2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)

Power Flow Analysis of AC/DC Hybrid Microgrids

A. A. Eajal1 , Mohamed A. Abdelwahed2 , E. F. El-Saadany3 , and K. Ponnambalam4
1,2,3
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
4
Department of System Engineering Design
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
Email: {aeajal1 ; mohamed.abdelwahed2 ; ehab3 ; ponnu4 }@uwaterloo.ca

Abstract—The future smart grid can have an AC/DC hybrid AC Subgrid DC Subgrid
structure that enables the integration of AC/DC energy supply
and demand, thus permitting the formation of AC/DC hybrid | |
IC
microgrids (HMGs). The AC/DC HMG is a promising concept |
that provides the envisioned smart grid with the plug-and-
play feature. Nevertheless, understanding such hybrid systems,
especially during islanding, require an accurate and robust load |
|
|
|

flow program. To this end, this paper proposes a novel robust

power flow algorithm for isolated AC/DC HMGs. The power
flow problem is formulated as a least-squares minimization
problem, and solved using the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. Fig. 1. Sample architecture of an AC/DC HMG.
The accuracy of the proposed load flow algorithm is validated
against time domain simulation results, while its robustness is
demonstrated on a highly-resistive network. The proposed load emphasis on power management and control of islanded
flow algorithm is expected to reveal the light for further studies AC/DC HMGs [4]–[9]. Nevertheless, due to the lack of a
on AC/DC HMGs. power flow tool designed specifically for islanded HMGs,
Index Terms—AC/DC hybrid microgrid, interlinking converter,
Levenberg-Marquardt, load flow. all power management and control schemes reported in the
literature are based on the assumption of a simple AC/DC
I. I NTRODUCTION HMG, in which the AC/DC energy resources and loads are
aggregated into one AC/DC supply source and one AC/DC
The integration of DC energy resources in existing grids and
demand. The load flow problem for hybrid AC/DC networks
the transition to modern DC loads including electric vehicles
can be solved by a sequential approach [10] or a unified
(EVs) is a paradigm shift. The number of DC-type supply
approach [11]. In the sequential approach, the AC and DC
and demand is expected to escalate rapidly as additional DC
load flow problems are solved iteratively and sequentially until
technologies are adopted. One possible configuration to host
the sequential power flow algorithm converges. The advantage
such technologies is the DC microgrid (MG) [1]. However
of this approach is that it utilizes the existing AC and DC
AC energy resources and AC loads would require AC/DC
power flow programs. However, the sequential formulation
converters before they can be connected in DC MGs. To
may suffer from convergence issues [12]. In the unified hybrid
reduce the conversion requirements, an AC/DC hybrid MG
AC/DC load flow program, the AC and DC power flow
(HMG) would be beneficial [2], [3]. A sample AC/DC HMG
problems are solved simultaneously. Thus, the work presented
architecture is illustrated in Fig. 1
in this paper was directed at using a unified approach to
As shown in Fig. 1, both AC and DC sides are connected
tackle the unsolved power flow problem in islanded AC/DC
through an interlinking converter (IC), which is the cornerstone
HMGs and has resulted in a novel load flow program with the
of the AC/DC HMG. The main function of the IC is to
following key features:
manage the power transfer between the AC/DC subgrids. In
• The developed load flow formulation exploits the unique
islanded operation, the IC also ensures 1) equal loading of
the AC/DC subgrids based on their ratings plus 2) minimal characteristics of isolated AC/DC HMGs, such as the
load shedding and generation curtailment in the entire hybrid unavailability of the slack bus and the bidirectionality
system. This background has resulted in a recent research of the power flow between neighboring AC and DC
subgrids.
This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Libya • The developed load flow algorithm is based on a unified
(highereducation.gov.ly). formulation that simultaneously solves the AC/DC power
A. Eajal and E. El-Saadany are with the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, flow subproblems.
Canada (e-mails: {aeajal; ehab}@uwaterloo.ca). Dr. E. El-Saadany is cur- • The solution method is based on Levenberg-Marquardt
rently on sabbatical leave with the Petroleum Institute (PI), Abu Dhabi, algorithm which has a robustness property that ensures a
UAE. K. Ponnambalam is with the Department of System Engineering
Design, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada (e-mail: solution even if it starts very far off the final minimum
ponnu@uwaterloo.ca). [13].

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 2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)

This paper is organized as follows: section II highlights B. Interlinking Converter Model

the steady-state model of the distributed generators (DGs)
and IC. Section III explains the newly formulated load flow
problem in isolated AC/DC HMGs. Section IV presents the
solution based on the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. Section
V focuses on the validation of the proposed power flow
phasor formulation, while the algorithm robustness is verified
in section VI. Section VII concludes the paper.
II. S YSTEM M ODEL AND C ONTROL
A load flow solution is only as accurate as the models used
for describing each component, e.g., DG and IC.
A. DG Model
The frequency and the AC terminal voltage of a droop-
controlled DG unit of AC type are regulated autonomously
based on local measurements of the DG active and reactive
power outputs, as graphically indicated by Fig. 2 (a) and
mathematically described by (1) and (2) [14].
(a) i Vi , G i
(b)
QDGi
PDGi
AC/DC AC/DC
HMG HMG
In an HMG, the IC functions as an energy buffer for
controlling the transfer of power between neighboring AC and
DC subgrids in order to achieve a specific objective, such as
equal sharing of the HMG demand among the DGs according
to their ratings [15]. An accurate IC model and effective
control strategy are therefore critically important when an
HMG is isolated from the hosting main grid. An AC/DC
IC droop control strategy can be achieved based on local
measurements of the frequency at the AC terminal and on
a determination of the DC voltage at the DC terminal, which
are then brought to a common per-unit system between [-1, 1]
through a normalization process, as shown in 6) and (7) [4]:
ω − (ωmax + ωmin )/2
ω
 = . (6)
(ωmax − ωmin )/2
Vdc − (Vdc,max + Vdc,min )/2
Vdc = . (7)
(Vdc,max − Vdc,min )/2
Referred to as the error Δe, the difference between the
normalized frequency, ω  , and the normalized DC voltage,
Vdc , is checked continuously with respect to both sign and
magnitude, as described by (8).
 − Vdc
Δe = ω (8)
i
Vi Based on this error, the IC droop gain, and rating, the active
PDGi / I DGi power flow between the subgrids are determined, as illustrated
graphically in Fig. 3 and described mathematically by (9):

Interlinking
DG DG AC Subgrid DC Subgrid
Converter (IC)
Z Vdc
Pi Qi Vi Gi Vi , Z Pi Qi Vi Gi Vi |
Droop P/I Droop

Fig. 2. Droop control Models: (a) AC-type, (b) DC-type DG. Pic (p.u)
DC Î AC

Pic ,max
Pic*2
ω = ω 0 − m p PG . (1) 'e1 'emax
V = V 0 − nq Q G . (2) 'emax 'e2 1/ J p 'e (p.u)

Pic 1
where mp , nq : the active and reactive power static droop  Pic ,max
gains of the DG unit, respectively. AC Î DC

The static droop gains, mp and nq , are determined based on Fig. 3. AC/DC droop for the interlinking converter.
the ranges specified for the frequency and voltage magnitudes,
as determined from (3) and (4) [14]. 1
Pic = − Δe. (9)
ωmax − ωmin γp
mp = . (3)
PG,max where γp : the IC active power droop gain.
Vmax − Vmin
nq = . (4) A value of Δe < 0 indicates that the DC subgrid is
QG,max
dominating its neighboring AC subgrid and vice versa for
In droop-controlled DC-type DG units, the DC terminal values of Δe > 0. The IC reactive power transfer, Qic , is
voltage is coupled with the active power output through the determined based on the local measurement of the AC voltage
following droop equation: [4], as shown in (10).
1
V = V 0 − m p PG . (5) Qic = (Vac,0 − Vac ). (10)
γq

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 2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)

Where γq : the reactive droop gain, while Vac,0 and Vac are The set of equations describing a general AC bus i ∈ Bac
the nominal and measured AC terminal voltage, respectively. can generally be defined by (17):

(1 − βi )PGi + mβpi
i
(ωi,0 − ω) − PLi − Pi ,
The control block diagram for the IC is schematically shown fac,i = βi
in Fig. 4. (1 − βi )QGi + nqi (Vi,0 − Vi ) − QLi − Qi .
(17)
III. F ORMULATION OF THE L OAD F LOW P ROBLEM where Vi,0 : the nominal (no-load) voltage of the DG i;
mpi , nqi : the active and reactive droop gains of the DG i,
The load flow problem for isolated AC/DC HMGs is defined respectively.
by a set of nonlinear equations and can be formulated as a

nonlinear least-squares minimization problem [13], as shown 1, if bus i is droop-controlled,

βi =
in the vector notation in (11) and the defining equations (12)- 0, otherwise.
(19):
1 
f (x)2 , f : Rn → Rn .
B. DC Subgrid
minimize (11) The DC power flow equation for a general DC bus i, ∀i ∈
x∈Rn 2 2
  Bdc , is defined by (18):
where •2 : the 2-norm of quantity (•); f (x): the vector of

ndc
the equations describing the power flow problems in the AC Pi = Vi Gik Vk − βi Pic,i , ∀i ∈ Bdc . (18)
subgrid and the DC subgrid: f (x) = [fac (xac ), fdc (xdc )]T ; k=1
x: the vector of the unknown control (independent) and state
(dependent) variables: x = [xac , xdc ]T . where Gik : the ik th entry of the bus conductance matrix
[Gbus ] of the DC subgrid; Pic,i : the actual power transferred
through the IC.
f (x(k) ) = −J(x(k) )Δx(k) . (12)

where J(x(k) ): the Jacobian matrix at iteration k, as defined The equation that describes a general DC bus i ∈ Bdc can
by: be defined by (19):
⎡ ⎤ βi
fdc,i = (1 − βi )PGi + (Vi,0 − Vi ) − PLi − Pi . (19)
(k)
Jac 0 ⎦ mpi
J(x(k) ) = ⎣ . (13) The load flow problem is highly nonlinear and is hence solved
(k)
0T Jdc
using a globally convergent iterative method: the Levenberg-
(k) (k) Marquardt method [13], [16]. The main steps of the proposed
where Jac and Jdc are the Jacobian matrices for the AC and load flow algorithm can be summarized as follows:
DC subgrids, respectively, as defined by:
  Step 1) Start the load flow program for islanded AC/DC
∂fac  (k) ∂fdc  microgrids (HMGs).
J(k) = , J = . (14)
ac
∂xac x(k)
ac
dc
∂xdc x(k) Step 2) Read the line and bus data for AC and DC subgrids.
dc
Step 3) Decide on the models of system components and
A. AC Subgrid the control strategy of the IC.
Step 4) Assume a flat start for the AC frequency and
The AC power flow equations for a general AC bus i, ∀i ∈
bus voltages of AC and DC subgrids. ω (0) = 1.0 p.u,
Bac are defined by equations (15) and (16). (0) (0)
|Vac |∠δ (0) = 1.0∠0◦ p.u, Vdc = 1.0 p.u.

nac
Step 5) Set the iteration counter to zero, k = 0.
Pi = Vi Vk Yik (ω)cos(δi − δk − θik ) Step 6) Build the bus admittance matrix of the AC subgrid,
k=1 [Ybus (ω (k) ], at the frequency ω (k) and the bus conduc-
+αi Pic,i , ∀i ∈ Bac . (15) tance matrix of the DC subgrid, [Gbus ].

nac
Step 7) Formulate the power flow subproblem for both
Qi = Vi Vk Yik (ω)sin(δi − δk − θik ) (k) (k)
subgrids., f (x(k) = [f (xac , f (xdc ]T , where x(k) =
k=1 (k) (k)
+αi Qic,i , ∀i ∈ Bac . (16) [xac , xdc ]T .
(k)
Step 8) Build the Jacobian matrices for both subgrids, Jac
(k)
where and Jdc .

Step 9) Call the Levenberg-Marquardt solver to solve the
1, if bus i is directly connected to the IC, power flow subproblems simultaneously.
αi = (k) (k)
0, otherwise. Step 10) Check for convergence, f (xac  ∧ f (xdc  ≤ ,
where is a prespecified threshold.
Yik (ω), θik : the magnitude and phase angle of the ik th Step 11) If the convergence criterion is not met, update
entry in the bus admittance matrix [Ybus (ω)], respectively. the iteration counter k = k + 1, then repeat steps (6-
10) to update the AC system admittance matrix, the

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 2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)

T
Measuring Vac Droop of
Vabc PLL
Qic (12)
Measuring I abc abc
dq0
Z Q
ic 0
OR
Qic Vd ,Vq dq0
Computation of  Control Signal

I and I  PI PWM
d q
abc to the IC
Measuring Normalization of Zˆ,Vˆdc Droop of P
ic
Vdc Z and Vdc (8) & (9) Pic (11)

Fig. 4. The control block diagram for the interlinking converter.

Jacobian matrices, and solve for the power flow variables. 0.05 % and 0.05 %, respectively. These results are reliable
Otherwise, go to next step. indicators of the accuracy of the load flow solution provided by
Step 12) Calculate the line power flows and losses. the developed algorithm for islanded droop-controlled AC/DC
Step 13) Print out the power flow solution, HMGs.
ω ∗ , |Vac
∗
|∠δ ∗ , Vdc
∗ ∗
, Pic , Q∗ic etc. TABLE I
Step 14) End the load flow program. A LGORITHM VALIDATION AGAINST T IME D OMAIN S IMULATION

IV. A LGORITHM ACCURACY Bus TDS Results UPF Results

MG
The proposed load flow algorithm for isolated AC/DC # |Vac | (p.u.) Vdc (p.u.) |Vac | (p.u.) Vdc (p.u.)
HMGs was implemented in a MATLAB R
computing envi- 1/4 0.9642 0.9659 0.9645 0.9662
ronment and executed on an LG R
desktop computer with an AC/DC 2/5 0.9627 0.9598 0.9630 0.9601
Intel (R) Core (TM) R
i5-3470 CPU @ 3.20 GHz with 8.0 3/6 0.9649 0.9631 0.9653 0.9634
GB of RAM memory. An islanded 6-bus AC/DC HMG whose DG PDG QDG PDG QDG
DG
one-line diagram is shown in Fig. 5 was used for validating # (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.) (p.u.)
the algorithm against the time-domain simulation (TDS). A 1 0.2625 0.1889 0.2628 0.1893
complete description of the test system is shown in Tables A2 AC
2 0.7778 0.5833 0.7778 0.5833
and A1, included in the appendix. The rated capacity of the IC, 3 0.3937 0.2775 0.3942 0.2780
in kW, was taken as the kVA base of the system: Sbase = 18 4 0.2517 — 0.2522 —
DC
kVA. The base AC and DC voltages were selected as 208 V 5 0.2556 — 0.2556 —
and 600 V, respectively. 6 0.2727 — 0.2731 —

Bus 1 Bus 4
TABLE II
|
| T HE PROPOSED ALGORITHM P ERFORMANCE WITH RESPECT TO R/X RATIO
Dispatch. Dispatch.
(Droop) L12 (Droop) Original R/X 5 R/X 10 R/X 15 R/X
0.1 km R45 0.1 km
WT R12 IC PV
No. of
(MPPT) Bus 2 Bus 5
4 4 4 5
(MPPT) Iterations
| Rf Lf
|
CPU Time (sec) 0.9893 0.9968 1.0060 1.0246
Cf ω (p.u) 0.9926 0.9922 0.9918 0.9914
AC Load ΔVac ∞ (p.u) 0.0370 0.0420 0.0487 0.0560
DC Load
R23
ΔVdc ∞ (p.u) 0.0399 0.0560 0.0739 0.0900
0.1 km R56 0.05 km
PLoss,ac (p.u) 0.0012 0.0063 0.0135 0.0217
L23
Bus 3 Bus 6 PLoss,dc (p.u) 0.0025 0.0113 0.0202 0.0276
|
|
Dispatch. Dispatch.
(Droop) (Droop)
V. A LGORITHM ROBUSTNESS
Fig. 5. 6-bus AC/DC hybrid microgrid. The robustness of the developed algorithm can be verified
The power flow results produced by our algorithm and those using a highly resistive network. The 6-bus AC/DC HMG
obtained from the TDS were tabulated as shown in Table I. was modified accordingly so that its original R/X ratio was
Both our algorithm and the TDS reached steady state at a increased to 5:1, 10:1, and 15:1. Increasing the R/X ratio of
frequency equal to 0.9926 p.u. As a measure of the level the test system allows the proposed load flow algorithm to be
of accuracy, the maximum deviations between the TDS and tested for ill-conditioned AC/DC HMGs. Table II shows that
UPF results were calculated for the bus voltage magnitudes, the developed algorithm successfully provided a steady-state
active and reactive powers, which were found to be 0.04 %, solution for the different R/X ratios but at the expense of an

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 2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)
increased number of iterations and a correspondingly longer
CPU time required for convergence. Further, Table II reveals
that, for both the AC and DC subgrids, the ∞-norms of the
voltage profiles (ΔVac ∞ and ΔVdc ∞ ), which represent
the respective maximum deviations from the nominal AC
and DC voltages, rise as the system becomes increasingly
ill-conditioned. Furthermore, the active power losses in the
system tend to increase with the R/X ratio.
VI. C ONCLUSION
The aim of the work presented in this paper was to ad-
dress the unsolved load flow problem for islanded AC/DC
hybrid microgrids. The load flow subproblems for AC and
DC subgrids have been described mathematically using a set
of nonlinear equations and have been solved simultaneously
using a globally convergent Levenberg-Marquardt method.
The developed load flow technique incorporates consideration
of the special features of isolated AC/DC HMGs, such as
the unavailability of a slack bus and the droop control-
lability of inventer-based distributed resources. The phasor
formulation presented offers both accuracy, as demonstrated
by the comparison with the time domain simulations, and
robustness, as evidenced by the application on highly-resistive
network. The novel load flow tool introduced in this paper
is powerful enough to help system planners and operators
explore the challenges related to hybridizing existing AC-type
and designing new AC/DC hybrid-type distribution grids.
A PPENDIX
Tables A1 and A2 show the line data and bus data of the
6-bus AC/DC hybrid MG test system, respectively.
TABLE A1
L INE DATA FOR THE 6-B US I SLANDED AC/DC H YBRID MG
AC Subgrid DC Subgrid
From To R(Ω) X(Ω) From To R(Ω)
1 2 0.0638 0.0079 4 5 0.4700
2 3 0.0638 0.0079 5 6 0.2350
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A. A. Eajal (S’06) was born in Sirte, Libya, in 1979. He received a
B.Sc. degree (Hons) in electrical engineering from the University of Sirte,
Sirte, Libya, in 2001. In 2008, he obtained an M.A.Sc. degree in electrical
and computer engineering from Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
Currently, he is pursuing a Ph. D degree in electrical and computer engineering
at the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.
His current research interests include planning, operations, and the dynamic
performance of AC/DC hybrid distribution systems.
Mohamed A. Abdelwahed (SŠ14) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees
from Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Benha, Egypt, in 2003
and 2010, respectively. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Electrical
and Computer Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada. His current research interest involves Multi-terminal HVDC
transmission systems and offshore wind farms.
E. F. El-Saadany (M’01, SM’05) was born in Cairo, Egypt, in 1964. He
received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from Ain Shams University, Cairo,
Egypt, in 1986 and 1990, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, in 1998, all in electrical
engineering. He is a Professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Waterloo, and currently on sabbatical leave with
the Petroleum Institute (PI), Abu Dhabi, UAE.
His research interests include smart grids operation and control, power
quality, distributed generation, power electronics, digital signal processing
applications to power systems, and mechatronics.
Kumaraswamy Ponnambalam received the B.E. degree from Madras Uni-
versity, Chennai, India, in 1979, the M.Sc. degree from the National University
of Ireland, Galway, in 1981, and Ph.D. degree from the University of Toronto,
Toronto, ON, Canada, in 1987. He is currently a full Professor in the
Department of Systems Design Engineering at the University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON, Canada.
His main research interest is in multidisciplinary design optimization
under uncertainty with applications covering engineering, economic, and
environmental issues in electric power production and distribution.
 2016 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC)

TABLE A2
L INE DATA FOR THE 6-B US I SLANDED AC/DC H YBRID MG (Sbase = 18 K VA, 208/600 V)

Bus Bus V0 Load PLrated Qrated

L DG PG
rated Qrated
G ω0 mp nq
MG
No. Type (p.u) Type kW kvar Type kW kvar (p.u) (p.u.) (p.u.)

1 Droop 1.0 — — — Droop 6.4 4.8 1.0 0.0281 0.1875

AC 2 Droop 1.0 PQ 25 18.75 P 14 10.5 — — —
3 Droop 1.0 — — — Droop 9.6 7.2 1.0 0.0187 0.1250
4 Droop 1.0 — — — Droop 6.72 — — 0.1339 —
DC 5 Droop 1.0 P 15 — P 4.6 — — — —
6 Droop 1.0 — — — Droop 6.72 — — 0.1339 —
IC AC DC Pic Qic ω0 ωmin ωmax Vdc,0 Vdc,min Vdc,max γp γq
# Bus Bus (kW) (kvar) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u.) (p.u.)
1 2 5 18 12 1.0 0.99 1.01 1.0 0.95 1.05 1.0 0.0750

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