t^ ,l.A'r.

l tXt lt:tLa,
.a^L
Wrt o lq|J b.ardl ,ttal Ir. 1I t^D tat.J

ETHNOGNAPHIES AS TEXTS
George E Marats and Dick Cushman
Dvpcrtocat of Aatbropolo5l, RJcc Uo.lvtrdty, Houror\ Tcrrl 7rut
Intrcduction
Anthroplogistr hrw.nlrly bcgrn to givc !f,plicit rtt otioo !o lhc trtdtt
ofclhnognphic t rtq r rub.icct loog i8torcd citbcr by ooncdvtng ofcrbnof-
nphy primrrily l! rn rctivity tbrt occun in the Eald cr by trating h u
r method, nthcr tbra produc! of ftscrrcb" Althoug! a fct uticla hrw
appcarcd which coorldcr rome of thc rbctorlcd ud mrradvc dinasior
of cthnographlc vritin8 (13, 17,20, 24,25,31,32, 71, l0l, 102, lOJ,)' lh.
mrjor ilsuo havo bur dirtctly erptorcd withln r:vcnl rtccnt cthpotn-
phics tlcmsclvc (c.g. l, 12, 11, 16,26,29, 30, 33, 50, 61, 61 11,7a,1t,
84-86, 90, 92, 93, 103, ll0). Thcrc collccdwly rq)r6.nt r grwinj trtad
of crpcrlmcntadoo .in crlnograpbic *tttln6 largcly s r pbllorophlcdly
lnformcd rcaction to t.ho gcnrc coovcntionr of ahlognpblc rcdllm rbo$l
which therc hrl bq r trcit rnd rrti0cirl oortlcnru! il Anglo-ADdtao!
anthropology durtng rpprox.imrtcly tbc p.rt 60 yr:|rr" Such crDl('t@ll.
tion mry trot jun bc dlcring thr: tnditioud mturr of lhc sLhDosnph'i lt
moy r.l":o mrrk thc bcgianing of r profound rEbrpint of tba iho(td€d
Unbitlonr rnd r!..{ch Frcdoa of r diripllnc rblch bI llcodody
dcpcndql on crhnogrrphlc t xt| for Uh drtr ord the d.t€loto.lt of
thrnraicrl *t"*vcr' In thc rbuncc of r tubotudd hbtorlctt lld sttl'
cltl litcrrturc qn thc clhnogrnphic gcnrq thir popcr wlll revier e xr ofbplcr
rbout whlch thcro lr conrldcnblc rtlf+<lnrclourn,alr on tho Fn of tE.'ti
wlitcn. Thac loplcr p.ddn ro how clbnoSnphlcs rchlcvc tltdr ctrc.i rt
knowlcdgc of "othc "
Ttrc mrJor chanasbtlc rharod by crpcrimcntrrl cthnognpbltr lr lbrl
thcy intcgntq *lthln thdr lntcrprartlonr, rn crplicll cplrlqmologlcrl oo-
ccrn for how lhqy hryc @rtttruc1od luch intcrprctrtlonr rnd hor tlcy ul
rcprcrcntlng thdtr tcrtudly rr objcctivt dilcouftc rboul rubJcct rnool
whom re*rrch vrr @nduct.d. In ! tcntc, conlcmporrry ahnogrtghlo
writint rttcmpt! to rmthcrlzr thc cLrs:ic dcbric on hermcnntlcr (15)
bctwccn phllorcphlcrl ii|ocrlon rbout thc nlturc of intcrprartion, rhich

@8+651 O / 87 / t0 I 5{02 J $02.00

 '\-.phrsi26 ETHNOOnATHIES 27
orosicd rncmpr ;;;;;;;
the oJxn-cndcdncsr nr i-,-*--:- ."tivity,
!nd rhc mcrhod. ^ .-_,OS
po,rsibiriryorsyr,-,"i",*l"il"il;i[m:?^:r$1.:Tly,,"-"" rnd rrc nonodrclat coruhtlvo ln rtrrch of oor coovtatloa+ qullo tbo
"""T":-t.inrcrPretive ULa
pntcs-Crn, as a mertcr cldsic pettrm of dcvclopocat t! lttcflry gqu6_
of con, ti""'.u"tt'i* u",rr Althou8b tlc to'dc o{ abogrrphic rrlting r-n, |rd irtaltl rbotd, bo
srandr ng rnd o, u nd.nt" nai^tn -riJr#;T::;: conltrucd l'1 r brocd fubloo, thc folloring dircursiooc hlvc b..! brrcflat
jt:,xr#*ah,s;;m,,!;ry by r numbcr of acludoru rsd dirtbctlons !o dc6Dc I mrnqcrhle oUct
,,"ffijf ##:;T [uttcr. Firsl r bruder pcnpcctivc on abaograpbic writirs th." ttd
tltcBptcd bcr€ ?ould not only look rt thc full b.istory of tbc abqnpby
, ncy r r, n.,.,"1:,, il-*!". {i;lT,iJ,i:T ffj;
rcrs, n
8 r con scio u witbin AngloArlcdcrn rnt&opolog, Locluding pr;MalilctrrUra-follm

;'nfr#i'.H;"3i+:#,t;..L$t-jirl:i j"*m;
vhich arsc ftom vtry difrcrat projcclr of rrrcrrch, but rould rlro acoo-
pars etlmogrephlc worl outaidc thc Anglo-Ascricta traditioo ud oobido
thc discipllnc of ratbropolqSr: for crlmplc' tnvel lccouDtt, th. rqt d
-o crpcricacc+ rucb i' ro r.'rouna rhitia'orrlc!, rnd coloaial r.lrnlnirtsltorr' rqportr wbich ovdfrm.d rtth
;"1" T;1r,xlill1ifjl.:. "'
Jl*]ffiT,';i *i"#1:i
:""::T:ffi:lT,T, * " *,
lhc arly dcvclopoant of alnognpby in entlrrqofog$ fracl iftrorq
rtrd lt.liin cthnognpblc crdldoor; end thc loterat h sulturil htlftf?fr-
tion md thc crotic la Coatincatrl tjtcrary tnditioor (rc Zt ir prrdcnlr).
r*;:r,m:Hrt"#1i:ffi##,$i#i A firll rccount would abo rehrc ctbaogrsphtc writing to nsrlirs C2, 5i,
60 rnd to it! piccancal urc in morc problco-focu.:c4 tbcorcicrt rortr tl
rre not dircctly prtr.lbd Es the rimplc outccorc of 0cld rccarcb (e9 g
pubtishcd as cnds
in;;;;:T::1 "'e
tt.icdly .n..i"j -a 99, lS). In thit p.p.r, bowwcr, wc lioit oun"lva t6 6 orrmlnrd6 sf

;.jir f; :t ft I *{{*j; :r}

pr.cnt 6ctd$ort .,-";;;;':i' :l,1i".q]pF'
fttffi
in contrrri, oftcn ra.
tochniquc for structuring
:f :fi":Fffi *r: tlc curnnt tnod of crpcrimcntrtion (!omc of whicb ir inrpircd bt tbc
rcvivd of earlicr ahnogrrphic ltyles) rgrinst thc brcl8rould oftbc hn 60
ycan of Anglo-Ancricen ahnogrephic rcaliru-
""::"lll- a.""nf io" ,"ifi,i,,|'-
"r
rhcir
. Socond, wc dcdnc en ahnog;i,T-t;6;ly tE en rcoount rtrultbg fto
; jrfriffi {:s}i: }f i{:intri#i#::il :ffi :r
.
having donc [eldr&l r rc]rtivcly uodi.rciptincd &tivlty, tbc folUort of
which hu glvan ldcatity io rn acld(mic di:ciplina Doirg 0cldworl ir gdtc
dilfcftnt from rqncrcnting lt within rn cthnolrrphy. but jurt u q;td!
w l'rn rhc ,.r, ,,r.tf"Uoui-,t_ .j;,.1],l.,]T
":ry crpticir. focuncrJ dr$u$ion
, convcntlonr of doquEtrrtrdgn cllrk r work u hltory. |o cdd@ o(
frcldwork, howcvcr rrlttar into ! tcrt, m.arlr r *ork u a.hnognpby. Wo
murt" thacforg bc conccrncd witt thc rcpftt :otrtion of 0cldtort h tutr,
but it i! vrlid to cxcludc whrt rcturlly happors io t.hc 0cld froo oaddcr
ffi+:r*'*:,'*ffi it:,tfi ili,,t'ffi,*$i rtion herc- Funbtr, for.rimplicity, we do Dot coolldcr tbc vary htlrtdlt
rclationrhip bctrrer tlc productim of r publirbd crhnoSnphic trxt Ed
lt! intcreodirt! vrittrq vcfriont in thc form of 6dd not6, dtrcrtrtlG, c
rrticl6,
fi il11li',.trf.#I:rllJlflifd,#;i,T;lr:t'fi l,ff,{# In tho ploncor ttltc of cthnognphlc rselirrn, thc vort of ahmSnphy
wu corroolvod to qncomfr.l! rovcrrl proJtrto.l volumct (rr rltb M.r.Uoo?.
\rork i. ctttnoSra|hcrr who corrch
Pcnonnt u,,,1 u,i".""'."' lhclr !ll, Irlnh, rnd Bvmr.Prllchryd)*r coneptlon of forrnli rblcb crrrLd
'torc
crhno;rrph;;; w!vr' ln rhtr crncracnr
'rurrron, ; ;;;:;:l-:r'ucrurcd ovcr from tho orllor pr.oo.ldrork oonlcrt of crhnolnphy, ln @otrr.ir t[.
lll,:'.,.d,: -;.;: ;;;,";;:;:';r#:"j'H, ;*iJ:i#TT; contcmponry flsblon, domimtod by morc pn:blem-focurcd n:cerc\ lr tbo
;'::'.;;hli#:,TJi,:f ,ll.,:ffi ilrli j:mu;i.,r*x{
T,", ringlc volumc ticd to r pcriod of 0cldwork lrd corlbinint rdcrrl co'dplcr
dccriptivc rnd intcrpraivc tarks. The Elltircrt cthnognglrlc proirr
might, dc frcto, bc orking r comcbrck (c.5. 29, 30, 78, 79), but tbc ptrrpo
 2fi ' MAR(\rs & (tlsl r,!AN
[TlrNooRAPHlsS A,9 TE)(n 29
rivc trcrc rr lrnlttcrj to thc rllrtlc
rwo l.ri.ds of 6cldwork. 6 ' '-'utnc lccount 'ymmctricll lvith onc or
volr
Thc rqmrlndor ofrhlr prpot wlll rddror croh oftho loltorlaj tolcl tbr
. .
hlrtoric dcvclopmcot of cthtrognphlc rcdirm a.r r rct of gcnre lmtUo-
rhi! topic ir thrt of thc prrcricing rnd of thc rcacdon to lt ln tte contmponry trcod of cthnognpblc lritlag
'l]|Tffi;rfi:"i;',:ilJ'.:T""g
ffi :i :ilH?jJ, j* tbc chdlcntc io rcdili cooycrdotr! &rough tho k"y rcbtod i!l; h qrrrtlt
of lifc T:,:,jy.-il
i 3;H, -;;i;;;i';;::"';:5'Y
Thc pcrspcctivc -- '-'s {tw'rqiaE looul othcr lbrm! cxpcrimcnts cooccraing hor tuthority ir .rtabBrhcd la abmgrrphlcr, hotl
or tlc i"i,-' "T"::ffi:lF"H;
rhc sociar ; lislo-Fln-sr anr hroPorogv' or or
rn-c-thnograPhic writinr' niiilit
thc pliulibility rnd luthcodcity of tlcir int rprrtltior ra .cUj.vc4 rol
bo* thay arc varlably rccdvcd by difrring rcadcrehipc; lourca b litrnry
o".rt"p .on.io.rilt, ;,,i-ii;i ;i'iltt'tcd
o[thc
or to'ic woutd
I hc ropic worrt.t ]e.riF^.--, .".;;";i;;;
bc diffcrcnr. ,\hc_practitjoncr, ';;;' Xffiffi#:
but tJrcir prccisi iandling criticism thrt niSht inform a pcrrpcctivc on ethnogrephic tcrg tho rclr.
tionship bctwetrr thc currtnt tnod ia ahnographlc vritil6; tho ddag d
crit tcal pcrsfrcct ivc on cthnosraohir
.*r oi th
writins 8t
j ;il;tt;."r"iii:t;c moment in the dc;cloP 0cldworl and changlag thcoreticel llicrr3ts i! cultud;d rodd -rn
mmunity of-rhis
antbropologists wlo (, thropolop; r considcrrtio of erpcrioats i! ctbnognphic yrttbg 6ddo
thcmsclvcs as cthnographcrs. vie'w
Fourth, rnd l$t" rmonS thc currenl thc prrdonlunt trta( rnd 6nd.ly, r concluding rr*rrncot of thc hp6!
crpcrimarfr it is important, rjthough
not ncc*slrily easy, ro distinguish tancc of thc crpcrinatd nallrt cthnognphy rod of tbc utillty of I €ritlcd
rwo iubtrcndr,
!ltcmpt to changc gcnrc convcartionr,
u*i-irpJ..i"r"an pcrrpcctivc on cthnognphic rriting h anthropolog5r.
:"tt]:lfiT
I hcorctrcal oricnrations
towsrd oroblcms of mcaning,
in line wirh r shift in
thc fundamcnral ahnographic goah f"i ,ii", Ethnogmphlc Realbm
ycl, lcwcr but morc crtrcme cthno
of "f "#E"g
.d.,cripti;lij'r".rr""iiiilii
e, Ethnographic rcalilm-to borrow from thc litcrrry concepdor of ulac
expcrimcar15 changc
gcnrc con' tccttth ccntury Sction (3, 97|-is e modc of writ'rng t$at cctr !o npoc!.at
"-rion, *iit''r'l*i" ;i[il';:8-':::]c
or .rr,nos,"f hi" i.i6' ;ffi;$ :f ;ily"lt"i:ffii"A?ffi: thc rcality of a whole vorld or form of lifc. tu St&D seF of r d6tpdr!
Jrmcson hf,e said (J5, p.106), ..Gcr divcrsiou i.o r Dick€$ novcl (97, p.2), 'Thc fullcrt purpcc of tbc diwrdc
or. rocirr conrracrs bcr;;; a to rdd ud rupdrdd lo thtt r.o!e of $runncc rsd ebund$co ud rceltty
ts to spccify ";;:;:'; ffi;'#,liffii#,l:""ti::
wlr('s' runcr.
thc propr u:c of a culturrt ar,;r".1 --'iji^"jl , that tp.rk to ur froo sv.ry prgc end cvcry cpbodc of tbo oovcl
i" pr^"1"i ir'.ir.,i""',f,n"*,oillt"' ""rract " Thc former cthnorranhics, 1 Si"tfr"lifi -tffrt "ttr"Sr;;hlt;" *rittco ro rlludc ro r rtrolc Uy -r.,,. I 4a.
olrrBrc accordrnS ro rhc conccnr Sorls ofa discipiin;, ltitl I of psrt! or foci of rnalytlcal ittcntioa which ooorrlntly cvokc I rcial eld II
r n h ci r a p pa rc n r'd
;,;;;,;; ;; ;'i,:Tf '
"'i:]:::"1"-il' I cultunl totdity, Cl6c r$cotlori to daaii and rodundrnt dcooubrdo
Hi,:""T +:kl l":il rHl,";
r

il
i

thc notion of 8cnrc, rhc tou., .rhnnn,^J;j,a=t^ thit tbc wdtcf sband rnd qrpcrienccd t-bis world are furthtr up.str o(
tt,'"_','",.,.','"t-. &albt writing. In f&t, wht givcs tho cthnognpber rutborlty Eud tlc trrt
rrprorc irs ow; rarhc;;il;l*;;i;",8; ;jjf.,H r:xl:il,1#Tf #?f,j r Frvasive rc a of concrcf! rdlity ir the vritcr'r clrlm to rcpEcst r rodd
of crpcrimcnlarion it cmcrgcnr ind tlaiboth
.i *iir"irili#-- u only onc who brr bowu ll furt-h!trd cur, whlcb t$us forga ra bttnrtt
mon characlcrisrics, notcd aboyc, mar<c
somc cascr. Noncthcless, our primary attcntion
"_0" oistnffiiln;;#;#;fi
," link bctwc@ etlnographlc vrtting and 0cldworL l3thnognphic <taoiptio
the majority ofcrpcrimcnts which arc
ir til;d;;; ;;; , ir by no mer.os thc straighdorwel( unproblaratic tr.rk it ir thought to ta
acl,-rcatraincd by gqnrc and in tbc rocial rcicnccg but r complcr ctreci, lchicrcd tho'uSb yridry rnd
ary considcrntions, but which disciolin.
rxrsc consirtcrnbtc di0iJ"",,,, f"lr.,f,rl,S," dependent upon tbo rtrrtcgic cboio rnd conrtructioo of rvdlrblc dall (
girtr in cllrrilyirr4 ttrt cnttctllv c!
'nrc prorcniotlon of lnlorprotrtloo rnd rnrlyrlr lr lrrrprnbly bornd up
i,",,"rrr,i"*,,,r'.",",,;i;"r;";;.i ,;::1ll"l',' ctInosralhlc workr, rrrnv r4
cririqucs by Mangarc (70) [c g compnrcthc wlth thc rystcmatlc and vlvld rcprc*ntrtlon of r vortd thrt &arna totd rld
a cr:11'-:-,ll')r,t]:]r:frcrl rcll to thc rcadcr.
by cccnzino .;t";;;;,;;;
"".j ;""ilJn::S?
:f ,',[,.#;,nnor*ont Thc crncrgcncc of thc rcrlirt ethnognphy u tlc rpprovod lqtro tlrhl'r
,An rnrtoty rrthin Enthropology clcarly depcr,dcd upon the fuslon to two hbtodcrl dcrclog.
rc{cntfiction to thc di3rinction of tublr.idt
l'owlc<'Thc fnnch Lieutcnont.t tfoho,, r, I htvc rndc hcrc jr John mcntr-thc dtlblilhmcnt of antbropology u an academic diriplir rod
rrrdrrron or riicr.ry rcrrirm. rnd crPcrimcnt rcll within th.
R.bfi-'|l:t",tl'-tr'rtil,'
t"tt't t r'o Jololtl. u rn ccurllv uruud. thc elabontion of profcuional ficldwort ar thc crscotld prroquiritc{c
.rcrrrvc crrcnmmr rh, r.tr.onr.iourty^r.i" 116 rcrlitt chll&tcritlk* cthnographic rccountr Lntrrafi[gly cnoug], tlecc t?o dqvclopo.o! b+
. r dr,nml(.r ^rr.,t opoclrtiy in iu tto',po
curcd in oppocitc ordcr vith.in tbc Amcrican tnd Britirh trrdidoor. b

)
 ETHNOORrA'PHIES AS T \ 3I
An.*-. r. (lccrdca of hclrl rvork rr nericncc
u ndcr thc ttimulLrs of tlc
cln Ilurc!ti of F,thnol,,gy prctc,tcrl rhc Il)lX.)intnlcnt Amcri. world--whlch, r! ro notod crrlior, b thc rnort brllc churrctcrtrtlc o(
of l]orrx to Colurnbla rulld
Unrrcniry, whcrcnr rn Iingt'rrrt, :rrrrhn,ixrt.*, wdting.
lishcd in rhc univcrsirics l>ciorc Malr n.rwskr.r'.f
*". ;ir;;,;; lj,,,ir,*,"n
n.i;;;ri; L n rtructun o/,otol athnogmphy
mcrhod lirsctf crpresscrt rvirhin {n
crhnoSr!phy ^U"ra,i;"'"i
fOOl ,"0'ilili"ti"_ fl a"
fhe narm
rhc $rt.rn8 orcrhnosrBn'y !s rh. prop", rrrntlvo ttructurr of thc tridttlorul dlrnognphy davd@
Thc lyplcsl
p, oflrs'ionar'i", i"i, y
ual rnr'ro;.logisr. l lr*c dc6rrcJ condirionr ,nr".ii*' out of a rimplbtlc dq:adcncc on clthtr culturd or functloodltV.trrrturd.
,.*r.i "iii,ii"ooi"io-
*'ii.r,
drrmstically brolc with thc imrncdiarc Bririrf, "f ilt udyticrl lrrugrry, bol! of rhich ofcrtd rn cuy, rnd rtriHnfJy coogo-
donc cirhcr by crpcdilion! or by obccrvcrr
prst in *t,i"fi ncf;;';_
'o"n'i" ent, Enswcr to tbc prcblern of reprcsrndng pfft-wbola rdrdonrblpa Tb,il
*fio on_
!nthropologicd r.xts, barcd on tircir obsc."tio*,-ilpffir,";
iJ ,r,. aim of the anthropologiol vrits bdrg "total alnography" (thc coplac I
and twctdlcdum historiqil dcvejopmcnr,
"" fi;t." dcscription of rnothd cultuc or rccicty), thc obviour roludm to lb€ Frb- | q e
cal oricnt tjon! (cultural vs soctal "na
acspitc U,ii a#;;;;;;"rt- lem of tcxtud organizdon rrr to tnycrrc, ln :cqucntirl farbloo. thc ulltt '
$tructurrl), the Amcrican and Britirh
(cultural complcxa or roclal inrtitutionr) into which culturc or ,oddo.
|
::l::9j"-lll: ].0'r_r iions,:onvcrscd
rcalrsm rla
uv **rio,ting'J; *o
grnrc for anrhropology, rs rlr. ,,fii"*ry
ffi ; ",!"* were conccived, on thcorctical grourd4 to be dividcd. Thc r6ult Trt tb€
I

9rlpnrc
s.rvtag po.silivist scicntific 80!lt. irriit"f,-- minimally orthodox trblc of coDt nt! Gcognpby, Linrhlp, moolc* poli-
|
|
Onc rcsult of such conrclidrtior iic+ rnO-iiligiori)-rn<fffi?;tun crcation of thc HRAF Frlcr Such r
phcn camc to cxpcct il;::";;; ;*:"?**;mif illHl};
gs. Ncvcrthclcs, nci thcr i n Bri t ish"sociJ
w rit in
rormltivs urrrtivc rtmcturc hls prsvailcd h rDthropolo8y frm tlc &yr
of thc rcconstructioar of Amcric& Indirn cultunr, 6mug! thc grrndioc
rcalisr crhnography was morc thoroughf y
an;;;il;;:;;h" ctbnoSnphic projcct of Malinowrki and Firtb rhcre cbrptcn bccroc
Oiropfi"J
infucntirl profcssional tabon as insriiuttn u;rlJlr, Ari" i""ii"ii_*Ut volu-nrcq through tho "oommunity rtudy" of thc Late forticr rnd iftl4 to
rural snrhropology, whcrc rhc styt. of erhnogrufhic ""r1"
er."""""jrr. thc increarlngly oommm "pon" cthnognphy (thc rclt$on of tbe tflld{o.
mgrl ditr1sc and cxpcnmcnLst, *i, *y *pli.i
;;il;';;:;;;.d for cramplq whcrc lt b lslumcd thrt bttf rtudl6 rdll 0ll out tbc oibcr
:T::1",
natron sccorded ro th6. convcnrions. Conscqircnily,
l"iiiJ'._L_ "missing" pcru of the tolrl cthnognphy). At Icrrt tno dterDttivc nerntivo
il.y *.i" i_ ttructurd hryc bocs dcolopcd in thc morr rcccnt crp.rimcat! wt$ crho-
frcriod narrowly rnd, for thc most pan, uninrcic"ringiy O"i,.f"n"O. "Lg
f*i"r_
morc, ruch poor !rlicuLrtion of srnrrrlar.ts
dir*uy;li*J ;l;jrri"zs.,, (rnphlc wrlttng. Oho b to convcri thc tcmponl uturc of tho 0cld*qt
rvay in whrch crirrcal judSmcnrs
rr,. ;i;;;"";il;,"- I crpcricncc lnto r rFtlrl frrmcf,ork for thc tcrt (12, l,a). Tbo othcr b to
"t*,"t
(c.8 rn cnliqrcs uf docrorrl"a"q;'u"y I poac a cultunl problco or prndor ln tlc 0nt chrptcr m4 thtour! r
ll:: :_."1.-i:r--. dirscrtatiorrr nnO cpccl"ally
rn Joutnal rcvtcws): o c simply lra,l t(, lcrluirc ,,fccl,,for
n I numbcr of chaptrrr dcrvotrd to thc eraminrtlon of rclcvut mrtrdrl rrrlvo
tltc convcnlionc
lhrt mrdc for r rolid or wcak tcrr I al r rolutlon ln tho conclurlon,
L
it ir nrccirclf rhca. rcalisr gcrrrc convcntio,ru that nrc
.{s now bclng 2 Thc unlntrutbc prcnna ol thc cthnogruphcr ln rhc ,.tt
kinds ot crpcnmcnrarion and in a lcw
divc_rsc
:lbj..,.d.t:
transccndcd, pcrhrps in thc dircction of a diffcrart
; ;r; ;"g Erpcrimcntrtioofitb point of viqrv h!, long bca ooe of tbo kcy clmtl
piy, we shatt now Etrcmpr ro iacnrify and characiJ
con6,i;" ;;;;. distiiguishiag 0cdond from n@ictlonal nodca of witing, h ddltloa
wc rrrncd by a cmpting to apply rhe shndard
iilr, ,n "fr"^iilfur. catly rnthrcpoloSbts wcfs hitlly ralitivc to the crilt oc. o[r cloc prda
lit€rsry discriminationr of
plol, poinr of vicw, sh5raa,arization, contcnt, ccuor rnd cont oponry plnlld lo tbc profcreiond alnofirpbftbc
and stylc Howcver. rs our
annlysis procccdcd, wc found rhnt thc founh tnvcl accounL: Onc of the pdmrry difcrcacc! bctwoco thc tnYd l€ont
lrr'rlert
nniii*u,"
rIrwl lnlo rnlrllfr, lrrr r rrnr{!(al,la"",t ,,J"il"," | .rrl rfillrl cthrrojrrphy lr thc rnrrltrl rlncnco ln th0 lrltot of thr nlrnt('
r,rrlyllo r,ntcg,rr tcl (uqtrlctrt
irltlt llrc( ( rtcgotlcl, t(yle lIto tlrrcc), n (l hc,rcc I rr r firrt.lnrron pruonoo ln tha torl .rd lhe dorDlntnco lnrtrd of tb
our trfnt ,,i,,i,," au,,"iu.
tiorr ro dclincltc tlrc gcrrrc ol ctllrogrlplric rcllisrn, w. *uuf.f runfon'rnrklr, rh. dDlt ritLr ftndncd lnt lrtlbL lo. phllo.otlxtr e,.f r L<nd (ftl
porn.t rhat rr was through thc conjunction
iri.", it,. ,
of tf,o" con".ntio", l oauln ptoplo nrb E $. D..Jorla tb.t! r ordltlco tlbrd
r.lld rbo for cthnotnpb<rr of
panrcutar works that traditional crhnography "i,ii"
rrunagcd ro Droicct that I rccountr hl hrd r copdllq rod xlrorlodsid btFcl oa Fofr'd. i tndof [d dr'r
distinctivc illusion of holism-rhat I ahnolnphy (2r) rh{.b Ft b.,au$ to r.d cLrllt b tn ttc tidldoo oa T. E Lrrro'
lr-ti"g";-*"*'"ii"i"f"
"o,,o" "r I Cbrrl(| Doudt'. tJd wlltd Tbrjrsl.
 12, MAlcUs & (.[Js NlAN
ITllNOORAPll|I]s AS TBrff3 $
sctcntific (inviriblc or orr riscicnt)
nr
towrld I frr rlcbc( rnd morc p.nlculrrlttlc tyt[. of chnctaflztl,m-ao

l*$:,Mii;*#ffi
much ro ln rcmc workt thr! thc traditjonal boundery bct?cd frctud rnd

lfi !'*l :'lt'*

of rhc omniscicnr aurhor heighrcns
,fr. ,",,* *icn',i-n"';1c"liiii;;r"-
0ctionrl modct of rrlting hrs bccn scvcrcly rtruincd (151 26, 103$

4. Ilc marklng offcld*ork cxpcricrct

"i thc rclationship bctwccn
.tcclcd by thc tcrt, $uch u.ragc also hetps to srvcr
what rhe crhnographer knowr and From thc vcry bcginnlngs of thc rcalirt etlrnography, rooc dlrct bdlcr.,
wcrc indc<i somc slnking cxccflrions
how hc *;. i;k;;;i:"*rhfi,;:r" tion of 0cldworL conditions rnd c.xpcricnccs rvar or:cid 1o ts66tirhht tbc
among piorrctr
,.*firr .rf,nograpiio
to,thc stcrilc abscnce of thc narrator troft ovcrall authority of anthropologicd tcxt! u r rort of covcdng lcdduucy
thc tcrt, cven thcsc exccptions
rclcSarcd^ the author ro prcfec6, loornore, '"p""01J.,'ni"*""" undcr whicb tpa.l0c ugu-ocntr and claimr ofqvidencc could bc
-;dc. Thlt
NoKn (8't lonA rcmaincd virrunllv "*oddity among rcalist rc' mcul givcn thc caormous pretcruions of ihc rtiaupt to t/ritr -fotrt df-
f,s. rn
crrunrs in its ctnlicit conccrn *,rh-i, s"lnn: nography" and glvcl tlo ncccarrrily limlttd tlmc rpcnt ln tho Ectq thrt th!
tcrluality ln rclation to its snslyticlt
goals. cthnognphcr had, lronlcally, to admit hlr falllb[lry tD ordcr !o crttblhl tbo
overall crcdibility of hJr rpccific claimr. Tbc hig y rt r€o,ttp€d ohtha
itsclf a cofunction of ttc tftatmat of point of vicr di$urrcd ebovc, ro
J Common d.nontinotor DeoDlp to rclcgrtc inlormrtlon about thc acturl 0cldworl undcrtalco to prfiocrt
Bccausc
of thc o,rcr*hcimr,,s cn, footnota, and appcndic,cr, with an occarlonat foray Into an lntrodrrfo,ry
r', n .
"l
rndivrdual
i". ..',.;; ;; ; illf ;l',;;lf lJri?$::flTI::I
was usually supprcsscd rn profcssional 'cth ;,Tft
chaptcr. Furtber rcinforccmcrrt wu providcd by tbc dirtribudoa throu6h-
out r typic.al study, of m!F, drswirS! End photogrlpt!!, tbc poam of
n"grroi;t;';;", I" which as r)nnbolic malcn of heving rcally bctn tbcre" ru rt l6t l'
s composire crcarion, the normati"c rote miodcl
Itj],T:-lL::"lirurcd
or nrrronat charactcr. Early clccprions did importut u the inforoatiol tbey wcrc intadcd to oonvey. b crrcocc, thr
concrrvcd gcnre, rh?t of rhc ..an rh ropotogic"t
cxist, but onty * standard that dwelopcd from thc pionccring Erodclr wlr to mlrk tto oodl-
Uiography,; fi, ioi"-r.p"oiay
O,ir", tions of Scld*orl. but only rr r margind rnd rrbtlvdy uninEgnt d rrpccl
umc parador arisc; as in thc casc of poinr of
vici: ad j'scon;ir;i;;*"".
of thc full ErL It rl', thi! vidud rilocc thrt trvc rfuc !o tho [cldnorl
l_1L*,:li,o:ra
and rc-ulring.cthnogript ic gencralizario".
rndrvrdual characrcrs from rhc rcatrsl crhnognphy
fi. .riil." accounl which nrlvdy anticiprtod and parrly inltiatod thc curnot Uad of
than any othcr singlc fscror, for rh.c. ary, -unicadabl.
probaUly ;;;;;;;r" "r expcrimartation ia vriting whcre ftcrt bu bc.o r gancnl rftrt !o crpldt
somcrhing for which rhc cssenrieltv illustrsrivc ,,S
,";;;;;;;';";", thc frcldworl crpcrloc. in tho etbnognphic rndyrir itrclf,
slty an ancmpr ro sncak characrcriz",i." i" ul
if ,f," *r"'ri"j, f*,"-
iffifr"ri:";.,qld:",,
narlly comrEnsarc. Morcovcr. ir is worrh n;tin8 thc ,r'ii ri""i-i""iro 5. fic lxts on cnrydoy lllc sltuotlons
characrcriustion thlt lrkcs placc !s onc turns Thc prcscntrtlon of dcrrils through tlc analysis of rprtldly ud trmpo-
from fhe cth";;;;; *-ritt_
for fcltow profcssionals lo rhc cthnograpf,y rrlly boundcd siturtionr or evantr hrs corutlt$tcd ! comoron forrs o(rf?f+
acsigncd forconsiriiilJ, ,f,.
gcncral pr.rblic. In recent works rhcrc har lcntiog rcal lifc ln nalirt cthnognphio. Not only do.! twh rldFb
birr in"..*in'g i"na,_ry indirectly tcnd to vrlldrtc tlc rcnsc of rn cthnographcr'r indnry rlth hb
"n
K.( in .('dirion ro Mrtrnowitii rrrllttu.r lubjcct!, but it dto provider pqrhrp. the prfcct ryothair of latrrprrdvc
r ntca^h.,,*r rn,,, r,,ri,"n ,;;; ;;;ll'l:ll:,:,flTil:j5.:.:1il[1,,Iff,l,j:fil:? rtrtl rcrllll gorlrr tho <rnccptr of rnrlyrlr ovcrhp, rnrl rrr oflon ldcntlcd,
ltr,rm(" .tuJ I'ritu,r', (.,r, v,,t t. I,l, .1.) *.,1 ,, ,.,y
n,,,i.t, f^ ,," .,,,,.-a,,.lir",ri, wlth tho bulo tcnrr ln vhlch ! tlturllon crn bc dcrcrlbcrt. ln functloodbt
krr.'.n(rk,,.n(,ktr..,tr(rv,r,r,ur ,r.v.nr,, ! D!,r.r,r. lh rh.r lr c,rrl(rud. _l ,,. i.lli*",r,
bur rh...ntrr. rci.rrch t.r,rc.t tln)orh wlrr rU.,.., "f cllrooSrlphy, lblr convcntlon rchicvd ltr tnort $phlrtlcrlcd dsaclo?rn€ l
for crrmptc. Svrn.prirchrrd.r bntt. bur rrnhtrln!
l,*ff .,'"""rr'i;;;;;i: ;;; ln thc cthnognphy prutucod by thc Mrnchcrtcr "rchqol," rnd mort prrtio.
rnrrodu.tl., n n, X,i tV.
rnd rhc rry1qr krr.rcnc. i,.,tttc o( om.t.,. *,it-*t,
"i i"iir^.", )ti)"iil,,ittl,
"".'i_tS1 ularly ln thc work of Vlaor Turncr (lO1). T5G tochnlquo ol cuc rndydr
rtyprcel btgurt of ll
unuru.t inrc c.rutt trolc(t. Tlcrr rcrc oth€r
)cr. wu clrbontcd by Mrnchcltsr !.nthropologiltr both to orlanlz cthnc
frrv,nrl rc.ounrr ?ithio functionr'irt conll rr "irr" "il"i
udthud"' Dhtnhrand r:,'pcrt.trc. gnphic tcrts and to glide thc collectjon of ffcld mrtqdal. Undcr tho ltront
{6r), h'r rhc, *(r. cr(rrry our,idr ,u. ..,":;::;:"n " in0ucncc of Mu Oluclrnan'r lcgrl pnpcctivc, thc car. mcthod tppcdod
 lllAxL U5 & CUSI IMAN ,i,1. ,,, r,i t t ''srHxooR
PHtEs r xn 3J
trii ltrnrl of nutllority, nlt.,nntiv. to (ltc
,/ .t,' ,( ,l'
whrr.h rcnrnincrj well rvrthirr lcgitrrnlte Jx),ritivirt cnrl)1t (,f rcicrrco, 5ut rcntirrg rcrrllttlcrlly rn,.l norrllctlonrlly thc .ubjcctlyity of rn otbcr ur tboo
nl.xlca of!upf$rtrng in which rrc cr-pcrimarilnf at thc bortlcn iribryoridih;]roodcn-oflllc---iilLt
Wcrtcm ac;rdcmra. ()nly lcgnt rcawrning "r*urnlno
had - .u";'n,..i;;;
hfic mcrhod. Thus. rhc cnii-nrcriro<j icprcscnrcd ":;;:;""- 8cnrc,
during rhc functionrliir pcriod to thc probltrn oii,*i sofiiion
tf," _o:,
ot lcgirima,f"i ifr. p'r"a'*_ 7. Thc tt lhllc atmplallon o/ Frtlnlot dsta
rion.of lnowrcdgc wirh rcfcrcncc ro
8cncrsr modcblf cviacn'cc *tiri ,riu Tating "told cthmgnpby" rs their g6l, rutbon ol nrtbt ahogr.
cmptoying a scmitircrary mcdium. i,torc
;E;.;;;;*;;rr.d , phics anly devcJopcd e dlrdnctivc stylc of writing rhicb hrs lo4 ond.
r':il:r#*'.t;'trT;Tfi,il,:Tfi :trf,
zrrionr-for thc arudy of fac4-ro_r".i, i"i"_iilHi,ff :."#.9;.1*.
tutcd onc of thc domioat cbnctcristic6 of tbc aurre. Dopitc tbc 6ct thrl
thc frcldwork on whlch rny rtudy wu ba"lcd wal neccllrrily rcrmcly r+
arny of tinguistiq phcnomqnotocicat, symb"U; il';:;,f: #0" strlctcd, bolh rFtiilly urd tcBporrly, thc rtyle of rrportlt! rrr drryr
indiyidual pcrsp.ctiv6, ruch u-that oi e.*ing
l";;;tr;_ilrioio,
** -*' purhcd firrrly to*rrd gcocralization nthcr tban ruaintaircd at thc lcrd ol
C.frn_.'* a mcrc detdling of tlc particular frctr rocumulitod througb E!..rct" Tbc
6. Represcntotion of th. hdtiv? pcrticullf! of whlt ,vcr rrs bcing invatigrt d (ritud!, Elrrlags pnadaa,
Fint ol view
is gcncratiy sc. f<ontdcnt lnd aurhorirarivc
forms of polidcd orgu.ization, ac) @u.
--I.-:1i:.'-:*""nt
and crnarn ol a rcadcrship thal wants s culturally,t in ronc, sjitlllClllllg rcrql.rlcdfnto a statqgqLofiyprcdig (r typicd rlturt
anothcr way of lrfc (41), bur rhc rcalisr af,nognphi;
ur"a tr"nrtaiioi of a typicd marii.rgc practicc, r typidlfrlhgc council, qtc). Wh.rt i! dt[i!.r!t
a.lmrxi dogmarically dcdicatcd to prcs.nting
acc;unt il;;; n berc ir tbat thir cfcct wu rchlcvcd throuS! r rtylc of ?rlting rbhb. tbo
mittrirl as if it wcrc, or-fJh- couplcd with thc otba cbrnctcrirtics of thc gcnre, ros E€d rucctdblly
rurry rcprcacnled, lhc poinl of view of its cultur8l
own culrurc of rcfcrcncc. Thc aim of rcor6cntint
,ubjcc13 rsthcr thsn it3 to divorcc both thc qpcricnc. of ficldwork erd thc inforoltio ro dctlvod
glrfl
th.;;i;r;i;;;;i;l_ from whrt wu conveycd to thc r€adcr. Por beltcr or for wone llb dttdd.
F+l+c.rutroi1,r"*.nlrr,.il.n;i6iia'--;.,it"r-r-=nffi
probtcmrric of whrch has on! iecl;DEnau-bjccl nuity h!! mcrnt thrt it ir lmposilbc to work bncl from 6nrl lccoutrt t(
*niirli."i;h.o-
rctJcat dr\culsron Thc.followrng arc succcscive
," original Bcldwort etrtsrprisc in anything like thc way r cbcmin cea rorl
phascs in ihc dcvcloomcnt brck through rn crpcrimcnt rcportcd by rnother chcmirt. Thc rual Q.lt
or rnrs doctnnc: tn carly rc6l,(t cthno6raphy
thc doctrinc took the form of of cxpcrimcnlition h$ tricd to bridge thlr glp dscntirlly by ulla3 dorr
simplc uncxamincd ils-scrrions lhat a
tiv;n ;ccount O*, oroa", lhc stylc of writing to tlc prccntltion of lhc prtticuhr cvidarcc obtdncd
thc nativc pcrs;rcctivc (as in Malino-wski.. "r-Jo"fO
i" ,fr.t J"f from thc 6cld, accompanicd by a sclf-conscioru working <nrt of glacnlhr'
to ..ri tr,.rn J^i;; i"ii"r,
nalivc srarcmcnrs wirh rranslations in ordcr "n""g,"pf,i*1,
lions.
un(lcr thc cthnogrrthcr'\ closc crlirrng (ns rn
I?irth,r a,f,",ig;hi""; io
l.n3 ptrirrt rrf n prtrlnrc(l lrrrt rrrrcrrrmincd notion
thnt ,il i"'""iil""iirt'" 8. Embcllkhncnt by furgon
lccounl cmlxxlic\l within it:rclf or wir\ al lcast
vicw; to a shift roward a disrinctly mcnralirr vicw
truc to thc natiuc noini of Anothcr importrnt clcmcnt of stylc ln thc rcalist cthnognphy rrr th
of s*ii ii_",,i"'_O dcvclopmcnt rnd urc ofjarSon word!, thc vcry prcscncc ofrbicb hu bcr
narivc vicwpoints duc to rhc influencc of l-{vi-stnuss;
t" tf'r" ,vrrcrnui,"lut oltc ofthc clcrrclt tgriric dcmonstmtion! thrt ! givell tcrt r$ rn dbrofrr'
naivc projccr of crhnoscmanrics; to rhc 1816r pf,"*
mrtion frrming inrcrprctarionr in erl,nogrrphic
Jioiii""i"ii""l'i"jU- phy. Indccd, thdr rbae.ncc fro'm a n ork hat bcqn onc of tlc cr*atld dgl
**"1,. iyl'rnJlr"iir"
on lrrttrlrlion arrrl frrohlrnrt oI rrrrrrnir,t 'flrc lnltcr, f,*.,rq'i,,1
thlt lt wl! lntrndcd for a populrr, ratbcr thrn an rcrdanlq rtrdcrrllp Tbl
n a",,aor,i I" inclurlon of Jrgon har rlro rcrvotl both u l rymbollc rtrtcrncnt of th
rlrArty (lrrrcrrl .rl'.,rrerli. lil6lly t,,rlrolli
llrg lr.o1x rrl lllc tlt0lllCtl o[ lrrl h r opologlcrl (X)llll)!(oor)o of llro tulltor rttd ll r tolnfoto{n'lt of th(
lryrrrg lo n(hr(vc wlrht thtl (.o!tv.lltr(),r c tnllr| yct
ii i.l fi,c uu. gcncnllrlng rtylo rlhcuucd rbovc. Ncvorllrclcru, .thnoflPhcn hrrr d'
rcrrtlvcd ttltus of this isrrrc thitl h;ls 1li(lc it so productivcl,r.cir"ty
in g.,,a.niini o wayr had to bc rcmcwhrt rcltnlnd ln thc usc ofjrrgon or clr rul tbc rbl
vi.cty of analyscs, oncc it war opc.c,l to crnmination ," ,1,r.;;;;;o;g
of crcatlng too gcncrallzat r rcprctcntltlon of I Fniculer culturd rE llt
Anthrolxrlogirt! or1 thcir ow,r wrilirrg
Prncticc. Ar will l'c sccn, thr'sc con_
lcrttlx)trry ncc()urt1 wlrich rtrrcstiorr rrro.,t srrongly thc
r potcfltirl parador rvoldod by r judicial b'rhnclng of Jrryon wlth nrtlvr
;rusrrbility of r.cprc- corrccptr. Tfic morc rcccnt cxpcrinrcntrJ ahnognphlcr tcnd to rvo{d tbil
 Jb MAI(ClrS,tCtiSltNtAN
I]TIINOOR]A.PIIIES A3 TAXTT 37

p!rndo\ lrntl'ly by Jc rloling JsrB()rr rr,t hy conccltt!tinB ,)n (ltc crnliclt-

Iton ot nrtrvc conccT,rs.
tcrl rnd not lo r myth of t$c omnhciqnt 0ddworlct whlcb lt prwloorlt
r stratcgy which oft. givc! ruch writing ! rupcrfi- cvokcd.
cr{lly cvcn morc rcalistic tonc.
Gcncrally chrdfln! ahoognpby rs r dcacripdvc rrr rhlch [t trl-
9. .xe&etit o/ notiv. conc.prc onc! dbcout c vardly into pndomlnrntly pocitivirt mcthodolotlcc thc rcdrl El@
^Cont.xtuol
Sincc *orking in-thc nltivc lnnguagc i:r a foundation
of6cldwork a-r wcll forcclqod thc klnd of srlthal dircoune qo cthro6raphlc prrcttoc lu tlx
as a prcfcrrcd banc for disc'rsing r hc
nat iu. p"int
"ie*,
J;;".;:;;;;..
ot form of thc abovc coqvcntionr that srlght brvc hrd subwfllvc tmpucedco
"n"osr!phcr.s lo achicve in a rcalist ""i J il. l.r, ,",
linBUistic comp€tcn* l, for thcir orrn mcthoda In thc samc wry tlat privileging litrntun rs rD rr!
:0,:Tl::f,ln.
motl sansrltvq rcprcs.nl!lions
text. tn criticai'rcac- mystifying lt $ tn lcdvity. curs of lnquiry into itr pncticc (tl6), F
to.rn er hno8rrPhic projoct, ir is one of rhe most
lign ralicni cliJ" L, *il"r, conc€iving cthnogrephy rs r'l rrt corrlproEird by both rcspocdn! i! od
rr rs Judgcd. Ycr ir is rrrc hc onc aspcct
of ficld crpcri-"
r
*r,ii-ir,".. holding it ai ! dirtrncg rway from m.ainrtrcam rocial rtrcarcb- For r hot
ri thc
molr jilcncc
Ecncrally in terrr_rhi3 is somcthlng "uoui
into" an sc{ount To admit incomprctcnce or thc
tf,"i."riil',:.*a timc, anthropologlab *tfr tbemrclv6 clug.ht bctwed soqbl ];l@ D.n.
cxtcnsivc usc ofintcrDrct- bcnbip rnd thc urc of mahodr without a frrrnsrvorL for rroriag thco
ers rs to srnously undcrminc thc authority
of the writqr 1of at lcasi thc criticdly. Tbe roulthg rmbivelcnt ri.leoc€ rbost tlo very rt!.erc.h r.dvltt
J classic rcalist account). But ir is nor ncccsssrity
, matbr ;f irnposcO jis. which gavc thc dlrlplinc r corc idcntity wlr brokc! fult by r confcrdood
honcsry-mosr .thnograDhers do work in ,r',.,uu;."ii
i""g"#5;;, freldwork librrtus rDd thco, m6t iroport$tly, by nsw thcorcticrt oricotr-
ncvcr irchicvc rhc idcnl of pcrfccr conrrot
r iclo Iangirll. 'lil, 'i'i*
of tionr markcdly coocornGd rith mclIdrr rrthcr tlun rstion. Tbao brw
dillicult Io writc with prccision and ,n
8^ncral t..rs bccr dcrivcd from Europ€an rocisl thcory rnd h.rve had r di.rrupdvo tsp.ct
compctcnce. "bou"t "ii:rli"r"ir,i" on "[nt principlcs" acrss thc socid rcicnc€4 crccpt perhlpa for @no6lca
ln thc functionalist cthnography, which w&s built on concaptusl (9, 46. 4E, a9). Thc lnpaa hrs bccn pcrhrFr m t trqochllt L! rtr-
. ab$trac-
tion$ that byFasscd dircc( arrcnrion ro lanSuage,
by with sitcncc abour his control of rhe iuntuagc
rhe cth";gr"r;;";;i;;., thropology, bccaurc ctlnogephy hed litcrally bccn wniting for such r bodt
* _ LiiiLr* ir," of thcory. Chanctcrirtically, nthcr than giving risc to r nse tutonooout
simplc m_arking of ficld crpcricncc, mcnrioncd
ffo*.".r, *itt,"i if," body of thcory in enthropology to ruccccd rtxucturrlirn, wbicb rhilo bo
"Uo"a.
impact of linguistic models and thcorics of meaning
tfrat aepcna ln tfre mendoully rtjmuhtin& phycd out $ ! pEndigm for racarch bccrur it dld
cregcsis of indigcnous conccpls, thc srlcncc about not guidc ethnograpby, tlcrc oricoLationr havc bad rqliacc precf:cly bo
lung-uuga cornpctan"a lrua
to bc brokcn. In rc.cnr workr. clhnographcn are
rtilli.f,i""", ,i U" ir"ii"it clulc thcy could bc tricd out" !o to spca\ in tbc writing of stboSrrphh
lDoui therr conlrol of thc languagc, but thcy must manifcst rndysca from tcldrqrL Tbcir Euifc.tttlm b not ! rprtc of thortdcel
linguistic Lm_
p.tcncc !s sn intcgral part of analysis. lhc contcxtual .r.icsl, oi tr!8tir.s, but tbc prolucration of crp<rincrt! in thc writint of alaographlc
r
conc€pts is major way of structoring crhnographic
i"y
rcccnr tcxls (c.9. 85,90). Conrcxtual cxcgcsis
anrlvsis sc"iiat ii tcxtr.
oinriivc conccpts is to inacr:l In thir trcnd, Cli8ord Gocrtz hal bccn an lnfucntial 08!rc, sot only ra
nrctrvc clhnoSraphy as kinship and social-rr-"trr" to tfri fr".il""fir, I a writcr of cthnogfaphy, but u rn inlroducd of rcurcc of tbcordlc.l
clhnograf'hy. in both ".r"
cascs, cthnographcn could organizc accounfs with. I
stimuli. Th?rc is no Occrtzirn rchool as such, but thc dilcuslion ofhlr rort
our navrng done thc urtrcalrstic imou t of.ficldwork rnd thrt of hi! rtudsrtt form! ong pcrhrp tb. rtront6t, c.!kt b t!.to
ncccssn ry to achicvc I
lhc c,,rrrcrt,rrrir,rr r(tcntty (.nc..lvr,l n,,rtr nr.,n,xlc, dlvonc orrrorlrncnlr. ll,thnorrrphy hir traoomc . w.y of l.lldnl .bool lbo
,,11"* rl', r | i I I , r,, r,ll $t, rr tr, ,t,r.\ L npw
of..,,,..;,;;;;; ;1,;; I
'
I I
' I ' '
,
I I I
lt! 01 *"". I
.ry, ;,lrlknrrylry, rnrt iiih(ciiriil *lrllil,rrlttins r''llrr trr,llllonrl il-Fof
lr
'r,!y
l\'rlr,rr,r t.trt lrrtrr\l( ii,,rrri,l ,\.,rt ,,..i*,V "u,f,,,,,,"i,i"
' '

i,,,.,f,,,,,ui,ii,i,ill lntorproilnx rlllloiorrt wryr of llfo,'1y,

'lhcro rro olhc,, ol(l.t rtylirtlo rno<Job for
,rrrl',rll7. hut rhtltrr Ju\t corrrrrrl ll tltnt l\jut (,f tIc 1n,,i,,n11. ,r,nf currcnl crpcrlmcntr lhrn (rocrit (c.rpcclllly, llnlcron rnd EvrnrPdtoi.
i,riir,,,,t
lu t!1k of Inlcrlrct,rtlo0 I'xrt ol thc job of intcrirctiiri0 ir thcn
to nrd), rnd the mcrc lnnovrtlvc rplrlt of thc currcnt lrc'rd-trylnt to !a lily
pltn"(fi4c(l
a plrlicul:rrly hiflh but \clcctivc leucl ,rf cprrrpctcncc 9f tlrc longulgc, from n gcnrc-mcrnr lhrt writcn rrc rcluclanl to rc<:ognitr cxpllcitly lhelt
thrr)tj[lh rrtc,r\ivc inrluiry ;rrrrl chcckirrg. lcccssary [or rhnrcd clfortr nr conrtltuting rnything Iikc r "rc|ool," Noncthclcsr, Ocrtr
a pnrticrrrar nnllylil,
I hc rrlcal of lrnguirtic conlrol hirs lhus l)ccn brought jnio ir rt lca.rt histodcally lmportlnt to thc trcnd, both bocrust of his mrrlod
linc with a morc
rcrlrtrc baris for cthnographrc au(horily, confincd to thc conccrns of thc indcpcndcncc ofrtylc and bccausc his wori<, comlng rt thc cod of funcd<n'
 I
ETHNOOR PHIES 39
_ JI8('r, scrvcd to t,r\ntrc. rc _,*
^
torlrd r much moro orpllclt 3ulding lntcrtrr In problau of .*.tn. 66
thc.hcrsrcflcutic rcruitlvity thir cntaiLl" Tbc cocrgcot nodc
o( sp,irhl

mtm5t*r**w*r'm
scrcnc6 rhrorSh highty
tircrare
thc humanitics nnd ro.i"t
.]'-liTti?T I,: no wav anincirly
rutloriry ln crlnofrpblcs b meniftlr ln tho prwioilrty norcd
of cxpcrimcotal trrtr whlch ofcr rnd ruppori
^rv-"io
gnphcdr rclf rcdcction rnd catcuhtod tn'rnnd
U-,"b
onry ia t.bo
hermcncutic pmgrem.docr thircharacttdrttc mrfc rcruo
Jtrc
u ttoUy.-f. b,
ull-l
6ut
i..t *
,h"-"hr*

nrro rhc arrel J:;; ' - '-"''ty rrouSht cthnoSrsphics that bavcdomi.
rcccntly. ' ;;;"iiI.i:l'1.h.
pcrred
which tcrturl ruthorlty b lc crcd.
ap Aualo.ary b bc't t$crr.d by ducurdng tlrto oartnrdvo bab
.Ironkd o-
:]ffi :, yJiji::fjT."'[ ::::: ::.r!,"i risc to thc cu''"" t
sy. outlincd
lD colt Dponry ctbogrrpbic writing: cstablirhirl r urfltlrr
pr"rctrc+ .avirioring r tlrhjd orgrqi:rtion, aod proacodiag-rbc
" ri'.t i"o,'*i;1;;T-"^::ll"nr andlriclv thc conv",r- orttotr.
tioo ofdrb- Cotlcctlvdy thc!. tlrk r"vlrc rcdirt convcotioor-by.;u..de
'lon' '
iD8 of thc cpirttoolosicd fc!t! rcquitd of gcldworLcn'ui tblcl

gpg'tffi*lx'*r-*':r*#:*i{*#
wc hrvc choscn to rcctsl
our analr
!b: tcrtult cxprcrdon of thac coovantioru prcrurnod- Tho bcrocaaltlc
tlgucnee h cmtcgporrry crp€rbrcor! i! i! !.jc-E-ffi-El!
tcalisti{rglygqgrtarilq@9xlof tl-crcUiccncoio-tniLbr-GG
lapping issucs, r"rom;'.;;;;i;lT:: tcrmr of thrcc rundamcntr'l,
over- tlgls. Tbe qucstio,n, rddi6:cd bricsi Etow;j!-ifilbr.ixiiif i;i[E :idt_
Dccn modrfcd
*d-:
how thc convcntiont hlvc ing of cxpcrimcntrl cllnographio Doiglt thd.
t'o* rt'c
or sup<rccded ,o
-t.llln:
ncw ronnr or tcrtual authoriry,
nantally tranrforucd and the traditiooel god,-o"-d-.
t" lUC.-
"urh.ni;"iii;;il;r;;rfi::l':h in a lcrt src commu'
of cthornphy ,ith
nicarcd to ,r,.
.*a.r, '"ktp:t"-ti9ru than.
;;H-:l
:cnng rcadcrshipc rcccivc cthnographic
wnrrng. ""i'i"*
l. Estsbllthtng o nanadE ptwna-
,4 u rhority o/ Ethnogrophic Texts In currcnt cthnogrrpbic writing tlrc orrginelJy dcve.lopd of svco r+
pr6scd, intrulion oftbc cthnognphcr and hlr 0cldworl crpcdqoca
chrrto
Thc frrxilivisr may;rsk whv thc tcriltlc of cbrtlc cthirognphic redirm hu bccomc perhrp tlo coro focu,
exr
.ono,.r r,i, .pi.ii#;il,';;:,[l.,;';'n"f,,j:::Tij;il[.Jr1ffi for chbontion and crpcrimentation. Tbir fwus ari:cs from thc rubatutiw
parstonrtcly supportcd resullt
as cr knowrqrse'Thig
ff: thcorcticd rolc thrt rclf.rcdcctiqn hu gaina! through thc ir.0uclcc of p<r-
rr" runa""nrit'
wirh thc rationrl
i';; ;';;'il;:: l: ibj*ti": misa
hcrmcncutic mclhods,
lPccltycs of mcauing aod lnt rpretltloll- Cartful rttcntlon
W ,-i-,
,."oiir"" .iir,iiill'1" '".1oTd- !v lhould-bc givan to tbc vrriou.r rrap i-o which msrlo of cruncirdoo (La thc
u' c.a"''.,iqjl, ii.';;;:;.:1ll:';:', i":LH*:lHlti tuthorial firlt p6!on), febld of npport iu thc 6cld and morc gcoc lly, th€
tn a continuing dialoSue bcrwcrn ili",",ll,H rcprcrc'ltrtloo of [ddwork crp<ricocc arc rrinco into tbc tqt, pfodrd,
; :l';;T:j
i
,_n:,:, 0,,,,,
"
; r; ;; ; ffi
"
f)()\rlrvc stcp of analyrir
;'
that ntrrvcs i,:11
j:
ff :lfr:.,fr T:i;
bcclusc thcy conrtitutc tbc brsic rbsioric of sut-bority wblcb lcgiiih.tcr
whatcver is reld and cldmcd rbout ,,thc oth6."
.r rh,.r',rc and crhrrrrArrrrrrrc *'',,,,]:'T-1t-9, in a diaicttical woy ln tcrms Onct r fnmctork for narative pracncc lr cstrblilbcd b coqjurdoo
au,ho.,y is *"ir,i.j ;;.;' lllf.l'l.li?#; fri,:.jlli
i,i r.ith thc othcf, t.lllr dl&urrcd bclow, thcn thc intrueioo a pcdoort trC.
ccrns Atrltrority rr tltl (r, tl,ll,crl \t i: l"; mony rt vrriour lnintr In r tcrt phyr r very r:ruchJ rnd rubtlc roh r
rr'c rryrer,,r., i.,,,",,.,,,.i, ,,,,;,,';l . "ll.."fr covcrrrrE lrgitirrrntirrrr crrrt ttttpJx.)tt fur r1ul0o
;xJlott rrd .rgulltGtltr rtlrdc ln tlto crrurto of <tcrorlpt]qr.
l'or lttnbncc, lrr Schlrdclln'r 'Ih< Sono* o/ thc lanely and thc Dumlaj ql
;mi j; ; Ili,ilj,llti:li^t,,,li:,i",1:,?;,lit"ii;t;i itjililti; th. Dqnccn (g0)t thc [nt.pcrrcn lncldcnl occllondly tpftcrn lo tho orrn.
.u8.,,':;.;;'.;J;;li,'i:,':lll';,:l:Iff:J:',,,c n,r,,r,rr's Lrrowr- tivc, u!u!lly rt r "cllnchcr" or f,nrl claborrtion of I polnt of lntcfprctrtjon.
Mo\t currcnt cxpc mc ts lrc not.trin$cnding llowsvcr, such intrurions arc much morc thrn thc mrrginrl illustndonr
Itons of cthnography, bur r0rhqr
rcalist gosls or convcn. thcy would hrvc bocr ln functlonellrt tcrtr. Rtrher, S"HdcUnt tcrt b
arc brlngjpg ,f,.,i'r i"i" ili. *,i' ,ii"'rirn writicn and lntroduc&d In ruch r rclf.relctlvc ?ly thlt thc lntrurlm of
40 ti A l{ctJs & cttsltNl^.N
P<nonrl tqttimony undcr 0 covcr o[ hcnncncutic legitinrnrion it thc nrqt
pcnur-riv6 fornr of support for his intcrprctivc argu-mcnt:.
As a problcm of writing, many o[ rlrc aspccb oicrtablishing
a narrativc
prcscnoc rtc rtiolvcd in the wry t hc cthnognpbc,
bcgio, his tcxt. ln currcnt
ctbnognpbics, onc ol thc mo6t effccrivc ;d *--;
*uy, i" *Ui"l'*ff-
rcfcction is inrroduccd ir to plrcc oncsclf ou an hhtoricrl conti"u,r-
rll tho6c pnor outsidcD ?ho hrvc obec-rvcd and livcd among the group *itl
bcing writtan lboul Thir is r perticularly cffcctivc bcginning
*;;;;;
onent thc currant ctlnogtphy in dircct relatioa io tho lacunac
or problcm!
of carlicr cthnognphic (scc 85 rnd I l0 cpccially). Oo" pi"porn;-;;;
lcm or pur:lc for thc work ro solvc thrr is'locatc; not so'mJch withi;
tho
culturc itsclf as in the way thar it haj bccn intcrprct€d in thc pasi
The
suthority of thc currort tcxt is thus prcciscly sct in e hcrmencutic contcxt
and *hat thcn followr i3 nrtunlly opcn to thc rhctorictl tupport
of aJp
tion and claims by pcr:onal tcatimony,
2. Envisioning o tcxtuol organlution
An ahnographic tcrt rcquirc! an ovcrall concaptlon in thc form of romc
kind of organizarional imagcry of its subjccr mstlr e.ithin which it! con.
ccrns will bc con6ncd. Thc suthority of thc cthnographic writcr
lr tbur
ultimrtcly bound to thc kind ofstory hc scts for himsclfio tcll. Thc hbtori.
cal nanntivc may lcnd itr.lf bctrcr to I rtory formr!" but thc cffcct
of
thc cthnogrrphic nlrrsrivc ir no lcss shapds-If,-c kind of orranizational
framc in which it ctptura lnd focusca *rc rcr-drdt lttention o,iacr"riptt"o
dctlil.
Thc functionalist cthnogruphy rclicd on thc cooccpt of socid structutr
(rcad, kinship) as r framcwork within which lcocptrd piSconholc
topi6
such rs rcligion, cconomics, and polrtics, alt ditrcrc{iirtj; iostitutioru
in
complcx socictics, could bc discusscd slstcmaticslly. Idioyncrstic tcxturl
organizations wcrc ofercd by writcn such as Batcson, iumcr, Evaru-
Pritchard, and Monica Wilson and had appcal, but tlcrc was no co
*idcsprcad dcvclopmcnt or sdaptltion of thcm until vcry reccntly. Oncc
tciou!,
rgain. most currcnt crpcrimcnts arc merely cndching, unicr morc cxplic_
illy hcnrcnaulic irrflucnccr, whrl wnr ntlrSinrl or ignorc<l ln trt<Jltlrnrl
rcrlirt clhnopralrhicr 'l'hcrc arc n vnncty of crtablfuhcrl wnyr oforgrnlrlog
rubjc.t nrrtlcr throuSlr n holiltic c,rn..plion of wlrnt nn ctlrnoginphy li
doing: rncditntirrg on an cvcll. rilrrnl, l,rncticc, or co cc|l th,rr ir
irrcscntal
initially ns problcnrrtic (c.8. 62, 90,()2); picking lpnrt n unit (c.g.47,96);
nreving nlong with nn !clivity (c.g 6u); lollowing acton or groupr lhrough
r tcrnl)()rnl Jrrr.-ctr. inclurlirrg ll ccirtrrry, ycnr, or cvcn n rlny l thc lifc of
a villirgc or gr)ul). lhc inrlivirlrrnl litc hiqtory, nnd thc lifc $t^gcr of pcr$on-
I'TIINOORAPIIIES A! TECT!' {I
bood in g.ncnl, dltrrrtntlrtd by r8! urd Fod6 (Gg. Sf). Tfirc rn tldd
organizationd formr whicb rro rubjcct to ooocbinadon rDd cradr: drbo6
don by cootropcrry cihlotnphtc wrtic ln rhir lrnd of co*crbcahz
duq thcfl abo rppcrr unkJu! trdt rhlcb u! dlticBlt to R-bt6 to lb6 dbi'd
hod:r, rucb u Orcgod! Mchlno*u (5O), inrplrd bt Ervh3 Ofrra1
rb.lch ryrtcordcdly p(t!.ots tho 'rncgrttw tusd! o( p.$ntb i d.i,
kltii bibol todcty, rrd Frvt"t-Sttdt't hdly fodr (3f),rildc! pcrt{r.
Eorc ruccassfully thru eny account wc hew rtad ulca tho arpcftcoa oa
Scldwork u Oc o4rniradoorl lnagr for ra radyd! t.btt l, prlnrrtlt $dt
thc "othcr." t - r''rr
. One of the 6o.t GibsdrD dd comD6 tuddc' of tcrtutt orFdatlod L
thc fint ore lirtcd ebovc whlcb ra.r 0rrt prcrmbco y dewJopod h Erl61
h\'. NoD.n (8): pnrathg r rtchly d*rtbed sr.!t or pn doc tbd b .
lnt{trdad to lobody e puzlo fot thc rradtr, tbco movbg tlmr4l r rli
of iopi6 thlt dcd gracraly wlth thc cultu$, yct rrd.€t bcck oti tlo ortfhrl
p'rrtg and 0ndly rccoddcrhg tlc aat or pncdc., rlt! ltr probla'
lolvcd or crphlnod for thc rcadcr by hrving mtrturlizal lt thoosb'tbd
lntrrvcnlng chrptafl'orl sulturat rnd rodrl orgrnlzrdon. nb oqnll.t
donal conccpt b potar4rtly v6y dccdvo trouro lt Ir crprblo of htalrrdlt
dl tfiq !c.lir1 oo'nycatlonr lnrodtrccd in thc lrrt rcctioa into r daglc lr't}
tivc rtnlcgy thrt bar tho cohcrtdcr of rlorytclin& bst dlofl rbo ftii
' '- lli' tt ';J't
,
dlgraclon rnd toptcd dcrcripdonr, --=:-
Howcvcr, tho tc*tr rlth rhlch rc arc famlllar tbrt brvo u*d th! otr/
nbatlon hrvo rc f& frlod to svcroomc thc tnprt.stoll thrt rhb !6hdqE
lr mcrcly e tdf.otd@ tld elc €( dsylcc nuct tbrD r! bt tnlrd srin,
tivc orgrnlzadoo Tbc lntcrvEtag cthnognphy i! thcrc rrxtr ofta 6o
txyond tbc dctdl ruccrrrry !o srplorc thc focrl introductory crtaf' tiilt
cxplic-8t d in thc cooclud@ of crcb tqt, rnd tbtrt lr a rcnr of dunrbar
ln &c orgraizatio. Thc contrivod naure of thc cfct ooa ftoo ncr;tig
litcrary qu.rlitio ofthc introduction and conclusloo wlth tlo rp.nr, udttl-
cal languagc oftho dbcuralo ilrt corDpo.c tlc body ofthc tatl N!'dlh'
lcss, thcrc !a.ot to bG I gto.rd rapcct and epprovrl for tlcrc apcrUcattt
cfforlt, rnd currantly, tho tnnrptrarcy of thc tahniquc do.t Do'l rrwra
crltlclrnr thrt mlght otlr,o'rvho lnhlblt ltr furtbor nvolutlo'r rl o.!! dLtlrEalw
modo of wrltlng otbrcgnphy, Yct rr ruch tortr b<tomo mon l\rlly rhrpod
io rrvo thcir orjenlzrtloorl problcmatlc of crpllcrtlng thc PoallDt qtrll
or prnctlcc, tlo conccrn wlth forn mlSht hrvc rn svsr rnom..locdt!
cflrr( oll \rhrt lt rnd Ir not rq)ortcd thlrn in itr Pftt<tlt clsmtt u!
ln rh|:h lnlcncnlng chrplcn hrve tcndcd lo csYcr r rrn$ of lo'p'
lcr wlthout I rccolnltlon of tho noc<l to bo rdirrlncd by tho orFhldnt
purr,lo,
 42 RCUS & CUSIIMAN
J. Ptt-eacoding ,he pres.ntarion o/.!ato
What ir rc!,rcrcntcd in the tcrt !s thc fact or cmplrlcal phcnomena
undcr
rnrlysis dcpcnds vcry much on how thc prqviour tro difileotion! oftcrturl
au.thority havc bccn handlcd by thc wriicr. Thc,trncc lvhlch thc nlrflrtor
s.rcclt tn r.tttton to !n obj.ct ofrtudy !hrpc, thc form ofdab. For cr.nmple,
clhn rrphcrr somctim|5 suggrsr thc analogy thlt they lrc likc childrcn or
apprcnticcs, lcarning thc rulcs of cveryday or rltuai bcbqvior from thc
pcrspectivc of rclors. Alternstivcly, and now more fashionably, thcy
may
conccivc of thqmsclves as translato.s who confrcnt cultural pcrformanccr
lo bc interprctcd or decodcd. fic formcr frtr cogritivq linguistic, and
phcnomenological theorctical intercsts whicb brve undcrtain cthnogrrphic
writinS and gencratcs dc.criptions of bchavior, cla.ui0cations, tairguagc
gamcr, rnd rulc aystcmr ts dtt!. Thc lattcr fitl lcmiotic, !tructurslilt, rnd
morc gcncrally symbolic theorcticol intcrcat! rnd gcflerate! descriptio of
fnmcd scquqncts of intcraction as symbolic pqformancc. Thc wry the
organizational spocc of r tcxt h!3 bccn dcsigrred accommodetd thc sbncc
of thc narrator and furthcr rc0n6 thc "sctting up" of drtr for intcrpret!-
tir-rn. Sccnarios (90), social drarnar (lO4), tcrB (44), trxonomice (95), kcy
conccpts or crtcgorics in usc (85), and ritual events (62), among o'[rcn, have
al! scrvcd !3 fr8ming dwiccs in sclccting daailr for t€xhul prcscotstion
whilc at thc sarnc timc bcing interprctivc framcs. Thur, lntcrprctivc analy,rir
is closcly implic.atcd in and ncarly indistinguirh.ablc from thc m$ner thtt
itJ objcct hrs bccn rcprcscntcd as data.
To undcrstand thc cuftenr dcvelopment of cxpcriocntal ahnograplric
writinE, it is important to distinguish rwo promincnt rtyla in thc accom-
plishmcnt of thc abovc task of rclating tex tual dcacriptioru to thcir intcrprc-
tltion. Either thst which is intcrprcted is sct primarily in thc intersctionr
o[ thc cthnogrspher with signi6ci.nt othcn in tic culturq :uch as the classic
ley informant, or it is coostructcd 8l isolatcs which are at lc$t onc atcp
rcmoved from thc ficldwork contcxt! of dialoglc and lntcraction in whicb
f-the cthnographer is a major, cliciting prcsenct In the forrrcr, data arc
I rcpr6cntcd as cmbcddcd in dialogucs bctwccn informrnt rnd the ahaogp.
I phcr, who, for background, has hir obscrvations on which to rcly; ih thc
I l!llcr, thc clhnonrDph.r ar otrscncr or tronilttor i! tcptrttc from t'hat
j which hc intcrprets snd rclics margirrnlly on baclground dialoguc with
I tnform"utr to tt,nJ'c his analyscs of rlrscrrlnrx,idl lerb, eccnnrios, riruntionr,
I or rit ua lr.
' Mnny cthnogrnphicr conrtrinc thasc stylcs of plocnting dntn, but onc or
the othcr stylc is prcdominant ns a fircus in dcflnlng thc cthnogrnphy.t
subjcc( maucr. In an crccllcnt but yct unpublishcd papcr on cthnographic
luthority (20), Clifford compares thc dialogic.al modc, cmMicd in thc
ETTiNooN }HI8S A3 TI ,It
dlacourrc bct*crn cthnognpbcr end laformut [rtrd qlrrno,o to prrcloht
-Lcvy
!a]ly olartcd cthnogrEphio rucb u thcc by (61) rnd Cinprnai-
(201, with tlc taxtur.l modg in which the ahognplrcr is coocrled rlt!
utJvo pdformrnccl rbatnctcd froo rpocifc cont.rb ol pcrfcn:uu
Thcro thc cihoSnpbcr lr prtrr't er pcrtictpalt Through oqo irrl.llt oa
enothcr. ahnognphtc r€alltm tn ltr ebrrlc rnd crprrlrrcntrl foro brr lrd
thc tqtur.l nodc of reprt6{1rtlnt lubjcct rDlttcr, whlch 0D& ltr mt cl$o
rstod lnd rclf-cooldou crprcsrlon ln thc papcrt of cluford k (,t'-at)"
Rlcocur (rta t3) prorvlda tbc thcorstical rdmulur for 6scotrpthitnE th6
tcrtudizntiotr of fiel'dmrk dloounc !o thlt dltr cen bc frrmed h r rry
that complcmcatr thc cocrptiou of the ab-nograpbcr. a! tr!-odrtor or
rradcr of tcrtr. To cxt€od tbc litcrary aBrlq6|, thcac ltocnlrcd &rt!. t t
p fgft .rryrlrrffiEEia!-ry;;hic wnEE-fir€r@rsbly ru6;cd
b .hc cultun
Thc dldoglcrl Eodlt dapcldr o r rcprcreobdc'n of tho Eturl dbcouna
of 0cldworl rnd rhllo Do lat r coortrucdon of tle alaolnpbo rrlE
than Gccrtz't tr*turllzedd, lt rt lclrt lttcoptE to !t!y cl6c i-n ltr rc!rt'.$
trtion of ditr !o thc metcrid frm which cultunl tr*tr erq abetnctcd fc
lntcrprctrtion. Whrt b morc, it egcopu to show tb.rt thc hc|r| of sthro ,' .
Sraphic udyds mrut bo in thc {ncgoriltion lbstwffi abaoglrpb.f ud 7
rubicct of rhrnd rcalid.r, qiford rh@
-
uograp-ElTffi-d6 tbo tlialogical rnodJ wor.rld bo tic litcnr; pcaihtr,
r
tion of what ho callr dlrponcd autbodty, thc achlcvcocot of whjcl ho visn
ar thc crucld problcA of c@t opoffy crp.rinrab h ahnognpldc.rrlt, .,
ing. Dilprf'cd rurbority b tbc attmpt to ovcrco(re tlc dmcaticatkb d
thc d-hnogxaphlc tat by thc cootrolllag author tbmugh t-hc rognldc thd I
laowlcdgc of o(hcr foror of lifc involvcr rcrr.rd & faao rut-bdo:rtd -
rbould havc nrrrativc prtr€nd ln c4htogrsphldi (rc. 4r rnd l,t). Hol Aic '
autborltativc volcd rre to bc rcprcscntd ir e trrt elong nit-b thft ca lld ' ;
ahnognphic wrltrr, who ncogli:tl tbe gonl of dtrycnod autldty, b I . I
crucial problcm fc hpcdncotedcn torrrd vhtch cotr.cot o..'''pta oltb '
did%tcit modc of pra.odtrS rn ctb:rqnphy'r nrbjocr -.ttai (el. 14 ',;
niSht bc r.to rl'6ovlnt. , , , ' :l
'
r, .',
All thrcc of tbo ooctrucdw tllr dlru'lod h thb rocdoa d6at tha ,'i,.
coyqrin8 tlxtud ruthorlty of tbc ahnognphic ydt(', Tbo [rt trq md ,
outincly thc thlrd u rcll, havc rtrnalncd wtthh tbc trrdltlc'ult ftdbt Fb '
of thc cthnogpphlc gtnrc, howcvcr much longrtrndin3 convtndoor brn \\
botn tranoformcd crtatlvcly. Daplto all thc eplrtcmologlcd qrdt[cetlodr, .
il mo.t crpdmatd writlng atubbomly hold! to tha g6t of prwltioj i!
1
authoriratlvcly rce.l vlcw of othcr fomrr of life for n profcrrlond rcdcrrbl/,
I r{.1
\ It i! only with thc ltrlrd trrk of rcttlnS i dc.crlptivo focur for tbo rubjod
rnatlcr of cthnogrphicq rnd vitlin thrt, tlc txplontiotr of dtcrordvd !o
l"
', i
{4 MARCUS rt. custrM^ N
rnrNooR^.t'Ht8ri As TrDcTS 13
lhc dirlogic{l focu\ thrt rhcrc i! r
eo"r'. ani cr,rola ;;;*;:;j,",;,;il#1ffiffi: nt::ffi*l Ior complsrarcq lt lr rorth ootlng onc.otbcr lrluc thrt b tragrotb$-.
^, of! ringle
to tlc rrructurc rdatcd to. rhc.rbovo .rp€tr of cthnognphlc Ruthorlty, Uut ndatecr
<tominanr ntrtf,"Aty f" tf," ,i'fri"gra-p'fry o"
rcnlisl convcnrions havc rJcpcnttal fo, *iiat hporhntly ifcot! tho 6p.cjty of thc nrilcr lo tppcr, l' bott rlcntlrt rnd
,r,.ir.ipr.rrLn.'E,ffiff; il, lntcrprctcr.-Thil lr thc dua.lity lmpoccd on cthnogrrphcrr by the lrlrfclo
prcrumably bcaomc not s<r much r
i r,.
O:*.f '",_"r_4
::g:flt.
r&ia-ti6-rG-rE- hc rca st
#ilH'rJ
dfiIri i scnit, rrrii :;ffidiii'j;{il;
q'jf
move migh. b€ r.crr rs 8 quitc r8dicrf
i*i rpanning of the 3con bctrdl locld .dartl[c ud hulrrnin ira*.rOn
onc hrnd. thcrc Lr rn lngrdncd tandcrcy for anal;.rtr wrtttao hto dborrt
phits to qhibit clourc' mlistcncy, and thc formdity of e tyrtco, f;o.
r
",.* r .t gopUl ; ;; rtff ; il;
p re
nativc rexls. Howcvcr, now rhe complcr
I i o h r,"o
vork-thc markr of rcllrblc, ccrtd!! howledge for tbi rcadcr. On r!. 06..
.r",i""i Jr,i" ", hand, a boric "mcarage. ofrnuch oftlc hcrncrrcltl: rnA ttcrprctirc rplrh
:1:.""d thc narivc who spcaks, u *.tt a" rtc coIrooi;i;.;;; :
"ri""'g^"i.1'*r," id currlnt ctbognph.lo cxpcdmartr tr thlt b€a.Elngr ur cootr-t
qrt'GFi5ffiGr.cql
_
t?1,"q rfl r. terr for a prcdominantly Wcstcrn rcadenhio. must
:',?iocltconstocrcd qv-cl.cLC4gn8
ar rn thc incor?orstion oc,olfg of intcflcdon, rh.ar Gcy
of native voicct. t: dctcrmhanfEdw-lEf$ffi-iit-trddFn, ro to rpcdq rni tlll botf, er}nof
-
vrluc.of this kind of crJrcrimcnrarron
.lhc
$e3!r+ltsm may nor br
(nropologtslr, and !t may bc cogcntly
r. {]holllconlcm_lorjrCbSud-
una..stoofuy- !6nlcm-oo#a,,-
raphcn aad thcir rcedcrr murt p6c!s
ur-gut-ty
a hig! tolcrncc for r:oading ror,
!s En lspoct of utdcrst.anding in placc of r retirfying .5pbntd6
l
crittquq! by othcn who cxarninc ifr of s 0rcd objc.t of rnalpi.:. It i: not that lntcrpretJve enaljrb-ir n;..rr$ y
groundr. For cr-tmpls Tytcr (105, p.3) has
raid il ,;t;";;*- loft or fuzy ia conccptualization, but ooly thlt lt coni!6 lbdf to tlo
T}cc rho *culd mr,lc . . . didof1jc thr fo.lJl of alrno6nphy " cndidotu by which 6cr"ing b produccd ln rxial tifa Sooo Hndr o(
ut la e lcnr cornct, fc
u ,n: rcir, biir dirtopc rmdtrtd u t r,, *thh .*, ;ii.;;
1ll1*. '-,*: {
q!cnc., Ir iro lont.r dblopc, but I lcr( mqucrr.ti"f
intcrprctrtion, luch a.r thcc drrived frosr rtrustunlilq ttc codEt d b,
.r I Olrlqf,r", . ln.r" ,orrotoi me!n! of formtl tlrt4nt! !!d n:c$rodr whlch rppalr to produ r-lfo.
.boor . di.lop! rjnc. rhc inromrnr r rrp jnnc.r
;',fr. Of.f"lrl"i^ffi tnined, formrl int rprctltiotr. Thoc havc Ucca prrUcutrrty dlEcult l,o
rhrourh rhc dhnorlphcr.r dornrn.nr rurhori.Lole
wU. r, rir."a^ir..]*riliil l'hpt rs inlorDhg frrDsqorlr for ahnogflphic writing. Otlcr Hdr of
nrtrv., hn pdjrior1 inot thcrcby improv.d, for hit,ordr.ro;lll J;;;;;;
tlc,ahnqnphcr,r rilt. And ,r rh( drrlosu< hrtrprctrtlon, nrcb rr thoc anooungcd by o€qrt: rnd iymbollc btcre
rulhonlt by rhinint ths burdcn of truth lrorn"rhc
, prr* ,f,l;;;;r.;
'",-,a,
ahnqngbo,r *od. to th; h;;; tioni.rr tbcorisr ln rotbrc,pololcr gcocnlly, ere rchl*d by rlo forco of thdr
it ir cvm motc rcprchcniiblc for no rmolnt .f t""rU"6-rL.orf-,,
u lhc ltcnr oI rh. ro.dt rnd d.djr rndbu{.d o hrm in r rtcord ;;;;;;';; Itt ruf cxprtlslm iDd tbrscry ir dirursi.ug tlc csrcatirl opo.codod nr
too, rr r'c. ro rcinr..rp'd ,r rnd f,6h ir our srh
ofdirb;;;;;; tur€.of cultunl mcaaiap Thcsc arc much morc rt hooc h abmgnptb
c,,.rrrr .*,*i iiii"olJr,'i . wtitint, but it lr d{ncdt id rbctnct r tbmredcd rylt m or E€thod fro6
d.:,' (F, c,nn cnFnuno reEo) rh.,. ,il ;; ;;;;; il;
:lllL..f
rctnrlrrc t.rtr trtc thd. p,d6r.. d,rto8u.
FrFtnr6d,y fhro.
) thcir variour tdtu!.1 crpr.rlloru [ag, rcc Rlcr'r cloc eufydr (e!) d
I
For thc writcrs of traditional and cxpcrimcntal ethaographics Gecnr" vrricd usca of thc cultur€ oonccpt ln blr dtfcreot rrttiarr], Ar e
within tlc problco of writbg pnc{oq tbcre ir tbur thc pclblc cLub of tyo Hadr d
bor.rnds of rcalism, cxF,crimcnrs wirh dirpcncd
ou,i,o;ti.iif. *"nn'io tf," rhebrlc ln rny qpcdmcoht alnogpphy-thrt xblch rtt(optr to du o[ .
8amc, !o to sp.rk, which has dcflncd cultural and rocial anthropolJxv,
whilc it is rhc nrrurc of cxpcrimenn to rake risks, ,l.y and rn rcc.unt ncatly rlth r rrtirMng dfsntained crphnetlo (vhbh k
rcrclion, r corcfrrl relss.(crn.lt ol whnt ir rlrrirnhl. n. rar"or.h
rnrv ,iii"iii. r" *h.it radcrr crp€cf of enttropology ar rccial rcicnct), and thrt vhlct .
i" tlr. (,,r'ri'r'ntii,n olrrtrl.srnl,hir ,.iti1,,r, l,y trr(titl(,r,nl ,,, lraai""lsa lcrvm thc world otxcrvtd u ofrn<ndod, rrnblguouq ud ln ior (rbhh
rrrl6lrt lm dlrturblrrj to ro.dcrr, bul h lll
rrrtrrrr. thc rnrlii al crllrrinrc,,tr lrcyorr,t rtrc,llnlogk.nl rrrrxto "i1*,f,,i",,,rf J'.rt tbo ld or polnl of rreny
rcrvf't()cl )htt,
rtrc wnrrng rtr r nc.crrnry to nclrtcvc tho urrcnry "^'fijtlrillil .,
l.:._,?,,:"::t...r(,rtrctlvcty r.tJrctc rr
ll"l-ll^'.,1',1'
bniirrgo
ottrcr fornl, ot htb wlr tlc' le llcnliy
orhnolnphtcr otlor handto ihtr tcnrron unrnjy, fr|, j
dcvclop romo rnrlytlor.l trrkt rdd fnrtt of tho idrt wlrh clorun lxt ogd. lti,
rcllo(lrng b6cl ()n l)Oth tlrc 0rLl*orL arrrl lrtcrrry rncln, of
ltt prqluotlm. Itt<lo; othor Jnrta of tho remo tort ero lc.fl drngllnJ rnd mfry--{ha lrlir ',,1
hcrnt.ncutlc fr.rhlol crrtrrrrrngn rhe nchicvbniirrt dftcrtu;l ruthorlty
rllrc rolf-oonrclourly ohoortr not to bo rutlorltrtlvo lrr hlr oroh..tntldt or ll{la , 11'
bttc{l on trying ro 0nd this bnlrrrcg, urrd (ho morc rldlcd crpcrimcntr
hiShliSht bol h rhc limir! of rhir cntcrprirc nnd whrr kinar
p.rta toceu"c ih.y .tr prcrum.rbty oommauunto *lth tbc rmbtsotty oftL t
of lr"ucs.anJ'rcrt1 phcoomcnon rcprtacotod (af. E5). Thh ruy bc r much bort b6c.t rld ,.f i
might bc crplorcd bcyond ir. tr;
intcrcaiing manr of lcrl cooltructloq but ta rlldcfl of tndlddrl ralH
 STHNoOR .PHIIS AS r--nl 17
cnn trc disconccrlinE. .fhc brrtnncing
l:rlsf_..
rn no( rwcrdcrcrrnining whur is rcco*nizcd
rkiu in wriring conslrt! thus lric/'l]lu! frr, tio ooly rolution to thir coruddrum b.rt be 6;'d.bdt0o
cu inE thc ground af!uthori(y fron
al indctcrmininr, *iil'"* trsL of coutructiotr lnvolvod ln tc rritin6 of cthnognpb.lo tqtr, , cb
t:":.qy tjtoroughlv dircrlcnting thc mllst rtccr e couno bctwqr Dot porfnyllg cujturd dlfcrs h ndro
rcadcr. pcrhrpc thc wnrc, .,,1.']l:
-" mceningt u rc proforndty di-fcnat forUnt ftcrl rcuDd rr qud I o
rcldcr by r hc I i rcnry qua ri r ics ;l' L:f lTr#";T.o'#:r",:"1:
rnd morc gcncnly Ly thc rrirr",*iri*r,lcrr-.'iJ;'ff;pr,,;ff;:loT plcar6") ro rr to rotdly dboriant thc comnoo l.src of thc r€d.r, rd d
!lructivc rfl\l of csrnblishirrg nurhorirv tho.uno tlmg portrryltrt tho d-ttrcftocc. rcpnrrot6{ |. eutbcatb$ tbr
d ircusrcd ,f*, tf,. ruLl-v6'orln, ntbs thrn u thc pmduct of tlo cthnognpbat rbaidcd
authority of r tcxt it crodcd iI it rlotr "ur"..'F"iii"g-
not trc itl own cnds rog.if,.r'i"lrrl rrtl0cc.
atic rnalysis. ffr" csr.niioi .irt"oi.u,.r.",
cthnographic lr,t",,f,""il /l In currtnt crpcLorrrtd a}nognphlca lhcn b ladocd e nrrtod hlata
to opcrrrc wirh both kinds of rhrroric
," rhc ;;Ji;;, ;;i;;;r;l /i in rcpnrcnting thc ncr.njng ryltcm3 of mtlvc rvuldr es ndlcelly dlltrat
ing rcadcn ro rhift cnrcrir bv which
ruI hority.
rhey trust in rnd
"*".0 in.illiii from our own. So evc lf tho wrlten of ticsc tcrtb murt rcly on r odtunlty
blarodJangurg! ofd..cripdor, tbey rtrlvc to mllcc cultunl-dltrcrcoc e hry
Soql of tqtud conrtnrtion. Conrcquantly, tho tr.rtr of prE?nrlng r!.dart
Aurhenticity and plausibitiry_A problem fot-rt lcut r partid rurpalioD of thcjr own commoo ror .rlopCo,
of Rhetoric
Aridc from its lcgitimating function as r form and furthcr, of pcrmrding them of the eutlartic{ty of rhrt ls o,trcnC l.
of hcrmcncutic authority, e Dtivc marlngr, .rs Eltt rr of crucirl rbctoricd hvcatlon h tb6c ctFl-
sccond mr,irr cfrct of rhc crplicit cpisrcmologi.rf
conicmporsry crhnographic erpcrimcntr arc
*"rD;", tth _;i* mcnt!.
infi,cd ir thri i ?iliiilto'n"
crpr<ssion of cultural diffcrcnccs in a mannsr
tlut malca tfr".
Thc +lrt ooloilc.l rorrying ln crpa.Lncttsl ctbosrriHar ceri bo a
er a philoophicd ooditrtioo thlt crrric on ln pnbllc r ndtcrl qurthnhg
ruthqnric rnd plau!iblc ro sn crhnoer.phyh
readcr* Tbc "ipcailt!
cx;;ffi;;." of thc cahnognpha'r preuadcrrtradtng rnd ruunptio,na fUj U,f
diffcrcnc6 inhcrcs in fulfilling rhJ rcatist
colvartion of icprcscntinr 119 ft
por6 tho yty for ud omucntr dacriptionr rnd anelyra tf,rt, rt rGilt'
U]utc_Ielllof vi"q--which csn E-r sour* J;A',ffiffi"r.
Cast mct!phoric€lty in thc rolc of trans!8tor!
ofculturil tcrt! or rituation4 Intrttoor of nrdrc rorldr, may othcrrlgc tpp.lr t(r rtrrago'd
wri]:u or crpcrinrcntal cthnographics f"". U. irrplausiblc to r rcadlnhlp, rct ln it! com-mm rcnrc crpoctrdoar, I to
lc
convcntion!l trsn$laton of strictlv I "lo.ri"
aouUf"if"j ltirnuhtc rn ovcrwbclmlng rhcptlclrm. By dctrillng hh ora c!fur.6obd.
(??, p 58): ..w.";;;;;;;;;;;;;';i"::i:1"-::"'ro
wcrr poecd "f
bv Qurnc c!.1 lboct or rurprLc rt critlcd polnfr h tbc urrrndvg tbo,cihaofrphGf
as,.euccr ar onc lcrdr hir r€ad6t torerd r parrtculer ttllc. ll rehdoo to cultorri dilcn,
prcas.s. Bsrcr.rrrnsrar,on imporcs:Jl[:",ffi
f;Sd. clca. Tto yritcr doc. not crpUddy rpt* to tbc rci&r rld laforo b
of rhc prrticular imponancc for rea.list ahnography
.vqntron
--bcriulc of the con- thrt whrt follofl rrlll &cm lralgg u h rcroc cightath rd nhaath
ot.reprccnting rhc nrrivc poinr of vies,, thc db!o;;hcr,s
aoo o6cnptrons must bc mcaningful to hi! ;;;
n dc!-, onlwo lcvch, tbc h L qr EFlq.ld
-bortrh.gfahr.
-'lt th. !.r!r oa FE rr rodrt rcCl
llj1_.':jl"_11'o
ror :lwhich
rn cthnogrrphic
tangu;;;-Jjp
is a-major problemaric of the boord !.do. oi {unt, E dtld6, lld Ffirrlr of qrdod rcpc, tflr r*rry
wriring. Not onry must thc ahnographeri
conccotuar .ab.dd.d h tL rtb{or'|ehlo btlrr! d dGtldq. AcafX_nnglllSllalg_Egld
and dc.rariptivc language mnke (common),,'nrc
ro t,i, rJJi;il;;;.
own crrltural framcwork. but it must commuhicltc mcaning, fo th;-,;o rutt r th
rcadcn which thcl,arc pcrsunded wout<t mr!c (ageln, -
corn,ri""i*"lrltilf,. lh. rndttlcd fod oa rhLl .t! -t .r dttclrt ldrcL. Y.( ttlt .t-troanglb oa O.
cthnogroph(r't thjcctr (k l rlth p.rbF th. mo.t ndb.l rr.t ln rhbt oult!r!. dlfr.-.t tL Lnl oa -d
'lh( wrilcr urrl r tangrrngc of rlr.rcriJrtlgn nd dcinltlo--.ttt , tbi!.lv! do rot .rrdd lh.l, rnr.nudo vLrr oa Fuiood b OaL
FFU;pry
thll carrlco cnrtxddcd doop
wilhln il 0rlrlcirtionl IIat cntiil lhc corrrnron rcrrro lavch of rndtrlr W. bn tt !o F. . tlrt rh.6 n odoL ga tla prE .!d d d rod.l
of hil own culturc,
'iio* l{lloo .r! lDtitnl.d, Tbb L FwL.lt $o U ol rlrr rhleh rquln rdlorl oprtctrdor
withorrt which cornnrrrnicnlirrrr rvirlr lris rcrrlcn
U. fn,g,rrifrl". In lhn ootlYtntlon oa ngar.r tlnt nrrl\"o ierkjr mo.r ruthntL.ll, tfoo lbdr oro
thcn drn lrc rclrcrcrt plruribly ro ,c^(tcrr thc ",oufA
profoun,t Oifflrinc_ t,c Frpdln
.nd qpcrlooo., ihlt. ttltl roooarplbhln; ra rnrJllcrl frqocr th.t I d.iDod rhhlr t!. tib,&
pcrccivcs throuSh (hc usc of langungc which ir ei lrd A@ftdcd lnt rt a o, a wrt rD rodrolo dbcipllor.
ba.rcaUify .ifr"oaa".

.l; .
I

l.l.
m-er .. ,.e.i
-tt'*r
 48 MARCUS & C'IJSIIMAN
ETIINOOR PTTES Ar IP(n} ry'
ccntury lrrvcl tccounlr. Rlthcr hc offcrr an
&coun! of hir intdtcctual and
ocldwork cxpcricncc wirh which rcrdcrs ',u" nLod oootrlbudoo of rathropotog at
cin iO*,ify,'_llii"fr r ljbcrrl nlodad db.dCba h.l!
.ljl_T_1.31rfu*ilsn
rs a nlqalivgglicte tb.y
ruac
o6.npttons tbrt could orhcrwisc a"pca-i6plausiblc
iitol-#iiii r- wctt.
M,*Tg beyood-lb lonccring
icd sclf-rcSoction thus grrlranrJ ,frinrt rhc ,i"t to tbcor.
gpfii*,,jl"g- ,nqufoO rnd 6rly tcsitinrdn;
common sdrs< rcocrion ro thc rtmngc. lvot
of
"lat[ii,-io", . anthropologr to dc0nc
omtqt, sthn%rrphy contlnucd to ltreorponto oo-pn "ilrt-:*3tr
amlr thlt wcl! uan- U iU oj clrurl
only i.! llri,
thc rcprcscnr.Btion of cultural dilfcrorcc fu, ,"dr;a;;kirg corunon rbctoricd rnd orpnbedonal fcature
oot J I .
but ir is quire ;h;t;;:i;;;f
.ore rubtt. iiui'il;; *rtrout rc"Ow
Utltrot i ooj C
,h. intr<xlj.crivs erirt ntirl poht up itr u!.ftlDca to llfc h tlc Wcrt rn rcci.dcr.
modcrn thought gcncrnlly.
ir;fn"uo*? /
In ]dtamrtnfna
hlr€ t!..o.p,rlctu!rcd rlth crpudr ur-rh.- dif."-;.
qbtcmologically fot ndicd ditrerancc*
Ir]'-'.llTg:pb-:
rn vitcb tbc .1.u"
b ,nonollthJcelly rtfcrrtd to u Orc W6l
.-,f:*^lll
lcrr.re[cclton -ryOaring ,readcn
scrvca lo shsrpcn the o!rurt' or nodcel hdugtri.rl rodcty, md li ca,ntrrrt d Eurq^tbarlcE
separation bctwccn thc ethnographcr
ard his represtntation of difcrcnct, thus achiwing b tlc -tbac.,
worlds an !urhcntjc.slty difcrenr from hi: (and
tlc .fat tl"i,l.itivc lg".h.:i
pxy.r whilc*"... ccl& vlttlre, 8roup,.; qoltur€ u lubj* J,b"-"b""!r*
ori) fti, fr'OJ"in t!6c c@prntivc citrtionr rre gr*.
d,tr;; -C' ccrtltUy ,mrd-Dol
lli-lT_,_Pl
nvc l.h",g,ual
worr ot thc
rcprccnr.!tion of t;q;j;
"*,. il ;;f,,* Dc sE0lfactory in lcxtr rhich perc manifcrtly
rnd tyste'n.ticeliy c@Ert
cthnographcr's wriring practjcc, In tlir'sco:c,
crt sctf-rcictiqr should bc r" n a!- onty ,r," cpisanofogi- tivc in ttct purpo.€, rley do prwidc a ,tooni,tioiJt-Jf,r
.J 1:l-8. tD: nativo Dnrcticcr rld bc.!tng!,"e"i r.t c,ff froE oqr
or". rc
rophisticrtcd form of "."i"i'ili'totl"t
r rhctoricsl tcchniquc of compantivc tutbcntlcrlly thdr own, nthcr thrn jurt ttc rck of tbc
af,mrrutb
lT]"* * yol"ycd in rcalisr cthnog."pUa. fUe poinioi;;-;;;,
rcdund!.trrJy and cr.plicitly rhc rutheodcity
"inruJt wtitcdr imaginrtivo_lrlcolap fron thi bollcdlp h. h.,
ojl^cf
;G;J-.
:-,,1il!r-
wo'os arc pcrcqvcd by rcadcB. In ordcr to scc
witb which native ,rorE of lifc. Thu+ thc coopentivc aonursl itr ahrclrroblo hl
how tbc currcnt cpistcnre, lhiftcd lubtly froro rvbg rs a didaciic ntioarlc for
togcal sclf.rcflccrion in crhnogrrphics no i"to ,ti"
a""J"p-iJt*i'"r,, o'{'tr cu.lturc to rervlng. rs r routinc dwicc for rchieving-U^frfiOl n ff,
thc
It E ponh skctching thc history of rhc ur. of
*rop"_tii" ;;;;;_ uon of rqrftrcnting di-ffcrancc, and capccially dillcrcnoc Stlrt;Gnro,
asrxrt of r hc rcalisr convcn r jon conccmeo *itt,"prJcniiig,f," nltiyc lubjcctlvity.
ttrt ptrtdnc to
of vicw. ""w. il"r
gglp-u.rirql of.rn crhnography.s contcnt with itt rcadcn,culturrl .Irr!Comprntlvc mntrrrt ln ahnognphla har trkcn rn rddldod tur! rld
come to bc rccl u thc cmbodimcnt of lhc tcy probla of cuttml
-_Th. sn impticit, con3riturlvc nrionalc of thc
T:ll:: ll arways. brcn.
snclncr cthnotrsnhic writcrs cxplicitly incorpontc comparircns acnrc,
lranrhtlon dbcurcd ebova ThLr b thc oonundmm'oi crpnadry
orlturl
in-thcit oi91-r: thtough ihc ur of rubtly btarcd t"ng,rrgc
workt or not. ycr, whilc I compararivc aimcruion
i" irp'nJl" ,il'*i rnthropologht! borrowod clthcr from cvcrydry ruagc -O';$b, "'td"h'
ln rhclr orm cultun
crnnoSraphrc wnlrn8 itrclf, thc crf'ljcir u,rc ofthc
cogggla_tlyq goqi6lflgr "f or clrc from spcclalirod dbdplinca, ruch rs couoi.io rnA Irr. qtafoa
rhctorical cffcrr or as a modc of terrual orgmirsd;;;p&;.d
pioncering rcaliit cthnographies. por exampli,
i;;y atanlrf acda h ?6cb fCal tyy'A3. 106 rc!t. tLqrdc.ry lqlj{r rryb
Uo*r rr.rcaj La naalino*gu .-r! an ployrd tL
onty ro providc a basic rationatc-ior wty olr,l rrttdr taodod jc o( rpodlc orhcrr to c61t'r.t bol$o @l'- tir-
Y-:::l:l
sorrc ot thcrr ,colparircns
tcrtt werc wri,nor
cn, hut rlro to Itr,pport. by conlrnrl, romc l,.Tutb dFl t." rdtlA.r EdGt, tn .! tb vorlrtr, .nd ., rqd, d*
of hod.tnlly, for rhkh $. .odd hbrottrn,r vlc o, W.rt rl oy'tdh.r
ir i,-Ul tl
lht nr11.r Jxrin* olurrltrrrrlrlillircrrce ,,, ,r,"
1,t,ol,',rruo,,n'r t;; ;,;;;":ir;;;rrr, lm.l.fy (rr 9t. lO7, nr.r..rpl.). Unlll, o.rxF,.ttvr e<ir,r.r qrrrryr
h tb
ln t hcrrt |ionccring rvrrrl+r. thc (orrl)nn.(xrr wcrc iril tlldncrlo wuy ftrttlrlo lorr., rb.r. oa oonrt.rbon r. lo tb{u .tlr(lo. 6 ,A.,". Ol Uj t An t
to rtrrlcrr arrtl r<,ur ly wcr( nrr c(Iort 'l[cr4
qinFrltlw ooor]ldth.h tloantOro. io.l, or. ohl'Et ltrthr. oa tb. arh., lo fb(! l*..f
l,tr,trtrlly to lcgirirnhc
dlxrl)linc lo r ,obv
Iirrro-Arrrcrrcnrr Jrrrtrlrc r.irr1r11111191r lrr tlrc " fi.igii,,go
tcrl ,,,gg*i'91l
.llnrllorl-rrloo rr. Tt-. ro{tt rr| t[r. tl* dlrld, hot mrrl a,nn rqrhbtlotjifll
lf Oa
tlrdrcllo tun trcr of cclFrborr h
ulrlily for enthropoloty on two cou l lt dcmonttrrtsl /onr,crtn| ,lll i .rtuEtru,hh, Nc,r it| #qu
ffrat ti" iinrfir" ori.ah.d frorn tl. @r[tho.l rhaqdt'hlo t6lt.rrd n.d. ira
olrt oa tlborc daord,
rrrndirg thc crlrar* of orrrai, w( (rrtd rxflcr urxrc*tl'tl
oui o"u'ru , lhG.l rqf, bw rdopr.d r o!!h trlolr ruk ltt,.du..l Frpdltl a 6. Vl
conlrttl, tn(l it wnr thc rrxlc by rvlrrclr ctlrnogrnphlc wrillrrl cornorunl. ::1:ltlooutt
xrll| r.. t|rr.. h r.r4t dhnolnlhLt h rhkh caltlrd nhuylry ricrid r
Er'€r r .lrliqrlt gbra{t rtrrdL .od ('l. (b.t ooold b. ..!o . 6lldl, c.ldod mw trr
cnlql lllc doctrinc ofculturnl rclativr,y, wllic;1 *ai th. o,rc r"iJcly .ocog. I 0a Wtia{t
frfrctlo.a
, ._._ r ;./ .

)

to*rril-rtc study of Wcsl.rn in!titutions. A rcrice oldcbotca arorc in rocia.l
lnd cultu-rl ! thropology during thc I950s nrrd 196& which dominltcd it!
subfields of intcr6t and in rcmc crsqr actually rtrvcd ar their founding
issuc. Thcsc dcbat6 took thc lorm of nrgui:rg for std aglirut tbc usc ol ''l
\\'cslcm conc?ts to dcscribc and intcrprct non-Wcsttrn phanomcnar in
I Difertng Readenhlp of Ethnogmpht
lcgal anthropology, thcrc w8s thc lsharnsn{tuct mrn controvcrsy sbout
lbc rpproprilte tcrms in ehich to clnccive law in tribol rocictia; in e
nomic rnlhropologXr, therc was the formslfut-lubdtrntiviit dcbrt! rbout tbo
rppropriatcnc$ of applic.ation of conccpts of Wcrkrn economic thcory to
v>cdlcd primitivc cconomics; and in kin:trip rtudicr, thcrc was Schncider,r
ndical culturc thcory argumcnt whicir stkrDptcd to dccorstruct kinship ar
! 6cld of inter6t, bqscd on CWercrn) Scncs]og.ical couccptions. Whilc thcro
dcbrt6 rcsted on cxtrcincly important philoophlcal ilsu.r st the hcart of
cthnogrrphic analysis, nonc cauld bc rclolvcd by thc kiad of thcorstiol
diroursc intcndcd to inform cmpirical rcscarch. Courcquantly, thcy cv€n.
tually e.rhaustcd thems.lvcs 8.r potsntial thcorsticsl guidclincs by which
rcscarch could bc conduct.d. ln fact, thcsc dcbatE wcrt urdcrlain by a corc
issuc thst could only bc rcsolvcd, morc or lcss ratisfactorily, in the writi-ng
of any particular ethnographic t.xt, It w&e thu.t not an i.ssuc conducivc to
thcorcticnl dcbatg but onc intimatcly involvcd in cthnograpbic writing
practicc.
With thc impos3ibility ol purging from cthnographia thc kind of tubtlc
chsh of culturcs thrt gct! writtcn inlo any tcrt through thc common rcnsc
a3sump(ionr cmbodicd in lrnguage, onc importut dtarnrtivc har bcsr l,o
framc cultunl di$crcnccs in thc tcxt by thc rhclorical usc of comparatlvc
contrast on a diffqrcnt planc of rcprcscntation than in thc p!rt. Rrthcr thr!
using thc classic "us-thcm," diductic form of this dcvicc, crpcrimcntd
cthnographies havc shiftcd lo a sclf,rcflcctivc "me.thcm" form of contnlt,
which, as noted, invitcs readcn to cmpsthizc with thc rqvcalcd cxpcrienct
of thc cthnographcr, and in so doing to prcparc tbcrnrclvcs for dircusrios!
of cultursl practics whlch whilc appc-aring radically dilfcrcnt, will aho
scsm authcntic as wcll rs plausiblc. Thc rcadcr is no longcr instrrct d, but
is rathcr *itncss to how sharcd cultural mcaningr with thc cthnographcr
are challengcd through the latter's confrontation with diffcrenccs that ra
quire intcrprclotion.
'lhtN, lhr r,lrlcr, rrrrrrIIIror I rI'rrrI'nrnIivn r'rlrrtrnnl lrr ronlhl dhrrttgrt.
3'h lrr lror I rrnn tr nrrrl,,r rrr, I in ln n " i,,,1,, tq,r | ,llrrrrrrrLrrr ol tl,o c;riettlrolrrg,
"
ir nlrrll
'r!1.,ti,"r{Irn'a(t.riitil ,rl , r,rrrrrt rr1,rrinr<'rrn.,\riI n' rlro 1rrolrlorrr
ol rll\I'crrcrl !ullrlr ily llrlllr I r(l,r(rrrI llr. rrr,:tl critlcnlclrnllerrgo f(rr rn(llqnl
.rl(rirr(rlillon lrr tlrc qxlrrciriol r'l rtlrrrrrgrlIlrlc rutlt(,rlly, lo lhc Itot>
lcnr oI rlccrilrirrg utirfi((orily lr) rrnll.rt othcr forn)i of lik thst (tc.ply
(lUcrlioI l)rcll (lcrrllntlirrgr crrrlrtlrlcrl i'r lltc l0ngungc of dc$cripllo mey
Et ni]rrjx -pxlts AJ Tt'- --.! 5l ...
reprta"nt a tlmllfi cblkogo for ndlnl trp.dntaatrtloo la thh
Flto.qt-
ica.lly unrarolvcd irnrc brric O al-nognphy, concdvod rr cultunl tnritr:-
dm. ..
i.lt y,.i',l
:..,.r',1^--,,'r.4.
I
Tbc rrti0cld coaor rbout chmgnphy tbt hl' h prrt o*rhd cl-
tunt md toctd uthrcgolo6/ u r dbclplisc lr E .t mnrl:rgy o -..ltl
U-vc-n ltch from r pcrpcc{rc on rrttrr to tbat of tfo vrrlcd-rc.d.nhha
of dhnofrphyr both wltbttr rnd oublde utbropolo6r. A! G&rtoFDit
nry bc wrttto rtth . Frticutu rtadcrsbtp la ntn4 but thc vrlcnr nrila.
!hip....h b.arr I booogrooor, rlUdt po&ly rrticdit d.F.o of trtd ro
ahnognphy Ia ga,s'tl b q rhoold bq Ttruq tlo qrrrtot ulcoo rbct
rbrt, if any, rtrndddr tlctr erc for ctbognphtc wrltlag b urct rtrlHig!
rpprr"nt whco thr crp.ctrtlonr ofr prdculrr rtadcnhlp rbod aboog;
Pby in grnard lf! Dol Ect by r 3Fci6c tqf whlch wcotd Eo.a tbe rrp@
tJm! of ot-bcr rcadcnhtp bctttr.
.lng'fbc following ditraatiatim of reedcnhip <Iirdngdrba thca Ut podt-
tltcir maJor tnt {t!t in any givm ctbnognphic lqt *hlch d.aqt dio
rcurct of thcir critlcal rcictioa to iL Of ooun , itldtyidurl re.d.n ntsh
mcrte lornc of tbo dirttncdoor (crpcciaUy I rnd 2 balor), but ttr€dt ,.
collccdvc critlcd orlcatrdon to trrtl Lho crtcac'dea rrc vorth dhdaS&h.
lngi
I' Tho uq sp.dllld nd6dlp, brvlry tto &ot hlrilidt rttb t[.
ttxt" rubjcct rnln r, b prlmrr y lntcrrrt d ln d.tdlr rnd thc i6 pohtt
ol lnt rprrtrdol, rDd Ir thc m6t lilclt tJo bc r{uidvc to rnd cridcd oflba
qudity of thc fcfirork rr rcll rr tlo conncction bctwccn nddnsrt rod
reulting gcncrellado- ThG rrlttng itrclf or y boccrnra r mrttrr of crldcd
N,arcnco lf lt h rn to bod6c ar thc clarity or lapucrtioor of ctlDofrphlo
dcrrit"
2' Tbo Focrd lnthropolodcrt i.oo to b. E6r cooo6aEad
vith thc ovcrdt arruSmat of r rorh and rhb thc vry theory lr broqbt
!o bcar upon tbc hctr rmdtr cooddcradso lncrcrslngly, borgrcr, tb
readcuhip lr paytng ritcadm !o thc narntiw forn, rhetoriq ud hlt!!tt!
of r tcrt, ftrt l+ tho crp,rclrivo fcrrura by trldch it prrr.ob r! lrgll@tt
o. lrtl.ll'rutrtl.nr. Arnrrrroy or (lhrlty of (l?trll ll lmr lm1rorlrnt tlun thf
rlrrlr rrrrl trrhorqroe ol the "rtr,ry tlro torl toltr." 'lhh ortagrltt tX{ b lO
.nr{lon who ro lhonrxlvo prrullolnS othnolnphlo rrllrn and ihfl
ntnltt ttltlonl lntornt b ln tho ora0rrrrrrrl,lp ol r rorl, whlch mry ollr fol
ctnultllon ! ttyl! of ugunrcntrtlo orJrrtrrrcrl lr ltr hrndlln; of rtlhl
convqtttlon!, 'fho trrnd of ahnolnphlc clpc mort cnmurr6tr tho
tra/rtb
of crlllcrl rophirtlc.tron lrtd rwlrcnar lrr thh ntdcnhlp,

MARCUS & CUSTIMAN
3. R.edcnhip frorr ihc other rocirl ricflc€t reat f,cldwork rlmplirti'
c.ally &r r mcthod likc lny othcr rnd cthnoSrrphy u dcscriptlon. An'
riropology'l rchicvcmcnt from thi3 p€nPcctivc ll thut to provldc f!ct!
aboit mirginat locictica to bc mlrginally uscd by wotctn locial rc'tcncer'
A3 notcd, lny revision of whst an ctbnognphy ir or ofcn. throug,h e
rcficction on how it i! writtcn b potcntislly subvcnivc to positiYbt Ecthod'
ologics and goals. Thu!, witb ethnograpby rtspcctfulty merginalizcd rs r
mjium for froviding trivial information, thc galcral rocial cicncc rcader'
rhip is probobly thc lcast sstritivc rrnong thtrc cot 8916 to varirtlon in
ctlnognphic writing and thc mct puzded by thc slgniflcancc of thc th*
raical and cpi3tcmological problcms thc currcnt cxpcrimcnt! podc'
{. Thc ltt;dart rcadcnhip is thc only gmup dircuarcd herc which lackr
r formdizrd arcnr for critiquing thc ethnognphia dclgncd for thcm rnd
which i! s,ithout a clarly idanti6ablc intcrtst. Thc cthnognpbicc produccd
for thir rcadcnhip, of which thc llolt, Rinchart rries ir only thc old6t rnd
mort proli6c, too oftcn sccm to bc conccived rr wrtdcd down and highly
simpli8cd vcnions o[ profcssional cthnographice. Ar ruch, they. oftrn- cr-
hibii a pedatrian rdhersncc to thc convsntioru of cthnognphic rcalirm
dircusscd arlicr.
!. Thc rction oricntcd rcadcnhip, coruirting of govcrnmcnt o6ciah,
Dmrram rdministritoa, rnd militlry pcrrcnncl, rr€ lntctdbd in thc con'
icniof ahnognphjce and panicularly in lnformltion which caq bc dlrcctly
trrnshtal into practical policics and proccdurcs. For bcttcr or worrc' an'
thropologists hivc alwr)'t b€cn higbly scnritivc rbout writbg ahnography
tlilorcd to thc nccd! of thi! rcadcnhip.
6. Thc popular rcadcnhip look: to cthnognphy for ltr mtasagc or trutf,
in a culturaily familirr framcworl( snd dcmand! rcadabillty with ody
to lcgitimia thc cxptrtic of thc lfount Thil is.probably
cnough jargon
"naivc
rcadcnhip frcm the p.np€ctlvc of profcrrionrl rn'
rhc i,oat
rhroooloqv. Thcrc has bccn an unctcrlfng criticism of profcssionals who
,,-ririn"iil,.nr"r. in such writing, c.g. Margarct Mcad; a ruspicion justi'
'n.a
o, not,'of i-ntigrity rr in thc Cmlancd! rcria of bookr (G'8 15r) tbrt
ln thcmrtlvcl chElcngc rhc dcllnitior of cthnography; or llnrlly, nrltod
condcmnrliorr !r ln I roccnl, mqnlorat>lc carc tnallloncd btlow [Ildrth't (5)
'lht lllountaln I'mpkl
crllirrg lurnbrrll to occount fot
Drcachcr in any prerumcd conrcnrur about cthn()8t!phy trc mo!t cvidsnt
in iournd rcvrcwr, nnd thc nrort common cltlc li thrt of [n rrca rpcclalirt
rcadcr cririquing thc ohrlructiont nnd hcdga in thc wdting oftn clhnogn'
nhcr who hrs ii minrj a gcncrrl rcldcr:hip al In 2 rbovc (27, 10, 67' 70)
lre rood illusrrrtions of ihis, b.co!'sc tlrc rcvlcwr Pinpoiot thc rhaoric of
rhrsl tcxrs r-r an ob':truction to knowlcdgc]. Thcre arc numsrour othsr
I
t,:
I ETHNOORATIIIBS A TB'CN ,'
I
I revievs whcrc this kiad of crldcilm ir friendllcr rnd nrdc b prrrh3 (cj
I 89). Perhrp for r rtudy of the cunlnt trcrd, th€ $o.t btlfcrttlt oball'r. -
1 tlvc critlquo rrc tho6. by *Tlt lr of crperlmcntrl ahnogrrphlo *bo rtrd
thc workJ of othcr crpcdocatcrr with thc.llnd of rcadcnUp htacrt of 2
rbovc (!.c 27, 9l). Such rwlcn'r hrvc bccomc e foruo for rt lat ltc rrlrha
of lsvcfrl isrucs discurscd tr cerUcr !.ctioru of thi! prp.f.
Criticlsm! by rrca rpeidirt and genenl uthrcpologicd rtldcrrhip of
t.. tortr rrittcn for r pofidrf r.derrhip l.rr lntcrc.ting for rhrt thel rl|ttlt
rbout the formcr'r vicry of tlc li.mlls oo tte ctblognphic forrn lr r sioo+
I or cvctt ethicsl, medium for clalms of knowledgt Frcdril Brrth publirhcd
rn crtEDcly ssverc attacl or Colin Turbull in Curctt (J),
'lnthmplogt
preciscly in thir contcrl! r work tlat r€emcd to b. porsing as profadood
clhnography lncorpontcd withln lt monl ob6€rr.rtioru o! the wrld r! rdl
u conirovcBir.l ruggcrdonr conccrnlng poliry atrccting thc fatc of tbc Ib '
The rclponsc to thb rttrck in r lf,t6 islue (l17) ircludcd tlc modarting
cooncntaria of rrta spcc{dist, r,hich !t lc t tcidcd to giw r oorc
balenccd grounding to ttrc ethnographic mrtcri.rl vhich.Tumboll hrd
rhrprcd rccording to hir wrlting projcct. Whilc thac cxcbrngo xtfs rbout
lic purposcs for which rcdirt cotrvcntionl migit bc urcd (aftrr dl Tlrabull
muld have vrittm r! c.sry ltrting his vie*r which nigbt bv€ dicibd r
las vchemcnt ettrck by Brrth), uonc of thc oodcrating puti6 nbcd thc
lmtnrtrnt i$uc of thc rolo of thc ctlnogrrpblc mcd.luro in rtokbg tbr !rEc.
of this controvcny. ,
Finally, abaogrrp$crr, rbo writc for arca spccialirt and gtocnl rcrd.t!
rhlpa, oftcn criticizc rmbltiour" broad mmpantivc rnelyrcs ettcoptcd b
rnthropology for thcir vlohtionr of botb dctail rnd tbc ricb cmplexlty
cxplorcd within thc ahoognph.l6, ulcd tt dltr sourccr for lbc cmprrl-
ronr. Wc avoid dbcurdon herc of how lle curnnt crperimclb rppat to
bc moving evcn further rrry from tbc pclibllity of grand cooprriroo h
the agcd, cver unrtsolvcd contrsycny in rnthropology bartro lhc ctlno6-
npbcr and the comFndvigt, who !.cs thc purpoc€ of ctbrognpby u r
drl& rither thrn ! thcorudcal, rcurcc for crcntual rhtncdod ir irdocdtt,
nomolhctlc proJcctr. In Glrcct, tho work of tho jenoral mrnJn'rtlvbt u ll
lr ur ually conctivod rppdr to tlro coclal rclorcc rcarlcnhlp of J rbova Tbc
vtry nnturc of thqc pnojoctt qlFc$d! thc concqrtlon ofethnognphy end tho
urcr to whlch lt crn b. pul, bdd by rcadcn rcprtscrlJo3 cetcgorlcr I rid
2 [c.9. rtt Wcincr'r long ncEltlvc rcvicw (lll) of Rorman rrd Rubc.l'r
complrrtivc rynthalr of thc oomplcr Nc* Oulna mrtcrhlrl.
Thus, thc klndr ofcrltlclrmr of mntcmponry cthnolrrphy rnd ofthe u*
of cthnognphic mattrhl ln comparirons by rc.ulcn who rrc thcorcha
ethnogrsphcn dcmoortntc moct clearly thrt di$BrcdDcntt tboot thtl
cthnographia rs tcrtr rbould bc run decp bclow the tlcit comarJu! of thc
54 IARCUS & CUSIIMAN
diriplinc and rrc rt ill only partly or irrdirc!'tly articuLtrtcd il anthroJrology'r
iclf{ritrcEl discours<,
Literory Sources
Thcrc arc numerous allcmalive frrmcworks ln colrtcrnporary litcrary critl-
cism thlt might inform a pcnpcctivc on cthnographic writing, uscful to
hrbitull rcldcr! of cthno8rrphy. Yct it would bc a mbtlkc to think thrt
rnthropology in 0ux h&' found r stablc rcurcc of idcas to drrw upo'n.
Rrthcr, contc porary trcnd! io litcrary criticirm rrejult volrtilc, Tbc
c,onvcrgqncc and Frccivcd muturlity of problcrnr, alivc both in litarEry
criticism [scc, for cxsmplc, whitc't llsalrrmcnt (l l5) oftbe dcconltructlon-
ist trcnd in a rwicw ol a book by Paul dc Manl and cthnograpbic writing
havc drawn cxpcrimcntrl clhnographen ard their tymprthctic readcn to
thc morr cxplicitJy dcvclopcd, but noncthelds richly varial dircoursc otr
tcxlual arulysis in litcrary criticism.
Somc of thcst frameworkr will bc mcntionod bclow, but mo6t p"rtincnt
to thc kinds of issucs laised in this papcr is thc rccslt lit{rtturc which b!!
attcmpted to resurrcct thc litni6canca of rhaorjc by rcnroving tbc tlint lt
hl3 had in wcatsrn thought from itr tr€atmqnt by classic philoeophar
(m6t promincntly, Plato lnd Aristotlc) in thc dcbarc bctwcqn dialcctics
and rhctoric (57, 58).6 Rhctoric was oiginally conccrncd with spaking snd
wu r sclf-conrciously dcvclopcd body of thcory for tlrc usc and tr8ining of
orarors. It wa-s shaiply distinBui3had from dialcctical argummt, which wlt
thc cmbodinrcnt of sb'strrct )ogic, by ils focur on tcchniqucs of impression
msnrgorcnt-how logic is omamcntcd and rnadc pcrsuasivc with an audi-
cncc in mind. Thc modcrn tr.atmcnt of rhctoric !,! a critical pcnpcctlvc
diffcn considcrably from thc classic pcrs1xctive. It focusca on writing ratbcr
than spcaking from lhc poinl of vicq' of thc criticrl radcr rslhcr than of
thc wrilcr. This i3 a nsturul conscqucncc of the historic dccline of rhdorlc
u r body of con*iously applicd thcory for spcrlco or writq[.
Rhctorical functions arc thus an unsclf<onsciou, intcgrsl dimenrion of
Eny kind of qrittcn cxprcssion, insclarably bondcd to thc aubctrntivc coo-
tsnt of thc nErntivq intcrprctttion, or analyT is prcsntod. Just !s thc lotic
o[srgumcnt ofa tcri i! sbJtractsblc for I c.rtain ptrfr6c ruch as thCor€tictJ
dirculcion, 30 lhc rhdorictl dimcrrrion o[ tr tcxl tnd ilt argumsntr rrG
rb,rtnctublc for ! crrttin purpost suclr lr! I critictl ditcursion of how r tt t
rAlmort rny thcorl6 of,!it ourx rrltht .l& t I F.lblc.llmulll fot
'crricr of cl)rrrnl
r,.nrE tiv6 ofl.tlnotrrphic or hi.loricrl !fllin!, bot oly hnProaion h lhll lhoa. v?f|l'ot'
rhrch h.v. b<rn lnol hry. nol rorlcd vcry tuccdtfully let kt wrldmrnl fhwod ur of
Onc( in r.tudy o{ Itlrm;c hrrtorioftrphy ( l0E)l ln contrttq r (hdoric rPprorch udcvtl@
by ll.ydcn whirc hr! rorrdl bnllirnllT for hirlorlcal w.lllno lnd i! obYlo!.ly thc Und o(
FEnpccli'r m6t in linc l.ilh hoi *. h.Y. por.d |'|ud in rhi. Fpct
ETHNOO RAItIlAg Ag TF'--'l
pcrruada and cfcctivcly colnmunlc|t.r il.t mclnlnt'. In dtlcf
/e, '5
tha
rocognizd intcgntion of thc.c rlpcctl of ! tert lr rurpcrdcd fof tbo tab-
of a particular tiad of enalydr' but whcrcer lqic da&r or trrla lla
lnporranco of rbctodo ln vlcrtag 11 g 1 s66r.r.rln.nl, rlctorb aa Dt
conc€lvcd, aovtr loc. rltl'l of lt oomplomcatrry rahtloEup b prrdc
to thc logicd conlcat of ra lrgulr.lt or hFr!'ctetlod. nc !o llc coL& .
dcdnc* of tla lrttrr la tbo rbctorlc of lt! linggbtlc crbrordG.
In the modrrn nnrrcctlou of rbctorlc Pddrnln & OlbrtohoTyta
OO provldcd r rtrmt rd rophi*icetcd rtltts.oL still rclltirf b e.d
raivity. Kinncavy (59) br.r vrtttco r oooprcbcotlvc rwtcr of ddc rod .
Eodcf[ rourcn oo riotorlc rl roll t' rr rttlorpt rt tFtbodo lbott I! '
lttrrturc, Fryc (39) rnd Burtc (lt !ft ptmcr la lodldng on Ed ]borhl
the imprtr.ooc of rhslorlc h 0cdoru.l urd nonfcdoorl pruo. Both (lt) :,
ptoduccd an iniucoti rtarlcrt g:npcctivc oa ficdoD, lld nd rqiatly ",,
Valccio (106) h!! ffitt n u articubtc conctptual rtudy of rhrt ha.cdb '
rhctoriq along *lth r lcss t tbfyiag ltt mpt rt r forE { th€ory ofrtcoilcrr r
Howcvcr, tlc work of llrydco Wiltc (ll2-ll/t) lr pcrhapr tlo nst uro
firt for a pqnpcctivo oa ctlaognphic wrttiqg. not mly bouro. of tbo.-C
.
hirtication rnd ryrt drdc mturo of hi! i'' lthbi bot dto bqua ba '
epplics a pcopcctivc ddclop.d in Utaruy cridcilor n! hb iD46 tott j
Ol2) his prirury d.bt b to Northrop Frtol lo r dirdplbo cf,rrttbg I
ouisidc litcntur, bot rhlch cuployr r Uttrary mcdiuo-thory. ,' I
In his csayr (t 13, t 1,1), Whit prsvida convloclng umpla of tb rg,9ll. ''
cation of bi-r idcar lo tbc rhc,toricd of !6locdot of trlrtclcd
vritir.g. "otlysit
.
. i,,: , rt ,; .
Appllng rn rodydr of rbaoric !o btrtory b lrhrp. i lrolo bEri.thl
rnd obvlou! projet thra epplylag h lo silnogrrphy, rt lcert bafcr tL. ,'
currctrl tnnd of crp.rl$6ttitoa. ftr U Uaure blrtodo6nphy lr r rrfit
oldcr rnd dc.flcr blcrut rmong hbtorird than alnojnphic rridlt hrl
bocn unong rnthmpologbta bocruro hlrtodcd nrrmdw la& ludf.m
dLwdy to rtorytdln! tfi.n cltoo8rlpbl; Dlnrdvc, rud bc.rutc tL Sbd.
cal inagination hu brd r euc! grtrtcr frccdoo in dcvcloping T'prcpdna .:.
textual formr silcc lt hr Dot bc6 dcd dth(r to r l! ..tch ,
pnctlcc lite 0etdrort or to srdr of Stncrd theory. Nooothclcr+ t!.n htn!
elwayr bcar 6crlrc couvcnimr la itrtorlcal rrttlag r h ctllotnpbb ,
wrlth& horsvcr much moro llvcly en rrce of dlrourloo rnt! llncrtlol
they bave boco ln tbc forocr. ,'t.
Wbllc Wblto'r cbbonto formf bopolodol ocbano miy b; [did
tpPllcrbllity to clhnognphy, moct of thc polntr he m*d tboot tho rbctcl:
crl brtlt of hbtorlc.l rrltln; rrc Jurt u vrlld for dhnogrrphlc trld4Ya
cxrmplq in thc follovlng irgumar! onc Dood otrly iuUrtltutr flo rixd
crlnognphic fof hlrlodcd (l13, p. 105):
rl
)
50 N'tAtt( (Js & ( tJs tt.t^N
sllrNoohl^Plll8s As TSJCI 5?
ll Jrtottron ir nthr. thd hrrtorrcll q,i,nt ,nurt
lfuty&d pdtunty u . f tnd of prr.
b<
drr.o,.r bd6! io chjmr b ohr.( ttrl rnd rrurh^rlnd c.ll bc r.rrod. Tlr tion to Poucrult'r ryrtco. In hb rcutt rcvicr of Sctd (19), Clitrord cplcrr
tr..fu
!ubr.(rrnt rnt hhrdlcrt ditcoor* to . ,A.roaol rn lrdrr b.r ro dl*toc
rU Jlclt thc lnhcrcot dt6culda of cootin\ en intcreat ln the rnrlnb of F i.dtf '
untknrrudurc a[]j ir.nc.nr to p.ir ror r moder pr-. ftD7r,.n6 ; of;Jr".:. j;;i < lcrlt wlth Fouciult'r brudly conodvcd vlgr of dboouna Ho rlo oo.
rn r".tyr.
*outd F!"idc ur. I mrinrr,n. rrrh r m"riulSaEi -friiiiFTio
r hi
rntt cludo wlth rn Grtcndod cnm.ntrry on Sdd'r rrdlcrl quadJdloj d lha
f vcn oricll di.cour& ir moft ...urrrcty cl.rti6od b rh lmfurfo urcd u dJbo
urumptlo thrt lodtl-rio Int ryrardoal of otbcr oultina
rlt !bJ..l of rtudy rhln br rny fo,md r..lficJ rcctrntqu+r k
41,Ui o r.trr oUlcr ln
dtf ah{d
ordcr to 'rxplin" it. implicationr for atmgnphlorritlng (unfortunrtcln Srld dudl€.tt 13:
A rhcrryk l udFn o( hittoricd dirco$n rould rt oglr6 tinl cvcry hbtory *Ortly
I
nons cont mporrry abogrrphy, crccpt for r p.$h& poddw rtftlacc
of th. nrrn€ c.rtt i'll not oily I c.rrrin unoon! ol lntordrdoo .nd rn crpf.r.tlon to O6crtz).
inr.rptdrtion) ot rhrt thir informrtioi ...D.r..t,. bot <or I
r.b6 1 666 - 1.r" o".n ,"a.n I In undcrtatlng !o mSg€rt rourccr ln Utcrrry cridclo, opcdrtty 6o
rbo{l lh. rnitu& th. fttdcr rl'outd lnrl. b.{oc tod &. {t b rciroll.d r,ld' U; I pcnpoctivo of rhctorlc, &!t mlSht rdmuht! dbculaloo of ahogTldo
fo.hrl inrcrp.ltrtbn . ..
wrltlng, wc do not lnlad Lb.6 lo tarv€ Ir hov-to oodolr of coulrtloo fr
rrrilcrr or rtrdcn of abnogrephy, Th.b would rL?at tho fitd nhrt! oa
Thus, whai rheloricsl rnalysir rcvcajs that a mcr.e cvduation of ugumcntr hypo.titi'.tiod ln chralo rhctariq bolating lr $ ! bdy of appllod thoty
docs not is how the langurge and narrstivc constructioo of sn hist;rical or and, u ruch, lcrvlng it wlncrblc to cblrg€r tbat lt ls all arnlpotrllco ol
cthnographic tcxt prc-cncodrs both thc objcct of raalysis (what courlt! r, form and no oontcaL lt b preciacly tbe forod pardlstlr rod typologt t
dats) and the grounds for r spccific cxplsnatory argutrtcnt, As with histori- in thc *'rltin8r of Eod.rD rritlfr on rhctortc (eg. Wbitc, Vdodo, lod
c.el writing, a rhctorical pcnpcctivc should bc an andytic{.lly &utonomour Klnncavy) ttat bccmc dncult to follow ld tbtt rtmd i! ltrlHrt mtnrl
djmcnsion of thc criticsl cvaluation of cthnographics, but it is in no wry r to the elcgancc of thc b.ua rnd hdg.htq cxprcrod ln ooro coovtatloorlly
substitutc lor a complcmcntary cvsluation of thc logic a.nd evidcncc foi a Itylcd dircoulc, thlt thcy lomdow g!'lcf,atc. On€ cl! only coo€hdc rh-t
lcrt's argumcnts.l thesc formalismq vhllo tlq rppcrr to bc modcb thrt otbcrr DlSht oub!$ ,

Just to mcntion olhcr sourcqr of litcrary crilicilm thrt nlight b€ u!€ful alc ln frct tho pcrrcnal modclr of thdr cr€lionr orld t d rr d barr$o
to a firspcctive on crhnographic writingr Rolnnd Bartha' elaborntq formr.l to thdr own tboug.hL Tho tcxtu.El prt crtrdcn of th6o fornd oodA rn
analysis of rcalism in Balzac (6); Ravmond Williamr, pcnp.ctivc, inforucd lheosclva rhaodcal cf,rrcbc! D€{Dt to rppcd to radrfr b rs bt ,Udd
by Mrrxirm (l i6); Jacqucs Dcrridr u s sourcc for thc dcconltruction of ern lblr plrc€. grcr\ notc h r rbetodc of fonul elrlydr r.nd DCbod.
tcxrs, indcpcndcrrt ofauthoriAl inrcnrion (28); rcldcr-oricntcd criticirm (3i, Rcadcn ard wrltcrr who rttcropt to rpproprhtc rmh6ly udtl Eo&
54, 98); antl Michcl Foucault's idiooyncratic, mmplcx dcvclopmc.nt of con- elr---to productiyc l-o tht hraadr of th& craton--oflta fud llca oaole
crpti such ar discoursc and cpistcnrc (lB). Fouclult,i! intcrcating bcrc nlrdc ln thcir qln hnd!. 'i r'r. ..r,t'
btcausc an lttcmpt ha! bctn made by tr litsrrry srhohr to incorpontc hil Tho eflccdvtncrr of rbctrrdcd llrlydr tludoA dot d.?d o Ma$bd
idca.r into a projcct *hich includcs somc coruidcrntion of ninctrcnth car- b'ut on thc qlcrr rtrlrocot of lscuo snd thc @Bvlndq dlomrtrdo bt
tury ahnograp,hic writing (84. Thc dificulty with using Fouclult a.r a cridc of thelr.rorrl u r cedd.nd@ h both thc witlnS rd ddht oa
rtimulur for thinking about qthnogrophic writing i-r tbrt hir analytical framc tcrts, For tbc ahaognphlc rrltar, !n rPlrqocra of rheiorlcd b!a1 bor.
of rcfcrcncc !q!l€._t!c,autonomy of spggi6p_t9rlr and luth,qlsr bua nthct cvcr rhctorlcdly rdrDubt d by cddcl couldl cdrlch tbo pcrrOod thou$f
t ts lhc conccpt of dis4ouBc in broarlcr spltial rnd tcmpoml tcrru. Thl! I
proccr! thrt Soor lnto produc'ln! r trlt vlthout rc'urfEtlDt r htpqntbod
nrrkci it dilllcult to Dlpropristc hir nrctlrod for onc't own project, howcver I
notloo of rhctorlcd tochniquc, Thcro b lndccd I dengrr of F JI& h lL
ttintul!ling lltc aub6lnntivc inrightr tlrnt ntrglrl b< dcrlvcd frorrr qto6{ s11cn- I
rclf-corurclorunor rboul ooc'r rrltlry prrctlct tbrt rdatlm $@l rtaaoal. ,
I
f'
crl luu6 ml3bt produoq or ch dln&r of I drn of r ltqt rny fE hf
'w'rh wlrr., *r *r,ut(' r,,trdr rt,.r 'l,.tr"l,.t .^rty.l. l. ,,11()f b .n .vrlurtlon of truth rubj<st mrttor towrrd u lnvoludor end lntnrpocllvo end! tlt! th orni_.,
clrimt hd:.ur .rll.n.(ion .nJ tlrdry l,url(t,r. (.tln(,i t.crf,. t!l. ibcrortc of th! h'ltu.to in
r,hrch lhr, .rc crprEtcd A
lil productlor (thl. ll of ooun6, oflo ol tb. l,orlbl6 obr@tloor to iha dtlrodd )
ro thc l.nturF of cD.*cplll|lil..tlo0 cl6n thr rry
'cnritrvrly
for ! drr.u$ion ofchimr rnd cvidrirc. Tlrc rcc.!r! a$4t!m.'lt ty Alln ,rnunr of Lty! in whlcb romo tnp.r{rncntd oihnopphla ep,ptrr to bo fobf rd Hfb i''
Srrlul' r i{xrrl rhcor, (56) follor.r r prrcrict phrcb linb r prlcr dircoun rmlpir of conccptr llghlr sv€a moro forcd\lly tho otedvc balrnca nocirrry b.trt€ tUa!,;'
lo I follo*int corlridcntion of thor rb,!trlclrd lofic ln I crirjcrl lndFb of tloorrdcal r|tb6 lvlty rnd conccrn rlt! tho othcr in tlac apa'irncor). Por ttc rtrda of
thrn cthnotrphic rritil't. ahnogrrphlcr, r .ddcd Eddvltt to trua of rhaorlo * al qH
I
,.i,,
r \ ii
'..--'#*
18 ARCI s & ( lts[M\^,]
ih( rubll.!y wilh whi...h nntlrrl)p{)logicnl krrovzlcd6c in cthlogrrphic fornr
ir routincly nss.srcd. n rwnrcDclt of ! tcxt's rhctorical dirncnsion by iU
vrritcr or rcldcr ir finrlly nor at nll rrrbvcrrivc to,ophljlicrt<J rarhcr ihtn
rbrolutirt slnn(lnrdr of objcctivc knowlc(lBc, but h nn intcgrnl prrt of bolh
Bcncrsting snd cvrllllling clqinrr to obj.ctivity sr wcll trs crplrnrtion,
rbttnctlblc from thcir writtcn contcits.
Ethnogrophic l|/riting Experinenrs, FieldN,ork Procrice,
and Theory
Berusc of thc silencc about ficldwork pracicc durint mmt of thc pcriod
of cthnoSraphic rcslism. it sccms thst thc way ethnognphia wcrc writtcn
has hrd littlc fctdback on thc wry Bcldwork has betn conductcd. In frct,
when ficldwork cxpcricncc wss sventullly dissuls.d rt lcngth in thc largc
confGsionrl lit€nturc of rhc lstc l96G snd thc 1970s, which dctailod tbo
cxpcricnccs of nscarchcr who cntcred tbc Ecld eith divcnc thcorctical rnd
problcm oriqntltioru, onc is imprcsscd with how gc1lerllly similar are thcrc
cxpcrisncd, tllowing for pcrsonal variation. Unfortunltcly, wc do not hrvc
ncar thc samc numb.r of accountr which dca) with ficldvork as an intcllcc-
tuol odysscy, forcgrounding preciscly how iotcrpretrtioo! urisc in thc Scld-
sork proc6s. Thc works of Rabinow (79), Dumont (30), and Crapanzrno
(26) not wil hstanding, Silvcrman'r paprcr'(94), to our knowledgc, b thc only
conlcmporary rccount which providcs a dctrilcd rtraightforwird vigw of
rccarch cpirtcmoloSy. Clifford's biogrsphicrl !fudy of Mauricc L,csnhardt,
ar a man, ficldworkcr, and ethnographic writcr (17, 18, 22), i! an cqurlly
rarc, holistic roconstruction of an historic 6gurc'e rc*arch cpistcmology.
Whilc th. folklorc of ficldwork scrvcd as thc lilcnt dominating influcncg
rhtpinB lhc convcntions of rcnli!t cthnoErtphy, there war nothing in rcalilt
clhnogrophy its.lf lhat might hovq epcn66 up dircussion or rcrhapcd how
frcld*ork was conccivcd 8s inrcllccturl inquiry nthcr than ar a kind of
Jrcrrcnrl crpcricncc.
This unidircctionrl inEucncc of 0cldwork on ctlnognphic convcntlq$
mry changc with thc trcnd in cxpcrimcntd cthnographics, il only bccausc
thc lrttc( rrc Jo sclf-rcgcctivcly conc.rncd with bo,w thc tobl procds of
knowing, inclurling rn intcll.stunl renrc$cntotion ofocldwork, rclrtcr lo tha
irl(rIrtloli(,rt nrttl crPlrnntiorrr wlrillr r,;c ()ffrrr(1,'l'h!t i'r, rtlurogrrphon
lrrc ( hiDking rlucli nrorc rclrorl}ccl iv.ly ntrrut (lrclr llcklwork proctlcc !t rrl
intctr!l psrt ofconstructinS an cthnogrophic tcrt. Whilc thc rcality ofdolng
6cldwork will alwsys rcmain somcwhst chsotic tnd Bt lclit partially
bcyond the control of thc 6cldworkcr, thc rcllcction on ficldwork rclevant
lo a narrativc strutcgy and stylc olcrplanntion may 6nally havc somc dircct
imprct on thc way ficldwork is conrlrrctcrl by thc profcrsional rendcn of
cxpcnrncntrl cthnogrnphics. wlrnl il l1)(rk lo Inxtuc€ iuclr cxpcrirncnl' wat
thc kind ofmrxlricrtio ofrcalill convc lionr which qucrtioncd thc unr€ .
ETI|NOOR Pt{t8S A3' !
''
lntlc ellrtcmologlcr.l fcrtr ln thc 0cld lmplicltly cntallcd by tho oonrrn.
tionr. In ro doln3. thb chrnp hrr ld rr lca.rt to I rnorc ludd rr?.n tttdar
of 0cld prectlccr ln rchtloo to thc klr& of cr,pleutloru ruch lt lGdt{-.ta
and for whlch lt provldc. tcrtuil riuthorlty.
Ethnognphy'r rcledon lo tho dovclopmcnt of thory h rntbropolo6r br
bocn rcrncrhrt dlfcrcnt rhrn lb robtlon to [oldwork fncdo. lloo ;.*
[tcory in antlrropology lr onodvrd ar r tody of h]llto drtmb o!
ocririn gcncnl toplcr of cmplrlcal lntrrert tuch u llnrblp, dtdoq rna
cconomics, built up from comperisons of d!h, rhrtnctrd h turtr &oE
cthnographics. Tbcrc h'! lcng bccn an undcrlying entagoolrra to thb Hrd
ot theory lnd ethaognphy's r€lstion to it by tboc,: r,bo rc. tbcordr€
primrrily as cthnognpbcrr, MaaifcatJy ir thc rocld ocicoca, tho atotorl
corltmctlon of brqd toplcal theorid basod on the llductiw u!. of dhF
graphico bar bccn thc ndonalc for mcial and cultunl tntlropolov, trt
cthnographcrr rnd oomprndvc tlcoriltr---{uppo&dly pon of tb3 @
sotcrpriso-bwo olt n bcco difatat pcoplc rlth differclt outlootr
Thc curEot ttnd of cspcrimcntr! ctlaognphicr only raYl. to lDlr
cthnogpphy furtlcr rmy, thb dmc cxptcitty, from lu covcrh3 mpn
tlvc ntionrlc. Tboortdcd hlcrtrtr rre cyco 60r€ lnwsrdly focu.d 6 tba
li*cd dcrcrtpllvc rnd latcrprctivc pmblcor poccd by r rubjccl, rtdaly
bound.d by llc ttrL vh.lch ltrclf bcoomcl ptrt of tbc doElrln of tl.o.ld.d
itrtcftrt.
Coot$llod colap.dronr of ovcdrpptnS cultunl cubjcctt (rad proro.
rbly overbpplng laiturl cmoccar ln atnogflphy by mdl "ooosdtLt'
of rct r.rch€rs) lrc pc8bpa rcccpttblc to s,ttrnographcrr rinc thcro b oloro
control of thc cooErtr rcpracotcd ln cthognphy, rrhlcb rro otber*o lod
ln gnnd or hlghly rbrtrrc.t comprbon. Much motrr roghldcrt d b!& o,
comparrtlvc thcoda mltlt bc conrtruclrd cvcotuall y throug! tbo opcl.
ron of cxpcdmotd a}nolnphld rmon! rrrr ryocldltttr brn llb tolld
bc a by-product of r ooro dlret @trtctrporrft cooera wlth tho Hld of
gounding thcory that provlda en ahnognphcr tvith s rry to lht0l rbol
his matcdel, lnd morr to tho poirt bcrg r EclDr to corltmot r ffi tld
ir botb dr:crlptivo rnd .rphutory.
In thl! orr?r ror o( tfiory ln rnthropolog, tJro brdlflnt of FanI
lhmry prooood, btr rdln.rnqtb ln tLo wry lhrt 0old mrtrld b hmdld
tcxturlly hy ruoortdw othnognphlo wrltcn nth.( thrn by oollogdq nd!
data foi covcrlng tboory buit 6'rr co-partrcnr. Whrt tt'oooprrld- b tbi
rdcoulcv of iltrnrdvc rrw ot rtvlcr of crola.injiiiiffiEr-o6ff6oo
dlE1-op"ffi tr;;tffib" fi rfs;#Aith;ti;a?tr5-tr6t
dfrn?:-on tnnovrtivc frffii6fi Oifercnt ethnographla and thur ciga.l.
mt'rt, in ethnotrrphic writing.
ln thlr klnd of thoorstl,cel lntotr! rnthropolo/llr hrvc tyy'celly loottd
for rtlmull bcyorxl thdr orn botnderlq tlof lnvoko rnd daubp fc lldr
,t
t,
oo ' Mantfus& cus MAN
own pumoscs thc idcrs of psst tnd rcccnl ,,gratr" Iikc Marx, Wcbcr,
Jurlhcim, Ricocur, Banhcs, and Wittgcnstcin. Anthropology hre not pro,
duccd purcly in its own lrsdirion n grounding thmry foi'cthnographic
rcsclrch.-R trt h cr, ct
Lqgs1ad6r: _!t! "-c_!$gl99rcgcsl-!$4!g! in inform.
rng rhcrr pnm!ry intercst in thc linkccl activity of flc.ldwork rnd cthno,
gnphic writing. ln thc past, rr lerst, rarhcr than having crelted socid or
culturrl thmry to sawc thcir accounts, crhnographcn havc bccn rpcciallrtf
in the tcsting and cltborntion of gcncrnl theorctical pcrrpcctivcs, dcvclopcd
in othcr disciplind ond by orhcr thinken, lor tlcir uscfulncss to task! of
explanrtion snd intcrprctstion, cmsnating from s tndition of racarch and
writing activity. Shifts in thcorcticdt intcrcat thu! depcnd very much on
critical rcvicu and dii3!ti\faction with thc wry thtt p&rticuler thcorctical
inSuenccs "look" as lhcy erc rcpcstcdly tricd out in cthnographic writcr
proicrts.
Thc clcarcst cvidcncc of anthropology's priority intcrcat in thc ethno-
grnnhic tcxt ovc. thc informing thcorctical wor! is thc fact thst thclrcticsl
works in anthropoloSy (c.g. 88) arc usually motivatcd by a rc0cction on
cthnographic malcrials, cvcn though thcy ar. pitchcd morc ab.tractly, rnd
lhat lhcy have a limitcd currcncy, cvcntually bccoming rclevant only u
documcnL! in thc history of idcas. In contr&lt, ethnogrsphic tcxts livc rnd
havc a much morc du rablc rclcuancc. This may bt a rcsult of thc distilctivc
continuity and cumulativc qualiry in thc gmgraphicel framcworks through
which anthropologislr dc6nc thcir cthnographic rcscarch lrom one gcncm.
tion to the ncxt. Yct b.yond this, cthnogrsphcrs (in rcadcrship catcgory 2
of thc prcvious scclion) sccm to admirc thc cthnographic tcxt rs s sourc€
of inspiration {o bc rcdiscovcrcd and rcviv<t, trnd thmrctical workg arc
constantly b.ing gcncratcd from this prinlnry attcntion to how problcms arc
lcrlually !ddrcsscd in clhnographic writing
Thc currcn I r rcnC of cxpcrjmcn ls in cthnogrdphy ce.ms to bc in line with
this traditional rclarionship ol cthnography to thc grounding theory which
informs it Ilowcvcr, now thcrc is a much richcr rangc of thcorctical pgr.
\p.{liv.r to l}c rrl)lorcrl irr cthloSrnl,lrir. projcctr. Tlrir ir unlikcly to chnnto
tlrr hari, rrlrti0rrrlril' L(lw..rr r! I rr r , r
;a
rn
1
rI r
nrrrl llrrl)ry, l'|rt 6r (rtod,
,nt!r|lg rtr. rrrrri rc rrrrrltl tntrr.rt.(l t.rtr rrow lxlrrg lr(xlU(((1, lltor. qlpcfl.
which lccm to ga lxyrrnrl n rcnlirt rn(ionalc nrc Uting lhc cthno,
'rlcnli
graphic mcdiurn for thcorcticirl discrrrrrrc ln il"lcll Ficld cxpcricncc mly
lcad to thc kin(, of rcllcction thnt at lenst inspircr a lyslcmrtic thcory
complctcly inrlrgcnouri to I|nthropololy and 'yhich informt ils priority con.
ccrn with pr.xlucing cthnograp|y.
[inally, it ir worth rncntiorring lrrrc Ilnydcn Whitc's lrcatmclt of thc
dcbatc bctwecn philosophy of lristory rnd hirtoriolrnphy ot thc cnd oftho
ninctctnrh canrury (112, pp.261-79) bccausc of it5 simihrity with the
prcscnt momcnt i ttnthropology, in which therc is a partllcl dcbotc bctwccn
snrNoot^PtlrBlt At Tpclll 6l
cthnoFrpby Gr tho t rvrlt of gcacral toptcd tb@ry dsvdogd ctrddo b
rnd cthnoSrrphy rr lb oryD tfll, rrinforc€d by brqd t*id tbqlo rHct'.
rrc lt! rsrvlcc. A nqjc dltcftncc bctrcto hldory ud rafuopololr b!
ir tht h tho forocr, lorovrdvc tlordcrl ryltro. Oa ghlloopb of
hirtory doo.tnrtlnj tbo mcenhg of tbo bdivirJud hirtoricd rccmt) b
trudcd t"blough Mrn rnd Nkfrrchc upoa r oucb more cteblbhcd bird.
ographical tradltioa rhloh focurod oa thc lulormy of rccoultr lld lld
c.nrtruction e! tcxtt Th.ftrt ln antbropoloDr, thc riturtion h[ ba rc.
vaficdr a cooocm rlth r$ountr urd thcoricr thlt inforE tlcrn Ia fba
currcnt trcnd of cxpcrimantrdon h.as lntrudcd upon r rtablc tradldd rltb
gcn*al thcory ar itr pulativc goal ln h.istory, thc hirtoriographicd poddo.
dcvclopcd by Crocr, prcvrllod. It rsariins to bc lcco how a brordly dollrr
hittoric momcnt h culturd r:rd rocial authropolog5r will bc talvld",,,
Orher Senses of Ex4rimentation
Thus far our dinueioa b.rr bccn limitcd to only ! c.rtrir Buobcr of
cuncntly writtcn ctlnognpbics, and for good rcn"rcn. Althougb tbcy rrr
pcrhsps r minority of dl tlru writtq\ thcy appcar to bc rttrr.dnl r
disproportlonatc gwnl lntcrct in anthropolopr. M6t cthrognpblct ro.
main ouBidc thir rcalm ofcxpcrimcntltion bcc{usc in thcir prodrrtio lhcy
do not mrlc problctrudc dthcr tbc co tructiol ol'dacripdoor ud bt(r.
'
, prctationr or thdr rrldng practlca In cootrut !o curreal crpad.Et3lr t!€
thcorctic-al htcrcsb rnd convcntiond rcdilt fqrnr of l.h€!. etloott$hlcr
I
I lcad thcm awry frour r focur on thc rocial con:truaion of th& rubJcctr'
I worlds, which hu b.dr pcrbrF thc mljor ttlmulu! for dcvclqht.rp0dl
lrclf-rc0cctlvc discourrc m writlng prrcticc witlrirr aboognphrc lrgarl.
I mcnu lhefiralvcl" In r lcrlra, thcn, thclc cxFcrlDrattt atud u I & bcto
critiquc of rll thdc othcr cont mporsry cthnoSnphla which do Da 16-
pontc e re0cctioo oo tbcir orro produaioa u rr vitd compocat o( dr
analyrcs they ofrcr.
Tho livcly dlrcurlqo of .cc.llod frnpatlva <rr mcrnln3 h mtropo
y
rrry errt[ro;nlojy hl boorr ln rlrllhl corlro.l to lh. tdrtlw tt{iltloo
of bolrrvlonl or ryrtsm. porrpootlvG., c,(rrcornod nron wlt[ ulydorl Eod.
clr of crpluutlon tbrn wltlr tbc dc0nltlon of lndl6oour tocnbl ttlD;
workr. 'Il|h dLcuulon har arLrcn rr u clrbontlon of tho loo3rtrodlnj
interat in rcdist ahnognphy of rcprcaatinl iho rutlvo polnt of vL!t,
Syrtcmr anrlyrir, of whlch rradltlonal functlorullro nr r erudo fcq hrr
only bccn advancod wlth thcorctlql rophirtlcrtion ln culrurd ohry'
oconomlc rnthropolo6r, rnd Marxirt projcctr, rnd thoc rrt lcldr b tUch
cthnognphic wrltlng hl bccn largcly unproblcortlc.
Amid r wcltcr of ctlrnoSrlphid thrt blvc no ponlculrr dbtlnaloo rr
tcrtull formr, Roy RrpFporlt Plgt /or thc ,lnaator, (E0) ttrndr od ! r
62' I :uS r crlst IMAN
r..
modcl I'Jl for thc sy.itcrnt oricntcd cthnography bccrtroc it rc rclf-con-
sciously rltsmpfr to ofcr I nsrrstivc framcwork which uccommodatel
riSorouJ conccptualizltion &nd qusntific{tion il analysil tbrt trsditional
functionalist qorks intimatal but ncver rcalizrd. It ir thua rn crpcrimcntal
clhnognphy outJidc thc currcnt lrsnd of crpcrimcntrtion. While stnsitivc
lo whcrc nrtivc con:cioug modcls might frt in hi! t xl, R.rppapoA did
crplicitly rttcmpt to jurtify in rhc tcxr why hc nccd not bc prcdominrntly
conccrncd with thcm. ln lltcr cs:ey! (81), R-qpprport hu produccd a fully
deteilal rchcrnc for how "cognizrd modcls" rtright fit logically into a hienr-
chically ernngcd, multilcvcl lystqm! frb.nrsi/orl of coolidcnblc com.
plcrity. T1l6c cssrys may bc satisflng a! furthd advancta in thcoretic!.I
conclptudizrtion which in fact do pr6crvc ihc primacy of rnrJyst modch,
othcrvila ro ncglcctod in thc cursnt rttcntjo! to mcanirg pcrapcctivea,
Ho*cvcr, lhcy hlvc ycl to provc themsclvcs ls worklblc modcls or guid6
for thc writing of systemr lnalyJi! cthnognpbies thet go &yond Plgs tor
lhc,lnccJtoR in tcxt crp.rimcntation. It should not bc construed thlt tcxt!
3uch as Rlppsport's are cxcmpt from an r.nalysi-r of thcir rhctorical and
nlrrrtivc rtratcgi6 ar writing practicc- Thcy arcjurt lca a:lf<onrious and
givc lcss rccognition to thcir rhetoric of conrtruction thrn intcrprctivc
cthnoSraphi6 which *clcomc and call attcntion to tlcir cpistcoological
!nd litcnry undcrpinningr,
Thc involutcd, sclf.re8eciivc nrture of recent arpcrimcot! in ahno,
graphic vriting m.cy bc considcred pcrvcrsc by romo-a tign of crili! rrth6
than hcelth in thc disciplinc. It might furtbcr bc hcld thlt pnoductivc
crpcrimcntstior in ethnognphy should bc focuscd morc cxtcmdly on ncw
wry! to crpr6! tcrturlly rcscarch problcms tbat ffc po6cd in traditional
tcldrork but transccnd in thcir handling thc pcrrp.ctive gaincd from
rcscarch in closcd conlmunitirs or small groupc. Thir other kind of tcrtual
crpcrimcntation thus arisc from projccts for which thc ethnographic tcrt
rr dircctly lymmcrrical with 6cldwork is psrtially relcvant but in itsclf it
too limitcd u mcdium in which to dcvclop a broadly mnccivcd rtscarch
problcm. Convcrscly, cthnographic writing cxpcriment: xay arisc in trcar
of rcr.trch \rithin rnthrofrology whcrc thc cthnogriphls mcdium (or itr
frorlmllo) ir mlrcd ulrrr rr rn lnnov.llvr wny lo pr.i{ol rhtr lrrrl orpllnr.
tll) r,
Mrny r,x;lrl rrr,l crrllural arrllrrrrlxrloglrtr rrtvtr prrxlrrr.r r lrrrlrlillrr<!
rlllrr)Etrlrhy frorrr tl'rir n{)lc1 nDrl u'1tlnlly llr. (lltt.rtrlii)lll thrrt rlrrlvc frorrr
frck!vrork. 'l hir nrny llc n rcrrrll tif lrrirrtl, n chnrrgc lrr crltccr inlcrcrtr. or
a dirsalirfrction tnrl nrnbivnlcncc rvhich nrc ror)tc(l ir (louhls rtx)!rt thc
ldtqulcy of onc's work, Elvcl| llr. unrcll]iilic q)irtcriulogicsl dcDnndt
implicit ln rcslirt convcrltionr. lt rlso rn^y llc lhnl lhc cthnoSrnphy lt.'rclf lr
loo limiting for thc kintl o[ problcmt in which anlhrolxrloSirtt who do
t
ETr IN OO RA}TtrBs A3 TB 63
tddwork bocomc lntrrcst€d durlng thc courdc of thcir rtancb. Of ell tbc
tocial riorctr, anthrqnlogy hrr bc"n thc mott otbuslnlticelly lnttdbd--
plinary in erploring rd6/rnt ry€rrua of inquiry for aoy problco. Wbao tbc
convcntional ahnognphy ir limitrd luch rclolrn jump ora, rc b D6l,
thc ahnognphic tcxt ticd to 0ddwork and dcfrnc problcot fq tbrorclva
thrt roquirc a much dlfcfrnt kind of tcxtull qprcsrion.
Two kindr of t rt! h rhich one'r ffnt-hrnd ahnognphy mey bc b.
cludcd rr Fn ofr hrgcr dcrig! rrc thc problcno or topic focurcd coopln
tivc rtudy rnd thc ttudy of complcr socicticr (and udtr gft.kr rh.", bot
including thc villagc cmmunlty, or city), wb.icb ooobiac' rcid hlrtory,
cthnogpphy, and polidcal cconomy organirrd rroud a key lrgumt K53,
72, 99) c,ould bc rcccot crmplcs of thc formcr; (36. 99, l@, lO9) roold
bc rcccnt exampld of thc htttrl. Ficldworlq rt last b thc gpoltrphlcd llca
of lntrrrt, ir an informing nrcuch cxpcriqrcc bcblad tboc tao rnd rdll
fofmr rt lcut Fn of thdr ruthorlty, but mmy rnorc pcrpcctivd, frld
froo thcoraicd tnd hirtodcd rcading, rre bmu8hl to bclr oo tho ctntnl
thcma of ruch workl for rbich thc cthnographic ocdiun dooc rould bc
irudcquata
In thc comparative rtudy, 6cldworl may givc one the intcrprctativc idcl
but it c{,n only bc dcvclopcd on s broadcr scale by cooparing ode's oro
work E8sirut othcf rdqvut cr!.!. In tlc rtudy of largorcdc prma in
ooDplcr 3Gicty, thc mcrging of cthnogrsphy with othcr pcrspcctivcs ir
ncccasrry to trrruccod thc criticirm of much complex rociety ahnogrrphy
rs ucful in a limitdl ray, but elcotirlly parochial and blirld lo ol!<r
pertp.ctivca crhicb !r! pcrthcot to rny clse snd which focw otr mlcro.
proctsscs [e.g. r.. MrgubrnCr critiquc (67) of AJvcrson'r a.bnognphy]. ln
thc tcrt5 cit d abovq tlc rutboG lrc not willing to lcavc divc'rc pe'rrpc.
tiva which afcct thsir 6cld matcrial to othcr kinds of spccialistr" Rrthcr,
in thcir ovn compositc trxts tlay trkc on icvcrd lcvcls of rignifcancc rnd
nngc ovcr a vrricty of ptrrpccdvca and sourcc ofioforming idcas eld drtr
ofwhich thcir own irn-hud Sddwork isjutt onc. AchicviDt krturl cobcr-
cnoo lr the writing problcor in ruch projcctr, and they conrcqurrrtly erc
wlncrablc to critisistr from rnthrornlogicll readcrt thlt tbcy rrc un.
wloldy rnd do nol rord lllo rnthrolrclo1y. Of oourtc, thir lind of rrrcdon
lr pro,;l;cly nl lrrrlor of tholr orgrcrlrrrcrrtrl ltrto, I'rrilculrrly ln lha tludy
of corttIlcr rrx'lrllcr, flcldwork rrrly rrrrrnlrr lhc (orQ r(r(rtclr rcllyhy ot
anlltrogxrloghlr, rrrpplcrncnlc,<l by (livflrf rcndlng rnrl brortlcr rcllocllot,
brrl lt',vlll orrly pnrtly donrlnrto corrrgxrrilc lcrti ir whlch lhc prcicntltion
and dircursiorr of cthnographlc nrntrrirrl will bc onc comPoncnt emonj
othcri.
Ilxp€rimcnlt ln whlcfi thc cthnography ir e nc* opl)ortunlly for crprta-
rlon, 6lvcn prst modcr of rcporrngc in ccrlain domeinr of rtrtrrch rlthln
 M R(.tJS'& L UsII M,\ N
!Fthropology. !rc rrircr bu_t strikrng noncthclc$. psychologlcll
rtudicr rnd
rctttcir s,crt n thc ncwer 6clJ of nredical rrnrhropology have
favored cithcr
thr.lifc hirtory (vrhich somc mry consiil:i nu noiiophi" lubgcnrc, t
"it ut
which wc haw igrv.lred in rhis pspcr) u.
"r.,rr_"ult,i^l "ompurircns'thot
havc-evolvcd from rcpn:cntation by imprcssionistjc
rhctoric to s rbctoric
whrch is the clofisr !pprorimation in s,rcial Bnrhropoiogy
to thc hypoiheis
tcsting modrl of positivist social scicncc. Wirhin the iiy
of
"ipc;."nts
concrming rcalirt convcntions, rcme have bccn cqually cxpcrimcntal in thc
scnst of using th. rcalist .rltnographic medium to dcscribc and
exolain
ttsychological charactcr.jstics of a populatlon in tcxB fhrt arc not foc'uscd
on lilc history, arc not lrcavily or cxplicitly laden vith I theorsticsl dp
par!tus 3uch as Frcudian pychology, and do nol conform to positivist
formal. rhctoric. Robcn Lcrl's Tahirions (61, ln pcychologicat an_
thropology and Shirlcy Lindcnbnum,s Kuru Sorcery (64i in m;icd an-
lhropology can b. citcd ai efcctivc us<s of thc an-uopaphic mcdium in
frddr of iDtcrcst within anthroplogy wherc cthnognfhic rniting in tbc
rcalist tradition has bc{n undevclopcd
Finally, thc ficld ofvxiobiololy might lcnd iBclf incrcaringly !o tcxtuEl
cxprrssion in a form vcry closc to crhoographic realism. Bdusc of
thc
controvcrsy rbout thc mutusl rclcvanct (or irrclcvancc) ofrociobiology and
lhc traditional conccrns of social anthropology, an cthnognphic lik to
rcpon! of frcld studics of primatcs (or othcr ordcn) would rcquirc dcft
handling. Sara Blaffcr Hrdy's l,ongun of,tbu (j2) is jult 3uch ! tert thai
ir carcful in its clsims but approxirnatcs'thc convcntions ofa rcalist cthnog.
raphy.
Conclusion
Pcrhaps thc moct obvious concluding quction for thir papcf is whcre
the
contqmporsry cxpcrimcntal cthnography ir lcading social and cultural an_
lhrof,ology, rc long idcntificd with its distincliyc pncticc of flcldwork rnd
clhnoSrrphic rccountt. A rcs;rrnrc fronr the f,oint of vicw of whnt we
chrtrrtrrircl lr rerlirrl erlrrrrrrrntr. rlirtilirir,rc<l by thelr lrcI oflorrr,'ern
lr)f erlltlrlrr,,r t.r t..litl 1.r". r,,nvontl.'n., w,rtltl l,o nowlrorc hrrrrlnrnol.
lnlly rltllerrrrl r r,.t (rPcrl r(nlr, lrowrv(t i r.rcitlng tho lrlntorlc cortrtl,
trorrr wlrrr lr flavc trr. t() llrr|tr, arr rclrrrcrrrclll.t Irt(t r(l)rrf,.l|t nrr <;ictrllnlly
io n ry Jrr rrxl i'| I hc lw.ll ti.t ccI trr r y lrrrlory of rtnlirrn. .l lrc ftrl urc,
l'I vr)lu(
fI()nrlllti y(t nrrrkily rlc[rrrrd rnrlrcnl 't lrcnlrcr:(ivc lcrrrlxxiic<! ln Cliffrtrd,r
chIrrctcri/ntio (2()) oI ruch rrlrcti )clt! involvcrj with thc tcttutrl
^r
problcnr of dispcr:rcrl luthoriryl, ir in ctlrnogrlphier thnt lrc bnlcd or vcry
tliffcrcnt notions alloul hos' culrurnl distincrions should bc <jcfincd and
lcrluelly rcnrcscntcd in a conlcnr;rrary world unlikc lhrt prcviously,
8T}INOO R }I I IIS AI T8'Cnt ,6'
rblch rt lcut phuribly ofcnd otqod rFtdr--{dbqt p.oDtn--{ ru.l*,
through whlch etluognpbtc rtellrro bltortcally d,rajof; :
Admtttcdly, tblr ndlcal pa.rpcctivc b ro f!,r ooly r rligtt voloo h tta
..
dirdplinc, and tht onwdjmd rctpot r to tbo crya{ocoO ,llth tla
boaudr of rrrtlrt pncdai nqc &otn dtrhry to rnftacrvtd todrudrE
Any tbift tn focur of lntqdrt mltglt crpcrcdly bc rcc@D.flcd b, r!&
vldcd rcrctio , but tbo ndcr*rcly crldcal frncdon a,unca- h tlb;dqF
lar focuring of iatcrcst on thc cthDogtphtc tcxt, po|r! r!-u!!8roai.!ttil,
ro'philtlcrtcd tnd !.rrching rwlcr of thc etbnographic .ltcfpdrc rt tb.
hcart of thc rationrto for lodrl rld cutrural anthmpolq5r, la ilil rt*ocr,
tbc crpcrimcnts are dirturbiag the tacit couscruu! rbout .\rhrt rltbroob
gistr do." This can bc rcad cith6 u path.brcaling or rubvarivc, bot ith6
wry, tlc-currcat intcrcrt la cthaognpbic vriting b ruorc thra jurt root!6
parring farhion or focur of, ettentioo"
An lpproprilt poirt 6 rhlch to (ad tlb rwic*, thco, cooctrat tb
whoE rnd i! whlt rry tbc dsyslog@.lt of r criticat ptrrpocdvc o! dho
graphic tcxtr might bc md urcl\r.l in enthrapolo[lt. Onc mult rdndt rh.t
thc richcst and mot rophbticatcd dcrclopDcnt of thir pcrsp.ctivo rwb
rcrt with full-dne ryccidilb ln thc hbtory of rnthropoloEl lld m
Scnsntly ln thc iatccrcdng [cldr of tttrlccturl hlnory ard rodrl tbccy,
A rcholar hat conrldcnblc rdvrnlagcc in .tudybg cfhDogrpby rb{! fho
lubjcct lr thc work of r p.r't, rocoFbod "gt"" d $ MrlE*1,
Evaru-Pritchard, Mca4 or Lcca.bardt [tbc httcr lr thc rubjcct of tho ple
nccring work of Cliford. (17, lE, 22) rhicb goc.beyond coawatbort
lntcl.lectual biographyl. Not only can a t rt b€ !.rfl lr
Frt of r tolrt corPllr
but biognphicd ddrilr ht rnodiltc witingl ruch rt [cfdrot{c lld'p.r.
hrp cvan rurv{vlng hformrnb rnd rrodetcs of Uro cth.ooSnpb.r.tori b!
f rvailrbla Wbcm r t4t crn bo rnalyzcd rgrlnrt e corpug rnd ttlr t! turn
sgsinrt r carccr rnd [ifc, th6 Eo.t fruiful coodidonr rrc prcr.at fof l!6
:'
dwclopmcnt of r pcnpccdw m dlaotnphic u trxt&
Yct our cmphark hu latathnrlly bcto ditrcrcot lo thir prpr; lt bl ba
on tho profculond nrdcf h rnlhmpoloty lho hrr hrd llttlo otrlourna
rboul lorlurl o<x$ldorrtlma ln rrrtlnj sllrqrlnphlc, Bvi It I rrr.tr L
lolldllvo to lho rhotorlo ol hrrllvklurl, oooldrtx.rnrt t rilr bo h|| oolt r
vory lhln contort, lf rny, tbout crroor rnd oorpur ln whloh !o plror lndlvld.
rual worhr. lkccpt for tho much dlrcuuql wrllln3r of Ocrt: rnd tlo rule
blogrnphlcal nc{ountt of }Tlt6n .uch u Dumoot rnd Rrbtnow, rbo hrva
lncludod thcm ar port of thdr rcrorrsh prujoctr, tho roedor only hl
rhet
tho tcrt ltlclf rcvc.b ur r bulr for crltlcd judgnrort. Thc wort of lntclloe
tud hlrtorlm! thrt lncludo rtt Dtlon to vrltlng wlll ccrtrlnly lnloro coa- \
kmporsry rcading pnctlocr Howwcr, e&oograpblct will ooly bc fdrly
aarrscd whan thc dcvclogoclt of whrt rrDount! to r critiql rcnT for tbc
l;6' MARi 'J'clsrrprn x ETHNOO RAPITTAS A3 ]E.'CTS

forms as vcll ss thc manifcst contcnt of cthnographic discourrc bccomcs a 17. Cf ndtr!+
o.d, J. 19E0. Plcldrqlq ClEbddtc tLrrrrrd U.tr. tr.-,
nrn ofroutinc profcJsional practicc. Thc virtuc cfific trtnd ofcrhnographic ttr b.f.ht oa dhot'lphlo
ity, rod !11 p9.
crJrcrimcntation it thrt it it cncour88tng, if not forcing, tbir crirical-awarc-
tcrb: th. .rloDl! of Mrurio Lc- 17. Ful, 3' B.l9ff ,, rL4.la! h ,ra
hrrdL l/c. lJ:tlt-]2 CJat, fh l.tdt, { IunFad,
ncis oD the plrt of rcadcn ofethnography, not by thc impocition !t. Otford, r. 1910, Tb. tndhdd oa.d. Co6t ]l''btb* Cntrldfr }{lrnd
of mcthod! brc Mftrt . Lanll'dr'. Evrlliltrd- Unlr. Ptaa. 39a F,
of criticism, but by a-dc facto disruption of thc convcntions which N.'c.LdnL lgo.l r r* db, !t PoFult t'( lylt l1n ld*t
havc long l
hccn thc profcs.sional common scnsc of rcadcrr rnd writcrr
ofahnography. tt(lll-m i,i.'JdF Nt tqtr hll6,
whlt n ncrasslry is more critical lr. clif,dd, J. l9$. n d.' d Ofr.atb Ut 9a.
discussion by and for ahnograpicn of br E- w. ltdd trd That lrJo1-Lt tt. Prr., N. *n, tua,.a { Andd,r
cach othcr's workr, which in plying sttqntion to rhetodc worid not lcc 20. (llfddJ- l9ro. Or.xthfuEl.t- Folt E,Et h..t .: Prbd
darlrr'i\Er!d d Ad x;r Ai Univ. P'tr. ltt rD.
sight of thc toal of constructing systemltic krowlcdgr of oth€r 10 FulLc, c- J, l9!l.LrL'r oa tl' tLt
culturcL It Aartilool A-mc- Wultarrc DC
is prcciscly the rbscncc of such a litenturc tht ba's nco.ssitatcd
this rcvicw 21. C:if,dd J. lgrt. o' crrD;rntb E\ d .h. ds I'allts hl&t' 9t*
;JiEL'c:d"F .$!4. .td tld, 2!: tu,t.ad Thtt l'-,b F.ldwl of . ht'
lo focus ort thc critiquc of ahnographic rcalism as al btrrnal fuactioo of
539_61 ' totl lo'a tr^. od&, rad t6_!lt-t9
al. Frrlc[J..l9!l'.t6,!.d N6' Yqt:
currcnt crpcrimqn!al ahnographies. 2f. i:itr".d t. lgtL 6g. d ,#
Molrk !.ddfurt h t, ,J.t .&, rzrom v!tr. rTr!. z..
vo;A [,c.td.tt Uoft' Ciry' n--'- la ordrrs- ll{l lqtli'PFt}rd td
AcKNowLpDoMENTs ,*r 6 Nttld. Nrr Yo.L !..hry, stl F,
D, i;db. p, 197t. Noori oa ttr No. a!. O.!flt, C. l9Tt. ,r. Itt?Vtutbt.{
Scvcral pcnons hrvc criticrlly rc-qd an earlicr drnft of thir prprcr, rnd in oiJi 5tcqor ,r,Utu' tif 9p. ' Cvlnta N'? Ycb Edo Eoott'
2A ctrpranao,-v. I9t?. on tb.'tiritll. oa g. l*t C. lrrt, D!ry Crr,: ffi o
narticullr, wc wish ro acknowlcdgc thc bclp of thc folJowing, whilc noting alri4nphy. DLLa l^thrq',l -
our solc rcsponsibility for rhc fin!l form:lim ClifIord, Vilccnt Crapaz_ano, 69-7t t!! B.ttE oo.Stht" S.. R/. 43'
Vikc Fischcr, Rsnaro R(xaldo, Julic Taylor, Iiobcd Thomton, Stcphcn 2t. iirirurno, v. lvn. Tb llfo Lbal b
- ff;se t976. Tra .5. ffi
ldd'at ,1'r,t4F{ 1s. ;;,?;hj;; iiio.Fn ?
Tylcr, and Jim Wootqrr.
/ -rDthropclolrq.l-
3lfilfil,q1,.iii.'fg,i..I!:ol -
rc.
ffij,H,ffi't;tfk$,gifi
'llmycrkqo:udv.otqo ilur y.il'#,"f,'"fli:ir.'-^ffi.F.
ul'E@*\,{^..r-94!r\l...Iv,|"gb'''F121-l''Albl+cclc
, Pt!.' lE7 !D. ---- - N;l*dd Ir!.
L Alvcruxi. H. l91l Mird ln ttu IIat
ol Do,la.u. Yalq ond Stll.ldorry
q 0<m.rdn, R. J. 1916. Th. R. tu.tu,|ar
o/ Slxtol o"d Polttlcol Th.vnr Ptltd.i-
t
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t./
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,]aont th. f'a^o ol SaurA.d .tla.a phr!. Univ. Pdn. Pft'r- 28ii pp. -6f:.,i
Ncv Hrvcn Yelc Unrv. Prc.I l9e oo
2. At€h. T., Mr'lhrll, r.. Spttr, P. t9!).
10. Blovl'Lnlc, S. 1926. Crstitry Thuad.E
D.t C.lt Ctt^gt z*ltl-{o ,a/i A&A'0;;.
tn fia
n. Autobbf1ptt of o^ ,lta.dcan ln- . D<rrldr J. W[, Vd,lV a W,r.
2ll rn
Elhnotnph'c 6lm. nnxrurc rnd func. //da cd. P. tudl!. Ncr Ycxk: Apgl*
.t . Gic{q Udv. GL{o Prl . rr" difi. -N.r,vl
r ll'( Jyo fula or'S.
rron. ,a.a R"r. ,,!hm@l ):119-al ron. ?02 np Wal Ncr yo.'t_' B*
). A'r.rt .h, E. ljSJ M;hdir T\r R.r
.tt ll. Ir.orl,. W. c' 1941. Ttr. Rhrro*of n+ w
Y2
29, DotDqrt, t..P, 1976. Uit.r llt R.ln.
ni"r'. tct -.
ntorio. of R@ltrttr tl.tt.tt1
,!rr. Pnnc.ton Pnn(rdr
Ltt.4. r,bn. Chicrlo: Unlv. Chicrso l,rurr
bt: i{ottr..nd St Fnadn Aittt th.
+C, OBd.rt, lfn. Ceam! Ilotka I
LJnrv Pr6r S;rbl iiiqr tctt[. d
J6J pp.
ll.
111 pp.
nns8i, ,, L lgm. N.I'.t ln,l't'rt:. ht-
I
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fut','t IrdI' Ard!' Udv,
lrel,!'.t At'lurr Tdrt
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th. JoFr.t houkhol.J lit) ) can!.'. la !O. Duliml, J.-P, lt?l, Th. fldDgr.t€ tO Oftii. T. tt?. ttr*i'alL Ui..F
tudl opp.ach o Jopo"* stridl orsd. ll!*ard U t. Pnr. J79 pp. f' , Aurtlo: Udt. T(r.! l"n 2ll D9. Ud;.6i.am ltr.. 3E2 ro.
rurrto,r PhD rhdi! llrnlit ll.i/ l-1. 8runry. E I981. &hnotnphy r! nlfn- 31. Dryc.,lC l9?7. Dirloru. oaLtdrqt-
litc tn T\t l^thnqlopt ol Etr.rt.nca St. Hdd.r. K d l'46, & i,tiiaott l1,*
Crnb.id!.. M!$ t61 Dldl.<t ,lrtrtoqL ltllrtl Alltlhi Unlv. T@ fn.i tif m,
.. thhr.D M ri,.t,r,r,.r,r, l torFr, r, rtl v l,,"rr 2J pl lI pr.u :
12. D"ycr, y,. lglt, Dblotu. olrh'o!oo', tl ['Jy, E. A. ln1, L.rrn dl*
l. Alr.r.r, A l'tt. l\nn4,\toa,tnt,tn l. I1,,t,,,.,.Ir . t,l.1,rt,, I s lttt nbJr,,f Aol.c4 ,ln'hntot. 1tl0r74 to,'th td Nth Stnntta .f R.rt
and Slottnr .1r ln^! tu(!!! t-r v. lly Arh,n (tuahy ll'klon: Orftr(t !1. [v.n].Pntahrn4 & & l9lt, 7tt6'l' /!..,cr ClttMdF l(awrrd Udv,
Adrolrl llca )ll Fn .rC/L Od.l.t tt J ,lotk lln-dt tk ftra 16l f'$
I ll.rih, P l9l,t (h r$tx,o\rbrttry r,rrl l: lrtrrli, K 19t,J.,1 ll[.to,t( <t ltutlat iinda O{o'tlJl Clrnrrdoru 5tl i'D, t), lt'rntlndo.\'I- M.r..!.l.ltn,*
h0lnrnlrt: <rllrnt. collotua to r(. N.r Yo't I',mrlo+|l.ll. J..0 tp !,1, l]vrn|"P'lrcff.'tt. [. L 1910.7h Nun h,a 6; a/ ,{'iL fl* ,/ntlfur J
calaJit. Cw ,l.tLrcF l tJttt-tut lt. C.trrrndt., C. 196E. 11,. T.o(htatt of ,l D.xrb.l6n olt^. Mol.t ol U..ltwl Motlvtn Rlttt N.t Yo.tr C.D.
6 0.nh.r. R. 1911 S/7 ,4n I:\6' Nr* . I\oa lun^ t Yoqtl Wut ol Kao*ltdre. ond /T,lltklll l'!,tttv ort qf. Nllotk bndn Udv. Pn- }x) 99.
Yortr llill e Wrn8. l7l pp " Ikr!.1.y/l-,6 Anttlce Unlv. Crhf. Aoole orfold: cT trdc., ?71 Do. 3.1. b.t. w, l9ta. nv l''.tr.J l-a.r? rU.
I llrdon. R. f. tgJE rhthpr^. Poron' I'rc$ 116 pp. !t. Prv'r6-S.r^dr r, |9!r'. Mt, Ve& uat olbrnudatbt la hd lLtbi
f|,. ,trtoltor^'r^,.t ol lLd lfuroor 16 Ch.rnotr t. M. 1919. Atlo, Rhyhn Vrchcftfl ln tA. ro.rtt Ciat,rHF /ron DuaSoa -tt t .*ttl -B.l- t!od3
John llopUar Unlv ftr. l0l pp.
.
l-.'ndorr Rourl.drc. 271 pp d..l ,t/riod k$lblllry: ,l.tth.lct ond Crrnbridrc Unlv. Prtr. 27! m.
I llrtcrcn. O l9l8 /Yor,. Strnford: .fYtot l.tt1r tn,lrlcod lluttcal Idtomt J( Plt b.r,' k M. r' l9t0 r'!tr'Aq" itt- tJ J'n"o'; F l9u' Tk hltLal v,rc,'
St.nford Univ trcll Jt2 r'p. 2nd cd. Chrc.to, Unlv. Chkrro Pnrr. ltrl pp. Itloitt Dl{'!n F taolrt/{,!. xk.xt: Ntrradr. 3 6 s6l'/t $ttdoJt

'li
( M^RCI)S & ( LlSIIMAN ETHNOORAPITIEII A3 TEXTS 69

,l.t Cah.ll: Coh.ll Uni! Prdl Ih.t. RitrEb Nd Yorl: CnbridS. Sbo.!, B. I 9t2. Soh\lu: I Sanst lot. Ttld, i A llrn W6d. fd d-d. r.d
lr)1 it. tJhiv. Prc.1 l9J d). MytcrT" Na Ynt: Colusbl^ U!.|v. tl. doclrir. oa l.t. Ed iql& d
.'(trlrnt. 1979 ft. Sdidl T\"oty of 7a i)1ror, A lsEO. lr. Ptdt of A. Cod| I'E'I. 192 p?. I! Flr drony to r c-hrDoa @rrt r EFtdr
Clo\d. ^ I/rist'llls- N.i Yorl: St luolity, Id.olov Strw.tun oad TIm. Sictrt ,. T. 1919. Sl'ddo' .d bsnt in tl. Lodlr'r Jsrde Pnoc Clhs
M.rtrn't l9l pp. n tA. F.nlrab oI I B.rpI fovL Tfu Elawlal Ttts,."h, o!. Sln ,nn ilqr .!oc b trc
It Kconcdy, C. A. 1961. Tt. ,1t1 ol P.t Ch'clso Unlv. Chlcrto Pr6r,2lt pp. Aqpla O c4o: Uaiv. Ctiqo hrr. l0( VrLdo, P. 19',' Notettt* l,bsb
luotioa i. Gftft. Pnncdon: Pritrcclon 7r. Prlmcr. R- E- 1969, H.,'..n.u cr ot t C-'r.',!'F,tt, ffon ltoodr.
U.iv. fr6E. ItO !'vrnrton: Northw6tlrn Univ. Pr6.. 106: lndh,rl Unlv. lm lll a.
np.
K.nncdt, C A. l98n. Clotricol Rh.to- 2Rl pp. lql. \vrgncr, 8- l9l!. ,rt t,ijt*iVAL
!lill: Univ. Nonh C:rolin: 76 I'crclmrn. C. H., OlbrlchETyL.." L t'in &ddojd OltL Prr LaH^[
'a.ChrrEl
Pr(ar 29t pp 1969. 7h. N.t Rh.tod.: /1 Traotit. on 161 9e.
J9 K,nDdry. JL ,t 71.o.y of Dir-
191t. lT?rn.r( Nolrc Dlmcr Univ. Nolrc l0l. Wrtdrua, l,{, t- l9O. tq.-1. tL
.ogr. Enrlcwood Oifr, NJ: Prcntict- D,mc Prtn 566 pp. o.t of Hbtlt! Nc'ntla. U&
Hrll .?E pp. 77 r.)uinc, w v. O. l9(,. Wod ond ObJft| Ohlo Su& U!lY, 2la m.
(O XrtFrnct. J T.l9EO Tr. Ho.s!.'an lot, W.rL... A- P, c. tt7l.'.R€f.d.fr tf.
p.NL PhD thcrit. Unir.
notio^ o[ !h. 'lE ClmbridF: MfT Ptrn. 791 pp.
l(ibiDoa, P. 1913. Synblc lbtntno- Ctuatl of tn Anddt nlq. h ,b
Ill JII pp
Chrcrro, tiar: Cuh!ft| Fornl o|d HLttod.ol Dlel Eotlt t^dua*tl R..lrrb. Nca'Iqlt
ttct lw ,Ssrrl'gl ln o Coonu' ty finoga. t5l 9,9.
6l l.rYr. R I lall fohtno^\ Mlnd o^d Choug. ln Mo.o(a Chicrfo: Univ. Ncr Yort: HlrE & nor. 175 F. I lO wdnn, A E ln6. Pdttt { /.la
E.Fd.^(( 6 th. So.i.ry Itlondr rlicrro Pr6.- 107 pp. 9t. Stctl J. P, l91t', On R.rltrrrl- t/*;te
Chrcrgo Unr". Chrcrro Prctt. J4? pp. ?9 R binow, ?. l9Tl. Rtfcttloru on Ficld- Roud.dr! t Kct ! P.d 199 pD. Ll.n of Ra'.',.a N.t P.tq..dd b
62 t!*rr C l.UJ Ddto/ShinidrR.d ,a^ .o,k th M.'r!(tn Bcrlclcy Univ. Glif. tl. Suld.mrn. S.. CrmrrL L l9l0. Th. frobthtd E tl@$. Aailj Udt.
I'16!" l6a pp, ' Retd., l" th. T.tE ENt 6.41!dk^.t T.drt Pt! a. 299 Do.
F^uot od Udd.dtondlag Ansol Ntw \'
Yort: Crmbndsc Uil!. lrcs.216 pp. EO Rsnpdr"ort' tu ,L 1948 Bet lo. t^. ,ln- o\d lEtuwtttio r\l;dd Prire lll. wdD.r. ,l- D. lr,o D-otlt d lu
O,n PUt fo.t Md, No. Etc I h,F+
6l l.'cnhrrdr, C lq6l n'ndtto^d Erp< c.'!oa Rlrual ld th. Ecolw) of a N.t .- ta'l U'nlr. Pn .- a,lt m. orl'' Styd} of N.. Oalraa Srffi, .d
h.^c. T . R.l'siod ol Ih. DnLa Or 6ulneo Pcopb Ncr Hrvsn: Ydc Univ. . , i9. Tru!.ir. M. T. tg!d.'fh. hil oaf
P, O. Rub.l, ,L t.e.!. ,,irk
ford: Chrcndon. iza pp.
6.1 L'hddbum. S_ laTq trlE So'r.r/ ll
l.s. 1l I pp.
R!r'F.pod, R- A. 1919. E olog, M.ad-
. :i( Can^dlv F.rdtlll tt Sa ltl'n
'i II Chrpcl r{: Udv. N6th cl'oLiDr 'b, Srhrl ?:5E7-{9
D6.ot ond Dtont.t t^ Ih. N.e Otti^.o oad R. de Rlchmond. Crlif:.
ll?- whjr4 H. v. Y&, fb
llishloadL Prlo Allo. Cllir: Mr)4cld.
'as. Atl.|Jldc Boob 219 pp.
Norti ;r. ffi;":i.?. rne. &, lt!,r btubl h,, '9n. h Ntrc.A
l?l PP ll R'c.. K A. lguJ. G<fi oad Cultu . tlyttu of c Yrid^ Cf,i.t.or Unlv. 'A. C.^tury Brtn a 'l',tbt
B.ld.dE ,oll ltof>
Uar Unlr. Pnr. aat Do. -l
6t. t uch, A R. 1966 F-tPlototio^ on.i
llunoa ,tctio^. lkrlclcy: Univ Celtf
An,r Arbor: Univ. Michit$ Prt.t
I1.1 Pl
C'lrlc-|ro P.d. ltt Do,
l0l. Tltornloo, R- L lglfuAnt-dt.thrq.
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Prc{ 2al t)p fi]. Iuco<ur, P. 1971. Thc mod.loflh.lcrtr JohD llopt
HqltL!. u!rr. l'l!r.
!a Ud'. Pnr.2l? tD.
a a t9.
MrcDougrll. D la78 l:rhnos.'nh,c mcnnindul rctJon corridcftd lr r lctl. Proartad .t AJuL M..t A!. Ar. JOhDr I ^
wutr, or ?;-
H. \-. 1910. Th. v$!
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rc .-t

sir**"*''
rhropol. Alc.. Wr|bilnlo DC I14. I oa
6lm: frilurc rnd pronrc.,4nL R.t ,ln' Lit. Iltrt 5:91-l7O lql h tb.
lhmpl t 4At-2t tl '\'.tu
llicrnrn, P. 1911, Sxllt( / Lrl).na Thomror\ 8- L l9a0. th. dr of. p rrdYlry t

61. M.8ubr .. U Ia80 Rcvr.*of ,Viddin th.t l.' Prul DJ.lgdM d. lJoun-voltd: nognphy la Soth Urea lE&-192t 3ll7"f
t:t tt d ,tnlhrcrolosl. Iat,w7<.tlv. thc totldrl.t of th. .tr^otn i.r, Ua. I lt. wt 16, fl.
fi. v. l9ll.l,ric,
l9!1. i.Fier d ltt rq'.
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!h. ll.od al Dn'^n.{ volu. ond S.tf' nublirhcd r!l.! urcriD{. 17 Do, ol R.odt^r1 Fti{'r',l La^ tt ld.
lid.nttty Adoat t^. rtut^o al Soutt I rrl! Mouton. l.6l tp .10!. Thomrorr n- L l9lrr. sr;+ na' onl ,.r\ Nl..tt , Rlllz ut'rtethott, V
.^ ,lla.o. hr ll Alt.*n 1a Ithnt,l E1 It(nildo, M.7- l9,,O. Xnovldh. ond
, Culten ,lnoq th. Irui' 4 fbrj!4ta Prrl rta Mm. Ad.it,Rn 4lJll-lt
l:l9G 9l t'oa oN llo^pr No o^' of S.lf an.t So- z- Nc Yorl: Acrdtolc- llt n I 6. wiul|d, l" $n . Nt xbr .nJ Lb+
I
6E Mfl,no*'rkr, B. 19'11 ,l1onout' of th. ctot Lil.. Nca Yorl: Cr.nbridt. Uniy,
/ l0l. Turobdl c. M. lgll fhi'tt*iuh onre OrJcd: Odord Udr. lrq,
w.rt.m Podf.. |l.r YorL Dlrlon ,dr 186 r'r'.
l \ P.opla NGr Y6t SbDo l' &-bud.r. lll P9.
517 PP R 1980. //o'rot Il.ddhudlnl,
Pdrl(lo, JO ) I tt. wiLirn, P, I. M.Ol[ O., O.dd., Y.
6c M.l,n"ir!'. ll l't\\'Cn'al Gd^l.nt lSit l97l: ,l Sttutl1..9.tl.tt odl IIb. f ''rr v w. t957, S<IIJ'| ..J &trl.
o{. fun.!. I M.rl,
R,, Mr'l A. A r.., tfdtd, r. &,
r-}fdf,d.r. Ea!.t
I- lnLr-
o.d tr.r ,t ttlJt ol th. N.t^dl n',), Sllnf(x{r 3r.nt,rd Utrlv. lta nultt li an Atk\t^ Sotl.ar .l &tldt d ,. ll.. Tornta I c' M, ltt+ Lori
of ntt'"s ^ldrx
th. Sotl oad o/ As'ttuttldt ]l-l rrn N,lcnhu rtllag. Uh ll,s.ni!('t rd
rtl. & .!d
iho{r-hb .n rtro
tho{tib .rdr@|fft.
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hnt n tk Tnl,nand ltloqdt Nc' 87. S.'d. [- el. 19'19. Od.ntoltrm N.t! . M&cb6trr Uaiv. Pft{, y! tp, Cun, ,lnrAry*t 16l!A15l
Yorli Am Bool. .l vol!. York: Rrnd.n Hoitla i68 pp.
70 Mrnrrr?llr. P lrta Rc\';<w al Mro4' ER s'l,r'nr. M. 111a. Cultud odd Pnttl.al
oad,JtJ.t n Mor<rcn Sqtttl ll.drcr. Oric!go: Univ. Clricrgo I'r.s
'^t
tlnt huyt tn C,n"nl ,trolytt. hY C 2J2 t'!
Cc.rrt- lt G..nr. I' Rwn ,4m l* 8'l \a,nu.l, O. I98O R.?iew of .tl.,7or
A167t 11 I t),tuth 7h.lt RtIeol' by S [t Orl'rcr.
'tl t^mPl
M'cur. C f.. llrio Fh.rnnc rrtd ll,. Mon lS:1{X}-l
.rhnntrrnhtc tdtc,n rnrhr.flok'8'..1 m Schlcifclin. P- L. 1916. th. Som* o/ I
r<rrch. Curr rn,Am,r/ 2l 107 l0 tnr Iaady oatl tht tlurntnx ol th. Do"r.
'tl Mcrrcr, M F. li7l Ltt.NIun o,d vi' .^ N.* Yorl:Sr M!trrn t. 2{l pp.
olrnft in Notth ,{.t6,o N.w Yorl: 9l L lo8l. Rcvic* of Dor o/
Scrri<fdin. E-
(.hhn,lr. \inrv t'c( lr1 lP !it^tn, R.d: ,4d Lr'r o^ Alt'al bY
tt tlnncr. s D l9)8. Jl.,/!r /l^r!rA (l'lt.d r^lr ,am Etll^o|. E aO54
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