College of Engineering

Department of
Taibah University Civil Engineering

Course GE 202:

Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Engineering

By : Dr. Férid RÉHIMI

Email: Rehimi_f@yahoo.fr

Chapter 1: Introduction to heat transfer fundamentals

Thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although

everybody has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise
definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
Cengel and Boles

2
Thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today
the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy
transformations including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the
properties of matter.

One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy

principle.
3
Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy

A refrigerator operating with its A fan running in a well-sealed and

door open in a well-sealed and well-insulated room will raise the
well-insulated room. temperature of air in the room.

4
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy
In thermodynamic analysis, the total energy of a system is devided in two groups:
macroscopic and microscopic.

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to
some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

The energy that a system possesses as a result of The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
its motion relative to some reference frame is elevation in a gravitational field is called potential
called kinetic energy (KE). energy (PE)

𝑉𝑉 2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚 (J) 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (J)
2
Or on unit mass basis
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (J/kg)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = (J/kg)
2 5
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy
In thermodynamic analysis, the total energy of a system is devided in two groups:
macroscopic and microscopic.
The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system
and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference
frames.
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system
and is denoted by U . Internal energy can be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules.

6
The various forms of microscopic energies that make up sensible energy
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy
The internal energy is also associated with various binding forces between the molecules of
a substance, between the atoms within a molecule, and between the particles within an
atom and its nucleus. The forces that bind the molecules to each other are, as one would
expect, strongest in solids and weakest in gases.

The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of the microscopic energies 7
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy: Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal
turbine. Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical energy. Thermal
energy is not mechanical energy, however, since it cannot be converted to work directly and
completely (the second law of thermodynamics).

8
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy: Mechanical Energy

9
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy: Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed on a unit mass basis as:

The mechanical energy of a mass 𝑚𝑚 flowing fluid is given by:

𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
𝐸𝐸mech = m 𝑒𝑒mech =m + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜌𝜌 2
The instantaneous mechanical power of a mass 𝑚𝑚 flowing fluid is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = 𝐸𝐸̇ mech = ṁ 𝑒𝑒mech = ṁ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌 2

10
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy: Heat Energy
Boundary

Matter + Work + Heat Work + Heat Nothing exchanged with the outside

Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms heat and work.
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
An adiabatic system is a closed system with no possibility of heat exchange with its
surroundings. 11
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy: Energy conversion
𝛿𝛿𝑊𝑊 = −𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑃𝑃 � 𝐴𝐴 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑃𝑃 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Expansion or compression of a gas

in a piston–cylinder device

12
Thermodynamics
Energy balance
The conservation of energy principle can be expressed as follows: The net
change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a
process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system during that process. That is,

where

13
Thermodynamics
Energy balance (cont.)
In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects
(i.e., for simple compressible systems), the change in the total
energy of a system during a process is the sum of the changes in
its internal, kinetic, and potential energies and can be expressed
as:
∆𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 where

For stationary systems,

0 0
∆𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + ∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∆𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑈𝑈 14
Thermodynamics
Energy balance (cont.2)

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊
variation of the internal
energy of a system
after a transformation
Heat exchanged by Work received by
the system with its the system from its
surrounding during surrounding during
the transformation the transformation

15
Heat Transfer: Conduction , convection and radiation
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
 Thermal energy transfer is heat moving from a warmer object to a cooler object.
This is known as thermal energy transfer or the Law zero of thermodynamics

Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all
modes are from the high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature one.

16
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Heat Transfer
Conduction, Convection and Radiation

17
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Heat Transfer

18
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Heat Transfer by conduction or Heat Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take place in
solids, liquids, or gases.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and
the energy transport by free electrons.

19
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Heat Transfer by convection or Heat Conduction
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid
motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

20
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Heat Transfer by radiation or Heat radiation
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike
conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium. In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light).

21
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference, and the
larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.

Heat transfer problems are often

classified as being steady (also called
steady state) or transient (also called
unsteady). The term steady implies no
change with time at any point within
the medium, while transient implies Indicating direction for heat transfer
(positive in the positive direction;
Transient and steady heat conduction
negative in the negative direction)
variation with time or time in a plane wall

dependence.
22
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), a French mathematician, developed the basic heat
transfer relationship for conduction. It is known as Fourier’s law of conduction:

𝜙𝜙 = 𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝑘 � 𝐴𝐴 � ∆𝑇𝑇 /𝐿𝐿

T1 T2

Heat transfer rate(W)

𝑄𝑄̇
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Wall thickness
Wall surface (m)
(m2) (T1-T2)

A
L
𝜙𝜙 = 𝜑𝜑 � 𝐴𝐴
Heat transfer rate (W) Heat flux(W/ m2) 23
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation

The heat conduction was expressed in the differential form by Fourier’s law of
heat conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴 (𝑊𝑊)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴 𝚤𝚤⃗ (𝑊𝑊) 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜑𝜑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘 (𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 )
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 24
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation

For one-dimensional steady heat conduction through the wall, we have T(x). Then Fourier's law of heat conduction
for the wall can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴 (𝑊𝑊)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus we have dT/dx = constant, which means that the temperature
through the wall varies linearly with x.
dT
φ = −k A (W )
dx
φ dx = − k A dT
x=L
T =T2
∫ φ dx = ∫
x =0
T =T1
− k A dT

T1 − T2
φ =kA (W )
L 25
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Thermal conductivity of some materials

26
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Convection

The rate heat transfer from convection is proportional to the

temperature difference, and is similar to the equation for
conduction:
𝜙𝜙 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞
(Newton Law)

where
ℎ = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2·K
𝐴𝐴 = heat transfer surface area, m2
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = temperature of the surface, °C
𝑇𝑇∞ = temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface, °C
27
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Convection

h is not a property of the fluid, experimentally determined, depends on

- surface geometry
- nature of fluid motion
- Properties of fluid
- Bulk fluid velocity

28
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Thermal Resistance Concept
• Heat conduction through a plane wall can be rearranged as:
𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴 (W)
𝐿𝐿

1 𝐿𝐿
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴
From Newton’s law of cooling that governs the heat convection:
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞

1 1
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇∞ ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 =
ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ℎ 𝐴𝐴 29
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Radiation
A body at a thermodynamic (or absolute) temperature T above zero emits radiation
in all directions over a wide range of wavelengths. The amount of radiation energy
emitted from a surface A at a given wavelength depends on the material of the
body and the condition of its surface as well as the surface temperature.

The maximum rate of energy emitted by a surface is given by the Stefan Law:

𝜙𝜙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 4
𝜎𝜎 = Stefan‐Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K‐4

When the body emits according to the equation above, it is called a black body

30
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Radiation

A Black body is an idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate. A
grey or non black body emits less radiation then a by black body.

ε =1 For black bodies

𝜙𝜙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 4 0 ≤ ε ≤1 For real bodies

Emissivity of the surface

The amount of energy exchanged between a body and the ambiance (the
surrounding) is given in general by:
𝜙𝜙𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4

Where 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the surrounding temperature 31

Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Radiation

A Black body is an idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate. A
grey or non black body emits less radiation then a by black body.

ε =1 For black bodies

𝜙𝜙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 4 0 ≤ ε ≤1 For real bodies

Emissivity of the surface

The amount of energy exchanged between a body and the ambiance (the surrounding)
is given in general by:
𝜙𝜙𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4

Where 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the surrounding temperature 32

Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation: Radiation
When the wall is surrounded by a gas, the radiation effects can be significant and
may be considered.
The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface of emissivity 𝜀𝜀 and area A at
temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 and the surrounding surfaces at some average temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 can
be expressed as: 𝜙𝜙𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4

The rate of radiation may be expressed as:

1
𝜙𝜙𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4
= ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ℛ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

1
where: ℛ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = The radiation heat
ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴 transfer coefficient

And: ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

2
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (W/m2 K) 33
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Combined heat transfer coefficient

34
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Combined heat transfer coefficient
ℛ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,1 + ℛ𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,2

Therefore, for a unit area, the overall heat transfer

coefficient is equal to the inverse of the total thermal
resistance. 𝜙𝜙

1
In this case, we write: 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐴𝐴 =
ℛ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

the overall heat transfer coefficient 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑈𝑈 � 𝐴𝐴 � ∆𝑇𝑇 (W)

• for a unit area, the overall heat transfer coefficient is equal to the inverse of
the total thermal resistance 35
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Combined heat transfer coefficient

ℛ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,1 +ℛ𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,1 +ℛ𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,2 +ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,2

36
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Application 1: Heat Loss through a Single-Pane Window
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide glass window with a thickness of 8 mm
and a thermal conductivity of k =0.78 W/m · °C. Determine the steady rate of
heat transfer through this glass window and the temperature of its inner surface
for a day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while the temperature of
the outdoors is -10°C. Take the heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer
surfaces of the window to be h1=10 W/m2°C , and h2=40 W/m2°C which includes
the effects of radiation.

Assumptions: 1 Heat transfer through the window is steady since the surface
temperatures remain constant at the specified values. 2 Heat transfer through
the wall is one-dimensional since any significant temperature gradients will exist in
the direction from the indoors to the outdoors. 3 Thermal conductivity is
37
constant.
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Application 1: Heat Loss through a Single-Pane Window

This problem involves conduction through the glass window and convection at its surfaces, and can
best be handled by making use of the thermal resistance concept and drawing the thermal resistance
network, as shown in the previous figure. Noting that the area of the window is A=0.8 m× 1.5 m=1.2 m2;
the individual resistances are evaluated from their definitions to be

38
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Application 1: Heat Loss through a Single-Pane Window

Discussion: Note that the inner surface temperature of the window glass will be -2.2°C even though
the temperature of the air in the room is maintained at 20°C. Such low surface temperatures are
highly undesirable since they cause the formation of fog or even frost on the inner surfaces of the
glass when the humidity in the room is high.
39
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Application 2: Heat Loss through a Double-Pane Window
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide double-pane window consisting of
two 4-mm-thick layers of glass (k =0.78 W/m ·°C) separated by a 10-mm-
wide stagnant air space (k2 =0.026 W/m ·°C). Determine the steady rate of
heat transfer through this double-pane window and the temperature of its
inner surface for a day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while
the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C. Take the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1=10
W/m2·°C and h2=40 W/m2·°C, which includes the effects of radiation.

40
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
Application 2: Heat Loss through a Double-Pane Window
Solution: The rate of heat transfer through the window and the inner surface
temperature are to be determined.
As you see, this example problem is identical to the previous one except
that the single 8-mm-thick window glass is replaced by two 4-mm-thick
glasses that enclose a 10-mm-wide stagnant air space. Therefore, the
thermal resistance network of this problem will involve two additional
conduction resistances corresponding to the two additional layers, as
shown in the figure. Noting that the area of the window is again A =0.8
m×1.5 m =1.2 m2 , the individual resistances are evaluated from their
definitions to be:

41
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation

ℛ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,1 +ℛ𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔,1 +ℛ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +ℛ𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔,2 +ℛ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,2

Then the steady rate of heat transfer through the window becomes:

𝑇𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑇∞,2 20 − −10 °𝐶𝐶

𝜙𝜙 = = = 69.2 𝑊𝑊
ℛ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 0.43332°𝐶𝐶/𝑊𝑊
42
Thermal energy and Heat Transfer propagation
which is about one-fourth of the result obtained in the previous example.
This explains the popularity of the double- and even triple-pane windows
in cold climates. The drastic reduction in the heat transfer rate in this case
is due to the large thermal resistance of the air layer between the glasses.
The inner surface temperature of the window in this case will be:

𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇∞,1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,1 𝜙𝜙 = 20°𝐶𝐶 − 69.2 𝑊𝑊 0.08333 °𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑊𝑊 = 14.2°𝐶𝐶

which is considerably higher than the -2.2°C obtained in the previous

example. Therefore, a double-pane window will rarely get fogged. A
double-pane window will also reduce the heat gain in summer, and thus
reduce the air conditioning costs.
43
Generalized thermal resistance networks

The thermal resistance concept or the electrical analogy can also be used to
solve steady heat transfer problems that involve parallel layers or combined
series-parallel arrangements. Although such problems are often two- or even
three-dimensional, approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming one
dimensional heat transfer and using the thermal resistance network

44
Generalized thermal resistance networks

45
Generalized thermal resistance networks
Application 3: Heat Loss through a Composite Wall
A 3-m-high and 5-m-wide wall consists of long 16-cm 22-cm cross section
horizontal bricks (k=0.72 W/m · °C) separated by 3-cm-thick plaster layers
(k=0.22 W/m · °C). There are also 2-cm-thick plaster layers on each side of the
brick and a 3-cm-thick rigid foam (k=0.026 W/m · °C) on the inner side of the
wall, as shown in the following figure. The indoor and the outdoor temperatures
are 20°C and -10°C, and the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner
and the outer sides are h1=10 W/m2·°C and h2=25 W/m2·°C, respectively.
Assuming one-dimensional heat transfer and disregarding radiation, determine
the rate of heat transfer through the wall.

46
Generalized thermal resistance networks
Application 3: Heat Loss through a Composite Wall
The composition of a composite wall is given. The rate of heat transfer through
the wall is to be determined.
Assumptions: 1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of change
with time. 2 Heat transfer can be approximated as being one-dimensional
since it is predominantly in the x-direction. 3 Thermal conductivities are
constant. 4 Heat transfer by radiation is negligible.

47
Generalized thermal resistance networks
Application 3: Heat Loss through a Composite Wall
Properties The thermal conductivities are given to be k=0.72 W/m·°C
for bricks, k=0.22 W/m·°C for plaster layers, and k=0.026 W/m · °C for the
rigid foam.
Analysis There is a pattern in the construction of this wall that repeats itself
every 25-cm distance in the vertical direction. There is no variation in the
horizontal direction. Therefore, we consider a 1-m-deep and 0.25-m-high
portion of the wall, since it is representative of the entire wall.
Assuming any cross section of the wall normal to the x-direction to be
isothermal, the thermal resistance network for the representative section of
the wall becomes as shown in the figure.
48
Generalized thermal resistance networks
Application 3: Heat Loss through a Composite Wall
The individual resistances are evaluated as:

The three resistances R3 , R4, and R5 in the middle are parallel, and their
equivalent resistance is determined from

which gives 49
Generalized thermal resistance networks
Application 3: Heat Loss through a Composite Wall
Now all the resistances are in series, and the total resistance is:

Then the steady rate of heat transfer through the wall becomes:
𝑇𝑇∞,1 − 𝑇𝑇∞,2 20 − −10 °𝐶𝐶
𝜙𝜙 = = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑾𝑾
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 6.85°𝐶𝐶/𝑊𝑊

or 4.38/0.25 =17.5 W per m2 area. The total area of the wall is A=3 m× 5m =15 m2.
Then the rate of heat transfer through the entire wall becomes:
𝜙𝜙𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 17.5 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 15𝑚𝑚2 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾

Note: This result is approximate, since we assumed the temperature within the wall to vary in one
50
direction only and ignored any temperature change (and thus heat transfer) in the other two directions.