CE143

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

ENGR. CHENNIE CARISSA A. CAJA

MSCE MAJOR IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
HISTORY OF WATER USE AND DEVELOPMENT

 Water is life – and life on earth is linked to water. Our existence

is dependent on water, or the lack of it, in many ways, and one
could say that our whole civilization is built on the use of water.
HISTORY OF WATER USE AND DEVELOPMENT
 Humans have generally settled near convenient sources of water.
Most of the great ancient civilizations depended on a particular
source of water. For example, the Egyptians centered their
civilization on the Nile. Mesopotamia (Greek for the land between
the rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates) was the home of several
important ancient empires. Chinese civilization was located
principally in the Yellow and Yangzi river basins. In the case of these
great civilizations, there usually is considerable discussion of water
as a fundamental aspect of the civilization in question.
HYDROLOGY IN ENGINEERING
 Hydrology is used in engineering mainly in connection with the design and
operation of hydraulic structures.
 What flood flows can be expected over a spillway, at a highway culvert, or in an urban
storm drainage system?
 What reservoir capacity is required to assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal
water supply during droughts?
 What effect will reservoirs, levees, and other control works exert on flood flows in a
stream?
 What are reasonable boundaries for the floodplain?
 It is probable that civil engineers deal with a larger number of projects and a
greater financial budget than the specialists do. In any event, it seems that
knowledge of the fundamentals of hydrology is an essential part of the civil
engineer’s training.
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

 Climate has been defined briefly as the average long-term weather of

a place. It is usually determined over a period of 30 years, or more.
 Weather in turn is the short-time atmospheric condition of a
place. It may occur and change within minutes, days or months.
Therefore, if the two are combined, climate can be defined simply
as the average atmospheric condition of a place as determined over a
long period of time.
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
 Type I. Two pronounced season: dry from November to
April and wet during the rest of the year.
 Type II. No dry season with a pronounced rainfall from
November to January.
 Type III. Seasons are not very pronounced, relatively
dry from November to April, and wet during the rest of
the year.
 Type IV. Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed
throughout the year.
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

 To be clear, however, climate is not capable of exact

determination. Even with the invention of modern
meteorological instruments, it is not possible to predict exactly
the amount of rain that may fall on a given day or time period.
The same is true as to temperature and other atmospheric
elements.
SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY
 The study of moving water found in rivers, open channels, lakes and runoff
across the open land surface

 Important transportation, irrigation, water supply, hydropower, etc…

WATERSHEDS
 The total land area that drains to
a common point.
 Also called a river basin, drainage
basin, or catchment.
 The watershed is delineated by
finding the watershed divide, or
ridge, that separates the
watershed from its neighbours.
RIVERS

 Components of a River
 Headwaters: the source of the river
 Tributaries: smaller streams that combine at a confluence
 Upstream vs. Downstream: related to the flow direction
 Hyporheic Zone: Shallow ground-water flow below the river
bed
RIVER MORPHOLOGY

 Young, “V” shaped valleys

 Older, “U” shaped valleys
 Oldest, meandering channels with oxbow lakes
 Braided channels with lots of sediment
 Channels are choked with sediments
 Below glacial terrain
 In wetlands where there is very low gradient (slope)
TYPES OF RIVERS

 Ephemeral: flows only during storms

 Intermittent: flows seasonally
 Losing stream: loses flow to groundwater
 Gaining stream: gains water form the subsurface
 Gradient: the slope or fall of the river, usually decreases as the
river gets larger.
LAKES
 Any body of water (other than an ocean) that is of reasonable size,
impounds water, and moves very slowly
 Types of lakes:
 cirques: formed in mountains by glaciers
 pluvial: formed in deserts
 kettles: formed by buried glacial ice that melted

 Lake productivity
 oligotrophic: very low productivity, clear
 eutrophic: very high productivity, green
WATER USAGE
WATER USAGE
WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION

 The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the
water supply scheme has to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per
head)
2. Population to be served.

Quantity = Per capita demand x Population

WATER CONSUMPTION RATE
 It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by
the public, since there are many variable factors affecting water
consumption. The various types of water demands, which a city may have,
may be broken into following classes:
Normal Range
Types of Consumption Average %
(lit/capita/day)
Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
Industrial and Commercial
45-450 135 30
Demand
Public Uses including Fire Demand
20-90 45 10
Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25
FIRE FIGHTING DEMAND
 The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate
at which the water is required is very large. The rate of fire demand is
sometimes treated as a function of population and is worked out from
following empirical formulas:
Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh Population
American Insurance
Q (L/min)=4637 ÖP/1000 (1-0.01 ÖP/1000) 41760
Association
Kuichling's Formula Q (L/min)=3182 ÖP/1000 31800
Freeman's Formula Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/500+10) 35050
Ministry of Urban
Development Manual Q (kilo liters/d)=100 ÖP for P>50000 31623
Formula
NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS/
AMERICAN INSURANCE ASSOCIATION FORMULA

 If ‘Q’ is the fire demand and ‘P’ is the population of the city then formula
for calculating ‘Q’ is as follows:
KUICHLING’S FORMULA

 The following formula is used to determine the quantity of water (Q)

required for pacifying fire in a city of population P:

NOTE: Here the value of Q obtained is in liters per minute.

BUSTON’S FORMULA

 This formula is similar to Kuichling’s formula. The equation for

calculating the quantity of water (Q) required for battling fire in
a city of population P is:
FREEMAN’S FORMULA

 Apart from calculating the fire demand this formula also gives us the
number of simultaneous fire streams required. The equation is as follows:

 Here,
Q = Fire Demand
P = Population of the City
 The number of simultaneous fire streams is given by the following
equation:

 F = number of simultaneous fire streams.

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND:

 Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as
compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.
 Presence of industries.
 Climatic conditions.
 Habits of people and their economic status.
 Quality of water: If water is aesthetically and medically safe, the
consumption will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND:
 Pressure in the distribution system.
 Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and
services; and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum
by surveys.
 Cost of water.
 Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in
two different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of
certain fixed monthly rate.
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 12 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠

 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
365∗𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
 If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.
 Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally
more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
 Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
 Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement
is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be
supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
 So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the
peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service
reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned.
The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and
distribution system must be designed to meet the peak demand.
 The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage
reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of
pumps and service reservoirs. As the population decreases, the
fluctuation rate increases.
FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐷𝐷
 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦
 = 1.5 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
 = 1.5 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑/24
 = 1.5 ∗ (1.8 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑)/24
 = 2.7 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑/24
 = 𝟐. 𝟕 ∗ 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST

 This quantity should be worked out with due provision

for the estimated requirements of the future . The future
period for which a provision is made in the water supply
scheme is known as the design period.
DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST
 Design period is estimated based on the following:
 Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear,
etc.
 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.
POPULATION FORECASTING METHODS

 The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given
below. The particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a
particular city depends largely on the factors discussed in the methods,
and the selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of the designer.

1.Arithmetic Increase Method 5. Simple Graphical Method

2.Geometric Increase Method 6. Comparative Graphical Method
3.Incremental Increase Method 7. Ratio Method
4.Declining Growth Method 8. Logistic Method
9. Uniform Percentage of Increase
ARITHMETIC INCREASE METHOD

 In this method, the rate of growth of population is assumed to be

constant. This method gives too low an estimate, and can be adopted for
forecasting populations of large cities which have achieved saturation
conditions.
 Validity: The method valid only if approximately equal incremental
increases have occurred between recent censuses.
ARITHMETIC INCREASE METHOD

𝑑𝑃
 = 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑡 𝑡
 𝑃𝑜
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑡𝑜
𝑘𝑑𝑡
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃0 + 𝑘∆𝑡
GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD

 This method assumes that the percentage of increase in population from decade to
decade is constant. This method gives high results, as the percentage increase
gradually drops when the growth of the cities reach the saturation point. This
method is useful for cities which have unlimited scope for expansion and where a
constant rate of growth is anticipated. The formula of this estimation is :

 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃0 ∗ (1 + 𝑘)𝑛
INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD
 In this technique, the average of the increase in the population is taken as per
arithmetic method and to this, is added the average of the net incremental increase,
one for every future decade whose population figure is to be estimated. In this
method, a progressive increasing or decreasing rate rather than constant rate is
adopted. Mathematically the hypothesis may be expressed as:
 𝑃 = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 +
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
 In Equation form
𝒏∗ 𝒏+𝟏
 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝒏 ∗ 𝒌 + ∗𝒂
𝟐
DECLINING GROWTH METHOD

 This technique, assumes that the city has some limiting

saturation population, and that its rate of growth is a
function of its population deficit:
DECLINING GROWTH METHOD
SIMPLE GRAPHICAL METHOD

 In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data,

between time and population. The curve is then
smoothly extended up to the desired year. This method
gives very approximate results and should be used along
with other forecasting methods.
COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD

 In this method, the cities having conditions and

characteristics similar to the city whose future
population is to be estimated are selected. It is then
assumed that the city under consideration will develop,
as the selected similar cities have developed in the past.
RATIO METHOD

 In this method, the local population and the country's population

for the last four to five decades is obtained from the census
records. The ratios of the local population to national population
are then worked out for these decades. A graph is then plotted
between time and these ratios, and extended up to the design
period to extrapolate the ratio corresponding to future design
year. This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national
population at the end of the design period, so as to obtain the
required city's future population.
RATIO METHOD

 Drawbacks:
 Depends on accuracy of national population estimate.
 Does not consider the abnormal or special conditions
which can lead to population shifts from one city to
another.
LOGISTIC METHOD (SATURATION METHOD)

 This method has an S-shape combining a geometric rate of growth at

low population with a declining growth rate as the city approaches some
limiting population.
LOGISTIC METHOD (SATURATION METHOD)

 A logistic projection can be based on the equation:

UNIFORM PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE

Assumption: This method assumes uniform rate of increase, that is the rate
of increase is proportional to population).
SAMPLE PROBLEM

 Problem: Predict the population for the years 1981, 1991, 1994, and 2001 from the
following census figures of a town by different methods.
 A. Arithmetic Progression method
 B. Incremental Increase method
 C. Geometric Progression method

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population: 60 65 63 72 79 89 97 120
(thousands)
SOLUTION
Year Population: Increment per Incremental Percentage Increment per
(thousands) Decade Increase Decade
1901 60
1911 65
1921 63
1931 72
1941 79
1951 89
1961 97
1971 120
Net values 1
Averages -
SEATWORK 1
 The population of a town as per the senses records are given below for the years
1945 to 2005. Assuming that the scheme of water supply will commence to function
from 2010, it is required to estimate the population after 30 years, i.e. in 2040 and
also, the intermediate population i.e. 15 years after 2010.
 Using
 A. Arithmetic Increase
 B. Geometric Increase
 C. Incremental Increase
 D. Uniform Percentage Increase
 E. Logistic Method
NWRB
 National Water Resources Board
 The NWRB is the agency that is
responsible for all the water resources
in the Philippines. It coordinates and
regulates all water-related activities in
the country that has impact on the
physical environment and the economy
NWRB
NWRB

 CPC is a formal written authority issued by the NWRB

authorizing private water utilities to operate and
maintain water supply system, provide water supply
service and charge rates therefore.
NWRB
 Advantages of having a CPC:
 CPC holders operate legally;
 CPC holders are assured of investment recovery through the 5-
year tariff methodology
 Depreciation Reserve Fund will be set aside (improvement and
rehabilitation of water system)
 Consumers’ interest will be protected by regulation.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

 The Creation of the NWRB's predecessor National Water Resources

Council, as the Policy-Making Body for the Philippine Water Sector.
 The predecessor of the NWRB is the National Water Resources Council
(“NWRC”), which was created in 1974 under Presidential Decree No.
424, otherwise known as the “Integrated Reorganization Plan”. It was
subsequently renamed as NWRB pursuant to Executive Order No. 124-
A. Under the said decree, the NWRB is tasked among others, to:
NWRB TASK
 Coordinate and integrate water resource development activities
of the country;
 Formulate general criteria, methods and standards for data
collection, project investigation, formulation, planning design and
feasibility evaluation, and rules and regulations for the exploitation
and optimum utilization of water resources;
 Review and approve water resource development plans and
programs of other agencies;
NWRB TASK

 Undertake river basin surveys, inventories and appraisals, and develop

comprehensive basin-wide plans of storage and control to maximize the
conservation and multi-purpose use of water;
 Undertake hydrologic surveys and establish, operate and maintain
observation station networks and centralized water resources data
center;
 Conduct and/or promote special studies and researches with other
government or agencies on related aspects of water resources
development.
NWRB TASK

 The NWRB is also tasked to advise the National Economic and Development
Authority (“NEDA”) on matters pertaining to water resources development projects
and programs; and recommend general policies and guidelines and short/long range
plans and programs for water resources development.

 In 1976, Presidential Decree No. 1067, otherwise known as the “Water Code of the
Philippines” was enacted. Based on the principles that: (a) “all water belongs to
the State;” and (b) the State may allow the use or development of its
waters by administrative concession,” the NWRB was instituted as a “water
resource regulator” tasked to regulate and control the utilization, exploitation,
development, conservation and protection of all water resources.
 NWRB

NIA Water
Dam Operators
National Irrigation Concessionaires
Hydropower
Authority Water Supply
RAW WATER SOURCE

 The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:

 Surface sources, such as
 Ponds and lakes;
 Streams and rivers;
 Storage reservoirs; and
 Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at present.

 Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as

 Springs;
 Infiltration wells ; and
 Wells and Tube-wells.
INTAKE STRUCTURE

 The basic function of the intake

structure is to help in safely
withdrawing water from the
source over predetermined pool
levels and then to discharge this
water into the withdrawal
conduit (normally called intake
conduit), through which it flows
up to water treatment plant.
FACTORS GOVERNING LOCATION OF INTAKE

1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that
the cost of conveying water to the city is less.
2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw
best quality water from the source, thereby reducing load on the
treatment plant.
3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity
of the point of disposal of wastewater.
FACTORS GOVERNING LOCATION OF INTAKE

1. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if

required at a future date.
2. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water
even during the driest period of the year.
3. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should
not get flooded. Moreover, the flood waters should not be concentrated
in the vicinity of the intake.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. Sufficient factor of safety against external forces such as heavy

currents, floating materials, submerged bodies, ice pressure,
etc.
2. Should have sufficient self weight so that it does not float by
upthrust of water.
TYPES OF INTAKE

 Intakes are classified under three categories.

 Category 1: Category 3:
 Submerged intake River intake
Reservoir intake
 Exposed intake Lake intake
 Category 2: Canal intake
 Wet intake
 Dry intake
SUBMERGED INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. It is the one which is constructed entirely under water.

2. It is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake.
EXPOSED INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. It is in the form of a
well or tower
constructed near the
bank of a river, or in
some cases even
away from the river
banks.
2. Exposed intakes are
more common due
to ease in operation.
WET INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. It is a type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the

same as the level of the sources of supply.
2. It is sometimes known as Jack well and is most commonly used.
DRY INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. In case of dry intake there is no water

in the water tower.
2. Water enters through entry port
directly into the conveying pipes.
3. It is simply used for the operation of
valves etc.
RIVER INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. It is a type of intake which may either located

sufficiently inside the river so that demands of
water are met with in all the seasons of the year,
or they may be located near the river bank where
a sufficient depth of water is available.
2. Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed
and water is led to the intake tower.
3. If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be
constructed across it to raise the water level and
divert it to the intake tower.
RESERVOIR INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. When the flow in the river is not

guaranteed throughout the year, a dam
is constructed across it to store water
in the reservoir so formed.
2. These are similar to river intake, except
that these are located near the
upstream face of the dam where
maximum depth of water is available.
3. Design of intake may vary based on the
type of dam.
 LAKE INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. Generally submerged intakes are

preferred for lake intakes.
2. These are constructed as cribs or
bell mouths. The cribs are made of
heavy timber frame work which is
partly or wholly filled with rip-rap to
protect the intake conduit against
damage by waves etc.
3. The top of the crib is covered with
cast iron or mesh grating.
CANAL INTAKE STRUCTURES

1. In some cases, source of water supply to a small town may be an irrigation canal
passing nearer or through the town. Then it will be constructed.
2. Generally it consists of masonry or concrete intake chamber of rectangular shape,
admitting water through a coarse screen.
3. A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the outlet pipe.
4. The intake chamber may be constructed inside the canal bank if it does not offer
any appreciable resistance to normal flow in the canal.
5. It’s preferred to provide lining to the canal near the intake chamber.
CONVEYANCE

 There are two stages in the transportation of water:

1. Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.
2. Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the
distribution system.
CONVEYANCE

 In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping

or by the combined action of both, depending upon the relative
elevations of the treatment plant and the source of supply.
 In the second stage water transmission may be either by
pumping into an overhead tank and then supplying by gravity or
by pumping directly into the water-main for distribution.
FREE FLOW SYSTEM

 In this system, the surface of water in the conveying section

flows freely due to gravity. In such a conduit the hydraulic
gradient line coincide with the water surface and is parallel to
the bed of the conduit. It is often necessary to construct very
long conveying sections, to suit the slope of the existing ground.
The sections used for free-flow are: Canals, flumes,
grade aqueducts and grade tunnels.
PRESSURE SYSTEM

 In pressure conduits, which are closed conduits, the water flows under pressure
above the atmospheric pressure. The bed or invert of the conduit in pressure flows is
thus independent of the grade of the hydraulic gradient line and can, therefore, follow
the natural available ground surface thus requiring lesser length of conduit. The
pressure aqueducts may be in the form of closed pipes or closed
aqueducts and tunnels called pressure aqueducts or pressure tunnels designed
for the pressure likely to come on them. Due to their circular shapes, every pressure
conduit is generally termed as a pressure pipe. When a pressure pipe drops beneath
a valley, stream, or some other depression, it is called a depressed pipe or
an inverted siphon.
HYDRAULIC DESIGN

 The design of water supply conduits depends on the resistance to

flow, available pressure or head, and allowable velocities of flow.
Generally, Hazen-William's formula for pressure conduits and
Manning's formula for freeflow conduits are used. But Darcy-
Weisbach can be use sometimes.
 WELLS

 A water well is an
excavation or structure
created in the ground by
digging, driving, boring, or
drilling to
access groundwater in
underground aquifers. The
well water is drawn by
a pump, or using containers,
such as buckets, that are
raised mechanically or by
hand.
TYPES OF WELLS

1. Drilled Well
2. Driven Well
3. Dug Well
DRILLED WELLS

 Drilled wells are constructed by either cable tool (percussion) or

rotary-drilling machines. Drilled wells that penetrate
unconsolidated material require installation of casing and a
screen to prevent inflow of sediment and collapse. They can be
drilled more than 1,000 feet deep. The space around the casing must be
sealed with grouting material of either neat cement or bentonite clay to
prevent contamination by water draining from the surface downward
around the outside of the casing.
DRIVEN WELLS

 Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into

shallow water-bearing sand or gravel. Usually a screened well point is
attached to the bottom of the casing before driving. These wells are
relatively simple and economical to construct, but they can tap only
shallow water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface
sources because they are not sealed with grouting material. Hand-driven
wells usually are only around 30 feet deep; machine-driven wells can be
50 feet deep or more.
DUG WELLS
 Historically, dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the water table
until incoming water exceeded the digger’s bailing rate. The well was lined with
stones, bricks, tile, or other material to prevent collapse, and was covered
with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete tile. Because of the type of construction,
bored wells can go deeper beneath the water table than can hand-dug wells. Dug
and bored wells have a large diameter and expose a large area to the
aquifer. These wells are able to obtain water from less-permeable materials such as
very fine sand, silt, or clay.
 Disadvantages of this type of well are that they are shallow and lack continuous
casing and grouting, making them subject to contamination from nearby surface
sources, and they go dry during periods of drought if the water table drops below
the well bottom.
TYPICAL CAUSES FOR REDUCED WELL YIELD

1. Mechanical Blockage
2. Fine-grained soil particles or corrosion Chemical Encrustation
(e.g. iron/manganese oxides, calcium/magnesium carbonates,
sulphates):
3. Bacteriological Plugging (e.g. iron bacteria):
4. Microorganisms,
REHABILITATION OF EXISTING WELLS
1. Notify all users
2. Determine the characteristics of the well
3. Remove the pumping mechanism or lifting device
4. Remove all polluted water, sediments and debris
5. Repair the damage
6. Clean the well physically
7. Clean the well chemically
8. Disinfect the well
9. Dewater the well
10. Seal the top of the well
LOCATION OF NEW WELLS

 The first step in providing a safe water supply is to properly locate and construct
your new well. Proper location is critical, as the possibility of contamination can be
found throughout numerous sources. One of the most important things to consider
in providing a good location for your well is to find high ground, thus, making sure
surface water drains away from the well and all possible surface contamination
sources are at a lower elevation than your well. A well must be no closer than 10 feet
to sewers with water tight joints (e.g., schedule 40 PVC pipe or heavier with solvent
welded water tight joints); 50 feet to septic tanks and barnyard or animal
confinement lots; and 75 feet to septic fields and manure piles.
CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

 Drilling a well into a

bedrock aquifer

 Figure gives an overview

of the recommended well
design and pumping
arrangements
STEP 1: DRILLING INTO BEDROCK
STEP 2: INSTALLING TEMPORARY (CONDUCTOR) CASING
STEP 3: DEEPENING THE HOLE
STEP 4: INSTALLING PERMANENT CASING
STEP 5: INJECTING GROUT
STEP 6: WAITING TIME
STEP 7: DRILLING THE PRODUCING SECTION
STEP 8: AIRLIFT PUMPING
WATER TREATMENT

 Water treatment is any process

that makes water more acceptable
for a specific end-use. The end use
may be drinking, industrial water
supply, irrigation, river flow
maintenance, water recreation or
many other uses, including being
safely returned to the environment.
WATER TREATMENT
WATER QUALITY

 The raw or treated water is analysed by testing their physical, chemical

and bacteriological characteristics:
Physical Characteristics: Chemical Characteristics:
Turbidity pH
Acidity
Colour Alkalinity
Taste and Odour Hardness
Temperature Chlorides
Sulphates
Iron
Solids
Nitrates
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Turbidity - If a large amount of suspended solids are present in water, it will appear
turbid in appearance. The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of
particles present in water.
 Colour - Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic
materials may impart colour to the water.
 Taste and Odour - Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with
the appropriate human receptor cell. Most organic and some inorganic chemicals,
originating from municipal or industrial wastes, contribute taste and odour to the
water.
 Temperature - The increase in temperature decreases palatability, because at
elevated temperatures carbon dioxide and some other volatile gases are expelled.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 pH - value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of water. It is expressed on a scale
ranging from 0 to 14, which is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration. The recommended pH range for treated drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.
 Acidity - The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralise bases. Acidity of
water may be caused by the presence of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral acids and salts
of strong acids and weak bases.
 Alkalinity - The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralise acids.
 Hardness - If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard.
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations. The principal hardness causing cations are
calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous and manganese ions.
 Chloride - Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of
calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are present in water
because of their high solubility in water.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Sulphates - occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of
sulphides. Sulphates are associated generally with calcium, magnesium and sodium
ions. Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be extended upto 400
mg/L.
 Iron - is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide. When it comes in contact
with water, it dissolves to form ferrous bicarbonate under favourable conditions. IS
value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.
 Solid - The sum total of foreign matter present in water is termed as 'total solids'.
Total solids is the matter that remains as residue after evaporation of the sample
and its subsequent drying at a defined temperature (103 to 105 °C). IS acceptable
limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/L of dissolved
limit.
 Nitrates - in surface waters occur by the leaching of fertilizers from soil during
surface run-off and also nitrification of organic matter. Concentration of nitrates
above 45 mg/L cause a disease methemoglobinemia. IS value is 45 mg/L.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

Philippine National Standards for

Drinking Water 2007
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

 Level I (or point source) – a protected well or a developed spring with

an outlet but without distribution system, generally adaptable for rural
areas where the houses are thinly scattered. A level I facility normally
serves 15 to 25 households and its outreach must not be more than 250
meters from the farthest user. The yield or discharge is generally from 40
to 140 liters per minute.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

 Level II (communal faucet system or standposts) – a system composed

of source, a reservoir, piped distribution network and communal faucets,
located no more than 25 meters from the farthest house. The system is
designed to deliver 40 to 80 liters per capita per day to an average of
100 households, with one faucet per 4 to 6 households. It is generally
suitable for rural and urban areas where houses are clustered densely to
justify a simple pipe system.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

 Level III (waterworks system or individual house connections) – a

system with a source, a reservoir, a piped distribution network and
household taps. It is generally suited for densely populated areas. This
level of facility requires a minimum treatment of disinfection.
LOCATION OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
TREATMENT PLANT LAYOUT AND SITING

 Plant layout is the arrangement of designed treatment units on the

selected site.
 Siting is the selection of site for treatment plant based on features as
character, topography, and shoreline. Site development should take the
advantage of the existing site topography. The following principles are
important to consider:
TREATMENT PLANT LAYOUT AND SITING

1. A site on a side-hill can facilitate gravity flow that will reduce pumping
requirements and locate normal sequence of units without excessive
excavation or fill.
2. When landscaping is utilized it should reflect the character of the
surrounding area. Site development should alter existing naturally
stabilized site contours and drainage as little as possible.
3. The developed site should be compatible with the existing land uses
and the comprehensive development plan.
TREATMENT PLANT HYDRAULICS

 Hydraulic profile is the graphical representation of the hydraulic grade

line through the treatment plant. The head loss computations are started
in the direction of flow using water surface in the influent of first
treatment unit as the reference level. The total available head at the
treatment plant is the difference in water surface elevations in the
influent of first treatment unit and that in the effluent of last treatment
unit.
TREATMENT PLANT HYDRAULICS

 There are many basic principles that must be considered when preparing the
hydraulic profile through the plant. Some are listed below:
1. The hydraulic profiles are prepared at peak and average design flows and at
minimum initial flow.
2. The hydraulic profile is generally prepared for all main paths of flow through
the plant.
3. The head loss through the treatment plant is the sum of head losses in the
treatment units and the connecting piping and appurtenances.
TREATMENT PLANT HYDRAULICS

4. The head losses through the treatment unit include the

following:
 Head losses at the influent structure.
 Head losses at the effluent structure.
 Head losses through the unit.
 Miscellaneous and free fall surface allowance.
TREATMENT PLANT HYDRAULICS
5. The total loss through the connecting pipings, channels and
appurtenances is the sum of following:
 Head loss due to entrance.
 Head loss due to exit.
 Head loss due to contraction and enlargement.
 Head loss due to friction.
 Head loss due to bends, fittings, gates, valves, and meters.
 Head required over weir and other hydraulic controls.
 Free-fall surface allowance.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

 The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table:
 Functions of Water Treatment Units
Unit treatment Function (removal)
Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odour, Taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing substances
THE TYPES OF TREATMENT REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT SOURCES
Source Treatment required
1. Ground water and spring water fairly free No treatment or Chlorination
from contamination
2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals and Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
gases filtration and disinfection
3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less Disinfection
amount of pollution
4. Other surface waters such as rivers, canals Complete treatment
and impounded reservoirs with a considerable
amount of pollution