S. Marimuthu, et al.

Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823

Report on : Treatment of Industrial and Domestic waste water with

Photocatalysis

Domestic waste treatment ensures that all household sewage is properly treated to make it safe, clean and suitable
for releasing back into the environment, lakes, or streams. Home sewage systems are designed to treat all of the
liquid waste generated from a residence.

Industrial wastewater is the aqueous discard that results from substances having been dissolved or suspended in
water, typically during the use of water in an industrial manufacturing process or the cleaning activities that take
place along with that process.

Photocatalysis is a process in which light energy is used to drive pairs of chemical reactions. Through the absorption
of light, an excited electron/hole pair is produced.

Water treatment is increasingly necessary due to drinking water shortages and the growing needs of the global
population. Of the planet’s total water reserves, only 2.5% is freshwater – and of this amount only 0.4% is water fit
for human consumption.

Photocatalysis with mild conditions, a simple process and green technology, can degrade organic pollutants
contained in wastewater into water, carbon dioxide or other small molecules, and reduce or oxidize inorganic
pollutants to harmless substances

Recently, notable progress in the photocatalysis process is the observation of silver-containing photocatalysts, such
as Ag3PO4, Ag3VO4, and Ag2CO3, which exhibit excellent photocatalytic activity in degrading persistent organic
pollutant in contrast to the other visible light driven photocatalysts such as N-TiO2, BiVO .

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Empathy canvas:

Empathy Canvas is divided into various sections the section which you are seeing over your is a user section then
the stakeholder’s, activities, storyboarding, and then you have a happy sad story.

An empathy map is a collaborative tool teams can use to gain a deeper insight into their customers

An empathy map is a collaborative tool teams can use to gain a deeper insight into their customers. Much like a user
persona, an empathy map can represent a group of users, such as a customer segment. The empathy map was
originally created by Dave Gray and has gained much popularity within the agile community.

Stakeholders are those who are going to get a direct or an indirect income because of these users so write down the
number n number of names of these stakeholders in this particular column of stakeholders.

Though you might think you know a user, empathy mapping allows you to not only understand them but identify
with them, too. The use of an empathy map helps you tap into their needs, goals, motivations and desires and
essentially pretend you are the target user.

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Ideation canvas:

A range of ideation techniques can be used to generate ideas and solutions, including sketching, prototyping,
brainstorming, brainwriting, worst possible ideas, and many others. A design process that focuses on generating
ideas is called ideation.

This canvas is designed to be used in the creative ideation stage of a design process, when you’re looking to
generate ideas for solutions.

Derivative Ideation – Derivative ideation refers to building on an existing idea, such as developing complementary
products or accessories to sell along with a company’s main product. Innovation – An example of innovation
ideation is the process of a pharmaceutical company developing new medicines.

Ideation is the process of forming ideas from conception to implementation, most often in a business setting.
Ideation is expressed via graphical, written, or verbal methods, and arises from past or present knowledge,
influences, opinions, experiences, and personal convictions.

Ideation is the process where you generate ideas and solutions through sessions such as Sketching, Prototyping,
Brainstorming, Brainwriting, Worst Possible Idea, and a wealth of other ideation techniques. Ideation is also the
third stage in the Design Thinking process

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Product development canvas:

A product canvas is a planning tool designed to help build products that have a great user experience through a
focus on feature development.

Product development typically refers to all stages involved in bringing a product from concept or idea through
market release and beyond. In other words, product development incorporates a product’s entire journey.

Product development, also called new product management, is a series of steps that includes the conceptualization,
design, development and marketing of newly created or newly rebranded goods or services.

The first and most important reason for any new development is to provide new value to the customer. Without
this, there is no reason for them to trade their money for the new device. However, if the product or service offers
overwhelming value, then customers will flock to it.

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LNM canvas:

First of all LNM canvas (LN Metrix) full form is the Learning Needs Matrix Canvas will help the student to identify the
learning requirement at an early stage along with prioritization/time allocation for each learning priority.

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S. Marimuthu, et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823

Mind mapping:

A mind map involves writing down a central theme and thinking of new and related ideas which radiate out from
the centre. By focusing on key ideas written down in your own words and looking for connections between them,
you can map knowledge in a way that will help you to better understand and retain information.

Mind maps are diagrams used to visually organise information hierarchically. Mind maps are created around a single
concept or image at the centre of a blank page or canvas. Major ideas directly branch from this central point with
further ideas and detail branching off from those levels. Mind maps are purposefully colourful and work well when
combined with imagery to represent ideas, concepts or information. The non-linear but hierarchical approach of
mind maps makes them an excellent way to organise your ideas, plan an essay, make notes for a lecture or revise
content

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AEIOU:

In AEIOU sheet format, AEIOU stands for 5 elements to be coded: Activity, Environment, Interaction, Object, and
User. Which are explained below in AEIOU sheet for design engineering.

Activities are goal directed sets of actions paths toward things people want to accomplish.

What are the modes people work in, and the specific activities and processes they go through?

Environments include the entire arena where activities take place.

What is the character and function of the space overall, of each individual’s spaces, and of shared spaces?

Interactions are between a person and someone or something else; they are the building blocks of activities.

What is the nature of routine and special interactions between people, between people and objects in their
environment, and across distances?

Objects are building blocks of the environment, key elements sometimes put to complex or unintended uses (thus
changing their function, meaning, and context).

What are the objects and devices people have in their environments and how do they relate to their activities?

Users are the people whose behaviors, preferences, and needs are being observed.

Who is there?

What are their roles and relationships?

What are their values and prejudices?

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Prototype:

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Silver nanoparticles in dye effluent treatment: A review on synthesis, treatment T

methods, mechanisms, photocatalytic degradation, toxic effects and mitigation of
toxicity
Sivasankari Marimuthua, Arul Jayanthi Antonisamya, Sankar Malayandia,
Karthikeyan Rajendrana, Pei-Chien Tsaib, Arivalagan Pugazhendhic,⁎, Vinoth Kumar
Ponnusamyb,d,e,⁎⁎
a
Department of Biotechnology, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi 626 005, Tamil Nadu, India b
Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan
c
Innovative Green Product Synthesis and Renewable Environment Development Research Group, Faculty of Environment and
Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
d
Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan e Department of
Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan

ARTICLEINFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: The current scenario of water resources shows the dominance of pollution caused by the draining of industrial effluents. The
Silver nanoparticles Nanocomposites polluted waters have resulted in severe health and environmental hazards urging for a suitable alternative to resolve the
Dye degradation implications. Various physical and chemical treatment steps currently in use for dye effluent treatment are more time
Dye effluent treatment consuming, cost-intensive, and less effective. Alternatively, nanoparticles due to their excellent surface properties and
Toxicity chemical reactivity have emerged as a better solution for dye removal and degradation. In this regard, the potential of silver
Mitigation nanoparticles in dye effluent treatment was greatly explored. Efforts were taken to unravel the kinetics and statistical
optimization of the treatment conditions for the efficient removal of dyes. In addition, the role of silver nanocomposites has
also experimented with colossal success. On the contrary, studies have also recognized the mechanisms of silver
nanoparticle-mediated toxicity even at deficient concentrations and their deleterious biological effects when present in
treated water. Hence, the fate of the silver nanoparticles released into the treated water and sludge, contaminating the soil,
aquatic environment, and underground water is of significant concern. This review summarizes the current state of
knowledge regarding the use of silver nanoparticles and silver-based nanocomposites in effluent treatment and
comprehends the recent research on mitigation of silver nanoparticle-induced toxicity.

1. Introduction
Water pollution is a major problem threatening the living
community. Due to industrialization water resources have been
contaminated with toxic pollutants. In addition, the scarcity of
water for a long time makes it a problem of great concern. The
significant contaminants added into water sources as effluents
include an array of organic and inorganic dyes. Dyes are colorants
used in textile, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, plastics, paint,
ink, photographic and paper industries [1]. Though found highly
useful, the negative impacts accumulated in water systems are
attributed to dye structure and origin. The dyes belong to different
structural forms such as acidic, reactive, basic, disperse, azo, diazo,
anthraquinone based and metal-complex dyes. The origin of these
dyes is majorly known carcinogens such as benzidine and
naphthalene. Hence, these dyes can always get transformed into
carcinogens upon microbial degradation when entering into
biological systems such as animals and humans [2]. The treatment
of effluent containing dyes before discharging into water resources
is the need of the hour to compensate for the losses and prevent
further stress on water bodies [3]. Moreover, the majority of the
dyes are xenobiotics in nature, which resist conventional removal
procedures [4]. Hence there are several strategies available for the
removal of dyes from water. Based on the

⁎
Correspondence to: Arivalagan Pugazhendhi, Innovative Green Product Synthesis and Renewable Environment Development Research Group, Faculty of
Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
⁎⁎
Correspondence to: Vinoth Kumar Ponnusamy, Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan.
E-mail addresses: arivalagan.pugazhendhi@tdtu.edu.vn (A. Pugazhendhi), kumar@kmu.edu.tw (V.K. Ponnusamy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111823
Received 23 August 2019; Received in revised form 5 February 2020; Accepted 16 February 2020
Available online 21 February 2020
1011-1344/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Table 1
Mechanism Factors influencing treatment Advantages Limitations References

Physical treatment method

Adsorption
[129–139]
Dye/sorbent interaction, sorbent surface area, Cost-effective can be regenerated for the Larger quantities required, and longer
particle size, temperature, pH, and contact time next use contact time required
Radiation treatment Radiation

Dye’s reactivity and photosensitivity, and availability Cost-effective can be regenerated for the Larger quantities required, and longer [140–146]
of dissolved oxygen next use contact time required

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S. Marimuthu, et al.
Chemical treatment methods
Oxidation
Oxidizing agents, oxidizing conditions, and pH Nature Efficient for all classes of dyes, short
Electrochemical oxidation
of electrolyte, electrolyte concentration, and
electrolysis time
Precipitation Precipitant and pH
Biological treatment methods
Aerobic Specificity towards substrate
Anaerobic
Enzyme
Combined aerobic and
anaerobic
Summary of treatment methods for wastewater treatment
Table 1 briefs on different strategies followed in wastewater treatment for dye removal/degradation. Rather than simple adsorption of dyes that create more
sludge recent focus of research is on dye degradation by photocatalysis or biocatalysis using enzymes or microbial systems. The application of nanocomposites
improved the
dye degradation effects of the electrochemical oxidation process.
principle employed for the removal of the dyes they are
categorized as physical, chemical, and biological treatment
methods. All the methods used for wastewater treatment have
their own strengths and weakness and the efficiency depends on
factors listed in Table 1. In the recent decade, the use of
nanoparticles to remove dyes from wastewater has gained
importance because they have a large surface area, high
adsorption properties, less resistance to diffusion and show faster
rates of equilibrium [5]. More specifically, the role of silver
nanoparticles in dye removal has been explored by some research
groups all over the world. Silver nanoparticles have superior
physical, chemical, and biological properties, which enable them to
find applications in various industries. Besides the characteristics
mentioned above, silver nanoparticles possess antibacterial and
antifungal properties that facilitate their applications in
wastewater treatment [6]. This review presents the information on
the application of silver nanoparticles in catalyzing the degradation
of dyes in water.
2. Wastewater Treatment: Conventional Strategies
Physical treatment, chemical treatment, and biological
treatment are the fundamental principles used in effluent
treatment. The physical treatment involves the use of principles
such as adsorption and radiation. The commonly employed
adsorbents in water treatment plants include activated charcoal,
zeolite, chitosan, and cheap industrial wastes [7–9]. Radiation
treatment of municipal wastewater is carried out by UV, gamma,
and X-rays [10]. The chemical treatment strategies include the
oxidation and reduction techniques with the use of numerous
chemical compounds. The biological treatment of water is
advantageous for being specific than the other methods of
treatment.
3. Role of Nanoparticles in the Removal of Dyes from Water
Nanoparticles that have a size scale in the range of 1 to 100 nm
show various unique characteristics that are not seen in their bulk
forms. The importance of nanoparticles in any field is attributed to
the high surface area available for chemical reactivity, which is
Table 2
Different types of nanomaterials used in the removal of contaminants present in wastewater.
Functional nanoparticle category
Dendrimers (a core, interior branch cells and terminal
branch cell)
Metal nanoparticles (Mg, Ag, Pt, Pa, Au, Fe, Co)
Zeolite
Carbonaceous nanoparticles
absent in bulk [11]. There are four classes of functional
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
[147–151]
Problems with process pH maintenance,
detention time, and less capital cost removal of water, and sludge handling (181-185)
[152–154]
Specificity, effective and possibility of Cost-intensive, and more extended [155–160]
immobilization detention periods [161–164]
[164–170]
[171–175]
nanoparticles used in water purification, namely dendrimers,
metal-containing nanoparticles, zeolites and carbonaceous
nanomaterials [12]. The nanomaterials mentioned in table 2 are
suitable for the removal of different dyes and other contaminants
from water. Micro and nanofillers demand the application of more
substantial working pressures for retaining solutes of molecular
mass between 1000 and 3000Da, which has been overcome by
dendrimer ultrafilters [12]. The metal-containing nanoparticles are
efficient to act as biocides and kill several bacteria belonging to
both gram-positive and negative groups [13]. Moreover, they aid
in removing heavy metals such as arsenic and halogens [11].
Zeolites function as an ion exchange medium to remove heavy
metals from water [14]. Carbonaceous materials can act as
sorbents for organic solutes in an aqueous environment [15,16].
The recent advancement in this regard is the use of biogenic
nanoparticle incorporated membranes to degrade toxic
chlorinated compounds [17]. Membranes functionalized with
biologically synthesized nanoparticles and immobilized enzymes
were reported to be better in performing enzyme reactions
compared to single-phase reactions with enhanced nanoparticle
stability [18]. The stacking of membranes with different
immobilized enzymes was suitable to perform catalysis at a faster
rate [19].
4. Mechanisms of Dye Removal Using Silver Nanoparticles
The role of silver had been studied for a more prolonged
period towards various applications, including medicine and water
treatment. The efficiency of silver as an antiinfective agent had lost
its glory due to the introduction of antibiotics. However, silver has
now renewed its role in a different form as silver nanoparticles
[20]. Silver nanoparticles are found highly superior to their bulk.
The antimicrobial characteristics of silver nanoparticles are far
more superior than bulk as proved by different experimental
results due to improved physicochemical characteristics and
mechanical properties [21]. One such notable improvement in the
application of silver nanoparticles includes their use in
antimicrobial bandages for wounds in diabetic patients [22]
The efficiency of silver nanoparticles used in different
applications depends on the factors affecting their synthesis. They
include the type of metal precursors, solvents, and reducing
agents. Among all the metal salts of silver, silver nitrate is the most
Contaminant(s) targeted References
Dissolved organic, inorganic solutes (molecular mass less than 1000 Da) and certain classes of microbes [12,175–184]
Halogen, tri-chloroethane, arsenic, heavy metals, and certain classes of microbes [11,185–187]
Heavy metals like Cr, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cd [14,188,189]
Organic solutes and microorganisms [15,16,188,190]
commonly used for silver nanoparticle synthesis. Water being the
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S. Marimuthu, et al.
primary solvent, the type of reducing agent determines the overall
efficiency of the synthesized silver nanoparticles [23,24]. As
mentioned, the biological synthesis or green synthesis of
nanoparticles, which employs plant extracts, microorganisms such
as bacteria, fungi, and algae for the reduction of metal salts yields
efficient nanoparticles than any other method (Fig. 1). It improves
and protects the environment from damages caused by the
excessive use of chemicals for the reduction of metal salts [21,25].
Moreover, it provides control over the synthesis and gives better
shape and size of nanoparticles for various nanotechnological
applications. It exempts the use of additional stabilizing agents in
the synthesis process as required for the physical and chemical
processes [26]. The most significant advantage is that they are
renewable sources providing a sustained production of
nanoparticles over a period of time. In recent approaches, the use
of very cheap and native sources as a reducing agent has added an
advantage to the biosynthesis process [27]. In general, the
synthesis follows either a top-down or bottom-up approach. Out
of which, the bottom-up approach has been preferably used over
top-down since the latter provides surface imperfection [28].
Several researchers have demonstrated the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles using different biological sources and their
application in removing dyes from water. Table 3 summarizes the
biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles from the metal
precursor silver nitrate and their application in the removal of
various dyes from water.
Fig. 1. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using different biological sources Table 3
Biological reducing agents for silver nanoparticle synthesis
Reducing agent
Trigonella. foenum-graecum seeds
Fruits of Terminalia.chebula
Guggulutiktham Kashayam (Ayurvedic
medicine)
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
The general mechanisms of dye removal using silver
nanoparticles include adsorption on to silver nanoparticle loaded
activated carbon or photocatalytic degradation or combination of
both. In the catalytic degradation of dyes using silver
nanoparticles, the flocculation of nanodimensioned materials
results in poor catalytic efficiency, which is avoided by using
nanoparticles supported on silica spheres [9]. The next section
discusses the few researches published on the removal of dyes by
the above-said mechanisms using silver nanoparticles.
5. Adsorption
Silver nanoparticle loaded activated carbon showed the
maximum adsorption of 71.4 mg of methylene blue/g adsorbent
[29]. Dyes such as Congo red, Eosin yellow, Bromophenol blue 2
and Brilliant blue upon adsorption using nano-silica powder
fabricated with silver nanoparticles showed 99% removal of dye at
an initial concentration of 50 mg/L. However, desorption studies
using acetone achieved 86% desorption of dye and hence,
implicating the reusability of novel adsorbent [30]. Magnetite
chitosan microspheres decorated with silver nanoparticles were
reported to adsorb dyes. Desorption and reusability studies also
proved to be efficient [31]. Recently, a novel composite of silver
nanoparticles with poly(styrene-N-isopropyl acrylamide-
methacrylic acid) was reported to have efficient adsorption of
methylene blue dye and its catalytic reduction [32].
Degradation compound References
Methylene blue methyl orange and Eosin Y [191]
Methylene blue [192]
Methylene blue [193]
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S. Marimuthu, et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
Stem bark, root, and leaf of Helicteres isora Methyl violet, safranin, eosin methylene blue and methyl orange [194]
Ulva lactuca Methyl orange [142]
Coccinia grandis leaf extract Coomassie Brilliant Blue 250-G [195]
Amaranthus gangeticus Linn leaf extract Congo red [196]
Gmelina arborea fruits Methylene blue [197]
Zanthoxylum armatum leaves Safranin O, methyl red, methyl orange, methylene blue [198]
Saraca indica flower Methylene blue [26]
Leaves of Ocimum tenuiflorum Reactive turquoise blue [199]
Leaves extract of Azadirachta indica Crystal violet [200]
Stem extract of Salvadora persica Methylene blue [201]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae extract Methylene blue [202]
Caulerpa racemosa extract Methylene blue [203]
Anacardium occidentale testa Congo red and methyl orange [204]
Sterculia acuminate fruit extract 4-nitrophenol, methylene blue, methyl orange, phenol red and direct blue 24 [205]
Leaf extract of Mussaenda erythrophylla Methyl orange [206]
Leaf extract of Elephantopus scaber Eosin Y [207]
Waste tea extract Cationic organic dyes [208]
Thymbra spicata extract 4-nitrophenol, Rhodamin B, and Methylene blue [209]
Combination of aqueous extracts of Malus domestica and Lagenaria siceraria with Malachite Green [210]
starch.
Exoploysaccharide of Leuconostoc lactis Methyl orange and Congo red [211]
Seed extract from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye [212]
Dillenia indica bark extract 4-nitrophenol and methylene blue [213]
Carissa carandas fruit extract Crystal violet [214]
Allium cepa extract Methylene blue, Methyl red, Eosin yellowish, Safranin, Direct dye, and Reactive dye [215]
Durio zibethinus aqueous extract Coomassie blue, crystal violet, malachite green, methyl red, congo red, rhodamine B, methyl [216]
orange, and eosin Y
Origanum vulgare leaf extract Methyl Orange and Congo Red [217]
Euphorbia heterophylla leaf extract 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), Methyl orange (MO), Congo red (CR) and Methylene blue (MB) [218]
Citrus aurantifolia peel extract 4-nitroaniline [219]
Aquilaria agallocha leaves juice Victoria Blue B [220]
Momordica charantia leaves extract 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP) to 2,4,6-tri aminophenol (TAP) [221]
Sapindus mukorossi fruit extract 4-nitro phenol and Eosin blue [222]
Guazuma ulmifolia bark Congo Red [223]
Lotus Garcinii leaf extract 4-nitrophenol [224]
Abutilon hirtum leaf extract 4-nitrophenol, Congo Red and Rhodamine B [225]
Myrica gale L. aqueous extract Cyanamides [226]
Euphorbia helioscopia L. leaf extract 4-nitrophenol, Congo red and Methylene blue [227]
Carica papaya extract Clorpyrifos [228]
Bunium persicum seeds extract 4-Nitrophenol (4-NP), Methyl Orange (MO), Congo Red (CR) and Methylene Blue (MB) [229]

Carpobrotus acinaciformis extract Methyl Orange, Congo Red [42]

Crocus sativus L. aqueous extract Cyanation of Aryl and Heteroaryl Aldehydes [230]
Euphorbia peplus Linn leaf extract Cycloaddition of arylcyanamides and sodium azide [24]

6. Optimization of Adsorption Parameters adsorbent. The isotherm showed monolayer adsorption, and the
kinetic constants revealed intra-particle diffusion due to porosity
Sudan red 7B was removed to a maximum of 90.9 mg per gram and high surface area [40].
of silver nanoparticle loaded activated carbon. An increase in pH,
contact time, agitation speed and temperature improved the
extent of dye adsorption [33]. Central Composite Design [CCD]
based statistical optimization of adsorption parameters of crystal
violet was studied using soil coated silver nanoparticles and almost
99.99% removal efficiency was reported [34]. The parameters
influencing the adsorption of malachite green by silver
nanoparticle loaded activated carbon to achieve 99.7% removal of
dye at room temperature were studied [35]. Several studies have
reported the application of Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
in determining the optimum conditions for the efficient removal of
different dyes [36,37]. Ultrasound-assisted simultaneous
adsorption of two dyes by silver-chromium nanocomposite on
activated charcoal is optimized for various adsorption parameters
by using CCD [37].

7. Isotherm and Kinetic Studies

The adsorption kinetics of dyes such as methylene blue and the

malachite green followed the pseudo-second-order model and
Langmuir isotherm was best fitted for the adsorption process
[33,35,36,38,39]. The adsorption isotherm of bromophenol red
dye by the nanoparticles of zinc oxide, palladium, and silver
loaded respectively on activated charcoal fitted Langmuir
adsorption. Among these, silver nanoparticles loaded activated
charcoal showed the maximum adsorption of 250 mg/ g of
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S. Marimuthu, et al.
8. Photocatalytic Degradation
Photocatalysis is a chief mechanism in dye effluent treatment,
wherein the electrons excited from the valence band to
conduction band upon irradiation, result in electron-hole pair
generation. The hydroxyl radical generated acts as a potent
oxidizing agent and completely degrades the dye to nonhazardous
products (CO2, H2O, etc). (Fig. 2) The semiconductor titanium
dioxide (TiO2) had been researched by several groups for its
photocatalytic activity and various applications. Though titanium
Fig. 2. Photocatalytic degradation dyes
dioxide (TiO2) exhibits high photocatalytic efficiency, a higher
energy bandgap (>3.2 eV) between the valence and conduction
bands necessitates UV irradiation for the excitation of electrons
from the valence band. The photocatalytic efficiency is also
lowered by electron–hole pair recombination. Silver owing to its
stability, conductivity, and light absorption ability is doped with
TiO2 enabling efficient trapping of photoexcited electrons onto the
photocatalytic surface preventing electron-hole pair
recombination [41–43]. A research article showed that the
bandgap of silver –titanium dioxide (Ag-TiO 2) nanocomposite is
decreased to 1.4 eV [44]. Silver nanoparticles and titanium dioxide
nanostructures exhibited photocatalytic activity under visible light
due to the surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles
[45,46]. The collective oscillations of electrons due to the Surface
Plasmon Resonance (SPR) effect from the outermost band to a
higher energy state result in the interaction with molecular oxygen
in water and generation of free radicals. Positive holes created
due to electron excitation accept an electron from the adsorbed
dye, thereby, the dye is reduced. Moreover, this is followed by the
oxidation of the dye by other free radicals generated during the
oxidation of H+ ions formed by the splitting of water molecules
[47].
The interaction of silver nitrate in isopropanol with TiO 2
powder upon laser exposure forms doped silver nanoparticles
onto the TiO2 matrix. 2% (wt) Silver/TiO2 showed 82.3% of
photodegradation of methylene blue by the absorption of visible
light. When the concentration of silver nanoparticles is increased
beyond 2% (wt), the photodegradation of methylene blue was
reduced. This might be due to the hindrance of silver
nanoparticles in the interaction of the dye with TiO 2 [48]. Another
work using the electrospun nanofibers of titanium oxide with
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
silver nanoparticles showed >92 % and 93% removal of methylene
blue and methyl red within 10 min and 3 h, respectively. Doped
silver nanoparticles enhanced photocatalytic activity [49].
Photocatalytic oxidation of methyl orange using silver
nanoparticles of different sizes and shapes embedded on
amidoxime fibers showed more significant degradation of methyl
orange due to localized surface plasmon resonance when exposed
to sunlight. The degradation ratio of spherical shaped silver
nanoparticles was found to be 83% owing to their smaller size. In
addition, during multiple regenerations of the catalyst using
tetrahydrofuran, there was some extent of the detachment of
silver nanoparticles from the surface of fibers indicating the weak
coordination interactions between the nanoparticles and fibers
during reuse [50]. A nanocomposite of silver doped with zinc oxide
showed better degradation of methyl orange due to the
photocatalytic effect on exposure to visible light with nearly 65%
dye removal within an hour [51]. Generally, in these constructs,
the nature of organic or inorganic metal precursor of silver
nanoparticles decides the structural and photocatalytic effects of
silver/TiO2 [52]. Silver nanoparticle loaded tungsten oxide resulted
in the distribution of silver nanoparticles on its surface and showed
enhanced photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye up to
92.5% depending on the concentration of silver loaded [53]. Silver
nanoparticles synthesized using the extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa
loaded on cellulose resulted in the photocatalytic degradation of
organic dyes such as methylene blue, Eosin Y, methyl orange,
Orange G and Bromophenol blue, which was found to be
timedependent. Moreover, there was no loss of activity of the
silver nanoparticles until the third time of the reuse of particles
[54]. Silver decorated reduced graphene sheets on exposure to
visible light showed the degradation of almost 100% and 72% of
indigo carmine and methylene blue, respectively. The mechanism
of photocatalytic degradation was via the formation of
photoinduced electron–hole pairs from the nanocomposite.
Photogenerated holes and photogenerated electrons resulted in
oxidative photodegradation (Hydroxyl radical formation) and
electron capture by atmospheric oxygen (oxygen anion radical
formation), respectively. The result was the complete degradation
of toxic dyes to carbon dioxide, water and other ions [55].
Photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange using silver
nanoparticles synthesized with the extract of Solanum nigrum
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S. Marimuthu, et al.
unripe fruit was reported to have an efficiency of approximately
90% [56]. A study on the kinetic models of Azo dye Direct Red 264
photocatalytic degradation using Ag/ CdS nanoparticles in a
continuous flow photoreactor reported better degradation due to
the smaller bandgap of Ag/CdS. Under optimal conditions, the
degradation efficiency was estimated as 99.99% [57].
Photocatalytic degradation of methyl violet dye using silver
nanoparticles biosynthesized using the extract of Azadirachta
indica had been reported with an efficiency of 97% at the end of
50 h treatment [58]. Non-linear expression of pseudo-second-
order model was established to study the adsorption of crystal
violet onto Ag soil nanocomposite synthesized using the
Azadirachta indica extract in a batch reactor [59]. Microwave-
assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the extract of
Sapindus mukorossi when impregnated into chitosan formed
hydrogel showed photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange.
The degradation characteristics were due to the hydrogel
formation and water movement [60]. Silver nanoparticles
synthesized using the extract of coconut tree inflorescence
enhanced the photocatalytic degradation of azo dye effectively
under UV/visible light irradiation and the degradation efficiency
was found to be time-dependent [61]. Dyes such as Methyl violet
6B, Methylene Blue, and Rose Bengal were reported to be
degraded effectively in the presence of sunlight using silver
nanoparticles and Au–Ag bimetallic nanostructures synthesized by
employing the extract of the finely powdered eggshell of Anas
platyrhynchos and the degradation efficiency was more than 95%
in all the cases [62]. Euphorbia peplus Linn leaf extract synthesized
Ag/Fe3O4 also proved enhanced catalytic properties [24]. Silver
nanoparticles immobilized on biologically synthesized
nanocomposites were reported to show an effective degradation
of methyl orange and 4-nitrophenol [63]. Mono dispersion of zinc
oxide-silver nanocustard apple was efficient in degrading
methylene blue with an efficiency of 95% [64].
9. Combined Action of Adsorption and Photocatalytic Activity of
Silver Nanocomposites
Carbon microspheres were decorated with silver nanoparticles
and studied for methylene blue and rhodamine B adsorption. This
nanocomposite resulted in 100% adsorption of methylene blue (30
mg/l) within 1 min upon visible light irradiation. The photocatalytic
activity was due to the surface plasmon resonance effect of silver
nanoparticles on carbon microspheres [65]. In the removal of
tartrazine, a watersoluble anionic dye, multiwalled carbon
nanotubes decorated with 5 wt % silver nanoparticles showed a
61% increase in the removal of dye than the control carbon
nanotubes. This was due to the enhancement of dye adsorption
indicating chemisorption due to the presence of silver
nanoparticles [66]. In the composite hydrogel of poly (acrylic
acid)silver/ silver nanoparticles, dye degradation was due to the
photocatalysis of organic dye by the in situ formed silver
nanoparticles during the self-assembly of hydrogel [67]. Reduced
graphene oxide (RGO)/ Polyethyleneimine (PEI) silver
nanoparticles composite hydrogels showed sound catalytic
degradation of methylene blue and rhodamine B. The hydrogel
could degrade rhodamine B with nearly 100% efficiency within 70
min and for methylene blue, it was 30 min. Another advantage of
this hydrogel nanocomposite was its easiness to be recovered
suggesting a potential largescale application [68]. In a study on the
comparison of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of dyes,
the composite of silver nanoparticles and colemanite ore waste
showed more than 95% photocatalytic degradation in contrast to
the adsorption removal efficiency of around 70%. This was due to
the photocatalytic effectiveness of silver colemanite ore waste
[69].
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
10. Fate of Silver Nanoparticles in the Environment
Silver nanoparticles are the primarily engineered nanoparticles
used in several industrial applications, and when released into
water bodies, they are chemically transformed into different
species having biological and potent environmental impacts. Silver
nanoparticles generally lose their surface coating, form aggregates
and also get oxidized to form Ag 2O, which latter dissolves and
releases Ag+. This ionic silver has potential biological impacts and is
majorly responsible for toxicity [70,71]. Therefore, the studies
encompassing the fate of silver nanoparticles have revolved
around mesocosms of the lake environment. Boreal lake
mesocosms dosed with silver nanoparticles were used to study the
fate of silver in water bodies. The stability of silver nanoparticles
was majorly dependent on the ionic strength and the dissolved
organic concentrations of the lake ecosystem [72]. To study the
influence of plants, water, and sediments, experiments involving
various coatings on silver nanoparticles were conducted in
mesocosms, and it had been reported that toxicity induced by
silver was reduced in the presence of plants due to the
biochemical reactions aided by the organics produced by plants
[73]. In an attempt to understand the fate of released silver and
the impact of surface coating on stability, aggregation, and
precipitation, studies using silver nanoparticles coated with citrate
and Polyvinyl pyrrolidone in ultrapure water and lake water based
on sedimentation-diffusion model were reported. The coating of
nanoparticles and the variations in the chemistry of natural water
also decided their characteristics [74,75]. Aggregation and
dissolution of silver nanoparticles are influenced by ionic strength
and dynamic interactions with light [76]. Detailed research on the
aggregation kinetics of silver nanoparticles elaborated on the role
of electrolytes and surface coating in their aggregation.
Optimization studies were reported to detect the presence of
silver nanoparticles in water bodies by exploiting the high-affinity
binding of ferbam via sulfur atoms with silver nanoparticles using
Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) [77]. As an
alternative to the timeconsuming processes such as inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry and X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy. cyclic voltammetry was reported as a rapid
alternative method for the assessment of Ag0 and dissolved Ag+
ions concentration [78]. Neutron activation used in the analysis of
the concentration of the released silver nanoparticles showed the
mechanism of transport of silver nanoparticles across different
trophic levels of the aquatic ecosystem [79]. Mathematical models
earlier used for assessing the fate of the silver nanoparticles
released into the environment were mostly represented
incorrectly due to the simplified aspects of chemistry and
transport of nanoparticles assumed. However, recent reports
indicated the need for highresolution models considering the
influence of nanoparticle entry at different points and sediment
transport [80].
15
S. Marimuthu, et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
11. Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles loss in earthworm and suppression of some gene expression in
tomato [95].Moreover, recent research shows evidence to support
Silver nanoparticles released into the water stream, post the immunostimulatory effects of silver nanoparticles based on in
wastewater treatment are reported to be toxic due to the vitro examination on primary cells THP-1 [96]. In a study on the
inhibition of nitrification, an important geochemical cycle in comparison of effects of silver nitrate salt and silver nanoparticles
maintaining the ecological balance of various elements [81]. In a on Scrobicularia plana and Hediste diversicolor, the DNA damages
study comparing the bactericidal effects of silver nanoparticles of and expression of immune defense-related enzymes were higher
different concentrations on wastewater biofilms and planktonic respectively on exposure to silver nanoparticles indicating their
cells of some bacteria, nanoparticle-mediated toxicity was toxic effects [97]. The development of the embryo of
controlled to a greater extent by the exopolysaccharide network Mediterranean sea urchins of three different species, on exposure
of biofilms [82–86]. This shows that the ecosystem is under to silver nanoparticles showed the different extent of
significant threat due to the release of nanoparticles into the developmental abnormalities wherein the time of exposure and
wastewater stream. In a study on the fate of nanomaterials instant of exposure postfertilization held major significance[98].
released into the environment, four different types of silver
nanoparticle-based coatings were used. Monte Carlo simulation
12. Mechanism of Toxicity
based on the mass balance equations of liquid and solid materials
showed that the concentration of bare silver nanoparticles was
A detailed review encompassing the transformation and
the highest in sludge when compared to the silver nanoparticles
molecular mechanism of silver nanoparticle toxicity has been
with coatings on the surface [87]. In a recent study to analyze the
reported by McShan and his co-workers Briefly, this paper outlines
longterm effects of silver nanoparticle-induced toxicity, soil
the transformation mechanisms of the released silver
microbes were studied using continuous assessment of ecological
nanoparticles, their antiproliferative activity, oxidative damage,
DNA over a period of one year. The results revealed that even at
and mitochondrial damage. Similar research was also performed
meager concentrations, silver nanoparticles drastically affected
with copper nanoparticles and their adverse effects on
the microbial community [88]. The protein profiles of the in vitro
mitochondrial function were reported [99]. The reason for the
model of the small intestine using Caco-2 cells showed that the
toxicity of silver nanoparticles could be attributed to the
exposure to silver nanoparticles hindered cell proliferation and
interaction between the ionic and nanoforms of silver with sulfur-
affected cell morphology based on the experimental results using
containing proteins [70]. A number of related researches proved
twodimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometer [89].
the dependence of release of Ag+ ions and their toxicity on the type
The shape of the silver nanoparticles also plays a vital role in
of surface coatings used [100–104]. Studies using cancer cell lines
toxicity. Studies on their toxicity in the zebrafish embryos showed
showed that the acidic environment of lysosomes enabled the
more apoptosis and toxicity in accordance with the concentration
release of toxic silver ions in the cytosol, post internalization of
and shape of the nanomaterial used [90–92]. Animal model
nanoparticles by cells [105,106]. The toxicity of silver nanoparticles
studies indicated that prenatal exposure and oral administration
intracellularly dissociated into Ag+ ions and the mechanism by
of silver nanoparticles showed damage in memory, behavioral and
which it would affect the photosynthesis in Spirodela polyrhiza was
cognitive abnormalities since the hippocampus region of brain
studied in detail [86]. In order to assess the phytotoxicity
accumulated silver [93,94]. To understand the exact mechanism of
mechanism of silver nanoparticles and silver ions, systematic
toxicity of the silver nanoparticles, long term assessment of

Fig. 3. Mechanism of silver nanoparticles toxicity. Silver nanoparticles enter the cell via endocytosis, and low pH environment results in its dissolution to more toxic Ag + ions.
Production of Reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to oxidative stress and damages the cell by altering metabolic, apoptotic and autophagic systems.
ecology among the soil-plant system involving earthworm and studies on understanding the metabolic pathways affected in
tomato were studied. The experimental results showed weight Arabidopsis thaliana were performed [107]. Silver nanoparticles
16
S. Marimuthu, et al.
were reported to inhibit enzymes such as Acetylcholinesterase
(AChE) and Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) leading to metabolic
dysregulation [108].
The size-dependent toxicity of silver nanoparticles on different
types of microorganisms and cell lines was reported [108–110]. In
a study using NIH 3T3 cells, exposure to silver nanoparticles
resulted in the release of indicators of autophagy such as reactive
oxygen species (ROS) formation, upregulation of heme oxygenase
and microtubule-associated protein [111]. Similar research on
silver nanoparticle-induced apoptosis in HePG-2 cells showed the
sequence of steps such as overproduction of reactive oxygen
species (ROS), alterations in MAPKs, AKT signaling and DNA
damage mediated p53 phosphorylation resulting in apoptosis
[112]. In contrast, non-apoptotic lysis of intestinal cells was also
reported upon exposure to silver nanoparticles signifying the
variations in the mechanisms of silver nanoparticle toxicity [113].
Recent research on the comparison of uptake of silver
nanoparticles by fish cells and algae reported that the algal cell
wall was impervious to nanoparticles but uptake of those that
happened through endocytosis in fish cells. The extracellular and
intracellular/ membrane bound proteins were reported to be
affected upon silver nanoparticle exposure in algae and fish cells,
respectively [114]. Recent findings on silver nanoparticle exposure
by the invitro neuronal cells revealed alterations in DNA
methylation and its implication on epigenetics, which has long
term effects on gene expression [115]. The challenges associated
with identifying the precise mechanism of toxicity upon uptake of
silver nanoparticles necessitate the use of physiological and gene
expression analyses since toxic effects will vary only at the
organism level but also at the strain level [116].
Though the toxicity of silver nanoparticles is primarily
attributed to the physicochemical characteristics of silver
nanoparticles the exact mechanism of cellular uptake has been
studied recently on mussels. In the redox proteome investigation
on Mussels, cellular uptake by clathrin and caveolae-mediated
endocytosis were explicitly blocked and the uptake of silver
nanoparticles of <50 nm and <100 nm sizes were studied.
Homogenization of the digestive gland and gills posttreatment
with silver nanoparticles at different time intervals showed
lessened silver nanoparticle-mediated toxicity due to blockage of
endocytosis [117]. In a recent study on the proteomic profiles of
hepatic effects created by silver nanoparticles, the formation of
the secondary particle
Fig. 4. Mitigation of silver nanoparticle toxicity. Silver nanoparticles are
dissolute to more toxic Ag+ ions. The chemical transformations like
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 205 (2020) 111823
oxidation, sulfidation, and chlorination convert Ag + ions into less toxic Silver
oxide, Silver sulfide, and Silver chloride, respectively.
after nanoparticle treatment was highlighted as an essential
mechanism in toxicology [118]. When the transcriptional response
of Paracoccus denitrificans under silver nanoparticle exposure was
studied, downregulation of several genes responsible for
denitrification was reported. The decrease in denitrification
efficiency was attributed to the increase in polyhydroxybutyrate
production and changes in the proteomic profiles of enzymes
involved in the denitrification process [119]. An overview of the
steps involved in the toxicity of silver nanoparticles is shown in Fig.
3.
13. Mitigation of Silver Nanoparticle Toxicity
Nanoparticles are inevitable in different applications, and
hence, their release into the environment remains increasing.
Understanding the basics of silver nanoparticle interaction with
biological systems and solutions is vital so as to mitigate the toxic
effects of the released nanoparticles. Oxidative dissolution of silver
nanoparticles to Ag+ ions is the first step in the chemical
transformation of silver nanoparticles (Fig. 4), which has an impact
on the mitigation of toxicity. Ag+ ions thus produced are
transformed into silver sulfide (Ag2S), silver oxide (Ag2O) and silver
chloride (AgCl), which possess lesser toxicity [120]. The reduced
toxicity is attributed to the formation of chainlike structures and
altered surface charge and dissolution rate. The extent of toxicity
reduction also depends on whether the silver nanoparticles are
monodispersed or polydispersed and also on their concentration
[71].
Silver nanoparticle toxicity reduction in the presence of sulfide
anions had been reported [81]. In the investigation on silver
nanoparticles in wastewater treatment on the pilot scale, Kaegi
and his coworkers reported the substantial conversion of silver
nanoparticles to silver sulfide (Ag2S), which might be due to
sulfate-reducing bacteria present in domestic sewage [121].
Sulfidation was also reported to decrease the inhibition of E.coli
growth caused by silver nanoparticles [122]. The detailed insight
and experimental evidence to prove that sulfidation would
decrease silver nanoparticles toxicity were studied by Levard and
his team on four different types of aquatic and terrestrial
eukaryotic organisms namely zebrafish, killifish, nematode worm
and the aquatic plant least duckweed [123]. They reported that
partial sulfidation itself could drastically reduce the toxicity as the
solubility of Ag2S is actually less than its original counterpart.
Studies on sulfidation occurring in wastewater treatment plant
indicated that anaerobic zone was the location of sulfidation, i.e.,
direct conversion of silver nanoparticles to Ag 2S and the kinetics
was experimentally reported using arrays of immobilized silver
nanoparticles fabricated by nanosphere lithography (NSL) in the
treatment plant [124].
Research on the silver nanoparticle interaction with proteins is
intrinsically essential. The kinetics of adsorption of silver
nanoparticles on biological macromolecules is crucial to know
about the optimum dosage of silver exposure. Recent research on
pepsin interaction with silver nanoparticles is pioneering in this
aspect [125]. In an attempt to develop recyclable nanoparticles, a
combination of silver/iron coreshell nanoparticles was created
using an extract of pomegranate peel, and its effect on aniline blue
removal was studied. This conjugated nanoparticle system enabled
the recovery of silver nanoparticles using a magnet, which
controlled the entry of silver nanoparticles into the effluent stream
[126]. The role of humic acid in the attenuation of toxic effects of
silver nanoparticles was evident when its combination with
different salts enabled the formation of Ag 3+ on the silver
17
S. Marimuthu, et al.
nanoparticle surface, which was proved by the experimental
studies using zebrafish embryo models [127]. The adsorption and
desorption of silver nanoparticles and silver ions onto Poly(1-vinyl
imidazole) functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (PVIM-MNPs)
from water analyzed by a sensitive method graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrometry was of low cost and reliable to
analyze silver nanoparticles and Ag + ion concentration in
environmental samples [128]. Owing to the developments in
research and technology, mitigation of toxicity induced by silver
nanoparticles can be achieved and monitored.
14. Conclusion
This review summarizes the significance of the green synthesis
of silver nanoparticles and its applications towards dye effluent
treatment. The significant mechanisms of action of silver
nanoparticles on the dye effluent treatment, including adsorption
and photocatalytic degradation, are discussed with a special
mention about the removal of dyes that are commonly used in
textile industries. It is witnessed that the application of natural or
environment friendly reducing agents for the preparation of silver
nanoparticles demonstrates the efficient removal of various dyes
from wastewaters. Nevertheless, the threat of nanoparticle
release into the environment and their toxicity to aquatic and
terrestrial biological systems at scanty concentrations are
comprehended with recent research evidences. Moreover, the
applications of silver nanoparticles on dye effluent treatment
technologies require complete risk assessments and
environmental health safety evaluation studies are also limited.
Moreover, there is no regulation concerning the maximum
permissible concentrations of nanoparticles in wastewater to
ensure human health and environmental safety. Therefore, it is
crucial to evaluate silver nanoparticle toxicity and its risks linked
with the application of silver nanoparticles in dye effluent
treatment. Recently, the sulfidation process is one of the natural
remedies for the mitigation of silver nanoparticle toxicity and its
effect on wastewater treatment plants. The research on in vivo
immunotoxicity, the influence of the shape of nanomaterial on
toxicity and the detailed exploration of adsorption kinetics of silver
nanoparticles onto different biological macromolecules are at
infancy. This review demonstrates the overall understanding of
nanoparticle uptake, distribution and inhibitory effects in
biological systems.
Declaration of Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Science and
TechnologyTaiwan Research Grant (107-2113-M-037-007-MY2),
and also the Research Center for Environmental Medicine,
Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan for “The
Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of
the Higher Education Sprout Project” by the Ministry of Education
(MOE) in Taiwan, and NSYSU-KMU collaboration research project
(NSYSU-KMU 107-I004)-Taiwan for research grant support. The
authors also thank the Department of Biotechnology, Mepco
Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, Tamilnadu,
India for financial support. The authors thank Dr. Nitin Chauhan
(Assistant Professor), University of Delhi, India for his
encouragement and support in reviewing the manuscript.
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