑆 𝑌𝐹𝑆
Evaporation
constant
Mass flow rate of fuel vapor from the droplet

surface
B is transport
number based on
the concentrations
The time taken for the evaporation
Problems
(a) Calculate the combustion volume of a thruster burning Liquid Oxygen (LO2) and Kerosene at a pressure
of 5 MPa and generating a thrust of 60 kN. The actual thrust coefficient can be taken as 1.4 and the
characteristic velocity C* as 2800 m/s. The characteristic length (L*) for a kerosene – LO2 thruster can be
assumed as 1.7 m.
(b) If the mixture ratio in the thruster is 2, determine the volumetric flow rates of LO2 and kerosene. You
can take the specific gravity of LO2 and kerosene as 1.14 and 0.8 respectively.
(c) If like doublet injection elements with sharp-edged orifices of diameters of 1 and 1.14 mm are used for
LO2 and kerosene, find the number of injection elements required. Assume the discharge coefficient of the
fuel and oxidizer orifices as 0.53 and 0.64, respectively, and the supply pressure to the injector as 6 MPa.
Problems
(a) A liquid propellant rocket uses hydrazine for fuel and N2O4 for oxidizer. The rate of hydrazine injection
is 4 g/s and that of N2O4 is 6 g/s. If the mean diameter of hydrazine and N2O4 droplets formed in the spray
is 0.3 mm and the mean axial velocity of droplets is 50 m/s, determine:
(i) Mixture ratio at injection
(ii) Mixture ratio of the vaporized propellant
You can take the length of the combustion chamber as 50 cm. The evaporation of the droplets can be
assumed to be given by the law: d2 = d02 –λt, where the evaporation constant λ is 3 mm2/s for hydrazine
droplets and 5 mm2/s for N2O4 droplets.
(b) If the characteristic velocity C* in m/s is expressed in terms of mixture ratio R by the expression:
C* = 2000 – 100(| R – 1.4 |), find the C* efficiency due to incomplete vaporisation.
Lecture No. 29
Problems
(a) A liquid propellant rocket uses hydrazine for fuel and N2O4 for oxidizer. The rate of hydrazine injection
is 4 g/s and that of N2O4 is 6 g/s. If the mean diameter of hydrazine and N2O4 droplets formed in the spray
is 0.3 mm and the mean axial velocity of droplets is 50 m/s, determine:
(i) Mixture ratio at injection
(ii) Mixture ratio of the vaporized propellant
You can take the length of the combustion chamber as 50 cm. The evaporation of the droplets can be
assumed to be given by the law: d2 = d02 –λt, where the evaporation constant λ is 3 mm2/s for hydrazine
droplets and 5 mm2/s for N2O4 droplets.
(b) If the characteristic velocity C* in m/s is expressed in terms of mixture ratio R by the expression:
C* = 2000 – 100(| R – 1.4 |), find the C* efficiency due to incomplete vaporization.
Injectors
Injectors contd…
Impinging
Jet Injectors
Coaxial
Splash Jet Injectors Pintle
Injectors
Coaxial
Swirl
Injectors
Injectors contd…
Thrusters
• Thrusters are rockets propulsion system with low thrust capabilities
• Used for docking, trajectory corrections, altitude control, terminal velocity control in
spacecraft or ballistic missiles, divert or side movements, propellant settling, and other
necessary functions
• Thrusters are also called reaction control systems, auxiliary rocket propulsion systems, or
altitude control systems in contrast to higher-thrust primary or boost propulsion systems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jd_aIRkI5ws
Bipropellant Thrusters
• Uses storable liquid propellants, and
require accurate repeatable pulsing, a
long life in space and/or long-term
storage with loaded propellants in the
flight tanks
• MMH and N2O4 are classical storable
propellant with hypergolic in nature
• Typical thrust levels in small thruster
are 0.445 and 4,448.2 N.
• Such auxiliary rocket engines are
commonly used in spacecraft and
missiles for accurate control of flight
trajectories, orbit adjustments, or
attitude control of the vehicle.
Thruster Modules
Liquid Monopropellant Rocket (Thrusters)
Hydrazine Monopropellant Thrusters Propellant Tank
• Used where simplicity is important and moderate
performance is acceptable, thrust range is 0.2 to
2500 N
• Majority of catalyzed hydrazine monopropellant
thrusters are small, with thrust levels below 22N
• Designed for both pulse and steady-state
operations.
• Nontoxic, clear, clean exhaust Plumes
• Catalyst: finely dispersed iridium or cobalt
deposited on porous-ceramic (aluminum oxide)
substrate pellets, 1.5 to 3 mm in diameter
• Chemical problems need to be addressed in
designing a catalyst bed for decomposing
hydrazine
o Catalytic attrition or physical loss of catalyst
material due to abrasion
o Catalyst poisoning: Contaminants present in
hydrazine can reduce the catalytic activity
o High purity hydrazine with less than 0.003% and
0.005% of aniline and carbonaceous material,
respectively, does not contaminate catalysts
Liquid Monopropellant Rocket (Thrusters) contd…
Hydrazine Monopropellant Thrusters
• Hydrazine is decomposed by catalyst iridium in two steps.
∆𝐻𝐶 = −334.5 𝑘𝐽, 𝐸𝑥𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑐
∆𝐻𝐶 = 183.6 𝑘𝐽, 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑐
• The overall reaction, depending on the degree of ammonia dissociation
x denotes the degree of ammonia dissociation. It depends on the residence time over which
the hydrazine is in contact with the catalyst, the size and configuration of the catalyst bed
and the nature of pores in the alumina globules.
Liquid Monopropellant Rocket (Thrusters) contd…
𝑀𝑤
𝑇
𝐶∗ ∝
𝑀𝑤
Ignition System
• Ignition system is used to initiate the combustion of liquid propellants in the thrust
chamber
• Proper selection of ignition system depends on
o nature and phase of propellants
o need for restart
o altitude relight capability
o weight, and space considerations
o system safety
• The main function of igniter is to supply requisite but sufficient amount of heat energy to
initiate the chemical reactions in the main propellant
• The starting propellant flow rate is kept lower than the full flow rate, which not only
smoothens the ignition process but also prevents an excessive accumulation of unignited
propellants
• With regard to hypergolic propellants, better mixing of propellants can be good enough to
ignite them. But for the non-hypergolic propellant, rapid, reliable ignition of incoming
propellants must be ensured before propellants are accumulated in the combustion
chamber
• If ignition delay is too large, ignition of accumulated propellant can lead to explosion
Ignition System contd…
Pyrotech Igniter
• Placed directly inside combustion chamber and
ignition is triggered electrically
• Once full flow combustion is achieved it is
thrown out of the chamber due to intense
pressure and temperature
• A fine electrical resistance wire, such as,
Nichrome wire is coated with a readily ignitable
substance. It is known as a squib.
• Squib is further enclosed in a small quantity of
another easily-ignitable substance, such as
potassium nitrate
• This is mounted on the wooden or plastic frame
• Used in early engines and still being used in
Russian Soyuz rocket
• Placed manually inside chamber
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=capiUBVd7EU
Hypergolic Igniter
• Liquid based ignition system
• Highly reactive chemical which is hypergolic
with liquid oxygen is pumped inside the
chamber to initiate ignition just before injection
of main propellant
• Chemicals used are the mixture of SR71 Blackbird
Triethylboron (TEB) and 10%–15% of
Triethylaluminum by weight
• Burn with bright green flame due to presence
of TEB
• Engine can be restarted with this igniter
o F1 Rocket of Saturn V
Landing of Space X rocket
o Merline Engine of SpaceX
o SR71 Blackbird fighter plane
• Organometallic hypergol slug is being used

routinely for the ignition of main propellants
RP1/LOX, which are being used in several
spacecraft, namely, Atlas, Delta, F1
Spark Plug Igniter
• High voltage of the order of 20kV is applied across
the electrode to to deliver energy around 100-350
mJ per spark
• Combustion of small amount of fuel and oxidizer is
initiated inside the small preignition chamber (low
pressure) then the flame is blown inside main
chamber to burn the propellant
• Electrical power for this system is generally
supplied from onboard battery
• LH2/LO2 engines uses spark plug ignition system
• Used on J2 engine on Saturn V, RS 25 engine on Augmented Spark Ignition (ASI)
Space Shuttle among others
Propellant Injector
Catalytic Igniter
• Hydrogen peroxide is also used along with
solid catalyst for igniting other liquid
propellants
• In recent times, catalyst igniter is emerging
as an alternative to the augmented spark
ignition system, even for hydrogen and
oxygen systems
• Gaseous mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
will have to pass through properly designed
catalyst bed for igniting this mixture
• Three reliable and durable catalysts, namely,
platinum, iridium, and palladium, can be used
in igniting hydrogen/oxygen mixture
• Further research is required to develop better
catalyst, with a longer life with least cost
Combustion Instability
Combustion Instability contd…
• The combustion process in any system is never perfectly smooth
• Disturbances or fluctuations occur in pressure, temperature, velocity and species
comprising the combustion products
• The fluctuations are not only caused by combustion but also by turbulence, flow separation
and other fluid mechanical processes.
• The fluctuation or oscillation can grow under certain condition to a very large amplitude
• The growth of the oscillations due to interaction of the disturbances with the combustion
process is termed as combustion instability
• Large amplitude vibration can leads to increased heat transfer, high burn rate of propellant
and mechanical failure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWiuMIGVEs
Lecture No. 30
Combustion Instability
• The combustion process in any system is never perfectly smooth
• Disturbances or fluctuations occur in pressure, temperature, velocity and species
comprising the combustion products
• The fluctuations are not only caused by combustion but also by turbulence, flow separation
and other fluid mechanical processes.
• The fluctuation or oscillation can grow under certain condition to a very large amplitude with
violent combustion
• The growth of the oscillations due to interaction of the disturbances with the combustion
process is termed as combustion instability
• Large amplitude vibration can leads to increased heat transfer, high burn rate of propellant
and mechanical failure
Types of Combustion Instability
Bulk modes of combustion instability
• The entire volume or bulk of the gas in the combustion chamber oscillates in unison as
a lumped mass
Wave modes of combustion instability

• The oscillations at the different locations of the combustion chamber are not in phase
and the fluctuations are transmitted by motion of waves, the instability is said to be in
the wave mode
Bulk Modes of Combustion Instability
Constant
Increasing
Amplitude of
Amplitude of
Oscillations
Oscillations
Bulk Modes of Combustion Instability
Decreasing
Amplitude of
Oscillations
Positive feedback of the heat release during

combustion and change of chamber pressure
with a delayed response causes the oscillations
Analysis: Bulk Modes of Combustion Instability

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ME F418: Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion

𝑎 is the semi major axis of the ellipse, and 𝜇 is the

Ellipse’s shape factor e as the

Velocity of the transfer orbit at

Phase I: Geocentric escape (a hyperbola)

Rp = Semimajor axis of the smaller object's (usually a planet's) orbit around

𝑎 is the semi major axis of the ellipse, and 𝜇 is the

Ellipse’s shape factor e as the

Velocity of the transfer orbit at

Phase I: Geocentric escape (a hyperbola)

Rp = Semimajor axis of the smaller object's (usually a planet's) orbit around

Phase II: Heliocentric transfer (an ellipse)

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM or Mangalyaan) Trajectory

• ISRO used Hohmann Transfer

Gravity Assist Trajectories

Voyager spacecraft was launched on

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM or Mangalyaan) Trajectory

• ISRO used Hohmann Transfer

Gravity Assist Trajectories

Voyager spacecraft was launched on

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4fVnCbZxf0 Interplanetary Hohmann Transfers

Book: Introduction to Space Flight, Author: Francis J. Hale

Desirable properties of the propellant

• The specific impulse (𝐼𝑠𝑝) was seen to be proportional to 𝐶 ∗ ,

• The 𝐶𝑃 of a gas increases as its molecular structure becomes more complex.

• Heat of combustion refers to the energy liberated in a chemical reaction

at 25ºC and 1 atms. pressure

• Consider the generalized representation of a chemical reaction

at 25ºC and 1 atms. pressure

• The energy release from the chemical

• A high combustion temperature, a low isentropic exponent as well as a low molecular

• Dissociation is an endothermic process, dissociation of molecules at high temperature,

• A high combustion temperature, a low isentropic exponent as well as a low molecular

Propellant selection for two-way communication between Earth and Mars

∆𝐻𝑓0 (kJ/mole) -159 -390 -112 -286 -

Latent Heat 892 6800

Solid propellants are classified into the following four categories:

Hydroxy Terminated Poly Butadiene (HTPB): High performance propellants

Glycidyl Azide Polymer (GAP): Contain larger percentage of hydrogen and

Latent Heat 892 6800

Kerosene, Liquid oxygen,

Cryogenic Propellant Tank

• For high-pressure stored gases (used to

• For turbopump feed systems

Movable pistons Inflatable flexible bladders, or

• Propellant feed systems have two principal functions: .

• Exhaust gases from the turbine are sent to

Closed Cycle fuel Rich Pre-burner

Gas Generator with Bleed Combustion Tap-off Cycle

𝑚ሶ 𝑂 = total mass flow rate of oxidizer Gas Generator

𝑚ሶ 𝑂 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑂,𝐺𝐺 = mass flow rate of oxidizer going to main

Power generated by the turbine

Power requirement of the pump

where, turbo-pump efficiency

Overall mixture ratio

Mixture ratio in main

Mixture ratio in gas