CRYSTAL SYSTEMS :

There oNe. 3& c a s e Cayeals

baed
based dn
an

8Aetaeg Ae
consedaahon. An hese
esmeécal
Seven
catal 4elens depedeng
classagied to

pon he valuer4 abC and dfIY.

e gdven a s :
The eveo coyetal Setems
Taiclinic 6 CLbie

Monocinic
Rhambohedval CTngonal)
eiagena
a horhanalc Triclinie

A Tetgona Monocini
cotokoNC

Tetagonef
Ticlinuc 8i Acqmme+ic eeiem cobi
obokalat

n hiype f copgale Hxageuf

atb tc ond dtE #Y

Po-assism diehvomate CkCV,0

Rlue Vetsio Ccuo4, SHo) etc
Monoclinic uetem:

abtc and dzy-28 +B

K&ar Ala,104 loH»0)
 thOThomiC yIHCmt v
Tn hiy Sytem. otbfc
and d=B=V-98

olvne ,CMg,cio),
celetine CCnSa)
Canalte Ckel, Mgels EHo ef
Te-ldagona Syso
azbtc and d==Y=98
E To etc:
6 CubecRyLtem:
abC and d=g=Ye98
s DeamondZenc ilphide.
Nacl, Aa ca.etc j * . .

6 Rhombokodhad i Talaal Syaiem

a-b-c and ßiY#98 < t28

9ut Calecke ,
AS, Sb, Bi cke

Henagonal syedem:
a-btc d-ß-98, r=l28
2n ed ete

SRAVAT S LATTICES
There e IA aavais hees .three olemencdons.
koah hese foteen aavay' lathces belonio ane
he Seven cays sHems

lathre Symbot? de Aepresented a s o loug

p- paimitive lathae C z t ha? otans on at he Bnas a cell

eLace Centaed ohiee Crt has exe aam at he cenite 4ke be

Sol erered lattite (Tt hos an exha adam as he. c e n t 4 t e
Face entled bthre Cetl
 fe3Letee .

JactHres endb cet chalac

Bravay
SNO Sysiem atbtc, #B4v
TRICLINIc P
a pbtc
MoNOcUNIC C

ORTHO RHoMBe
atbtc
.

a be
4 TETRAGONAL

cwETC P TP
6 TRIbONAL P

HeyAGONAL P
Yeedcmenscons ave Shocon
tothres
heoeteen o
belouw:

P Cubde

Talbagmal.

iC
3hhombec
' .
 Monocnie

Ttelie 15nal )
P CHexaqana )
CRhambohadlaal )

CRYCTA STRU etU RE oR MATERIALS

ohieh aae uei|
ConsedeSome cmpslauup9amete

matiials.
to deser?be he caSal staate 4
d adons peA oit eelt
taEPlechive Nomba
mou ocksrnS pA nit cell és he tota
he eteehve
Contbuhon 4
no atom tn a unit cetl by consëdaing he
cmA atoms, centte akom and c e Centted gtom.
datauee hetuer
e te
C5) T e e ha h e
Atomic RadiuBC):Tt lcdthce
bhite
aBome in a cayaial
ony tuwo SCce.ctve ha
he eauddtcaat neunboas
Co3danatiom Numb tN): nol

knouon as he cooelnaghon
an atom has in a cayatal lathce ef

betzoeen to
Nolgrbo dllslauce C2), he destaue
C)Neades cnon
lathice
Techest ulghbouaënq
aloms en a ca9tal

/as
a s he Tecnert neghbocon diciauce (ar).

Atomic poclce Faca:

Ttshe ato Letcoeen he toal veBume occupted
Lhe actems a moteceke.s Cn a Unik celt to the vol me
b
he mit cel
To Hal volme octpred by adoms
Jact3 munitcel
ce) Atomic pactiq =

voftne he umitell
NOit o atomS preert tn amit ce.ll k Votene d the. one.afom
vofume he init Cell
 Potk Cnq -aal :å semple culéc onie cell
,
In a tmple cubic. nik cet et has 8 canas
avong an lom a t each Can ench cknea, 4 he
ence each
Cnik cel &sGNO Unded b 8 Soch unit cellS.
cOne aelam givés p a t to he nit cell.
ctlomt na tit cell z 8x
the o-kal ot

each aon and

TP s the clomicad& a h g a touoh caehothea
In inpe cue onit cel hee can
a
Hente a
A

pactig hsl)
volume dnot otams n a nitel
otume 4 he enit celtl.

PF =
as 1S-a
03oungemon 4 clom
o, Emple coubiccniëe

P-F o . 5 2

ence only 59. d stnple. cobte. nit: cel/ és ocaeped by

d
Hence
cetom s cad he emacneng patn 2 enpty od

h8s slauctdeesbo el fackes

pOcking :aata, 8) Ree ontk cell:*
an atom ak
Tha 8 caas
each chin'he c8ne belorne do hottoush e h ohe
im addehionb atomg at 8 Bnas hak one adam

Compleety at e Cene h e ccube

Hencehe toBal on ¢acloms, po. rit, cel 8*

= 2tomg.

atompe
be he
T¥ & é f e la-hte Conalaut and
F
consede4
he Ac- e2

geae a

Fiom A GnèD 2ai

, ,

GD 6c+cp

Y
44t

Cho Gre+cp
Gp Gig*+eep

Con io

162 3a ARf:CË

a
AR. a'sa
A 24
-)Y = a A

a peme
volume h e roit
C a n &cel)
p a c t h q - e c t o

Unit cel)
Hence oluoé
he *

P: F
TI
7
 PTo-68
PF 6s7
% Boc cs 687. cohch means
Hence
Hence p»ctong a a
68 t e onit cetl cs Ocped adons Nemacno

Ton CR) chtomiom Cor)

Hugsien'Qw),
Sodkum
Ca)
9luclede
have hes ype

Cenhed cetbe,CF.c-
pacth-Pact8-3 ace
ha 8 cane)s and 6-Paces
he eni& ce
he
a t each csne adon'alom en
cw&h an a-lom
S0ondad
&.
lace, each cane
midle 4ech he
enit cet
onik cell agatf
oells hence
Such nit

atom presen ahe cBne.

pt4he cels
unib
koch
ace Shded by wo
he aom preer
alarn prefen
cell ge a 4
henee h e enit
Jace
ahe Center. dhe
8x6x
the noi aams &n urit cel
1+3 4atam.

.'.
 Votime: L doms

ence pactmg facth CpF)" a u n i t cetj

onitcetl.
tolume 4 h e

CoY ata?

16 2a

) 2 a ABC
16 A c -AK+B

B z 2 a

.
a

wherc s he ethice Consbu

te alomic Rdtus

a tiY 3

Heneehe pactig-act3) Fec which mans

cdams
4. $ he ni ceH, ecapeies by che
s Nocd. Hence
FCCFas Tmare
chey pocted
pahion **

S4duetde

9 copper, Che and alunnim has hcsype

slacualAe
 CRYCTAL plANGS DIRGcTloNS
devechons and
ercstr Some
TIn cyodal ee
S,
concesahbn atom.
whith Contaio lge
planer
CYytalL vechon3 he ag n
Ye lene Joincng
Tn a cayaial a8-tem, otvechon he
hee
epreet
he
and a lahe pocnt
cescri bed
escYked acveng
b3vng
lathce pot the devechon és he ne
altee.
whieh

ehe Rost
HG-[tod
ntea
HF-itd
pont ta )
hroRcos
roghy
Fn

HE-Cot A-Lo
Co
H [oo Hc-o
HKC epol
Poo

c a l a pones: cohfch
cokich has
haaf
he planes
The cata planes Ae
he c a y h pane
lahice Ppcnt on hege planes.
highest n:
chaen Cn delesen6
o u be

Mell-Inokteg: . w e ee
c epreented. b
he aayatal pane
énderee.
knoun
as MEtln
Smalles tnteeas
hree,
Smalles Cntegas
Ae.
lndcrep
MIte the
he ecéproca
heec e the
é p t o c a lle
have he ame ato as
hseh o h hei Co6lde'na.te ale sS.
intacep* he caal pane.
ocedue FCnd AL
a
Sekt legoe whieh giver he
ovtentaton and toca thion , caiyeal planes.
REnd he tnlacepts mode byhe cayaal plane alorg
ox oy and oz ares . lé- hen ce i

Exprecs he teacept as Paactio 4 laces Veca

e
Take he eccprocale 4he okove Prochions

he denconinalas 4 heaachons.
4 Fond he
Malhply e 1-c:M h thebachoms.

xemh .lcn:t Lon -l

iella éndceg [h e

preccn tapana Staelg cd) a

ExpsesSion a he epatatin bekocen he paneg:
deetauce bekeocen too
ThaplanaA gmcinq: the
odjacest causta) pane called tapane fpacng: )

cor sake a pone Arc 1 Cahich

s te cep-tong he cayallog
logapic
om on oY and o Speckive

aR
douon &n F ', h

e oN e á mara ddom to he

plone ABC wkch. sepresentS he

n t e puna Spacehg beteec) the

pane. ALC ad y .

Let EY e he augles moce bhnamal

 x a ra epave . .

teb onl =
nello &deres e pane"
and e he
Ch e
x-axis
e&
be dhe &lecept along

Y-axcS
b e he 'mtacep alang
aris
be h e ntcep alorg
and
A

Nex, Noy-p, Nox

ae dalled "deeéhan Cosenes
&hae cas Cog, o
he plone

Hence, Col. = OA .

alb

Fom cOenie beorero .

Coe touw ha
.

he abole oprecent he tntoplaD aceng

a zbrc
F coxbec Caygtalk,

+|2
 mpåtautaehneE EL ind Ca8
qpoydcnate aris
mq plau e one
he eaieaponckng Melte îndce.s
have
Cnitetacep.
oecome Zaoo
és dehinedl ingBamg . a
pane pang sough atgi
poaa lles phnerhavcng'mon-ao iacepts-
TP he metl Endees4he planee ovehe Same ato
hen he planef e posal lef p:eah g h

E2I.and, C4223 et
eacepts oeaiepreented ba La
-9 planes uth regahVe
eLToo he nel ErdcerCToc
ndctadee ho
entEcept en he NexaréS
he pane has an

pCoblemg
 = e=

oluomg
lo. Daaw he paneg , mille decee
decee
1i . CCo3 o o
h

Y
(dCoo
Cto

NoTE: he plane Cl poallel * 2-plane

he plane Lolo] oallel b xplane

epone [oo 17 poallel to xy-plane

he plane In paullel to s
podallel to -axer
[ lo
He ploan a
to Xans.
h e plaie [o i7PRalle

oll
 Bouaas tau C

Consto a Cet pdalle eayea paneg

En acaygial ta-hiee at tntaplana Spaceng d
constde9 e o roboLo and poallet beam c#
x e A and oE whsch e ncédent on he c y
panes'and atha points Band E atan augle
hcidence called 3lauetng ongle.
he X y e S a t o e d and dastaacte2d
dhas two L Biad BHSch h a
alon
along Bc and F
EF,

he pah deglaence betcoeen ettoo. a-aps, is

aaven GE tEH

path deshaence nE+E4

PHom AEE, Sthe GB =EESine BEG
6E 'dsêna
stne H EHBE}hÓ BC
Pom A REH BE
= Et= d sine .

pah D4Hence.
pah + E H - one +dcene
ua' dsne

Pa entucive Thkaleande d Seattaed,.} A,

Re and EF poth degfaence ia chould be equal t

multple f he nvelegh he 2-ays

teg a l

n 2d ctne
whe n an ntego) ca lled 3iden d de8l»actan
elana th d -naepf . O glauCeng aual
 Pon aggaS lau d she-nA

macêmem pos«lle alue f e ss Lngak

Sence

'A C2d.

A should not exceed tcce

ThuS,he uove length
he Entoplanas Spa.ctng. fa deffsachon tp occe

LgpHauee gHoga's la
Fom Boogge lauw, ad sene=nA g a

2SENO
h e c a elenghs XoyA CA) and h e glauuceng

d be calcelated
Ggle an

8', heotrce canStaut a' ¢ he Cubee Caye taf

Enoweng
n be enocn.

3
lcnowong a Cdenetg) and MCmofecelan coenht) .

4he cay8tal1 he nolt damstSy molecugs tn he

Unlt cellan be calcelake d
F a caabe,, Caelal,

enoocg d and à, he value" h ir+12 coun

altutated-

5 Pependcng on 4he Velees +e+ we can elas

elacsaky
he eay2tals d0 Boc FeC SEnple cuhec eke

:
 Bhet

Oltracontc tle know that the audr ble range of tcund tWaves

2H3 4 0 The ound aues hau?ng Aeguen cie0 äbole fher

he atdf ble Tange CC knotan as uitrasonft talaueo m e

talou eb dve
fregutny ienigh the Ocuatangh UtrdsootA
mad then
eny tou0 Thit pioexy UHiao nic tiaues

more Vers atH te n the non des truct/te tesHng f makxtals,

ie W thoctt ny dastnic Hon le Co) teAt the makxfctl.

propexHe Waues-

Urasontcp tloue are htghly energetfc; hrgb fregueny »

 audi ble ound talctue.
1 hey hct negltgible cihacHon diul +0 thefr emater tlauet

Hente +hey can be reiosnftlecd

OVer tong diplanes Wthout an
ON Energy

t Jatnse ulliaLonic adiatonn haa a disTupue 4te ct n (tquid

CauAng bu bbles 10 be fomed.
C UitYatonfc LalCte
reguirep a metlextat ynecdfum for tA
r5)
propagato
hel vetoctiy of nopagafon Urasonf taltue
they
they are
are
dretHy.prapoHOnat 40 t hegunty
tG)DuxTng the Pop agatHon UitLonfe tatCtue
they ar Tefeettd,
BCattered, Te traeted and diffiE tecd.
t Ultratonft tlade ett tonrng nate h(rgeitd. bathe
turo grodelCe an acolSfCal
aHng
-

rodu cron ltrasoniCs

y Pieo etecta metho
gtejo etuctnte efect7 muthod 'e bated cn p:30 euttat efcct As
shenn h frcq, hen
Cry Up ike
9tax, YOChillk t a t teuymcine,
e
ECUnde rqoe u
chanfcal ajormctko clong Hhe mechani cal ass
en CAN Etectx& Okntat dference proclet te & atong tlectxic axp
PaK o mechantcat
ct

f p e Cef

t r1P

, 1i
 Tn
conuee 4hi Ettett ialro
of
4ntta dit erene
octtle. then an dltenatng
applied
agplled along th Etettrical CN, Ahe cryatal
ftt be t t ok0 Elate brotony along the mechancal aa 3 f
he regueny he, appled freld Conrde l t h thi nakurad

krguncy h e Cryata, i bitep wit (arge omplrha de

prochuing ultasonc Calauee The plac0g/nunC) UHliEed o r th

prodilCEont Ulraoni Calave the Epeximnle, ptup ( the

poducin oulthcatontt CAlOue utng ri30Ekttxi qeneratoY p
she Aq

-b ***

Conabu HON. Thu qua 3 blw tO mukat platt P

Connackd Co tteCtor ond baee

aleo Connuekd 40 L Cicur and tnstcn AOurCe chunkd

htgh
thro ugn d by gcie Ca pctetto Ued o sp

Fom thvough battexy. The

htgh 1equanty Cument passtng

o hat +the
capctty yarable Capcet401 adjup ted
the ndturd
Osctlla4tn9 Cirutp
regutncy othe
btastm o bahe
nece ssary
freg lendy h e Cy +C lq prou rdef
Sm?ted cTue
 plooly tud
Otong- when the CrCu stdeA unct0tOg
entNg buPlt acod 6 h e Suat C
eokntal di tfevente to

which be Narying the apatty

tbraHO0A By
capacitor c , at a pasH¢Calar atelge he requenty 0f the
ural Cornrdep Wfh +he
crmdtnq POnHal c crobd he eraa
Chuvdl eguuncy gudxta Cretdl eag

utas onc Iaued ghr otae_T¢ m dr takra by mliam ekr by

shootngg momum Curyent

The natardl fregutnty ef quant erystal G +hrcenene+8 qf ven by

ulhere n= l, 23,

modulus Cnd P is 4he denshy g cnyatdl.

the Yo unde
petcton Utracontca;- The prerente o UltesONrT aldues
Lan be datected he 40 ttodrnq method

peaoelectnii laketkor By Op'ng he Pezo ale ttxic EHect, one

CCan deect the reAen e Qitcisonkc aue (lhen the fcle f

auas Cryetel atorg mechanrcal atie i subje cted
0 yItatonte, hen i* undergo e Compyesron and £npansra he

Oppoete atee along etectacat ate ,wrl heue ndl&d

charget chch tabtshea a fotentral difxente aose the face

ih dr PAerente :ndcate the preence of Orasonrc atao

onplaBn
m e c d f o

Fotes
 +ube me tho d - trans mf t ed
Ap shon gue, the
Tepacted dlhatont lere
o a 4ube romA a
kundt
StatonOXy ulate eattem uoh nodep and antnodes. he Cycop0 dium datec
Po dex
Prebent the botom poOn Fha tulbe Olbe mak

couLe kd ab a
eap ct noder and dicpenped at anto0des. By ran
Obe urng he all on dikek
change
nange n the p0cHf©Op rowdes, into

uthasont tavep he
hee tube.
lube

icLonit Opodium pow dt x

4Aenetue tome method: lh a narob &ensPkue fome it meved

medrum Clhere ditrto nic Alaue arn peden. he ¢tame

rematn StaRONany antnode and ficle t p clt- node iatC

lamw
Ultteisonit

taiaes
Themal detec tor methoc - ulan a laRnum wire meued n

th medkum con itp 64andIng NaNe of Utaonie duu +0

ataton tmperaure ct nodes and anHnodep, the reaibkanle

a l i r alpo changk. By noHcing the changing e s tan te ef-

ON an dAeet the proene Of Orqton nlates.

flou

tha

Can

Ultv