THE CELL

 In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered that thin slices of cork and other plant materials contain
minute partitions separating cavities he called CELLS.
 In 1833, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus as the central part of the cell.
 In 1838, botanist Matthias Schleiden, stated that cells are the unit of structure in plants.
 In 1939, zoologist Theodor Schwann, stated that cells are the unit of structure in animals.
 Richard Virchow stated that all living cells come from other living cell and that there is no
spontaneous creation of cells from a non-living matter.

CELL PARTS:

1. PROTOPLASM
 jelly-like living substance
 it is translucent, grayish, and slimy
 physically, it may be granular or foam-like, or contain small fibers or threads
 composed of water, mineral salts, and organic compounds

2. NUCLEUS
 the control center of the cell
 the largest and one of the most conspicuous structural area
 central role in cellular reproduction and in conjunction with the environment in
determining what sort of differentiation a cell undergo and what form it will exhibit at
maturity
 also directs the metabolic activities of the living cells

Parts of the Nucleus:

 Nuclear Membrane
- encloses and protects the nucleus
- regulates what passes in and out of the nucleus

 Nucleoplasm
- protoplasm inside the nucleus of the cell

 Chromosomes
- are thread-like bodies which are only visible during cell division
- bear the genes, the basic unit of heredity

 Nucleoli
- dark-stained bodies which are visible when the cell is not dividing
- responsible for protein synthesis

3. CELL MEMBRANE
 encloses and protects the entire cell
 triple- layered containing protein and lipids

 Cilia and Flagella

- movable hair-like structures projecting from their free surfaces
- functions:
~ moving the cell
~ moving liquids and small particles
  Microvilli and Pinocytic Vesicles

- microvilli
~ minute finger-like projections of the cell membrane
~ sites of osmosis where fluids may pass in and out of the cell

- pinocytic vesicles
~ pocketings of the cell membrane filled with water
~ the cell is able to “drink”

4. CYTOPLASM

 Endoplasmic Reticulum
- system of membrane-enclosed canals forming a network in the cytoplasm
- serves as routes of transport for materials within the cell
- Two kinds:

i. rough ER
~ outer surfaces lined by small particles called Ribosomes

ii. smooth ER
~ lacks ribosomes

 Golgi Complex (bodies or apparatus)

- system of membrane-enclosed vesicles arranged parallel to each other
- involved in the secretion of several chemical products, membrane repair, and
transport of materials in and out of the cell

 Mitochondria
- powerhouse of the cell
- rounded cylinders or globules enclosed by membranes
- sites of many chemical reactions that extract energy from food and later use it
as energy for the activities of the cell

 Lysosomes
- membrane-enclosed bodies smaller than mitochondria
- contain powerful digestive enzymes and are thought to function as the
digestive system of the cell

 Plastids
- this organelles are found in the cells of most plants but not in animal cells
- Two (2) kinds:

i. Chromoplasts
~ colored plastids
~ Chloroplasts – chromoplast containing green pigments
chlorophyll
~ chromoplasts lacking chlorophyll are usually yellow or orange
(occasionally red)

ii.Leukoplasts
~ white or colorless plastids
  Centrosome
- contains one or two centrioles which are small dark bodies located above the
nucleus
- play an important role in organizing spindle during cell division

 Vacuoles
- membrane-enclosed cavities filled with either fluid or granular material
- Contractile vacuole
~ expel excess water and wastes from the cell
- Food vacuole
~ expel food particles from the cell

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Plasma membrane  Plasma menbrane and cell wall

(cellulose and other compounds)

2. Lysosomes and lack plastids  Plastids and lack lysosomes

3. Small vacuoles for storage  Large vacuoles for storage of water

of food

 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

i. Direct Cell Division (Amitosis)

~ e.g., prokaryotic cells

ii. Indirect Cell Division (Mitosis)

~ e.g., eukaryotic cells

 MITOSIS

CELL CYCLE:

i. First Interphase
- chromosomes are single stranded and uncoiled

ii. Period of Synthesis

- the DNA and chromosomes replicate to become two-stranded chromosomes

iii. Second Interphase

iv. Mitosis

a. Prophase
- two centrioles become visible and move to the opposite poles of the nucleus
- chromosomes appear as much shorter rod-like structures as they start to coil
tightly
- nucleus and nuclear membrane start to disappear
- the two centrioles move apart and fiber-like structures appear in the
cytoplasm between the centriole and around the centriole
b. Metaphase
- the stage wherein the chromosomes migrate and aligns at the equator of the
spindle
- the centromere divides thus separating the two chromatids

c. Anaphase
- each chromatid of a double-stranded chromosome separates from its sister
chromatid and goes to the opposite pole

d. Telophase
- starts as the two sets of chromatids reach the poles
- each set of chromosomes becomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane
- the spindle disappears
- constriction appears at the equator of the cell that divides the cell into
daughter cells
 MULTICELLULAR ORGANIZATION

TISSUE – composed of cells with similar structures and functions

ORGAN – composed of several tissues grouped together into a structural and functional unit
ORGAN SYSTEM – group of organs that work together in the performance of a specific function

 PLANT TISSUES
Two Types:

i. Meristematic Tissues
~ composed of embryonic cells capable of active cell division
~ as the plants develop, many regions become specialized for other
functions

ii. Permanent Tissues

~ composed of mature, differentiated cells
~ Three (3) Sub Categories:

a. Surface Tissues
~ form the protective outer covering of the plant
~ principal surface tissue of roots, stems, and all leaves is the
EPIDERMIS
~ as roots and stems increase in diameter, epidermis is replaced by
Another surface tissue called PERIDERM ( forms the outer
Bark of old trees)

b. Fundamental Tissues
~ simple tissue that is composed of a single type of cell
~ Four (4) Kinds:

i. Parenchyma
- cells having their primary walls and no secondary walls
- they may have large vacuoles
- most of the chloroplasts of leaves are in the cells of
parenchyma tissue and it is here that photosynthesis occurs
- parenchyma of stems and roots function as the storage of
nutrients and water

ii.Collenchyma
- their walls are irregularly thickened
- they function as an important supporting tissue in young plants,
in the stem of non-woody older plants and in leaves

iii. Sclerenchyma
- function in support

iv. Endodermis
- a layer surrounding the vascular tissue core of roots and less
frequent in the stem
 c. Vascular Tissues (Conductive Tissues)
~ a distinctive feature of the higher plants
~ it include cells that function as tubes or ducts through which water
and substances move from one part of the plant to another
~ 2 Types of Tissues:

i. Xylem
- functions in the transport of water and dissolved
substances upward in the plant body and supports the
aerial parts of the plant

ii.Phloem
- functions in moving materials both up and down in the
plant and also transports the organic materials like
amino acids and carbohydrates

PLANT ORGANS

2 Major Parts of the Plant Body:

1. The Root(s)
 function(s):
a. transport of materials
b. storage of nutrients (e.g. sweet potatoes & raddish)
c. anchoring the plant to the soil

2. The Shoot
 composed of the following structures:
a. stem
b. leaves
c. flowers
d. fruits

STEM
- functions:
 internal transport
 supports the plant
 storage of nutrients (e.g. sugar cane)
 manufacture food (e.g. cactus)

LEAVES
- functions:
 manufacture the food
 site of photosynthesis

- stalk of the leaves are called Petiole

FLOWERS
- contain the reproductive organs of the plant
- 2 Parts:
 Stamen – male reproductive part
 Pistil – female reproductive part

- the stalk of the flower is called Peduncle

 FRUITS
- functions:
 protect & contain the seed

- 3 Parts of Fruits:
a. Exocarp (Outer Part)
b. Mesocarp (Central & Edible Part)
c. Endocarp (Inner Part that closely adhere to the seed)

- SEED functions for propagation

 Parts of the Seed:
i. Seed Coat (Outer)
ii. Cotyledon (Provides food for the embryo)
iii. Embryo (Young developing plant)

ANIMAL TISSUES

Four (4) Classifications of Tissues:

1. Epithelium
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve

Epithelium
 the covering or lining of all free body surfaces both internal and external (e.g. Skin &
Digestive tracts)
 Functions:
 protective
 secretory
 sensory

 These tissues maybe group into 2 ways:

a. Simple
b. Stratified

 Types of Epithelial Tissues:

a. Squamous
- thin and flat
- found in body cavities and inner surface of the blood vessels in vertebrates

b. Cuboidal
- thick and wide
- present in salivary glands, kidneys, & thyroid glands

c. Columnar
- taller than wide
- lines the stomach and intestines of vertebrates

d. Ciliated & Flagellated

 Cilia – short hair-like extension
 Flagella – slender whip-like processes
Connective
 functions:
a. binds other tissues and organs together
b. to support the body

 embedded in intercellular matrix which may be liquid, semi-solid, or solid

 The MATRIX is divided into 4 Types:
a. Blood & Lymph
- serves to support and distribute materials in the body
- contains free cells or corpuscles

b. Connective Tissue Proper

- this is variable
- contains cell and fibers which are embedded in an amorphous ground
substance which is a mixture of water, protein, carbohydrates and lipids.
- 2 Types of Connective Tissues:
i. Loose Connective Tissue
 characterized by loose, irregular arrangement of its fibers
 numerous cells

ii. Dense Connective Tissue

 characterized by compact arrangement of its fibers
 small number of cells

c. Cartilage
- it is a firm & elastic matrix with rubbery consistency
- cartilage can support great weight
- found in nose, ears, larynx and trachea, intervertebral disc, surfaces of
skeletal joints and ends of the ribs

d. Bone (Osseous Tissue)

- hard & relatively rigid matrix with inorganic salts like calcium carbonate &
calcium phosphate

Muscle
 these are cells that have greater capacity for contraction than most other cells
 they are responsible for most movement in higher animals
 Types of Muscle:
a. Skeletal
b. Smooth
c. Cardiac

Nerve (Nervous System)

 composed of nerve cells or neurons
 nerve tissue has great capacity to respond to stimuli since they can be easily stimulated and
can transmit impulses rapidly