Abstracts

E ACW E 4
The Fourth European & African

Conference on Wind Engineering
July 11-15, 2005, Prague, Czech Republic
Book of Extended Abstracts

Editors: JiĜí Náprstek and Cyril Fischer
___________________________________________________________________
organised by:
International Association of Wind Engineering (IAWE)

Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
(ITAM ASCR)
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Klokner Institute of the Czech Technical University
Czech Society for Mechanics
Engineering Academy of the Czech Republic
The complete set of EACWE 4 Conference Proceedings consists of two parts:
x BOOK OF EXTENDED ABSTRACTS

x CD ROM (full text of papers and extended abstracts)
The texts of the various papers in this volume were set individually by typists under the
supervision of each of the authors concerned. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the authors and editors cannot assume responsibility for the
validity of all materials or for the consequencies of their use.
Text and facts may be copied and used freely, but credit should be given to these Proceedings.
Publisher: Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague
Prosecká 76, CZ-190 00 Prague 9, Czech Republic
Fax: +420.286 884 634, e-mail: itam@itam.cas.cz
Printed by GLOS s.r.o., Semily, Czech Republic
Copyright © 2005 ITAM ASCR Prague
First edition, 2005

ISBN 80-86246-26-4
The Fourth European & African Conference on Wind Engineering
is held under the auspices of the President of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Professor Václav Paþes
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (ASCR) was established in 1992 by the Czech
National Council (Act No. 283/1992 of the Collection of Acts) as the Czech successor of the former
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. ASCR is the leading non-university basic research public
institution in the Czech Republic. It conducts both fundamental and strategic applied research to create
scientific knowledge that contributes to strengthening the nation's position in key areas of science and to
finding up-to-date solutions to contemporary problems of the society.
Within three Scientific Divisions, namely the Division of Mathematics, Physics, and Earth Sciences,
Division of Chemical and Life Sciences, and Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, the Academy
currently manages a network of sixty research institutes and five supporting units staffed by a total of
6400 employees, of whom slightly over one half are university-trained researchers and PhD. scientists.
The ASCR institutes are also involved in education by providing courses at the graduate level and
supervising doctoral programs. The Head Office of the Academy and forty research institutes are located
in Prague, the remaining institutes being situated throughout the country.
The Academy formulates its own scientific policy, advises the state on major issues of its R&D policy,
administers national as well as international research programs, and promotes cooperation with both
applied research and industry to foster technology transfer and exploitation of scientific knowledge.
The head office: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Národní 3, CZ-117 20 Praha 1
Tel.: +420.221 403 111, Fax: +420.224 240 512, E-mail: info@cas.cz
Main Headings
Foreword ....................................................................................................................... v
Organisation ................................................................................................................. vii
Sponsors ........................................................................................................................ viii
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... xii

(alphabetic order according to the name of the first autor)
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... xx

(alphabetic order according to the Sections and Subsections)
Keynote Lectures ......................................................................................................... 2
Contributed Papers ...................................................................................................... 22
Author Index ............................................................................................................... 358

Foreword
The fourth European & African Conference on Wind Engineering (EACWE 4) represents a
continuation of a tradition which calls a conference every four years. It should be recalled the
fruitful meetings at Guernsey 1993, Genova 1997 and Eindhoven 2001. With their large and
qualified participation, the quality of papers presented and excellent organisation, they
established these Conferences as a high-level forum where engineers, researchers, university
teachers, students and other professionals can present recent developments and discuss the
scientific, technical and experimental results and ideas in various areas of Wind Engineering.
The International Association of Wind Engineering (IAWE) was established in the 2004. I am
proud that the Czech Republic became one of the first members of this prestigious association.
Therefore the EACWE 4 became an official activity of the IAWE in the meaning of the conference of
the European and African Region. Organisers are entitled to refer the IAWE and should respect the by-
laws of this association.
The proceedings show clearly the progress and recent developments of individual areas of
the Wind Engineering, particularly in theoretical approaches, numerical analysis, experimental
investigations, in situ measurements, wind climate and structure, wind energy, urban wind
problems, design practice and in special problems of Wind Engineering encountered in Africa.
The EACWE 4 being held in Prague, Czech Republic, concentrated a lot of papers of very high
scientific and technical level. It has shown that the EACWE conferences have been attractive not only
for the European colleagues but also for the participants from the whole world. The International
Scientific Committee had a difficult task to choose from about 230 submitted summaries the
best ones for the oral presentation and for the publication in the Proceedings. Nearly 170 papers
were selected, their final version submitted and arranged in the EACWE 4 Conference
Proceedings. The papers were written by 200 authors from 36 countries. Each paper is published
in the form of an extended abstract (2-4 pages) which can be found in this hard bound Book of
Extended Abstracts, while its full text (approx. 6 to 12 pages) is available at a CD ROM together
with other information.
The Proceedings are introduced by six keynote papers to which the well known experts were
invited to cover the state of the art, history and management of the Wind Engineering. The organizers
took into account also the geographical distribution of these main speakers.
The following chapters correspond to the 13 scientific sections and relevant subsections of
the conference. In many cases it was difficult to decide to which chapter a particular paper belongs
because it covers more than one section. For this reason every corresponding author has been asked for
his approval regarding the allocation proposed by organisers. Despite of this fact the editors are ready to
hear criticism of the sequence of papers in the Proceedings and in the scientific sections at the conference
and apologise if they did not recognise fully the intention of the authors.
Oral presentations are organised into plenary sessions reserved for keynote lectures and
parallel sessions divided with respect to individual topics discussed with time enough for non-
organised discussions and idea exchange. With reference to paper and its presentation quality
assessed by EACWE 4 - International Scientific Committe and session chairman, authors of
selected papers will be invited to prepare and submit manuscripts of their contribution for
publication in a special issue of the Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics.
v
Finally, I cannot close the Foreword to the Proceedings without our sincerest thanks to a number
of persons who enabled the organization of the EACWE 4 in Prague. There is first of all the
president of the IAWE Prof. Giovanni Solari and the members of the IAWE Executive
Committee, who entrusted the organisation of the Conference to the Czech group of the Wind
Engineering. My gratitude should be expressed to Prof. Christopher Baker who made me possible
to concentrate to Conference preparation taking over many of my duties of the Regional
Coordinator. Many thanks to Prof. Chang-Koon Choi and Prof. Mark Levitan for cooperation,
when coordinating various aspects of the 2005 regional conferences. The local committee has also
received a great support from the Chairman of the previous EACWE Prof.Jacob Wisse. The
contribution of Keynote speakers, all other authors and the members of EACWE 4 International
Scientific Committee should be remembered. The work of these people became the backbone of
the scientific success of the Conference. Support of our Czech sponsors from industrial and social
area demonstrated the traditional contacts between research and industrial life in the Czech
Republic and should be gratefully acknowledged.
I would like to appreciate the effort of my Czech colleagues and the well working
EACWE 4 Local Organising Committee during the whole period of the Conference preparation.
Particularly I refer to my friends and colleagues Dr. Cyril Fischer and Dr. Stanislav Pospíšil for
their great enthusiasm and for thorough work which were absolutely decisive for the smooth and
successful preparation of the Conference. I feel honored to acknowledge Prof. ZdenČk Bittnar for
his intense and effective collaboration despite his enormous duties in the position of the Dean of
the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Prague. My sincere thanks are also addressed to ITC Travel
Agency, namely to Mrs. Radka Budská, for a marvelous job in the social background of the
Conference. Last, but definitely not least, a respect should be given to the Accounting department
of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics for cooperation in finance management.
JiĜí Náprstek
EACWE 4 Chairman
IAWE European and African Regional Coordinator
vi
Organisation
International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE)
President of IAWE: Giovanni Solari (I)

Secretary General: Giuseppe Piccardo (I)
Regional Representative of the European & African Region: Chris J. Baker (GB)
Regional Co-ordinator of the European & African Region: JiĜí Náprstek (CZ)
EACWE 4 - Chairman: JiĜí Náprstek (CZ)

EACWE 4 - Co-chairman: Miroš Pirner (CZ)
EACWE 4 – International Scientific Committee

G. Augusti (I) G. A. M. van Kuik (NL)
C. J. Baker (GB) A. Larsen (DK)
C. Baniotopoulos (GR) T. Leino (FIN)
J. Benþat (SK) M. Levitan (USA)
Z. Bittnar (CZ) M. Matsumoto (J)
J. Bogunovic-Jakobsen (N) K. C. Mehta (USA)
C. Borri (I) K. McNamara (IRL)
J. Cheung (AUS) J. Náprstek (CZ)
C. K. Choi (ROK) H. J. Niemann (D)
D. Cobo del Arco (E) G. Piccardo (I)
A. G. Davenport (CDN) M. Pirner (CZ)
J. Duhovnik (SLO) N. Popov (RUS)
C. Fischer (CZ) S. Pospíšil (CZ)
O. Fischer (CZ) C. Sacré (F)
A. Flaga (PL) J. Snæbjörnsson (IS)
P. Freathy (GB) H. Sockel (A)
A. Goliger (ZA) G. Solari (I)
K. Handa (S) T. Stathopoulos (CDN)
E. Hjorth-Hansen (N) K. C. J. Stigter (NL)
R. Höffer (D) M. Studniþková (CZ)
J. Holmes (AUS) Y. Tamura (J)
A. Jensen (DK) C. G. Trezos (GR)
N. P. Jones (USA) J. A. Wisse (NL)
A. Kareem (USA) B. Zimmerli (CH)
E. E. Khalil (ET) J. Zuranski (PL)
EACWE 4 – Local Organising Committee

M. Fikáþková J. Náprstek
C. Fischer M. Polák
H. Hadaþová S. Pospíšil
J. Havlínová M. Studniþková
vii
Sponsors (alphabetic order)
CERVENKA CONSULTING
Cervenka Consulting is a recognised expert in the field of computational mechanics with emphasis on
reinforced concrete structures. Main activities are: development of commercial software ATENA for
computer simulation of real behaviour of reinforced concrete structures based on non-linear finite
element analysis, software distribution and technical support. Furthermore, the company provides
research, development and consulting services in the field of advanced structural analysis. Typical
consulting projects concern design of complex structures or cases of forensic engineering (structural
failures). These activities are world wide, with clients in Europe, North America and Asia, among design
and construction companies, research, government and university institutions. Company members are
computer active in professional organizations, such as, IABSE, fib, FRAMCOS, Engineering academy of the
simulation of Czech Republic.
reinforced The head office: CERVENKA CONSULTING, Predvoje 22, 16200 Praha 6
concrete tel: +420 220 610 018 cervenka@cervenka.cz www.cervenka.cz
structures
ATENA
Czech Society for Mechanics
The Czech Society for Mechanics is a voluntary selective association of professionals interested in
mechanics and participating in its further development. The Society and its activities are governed by its
Statutes and by its Election Rules as well as by the Acts of the Czech Republic.
The Society pursues in particular the following objectives :
(a) supports the development of mechanics as a field of science by the promotion of scientific and
popular-scientific work and the propagation of new achievements and knowledge in engineering practice,
(b) directs the interest of its members to the solution of the problems of the field, (c) develops prognostic
activities, organizes, intensifies and co-ordinates the co-operation of its members, (d) affords assistance to
its members in their professional work, (e) contributes to the improvement of the professional standard of
its members by informing them about the latest topics of the field, (f) contributes to the improvement of
the professional standard of its members beginning working in the field, (g) suggest to the respective
professional institutions such measures as concern the development of the field, (h) provides
consultations and expert opinions to natural and legal persons.
The head office: Czech Society for Mechanics, Dolejškova 5, CZ-182 00 Praha 8
tel./fax: +420.286 587 784, e-mail: csm@it.cas.cz
Czech Institution of Structural and Civil Engineers

(in Czech: ýeský svaz stavebních inženýrĤ) - usually abbreviated as ýSSI is a creative, professional,
selective and non-profit making association of civil engineers and graduated specialists of related
branches of construction and development in Bohemia and Moravia. The CSSI associates its members
on the principle of voluntarity. It is the direct successor of the association of the same name founded in
1968 the activities of which were stopped unlawfully in 1979. It also continues in the tradition of the
Association of Engineers and Architects of the Kingdom of Bohemia, founded in 1866, and the
Association of Czechoslovak Engineers (SIA), abolished in 1951.
The CSSI implements its objectives and purpose by the following forms:
organization of scientific events and training courses, consultations, excursions, lectures, seminars and
study trips; deployment and recommendation of its members for foreign trips and sojourn; participation
in the activities of foreign technical partner organisations and their events; cooperation in the
preparation, review and approval of important predictions, concepts, competitions and implementation of
construction projects; elaboration of expert and other assessments; assistance to the students of high-
grade schools.
The head office: ýSSI, Sokolská 15, CZ-120 00 Praha 2;
tel./fax: +420.227 090 411; e-mail: cssi@cssi-cr.cz
viii
Dewetron Praha spol. s r.o.
The company Dewetron Praha spol. s r.o. was found in the 1991 year in cooperation with it’s partner from
Austria, Dewetron Ges.m.b.H. Purely trading company, active in the field of measurement and industrial
automation, transformed during years to supplier of the complete measurement and control systems based
on PC and as a system integrator. Dewetron is worldwide company with branch offices in more then 15
countries.
Dewetron was accepted as a member of the group Augusta Technologie AG, which is registered on the
stock exchange in Frankfurt in 1998. To ensure the production quality, the company successfully passed
the certification procedure ISO 9001 in the year 2003.
Main activities today are still as follows: supply of industrial measurement systems including signal
conditioning, data acquisition, presentation, analysis and storage, system integration and sensors.
The head office: Dewetron Praha spol. s r.o., Tehovska 25, 100 00 Praha 10;
tel./fax: +420 274 822 925/274 822 926;
e-mail: info@dewetron.cz
Engineering Academy of the Czech Republic

The Engineering Academy of the Czech Republic was founded on 7 February 1995. This self-supporting
organization is a selective association of individual members. Its main objective is to guarantee technical
education and support the development of technical sciences. The EACR endeavours to enhance the
prestige of engineering professions and foster dynamic growth of economic and social development with
focus on the Czech republic ability to compete on the international market. Members of the EACR are
top-experts from universities, the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, the industrial sphere and
government administration. The EACR is an associate member of EURO-CASE (European Council of
Applied Sciences and Engineering) and a member of the International Council of Academies of
Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS). EACR activities are divided into Professional
Sections, the Council of the EACR, the nominating Committee and the Controlling Committee. EACR
established the “Czech Knowledge Transfer Office”, whose main task is to support practical application
of the research results in industry and other spheres to enhance the ability of the national economy to
compete in the international market. EACR awards an Annual prize for an outstanding completed
technical project and/or outstanding contribution to the development of engineering research.
The head office: Engineering Academy of the Czech Republic, Národní 3, CZ-111 21 Praha 1
tel./fax: +420.224 240 530, e-mail: iacr@kav.cas.cz
EXCON, a.s.
EXCON, a.s. started its operation in 1990 as a design studio focusing on structural analysis and
dynamics of steel structures. Its initial development related to the boom in the telecommunication sector.
In 1995, the company extended its business activities by engineering and contracting activities mostly in
business with masts and towers.
New fields of operation were found after the telecommunication market saturation. At the end of 2002,
the company acquired a facility in Hradec Králové producing of steel structures (former ZVU Chemie,
today EXCON Steel, a.s.). In 2003, EXCON, a.s. entered the market as a residential developer and
continues looking for other opportunities.
Its original product (steel structures) has been developed for the entire term of the company existence.
The head office: EXCON, Sokolovská 203, CZ-190 00 Praha 9
Tel.: +420.244 015 111; Fax: +420.283 893 514;
e-mail: excon@excon.cz
ix
HBM – Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik
The Leader In Weighing, Test And Measurement Technologies
HBM is a global market leader in weighing, test and measurement technologies. Our state-of-the-art,
innovative products set standards for precision throughout the world. That is why so many of our
customers associate HBM with “measurement with confidence”. HBM is Your supplier for:
x Strain gages
x Transducers (Force, Torque, Displacement, Pressure, Acceleration, Load cells)
x Industrial electronics
x Acquisition systems
x Analysis and control software
The head office: Ing. Ivan Wasgestian HBP, Podskalská 7, CZ-128 00 Praha 2;
Representative for Czech and Slovak Republic;
tel.: +420 224 921 861, fax.: +420 224 913 657;
e-mail: hbmcz@hbm.cz, http://www.hbm.cz;
PCS, s.r.o.
PCS s.r.o. (Ltd.), a Czech company without foreign participation, was founded in 1990 by technical
specialists in the fields of IT, analytical measuring techniques, and communication and security systems.
From the very start, the company has been expanding steadily and growing aggressively.
Data acquisition and processing sytems:
Peekel Instruments - These very special devices are searched by the customers because of highest
standards on reliability, safety and flexibility in use. Peekel Instruments is a company with long tradition in
manufacturing devices for measuring and recording non-electrical quantities (strain, pressure, tension etc).
Imc meßsysteme – Measurements systems with wide modularity on HW and SW side including support
of CANbus.
Analytical instruments and measurement:
A whole bunch of physical chemistry methods are used for examination of raw materials, surfaces,
elemental and phase analysis: X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescent spectroscopy (XRF), optical emission
spectroscopy (OES) and magnetoelastic parameters measuring systems (BN – Barkhausen noice). For on-
site analysis, PCS s.r.o. established mobile lab "Mobil-Met". This adapted MPV van is packed with finest
analytical equipment, which can be used for material analysis at the customer site.
The head office: PCS, Na Dvorcich 18, CZ 140 00 Praha 4
tel./fax: +420 296796 111/777; e-mail: r.eckstein@pcs.cz
Stavby silnic a železnic, Ltd.

Stavby silnic a železnic, Ltd. (Road and Railway Construction Company - "SSŽ") has been active on the
Czech construction market since 1952. Main business of SSŽ is concentrated on the construction and
reconstruction of roads, highways, railroads and tramway tracks, bridges, sport stadiums and various
engineering projects. In respect of its total turnover attained in 2004 reaching the amount of 18,5 billion
CZK (consolidated figure), SSŽ is still heading road and related construction sector of the Czech
Republic.
The advantage of SSŽ is issuing from the modern technologies invented by its majority shareholder, that
is French road contractor EUROVIA of Group VINCI - leading construction company of the world with
2004 year turnover exceeding 19,5 billion EUR. SSŽ has been also making use of the results of its own
technological research and development aimed at new technological processes implementation,
providing for non-traditional solutions of projects resulting in lower costs, while respecting all
requirements of the investors, including environmental ones. SSŽ has been heavily investing in new
environment-friendly operations and is holder of the CSN EN ISO 14001 and ISO 9000 certificates. At
the beginning of the year 2005, new regional structures of SSŽ were established and by this way SSŽ
creates preconditions for maintaining of its position on the Czech Republic construction market.
The headoffice: Stavby silnic a železnic, a, .s. Národní 10, CZ 113 19 Praha 1;
tel./fax: +420.224 952 020/224 933 551;
e-mail: provoz@ssz.cz.cz , www.ssz.cz
x
BAUHOLDING STRABAG SE
The BAUHOLDING STRABAG SE company is an important European building concern with developing
activities particularly in Central Europe – Austria, Germany, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland
and in Benelux countries, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia and other countries.
With turnover of 5.6 billion in 2003 and more than 32,500 employees it occupies the 6th place among the
European building concerns.
The structure of the concern breaks the concern activities down into 3 branches:
x Road construction
x Building construction
x „Other branches“ – comprising the civil engineering projects and tunnels
The construction activities in the branches mentioned above are covered by the companies, particularly
under the STRABAG brand name. Production of building materials, semi-products and special
construction works are performed by companies of other regional brand names. The regional activities of
the concern are divided into 14 business fields and 8 directly controlled directorates.
The company satisfies the most demanding wishes of the customers – safely, economically, quickly and at
required quality due to professional skills, innovation know-how and advanced internal infrastructure.
The head office: STRABAG a.s., Na BČlidle 198/21, 150 00 Praha 5 – Smíchov,
Tel: +420 222 868 111, Fax:+420 222 868 100,
www.strabag.cz, e-mail: pr@bauholding.cz
SVS FEM Ltd.

SVS FEM was established in 1991 and is working as ANSYS channel partner for the Czech Republic
and Slovakia. It has 15 employees and takes care of more then 90 users of commercial licenses and 18
licenses for universities.
Analysis, own programme development, ANSYS customisation for our customers and ANSYS users.
SVS FEM is TechNET member (international company for Analysis in USA), member of NAFEMS
(UK) and EDGE Alliance.
Analysis makes about 80% of the company turn-ower.
Very good and close contact with the other ANSYS ASC – cooperation on many big projects especially
for german customers.
Sectors of specialisation SVS FEM Ltd.: machine industrie, electrotechnics and electronics, civil
engineering, automotive industry, industrial research, nuclear and gener. powers.
Software for the analysis: ANSYS, CFX
SVS FEM has got ISO 9001:2001 certification
The head office: SVS FEM s.r.o. , ýechyĖská 25, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
tel +420 543 254 554 or 555, fax +420 543 254 556,
homepage: www.svsfem.cz, email: info@svsfem.cz
TechSoft Engineering, s.r.o.

was established in 1991 and during several years of its existence has profiled as leading expertised
institute in the area of technical analyses in central Europe.
Besides its own computation and consultation activities the firm occupies itself with distribution of
software for fluid flow simulation - CFD, strength, frequency, temperature and stability computation -
FEA, systems for analyses of piping systems, kinematics and software for dynamics of mechanisms -
MSS and for design of rotating machines (fans, pumps and compressors).
Till this time the firm has realised more then 200 industrial software installations in Czech and Slovak
republic companies and currently is participating on more then 20 long terms projects together with
inland firm and abroad companies.
The head office: TechSoft Engineering, s.r.o.,
Táborská 31, CZ-140 00 Praha 4, Czech Republic;
tel.: +420 261 102 230. 303; fax: +420 241 740 274
e-mail: techsoft@techsoft-eng.cz
xi
Table of Contents
(alphabetic order according to the name of the first author)
KEYNOTE LECTURES
The International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE): birth, development and perspectives
G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 #K01
Wind Engineering past, present and future
C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 #K02
Flutter instability of structures
M. Matsumoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 #K04
Wind engineering in Africa
J.A. Wisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 #K06
Bluff body aerodynamics and aeroelasticity: a wind effects perspective
A. Kareem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 #K05
Wind response of large roofs of stadions and arena
C. Borri, P. Biagini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 #K03
CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
Galloping stability of triangular cross-sectional bodies: a systematic approach

G. Alonso, J. Meseguer, I. Pérez-Grande . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 #196
Wind tunnel tests on partially clad buildings and structures
S. Amoroso, K. Hebert, M.L. Levitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 #230
Systemic methodological approach for the analysis of exploitation and development environment
of a wind power station
M. Annabi, Y. Abdellaoui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 #205
Solutions of the debris equations
C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 #124
A simplified method to evaluate the critical flutter speed for flexible bridge decks
G. Bartoli, C. Mannini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 #209
Guyed masts subjected to wind and other environmental actions
J. Bȩc, A. Flaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 #139
Comparison among different techniques for reliability assessment of no-tensile structures under
turbulent wind
M. Betti, P. Biagini, L. Facchini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 #206
Monitoring of the environmental action of wind on a cable stayed bridge
J. Biliszczuk, M. Hildebrand, C. Machelski, W. Barcik, K. Sadowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 #200
Wind action on hip roofs
J. Blessmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 #122
Validation of wind-driven rain simulations on a low-rise building
B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 #110
A numerical study of the wind speed conditions in passages between buildings and the venturi-effect
B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 #112
xii
Wind effects on out-of-service tower cranes
S. Bodéré, G. Grillaud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 #212
Time-domain buffeting simulations for bridges
C. Borri, C. Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 #279
Thermal comfort assessment in semi-outdoor environments: application to comfort study in stadia
J. Bouyer, J. Vinet, P. Delpech, S. Carré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 #219
Reduction of wind uplift loads on pitched roofs using retro-fit devices
G. Breeze, J. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 #303
Numerical simulation of turbulent wind fields at airports in complex terrain
M. Burlando, L. Carassale, M.V. Borghesi, F. Tubino, C.F. Ratto, G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 #277
Instability mechanisms of skewed circular cylinders
L. Carassale, A. Freda, G. Piccardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 #291
Wind dynamic analysis of a latticed communication tower
C.F. Carril Jr, R.M.L.R.F Brasil, N. Isyumov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 #165
Measurement of the velocity field in a ribbed channel
Z. Chára . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 #236
Analysis of building glass-aluminium façades subjected to wind loadings
K.T. Chatzinikos, C.C. Baniotopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 #257
Analysis of wind time history using wavelet transform
A.R. Chen, Y. Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 #175
Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip model — I: Theory
A.R. Chen, R.J. Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 #173
The surface pressures of 2-D rectangular cylinder with small angle of oncoming flow
J.H. Chen, D.H. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 #187
Simulation of extreme winds from thunderstorm downbursts
L. Chen, C.W. Letchford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 #298
Determination of safe vehicle driving speeds on highways during hurricane evacuations
S.R. Chen, C.S. Cai, M.L. Levitan, B. Wolshon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 #258
Coupled dynamic wind load effects on buildings
X. Chen, A. Kareem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 #256
Modifications on the alongwind design wind load
C.M. Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 #192
Dynamical analysis of the wind response of tall industrial chimney with flexibility of soil
T. Chmielewski, P. Górski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 #180
Wind-induced interference effects of different side ratio on high-rise buildings
K. Cho, S. Hong, Y.S. Kim, K.S. Hwang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 #194
The role of ultrasonic anemometry in Wind Engineering
A. Cuerva, A. Sanz-Andrés, S. Franchini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 #152
Pedestrian wind comfort assessment criteria: A comparative case study
P. Delpech, C.J. Baker, P.A. Blackmore, H.H. Koss, A. Sanz-Andrés, T. Stathopoulos, E. Willemsen . . . 82 #217
An experimental and numerical approach to consider vortex induced vibrations in brige aerodynamics
G. Diana, F. Resta, M. Belloli, D. Rocchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 #222
A numerical and experimental investigation on aerodynamic non linearities in bridge response
to turbulent wind
G. Diana, S. Bruni, D. Rocchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 #247
A fully coupled method for computing uniform fluctuating flow around bluff bodies
E. Didier, A.R.J. Borges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 #127
Numerical simulation of two-dimensional cross flow past a cylinder using an unstructured mesh
based fully implicit second order coupled method
xiii
Unsteady crosswind forces on trains and corresponding aerodynamic parameters
Y. Ding, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 #306
Towards wind load paths on wood buildings
G. Doudak, A. Ghallagher, B. Kasal, G. McClure, M. Mohammad, I. Smith, T. Stathopoulos, I. Zisis . 94 #285
An analysis of extreme non-synoptic winds
V. Durañona, C.J. Baker, M. Sterling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 #254
Wind induced aeroelastic lock-in instability of tall buildings
H. Eimani-Kalehsar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 #272
Effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force spectrum on a tall
rectangular building
H. Eimani-Kalehsar, M. Abitorabi, A. Kolahdoz-Mohammadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 #294
Numerical simulation of wind loads on structures and effects of incident turbulence
M.A.K. Elsayed, Y.M. Elokda, S.A. Ragab, M.R. Hajj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 #282
Non-dimensional solutions for trajectories of wind-driven compact objects
E.C. English, J.D. Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 #293
Eolian erosion of a granular material placed on a rectangular box
A.D. Ferreira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 #316
Passive dynamic vibration absorbers — comparison of different types
O. Fischer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 #118
Wind tunnel tests and aerodynamical analysis of a new designed footbridge in Katowice
A. Flaga, G. Bosak, M. Pańtak, M. Bigosiński, P. Ziȩtara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 #137
Simulation of across-wind action caused by vortex excitation
A. Flaga, T. Lipecki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 #140
Galloping of tramway catenary
O. Flamand, J. Leclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 #215
Numerical simulation of the flow across an asymmetric street intersection
J. Franke, W. Frank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 #138
Probabilistic description of tall building response to wind: Database- assisted design, dynamics,
and wind directionality effects
W.P. Fritz, E. Simiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 #281
An investigation into European design wind speed differences
D.A. Gatey, C.A. Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 #221
Investigation of vortex-induced vibration of Lupu Bridge — The longest arch bridge in the world
Y.J. Ge, F.C. Cao, Z.Y. Zhou, H.F. Xiang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 #211
Wind loads on solar energy systems, mounted on flat roofs
C.P.W. Geurts, C. van Bentum, P.A. Blackmore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 #231
Pressure equalisation of brick masonry cavity walls
C.P.W. Geurts, P.W. Bouma, A. Aghaei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 #232
South African wind loading specifications: the Euro way?
A.M. Goliger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 #128
Severe wind phenomena in Southern Africa and the related damage
A.M. Goliger, J.V. Retief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 #325
A reduced-order model for the lift on a cylinder undergoing forced transverse oscillations
M.R. Hajj, L. Qin, F. Owis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 #284
Probabilistic design of structures considering omni-directional wind load
P. Hanzlı́k, P. Marek, L. Němec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 #264
Renewable energy for Sub-Saharan Africa — structural aspects of classical wind turbines and
innovative solar chimney concept
R. Harte, G.P.A.G. Van Zijl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 #326
xiv
A new approach to estimate the wind speed probability distribution along a railway track based
on international standards
J. Herb, U. Hoppmann, C. Heine, T. Tielkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 #125
Identification of wind pressures on the buildings of the Ciudad de la Cultura in Santiago de
Compostela (Spain)
S. Hernández, J.A. Jurado, J. Toimil, J. Dı́az . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 #250
Modelling of the wind speed profiles obtained by a sodar in complex terrain
J. Hošek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 #312
Variations in static pressure — application to wind engineering
R.P. Hoxey, A.D. Quinn, P.J. Richards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 #315
Numerical study of wind-induced ventilation with the local dynamic similarity model
C. Hu, T. Kurabuchi, M. Ohba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 #150
Measurement of the corner effects of a square prism on the near wake using an on-line phase-
locked PIV technique
J.C. Hu, Y. Zhou, J.F. Huang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 #317
On the transient response of road vehicles to cross-wind gust
P. Hémon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 #244
Wind tunnel simulations of flow and dispersion over urban area
Z. Jaňour, K. Bezpalcová, H. Šeděnková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 #136
Flow field near a 2D building and its pressure response
M. Jirsák, D. Zachoval, J. Matěcha, J. Novotný . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 #158
Mechanical model of human loss of balance due to wind gusts
T. Johnson, T. Prevezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 #234
Evaluating the response of an individual to a sudden change in wind speed
S.C. Jordan, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 #327
Wind tunnel control software for identification of flutter derivatives on bridge sectional tests
J.A. Jurado, A. León, S. Hernández . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 #108
Multidisciplinary optimization of wind turbine blades
M. Jureczko, A. Mȩżyk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 #126
A consistent model for the codification of wind loads on gable roofs
M. Kasperski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 #188
Design wind loads for a low-rise building taking into account directional effects
M. Kasperski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 #278
Universal wind load distribution simultaneously reproducing maximum load effects in all sub-
ject members on large-span cantilevered roof
A. Katsumura, Y. Tamura, O. Nakamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 #252
Cross-wind vibrations of steel chimneys — a new case history
J. Kawecki, J.A. Żurański . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 #183
A study on comparisons of design wind loads and responses for tall buildings with actual wind
load distributions and responses
Dae Young Kim, Ji Young Kim, Myung Ho Lee, Sang Dae Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 #324
A comparison of effective wind loads and wind-induced responses according to pressure mea-
suring locations on test models
Ji Young Kim, Dae Young Kim, Han Young Kim, Sang Dae Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 #323
Correlation influence between snow and wind loading on their combination factor
R.I. Kinash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 #104
Monitoring tall buildings under the action of wind: the role of GPS in urban zones
M. Kochly, T. Kijewski-Correa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 #246
Dominant flow features of twin jets in crossflow
V. Kolář, E. Savory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 #239
xv
Aerodynamic interference of a set of circular cylinders
O. Kopylov, J. Wojciechowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 #269
Wind Engineering for the new European Court of Justice, Luxembourg
H.H. Koss, C.T. Georgakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 #266
Ten-minute wind velocities and gusts of wind in the Czech Republic
J. Král . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 #147
Effects of surroundings on wind induced local pressures
J. Král . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 #148
Measurement of extreme aerodynamic interference forces acting on circular cylinders in turbu-
lent boundary layers
I. Krönke, H. Sockel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 #130
Improvement of aeroelastic instability of pylon of cable-stayed bridge by means of separation
interference method
Y. Kubo, K. Tasaki, H. Higashi, K. Kimura, K. Kato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 #117
The status of wind energy
G.A.M. van Kuik, W.A.A.M. Bierbooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 #260
The level-3 mesoscale turbulence model for wind climate and pollutant dispersion in cites
A.F. Kurbatskiy, L.I. Kurbatskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 #113
Applicability of LES to turbulent wake of rectangular cylinder — Comparison with PIV data
M. Kuroda, T. Tamura, M. Suzuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 #169
Dynamic response of two high-rise residential buildings during a typhoon
K.C.S. Kwok, H.Y. Leung, S. Campbell, P.A. Hitchcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 #319
Thin water film around a cable subject to wind
C. Lemaitre, P. Hémon, E. de Langre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 #276
Full-scale investigation of corner flow
C. Li, M.H. de Wit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 #228
Assessment on the instability of a suspension bridge with a hexagonal cross-section under wind action
Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Tsung-Chi Liang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 #146
Numerical simulation of aerodynamic forces on a square cylinder in oscillating flows with non-
zero mean velocities
Tsung-Chi Liang, Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Shuh-Fang Shih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 #145
Investigation of flight mechanics of 1D (rod-like) debris
N. Lin, C.W. Letchford, T. Gunn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 #300
Development of a new model MCD (Monte Carlo Dispersion)
V.G. i Llorens, A.M. Sánchez, V. Berbegall, G. Verdú . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 #119
Ambient vibration measurements and along-wind response of the Brancusi Endless Column, Romania
D. Lungu, G. Solari, R. Vacareanu, A. Aldea, C. Arion, S. Demetriu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 #267
Basic code parameters for wind action in Romania harmonised with EC1
D. Lungu, S. Demetriu, C. Arion, A. Aldea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 #275
Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip model — II: Application
R.J. Ma, A.R. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 #174
Dry inclined cable galloping — Theoretical analysis and structural damping required for its prevention
J.H.G. Macdonald, G.L. Larose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 #190
Analysis of turbulence statistics above a Scots pine forest in a sub-artic northern region
I. Mammarella, B. Tammelin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 #270
In-field measurement and stochastic modeling of tropical cyclone winds
F.J. Masters, T.A. Reinhold, K.R. Gurley, L.D. Aponte-Bermúdez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 #129
Wind response of cable stayed masts
A.L. Materazzi, I. Venanzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 #199
xvi
Effects of street orientation on dispersion at or near urban street intersections
K.F. McNamara, X. Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 #265
Comparison of analytically-numerically predicted value of maximum height of tall square build-
ings subjected to peak wind loads
D. Mitra, A. Mazumdar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 #123
Effects of roadside trees on thermal environment and pollutant diffusion in street canyon
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Iwata, N. Hataya, H. Yoshino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 #309
Numerical study on the regional characteristics of heat balance inside a city located at coastal areas
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Yoshida, H. Yoshino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 #310
Assessment of the influence of geometrical details on wind-tunnel measurement results by means of CFD
P. Moonen, B. Blocken, S. Roels, J. Carmeliet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 #115
LES study of fluctuating dispersion of hazardous gas in urban canopy
H. Nakayama, T. Tamura, Y. Okuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 #168
Vortex-induced oscillation of a circular cylinder in slowly fluctuating wind
M. Noda, F. Nagao, E. Arima, T. Morita, H. Utsunomiya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 #273
Large eddy simulation of wind flows over large roughness elements
K. Nozawa, T. Tamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 #176
Modelling of nonlinear aeroelastic effects on a structure
J. Náprstek, S. Pospı́šil, S. Hračov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 #235
Development of typhoon simulation technique — Toward estimation of typhoon risk in Japan
T. Okazaki, H. Watabe, T. Ishihara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 #167
A two-degree of freedom flexible support for wind tunnel modeling of tall buildings
M.G.K. Oliveira, A.M. Loredo-Souza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 #191
Systemic analysis function of automation and regulation of a wind turbine
A. Ouelbani, Y. Abdellaoui, Y. Gritli , S. Ben Ezzine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 #203
Effects of a tall building on the ventilation system of a low building
R.N. Pavlovskiy, P.N. Vinogradskiy, S.G. Kuznetsov, P.V. Artamonov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 #159
Aerodynamic loads in dynamics of HAWT rotor
M. Pawlak, A. Mȩżyk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 #182
Numerical simulation of breaking wave load on offshore wind turbines
U. Peil, C. Corte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 #149
Time domain model for buffeting wind loads verified in full-scale measurements
U. Peil, M. Clobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 #154
Spectral aerodynamic admittance analysis
U. Peil, M. Behrens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 #155
Hurricane loss prediction model and coastal damage mitigation
J.-P. Pinelli, K.R. Gurley,C.S. Subramanian, S. Hamid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 #224
Development of a wireless pressure sensing system for coastal wind monitoring
J.-P. Pinelli, C.S. Subramanian, C. Lapilli, L. Buist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 #225
Experimental study — Elimination of excessive vibration amplitudes by liquid damper
M. Pirner, S. Urushadze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 #116
Application of the Discrete Vortex Method to determining parameters of fluid flow around bluff body
J. Podgórski, E. Bazik-Borowa, T. Nowicki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 #185
A numerical investigation of the bifurcation characteristics of a 2D nonlinear airfoil in turbulent flow
D. Poirel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 #280
Analysis of wind speeds measured on Ostankino TV tower
N.A. Popov, V.I. Travoush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 #295
Drag loading of circular cylinders inclined in the along-wind direction
S. Poulin, A. Larsen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 #197
xvii
Comparison of high resolution spectra to mean velocity approaches for urban wind comfort
simulations — A CFD study
Ch. Reichl, M. Mann, G. Haider, H. Lang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 #322
Thermal atmospheric stratification and wind-induced fatigue of structures
M.P. Repetto, G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 #262
Proper Orthogonal Decomposition to understand and simplify wind loads
F. Ricciardelli, E.T. de Grenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 #207
Wind tunnel modelling of the Silsoe Cube
P.J. Richards, R.P. Hoxey, B.D. Connell, D.P. Lander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 #313
A new statistical approach for extreme wind speed in France
C. Sacré, J.M. Moisselin, M. Sabre, J.P. Flori, B. Dubuisson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 #220
Driving rain and methods of its estimation
M. Sadaghashvili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 #106
Interaction of the wind driven rain with buildings
M. Sadaghashvili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 #107
Three-dimensional simulations of suspension bridges under wind load: Influence of mean steady
configuration and effects of load nonlinearities
L. Salvatori, P. Spinelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 #288
Influence of the aerodynamic test conditions on the aerodynamic efficiency of cowls
S. Sanquer, B. Blanchard, S. Deuchst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 #218
Aeroelastic effects on externally forced circular cylinders and their analytical acquisition by
coupled oscillator-models
G. Sedlacek, C. Butz, C.-B. Gromke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 #131
Wind tunnel experiments on the dispersion of continuous heavy gas spill for different ground
surface roughness lengths
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yin-Chin Chen, Meng-Xun Wu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 #133
In-situ measurement of wind statistical characteristics at the northeastern costal region of Taiwan
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yuan-Bin Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 #186
Galloping simulation and observation of a 4-conductor bundle transmission line
M. Shimizu, J. Sato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 #268
Probabilistic assessment of road vehicle safety in windy environments
J.Th. Snæbjörnsson, C.J. Baker, R. Sigbjörnsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 #296
Gust buffeting of long span bridges by Double Modal Transformation
G. Solari, F. Tubino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 #263
Wind and agriculture — an essential subject of the African Participatory Research Agenda
C.J. Stigter, L.O.Z. Onyewotu, N.K.N. Al-amin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 #103
Interference of two tapered flagpoles in the wind flow
M. Studničková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 #261
Identification of 18 flutter derivatives using CFD turbulence modelling
D. Sun, N.G. Wright, J.S. Owen, K. Liaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 #241
Influence of canopy on airflow in stadia
A. Szucs, S. Moreau, F. Allard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 #216
LES analysis of turbulent boundary layer over 3D steep hill covered with vegetation
T. Tamura, A. Okuno, Y. Sugio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 #170
A study into the performance of wind shields on both streamlined and bluff bridge deck sections
I.J. Taylor, M. Vezza, I. Salisbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 #157
Aeroelasticity of slender shell bridges
A. Tesár . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 #109
Penetration of snow into roof construction — Wind tunnel testing of different eave cover designs
T.K. Thiis, P. Barfoed, P. Delpech, A. Gustavsen, V. Hofseth, S. Uvsløkk, M. Dufresne de Virel . . . . . . . 320 #179
xviii
Long-term measurements of structural response of a tall steel chimney equipped with different
damping devices
P. Tranvik, G. Alpsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 #134
Wind loads on a steel greenhouse with a wing-like cross section
Y. Uematsu, T. Orimo, S. Watanabe, S. Kitamura, M. Iwaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 #101
Wind force coefficients for designing free-standing canopy roofs
Y. Uematsu, E. Iizumi, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 #102
The physical modelling of gas dispersion in topographically complicated terrain
R. Ulman, Z. Jaňour, H. Šeděnková, J. Drbohlav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 #189
Flow around a finite length square prism
H.F. Wang, Y. Zhou, C.K. Chan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 #314
A cased-based design wind load expert system for tall buildings
J. Wang, Y.Y. Lin, C.M. Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 #132
Exposure model for wind loading of buildings
K. Wang, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 #193
Issues in estimating local damage by wind disaster — A case study in Chiba prefecture, Japan
H. Watabe, T. Okazaki, T. Ishihara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 #166
Design for wind comfort in The Netherlands: procedures, criteria and open research issues
E. Willemsen, J.A. Wisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 #311
Study on flutter characteristics of 4-span suspension bridge
H. Yamada, H. Katsuchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 #195
Aerodynamic investigation on flutter instability of the first sea-crossing bridge in China —
The East Sea Bridge
Y.X. Yang, Y.J. Ge, L. Zhao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 #328
Wind damage and cyclones management scenario in India
S.C. Yaragal, Y. Tamura, M. Matsui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 #105
Further studies on the statistical properties of the wind filed near Taichung Harbour, Taiwan
J.Z. Yim, Chung-Ren Chou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 #227
Cooperative project for CFD prediction of pedestrian wind environment in the Architectural
Institute of Japan
R. Yoshie, A. Mochida, Y. Tominaga, H. Kataoka, K. Harimoto, T. Nozu, T. Shirasawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 #292
Twisted flow wind tunnel design for yacht aerodynamic studies
A. Zasso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 #153
Field site data collection of thunderstorms at Texas Tech University
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 #163
C-130 Tests on a low-rise gable roof building
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 #164
Full bridge aeroelastic model test of Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River
L.D. Zhu, D.L. Wang, Z.S. Guo, M. Wang, F.C. Cao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 #143
Investigation of wind speed on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea
J.A. Żurański, S. Kosiński, W.E. Macia̧żek, A. Piekarczuk, M.K. Piekarski, A. Pietrzykowska, W. Stepko,
I. Zwolska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 #184
xix
Table of Contents
(order according to the Secions and Subsections)
Keynote lectures KEY

Wind Engineering past, present and future
C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 #K02
C. Borri, P. Biagini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 #K03
A. Kareem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 #K05
Flutter instability of structures
M. Matsumoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 #K04
The International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE): birth, development and perspectives
G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 #K01
J.A. Wisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 #K06
Wind engineering in Africa: general studies AFR–GEN

A.M. Goliger, J.V. Retief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 #325
Wind and agriculture — an essential subject of the African Participatory Research Agenda
C.J. Stigter, L.O.Z. Onyewotu, N.K.N. Al-amin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 #103
Wind engineering in Africa: wind energy in Africa AFR–WEA

Systemic methodological approach for the analysis of exploitation and development environment
of a wind power station
M. Annabi, Y. Abdellaoui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 #205
Renewable energy for Sub-Saharan Africa — structural aspects of classical wind turbines and
innovative solar chimney concept
R. Harte, G.P.A.G. Van Zijl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 #326
Systemic analysis function of automation and regulation of a wind turbine
A. Ouelbani, Y. Abdellaoui, Y. Gritli , S. Ben Ezzine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 #203
Bridges: buffeting BRI–BUF

C. Borri, C. Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 #279
Bridges: case studies BRI–CAS

Monitoring of the environmental action of wind on a cable stayed bridge
J. Biliszczuk, M. Hildebrand, C. Machelski, W. Barcik, K. Sadowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 #200
xx
Wind tunnel tests and aerodynamical analysis of a new designed footbridge in Katowice
A. Flaga, G. Bosak, M. Pańtak, M. Bigosiński, P. Ziȩtara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 #137
Investigation of vortex-induced vibration of Lupu Bridge — The longest arch bridge in the world
Y.J. Ge, F.C. Cao, Z.Y. Zhou, H.F. Xiang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 #211
Aerodynamic investigation on flutter instability of the first sea-crossing bridge in China —
The East Sea Bridge
Y.X. Yang, Y.J. Ge, L. Zhao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 #328
Full bridge aeroelastic model test of Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River
L.D. Zhu, D.L. Wang, Z.S. Guo, M. Wang, F.C. Cao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 #143
Bridges: deterministic/random excitation and response, vibration damping BRI–DYN

A numerical and experimental investigation on aerodynamic non linearities in bridge response
to turbulent wind
G. Diana, S. Bruni, D. Rocchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 #247
Improvement of aeroelastic instability of pylon of cable-stayed bridge by means of separation
interference method
Y. Kubo, K. Tasaki, H. Higashi, K. Kimura, K. Kato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 #117
Experimental study — Elimination of excessive vibration amplitudes by liquid damper
M. Pirner, S. Urushadze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 #116
Three-dimensional simulations of suspension bridges under wind load: Influence of mean steady
configuration and effects of load nonlinearities
L. Salvatori, P. Spinelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 #288
A study into the performance of wind shields on both streamlined and bluff bridge deck sections
I.J. Taylor, M. Vezza, I. Salisbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 #157
A. Tesár . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 #109
Bridges: aerodynamic parameters, flutter derivatives, indicial functions, vortex shedding BRI–LOA
Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip model — I: Theory
A.R. Chen, R.J. Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 #173
An experimental and numerical approach to consider vortex induced vibrations in brige aerodynamics
G. Diana, F. Resta, M. Belloli, D. Rocchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 #222
Wind tunnel control software for identification of flutter derivatives on bridge sectional tests
J.A. Jurado, A. León, S. Hernández . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 #108
Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip model — II: Application
R.J. Ma, A.R. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 #174
Bridges: aeroelastic stability, flutter, galloping BRI–STA

Galloping stability of triangular cross-sectional bodies: a systematic approach
G. Alonso, J. Meseguer, I. Pérez-Grande . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 #196
A simplified method to evaluate the critical flutter speed for flexible bridge decks
G. Bartoli, C. Mannini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 #209
Assessment on the instability of a suspension bridge with a hexagonal cross-section under wind action
Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Tsung-Chi Liang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 #146
J. Náprstek, S. Pospı́šil, S. Hračov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 #235
A numerical investigation of the bifurcation characteristics of a 2D nonlinear airfoil in turbulent flow
D. Poirel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 #280
xxi
D. Sun, N.G. Wright, J.S. Owen, K. Liaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 #241
H. Yamada, H. Katsuchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 #195
Wind climate and structure: cyclones, large area disasters CLS–CYC

In-field measurement and stochastic modeling of tropical cyclone winds
F.J. Masters, T.A. Reinhold, K.R. Gurley, L.D. Aponte-Bermúdez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 #129
Development of typhoon simulation technique — Toward estimation of typhoon risk in Japan
T. Okazaki, H. Watabe, T. Ishihara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 #167
J.-P. Pinelli, K.R. Gurley,C.S. Subramanian, S. Hamid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 #224
Issues in estimating local damage by wind disaster — A case study in Chiba prefecture, Japan
H. Watabe, T. Okazaki, T. Ishihara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 #166
S.C. Yaragal, Y. Tamura, M. Matsui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 #105
Wind climate and structure: wind flow general studies CLS–GEN

Numerical simulation of turbulent wind fields at airports in complex terrain
M. Burlando, L. Carassale, M.V. Borghesi, F. Tubino, C.F. Ratto, G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 #277
Evaluating the response of an individual to a sudden change in wind speed
S.C. Jordan, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 #327
Wind climate and structure: wind field in particular areas CLS–WFI

J. Král . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 #147
Analysis of turbulence statistics above a Scots pine forest in a sub-artic northern region
I. Mammarella, B. Tammelin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 #270
N.A. Popov, V.I. Travoush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 #295
C. Sacré, J.M. Moisselin, M. Sabre, J.P. Flori, B. Dubuisson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 #220
In-situ measurement of wind statistical characteristics at the northeastern costal region of Taiwan
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yuan-Bin Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 #186
Further studies on the statistical properties of the wind filed near Taichung Harbour, Taiwan
J.Z. Yim, Chung-Ren Chou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 #227
Investigation of wind speed on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea
J.A. Żurański, S. Kosiński, W.E. Macia̧żek, A. Piekarczuk, M.K. Piekarski, A. Pietrzykowska, W. Stepko,
I. Zwolska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 #184
Design practice: standards and codes DSG–COD

Modifications on the alongwind design wind load
C.M. Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 #192
D.A. Gatey, C.A. Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 #221
A.M. Goliger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 #128
xxii
M. Kasperski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 #188
D. Lungu, S. Demetriu, C. Arion, A. Aldea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 #275
Design practice: design practice with respect to wind effects DSG–PRA

Probabilistic description of tall building response to wind: Database- assisted design, dynamics,
and wind directionality effects
W.P. Fritz, E. Simiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 #281
A cased-based design wind load expert system for tall buildings
J. Wang, Y.Y. Lin, C.M. Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 #132
A study on comparisons of design wind loads and responses for tall buildings with actual wind
load distributions and responses
Dae Young Kim, Ji Young Kim, Myung Ho Lee, Sang Dae Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 #324
Design practice: reliability, limit states, benchmarks DSG–REL

Analysis of building glass-aluminium façades subjected to wind loadings
K.T. Chatzinikos, C.C. Baniotopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 #257
P. Hanzlı́k, P. Marek, L. Němec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 #264
M.P. Repetto, G. Solari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 #262
Experimental measurements: data acquisition and processing EXP–DAT

Analysis of wind time history using wavelet transform
A.R. Chen, Y. Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 #175
Experimental measurements: special devices and equipment EXP–DEV

Z. Chára . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 #236
The role of ultrasonic anemometry in Wind Engineering
A. Cuerva, A. Sanz-Andrés, S. Franchini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 #152
Development of a wireless pressure sensing system for coastal wind monitoring
J.-P. Pinelli, C.S. Subramanian, C. Lapilli, L. Buist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 #225
Experimental measurements: wind tunnel equipment EXP–TUN

Flow field near a 2D building and its pressure response
M. Jirsák, D. Zachoval, J. Matěcha, J. Novotný . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 #158
Assessment of the influence of geometrical details on wind-tunnel measurement results by means of CFD
P. Moonen, B. Blocken, S. Roels, J. Carmeliet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 #115
A two-degree of freedom flexible support for wind tunnel modeling of tall buildings
M.G.K. Oliveira, A.M. Loredo-Souza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 #191
A comparison of effective wind loads and wind-induced responses according to pressure mea-
suring locations on test models
Ji Young Kim, Dae Young Kim, Han Young Kim, Sang Dae Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 #323
xxiii
Flow and structure interaction: cylinders in a cross-flow, aerodynamic vibration damping FSI–CYL
L. Carassale, A. Freda, G. Piccardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 #291
Numerical simulation of two-dimensional cross flow past a cylinder using an unstructured mesh
based fully implicit second order coupled method
A reduced-order model for the lift on a cylinder undergoing forced transverse oscillations
M.R. Hajj, L. Qin, F. Owis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 #284
Measurement of the corner effects of a square prism on the near wake using an on-line phase-
locked PIV technique
J.C. Hu, Y. Zhou, J.F. Huang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 #317
Applicability of LES to turbulent wake of rectangular cylinder — Comparison with PIV data
M. Kuroda, T. Tamura, M. Suzuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 #169
Numerical simulation of aerodynamic forces on a square cylinder in oscillating flows with non-
zero mean velocities
Tsung-Chi Liang, Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Shuh-Fang Shih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 #145
M. Noda, F. Nagao, E. Arima, T. Morita, H. Utsunomiya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 #273
Aeroelastic effects on externally forced circular cylinders and their analytical acquisition by
coupled oscillator-models
G. Sedlacek, C. Butz, C.-B. Gromke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 #131
Flow and structure interaction: debris motion FSI–DEB

C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 #124
Non-dimensional solutions for trajectories of wind-driven compact objects
E.C. English, J.D. Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 #293
N. Lin, C.W. Letchford, T. Gunn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 #300
Flow and structure interaction: determ./rand. excitation and response, vibration damping FSI–DYN
Comparison among different techniques for reliability assessment of no-tensile structures under
turbulent wind
M. Betti, P. Biagini, L. Facchini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 #206
Passive dynamic vibration absorbers — comparison of different types
O. Fischer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 #118
A. Flaga, T. Lipecki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 #140
Flow and structure interaction: fluid structure interaction general studies FSI–GEN
A fully coupled method for computing uniform fluctuating flow around bluff bodies
V. Kolář, E. Savory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 #239
Application of the Discrete Vortex Method to determining parameters of fluid flow around bluff body
J. Podgórski, E. Bazik-Borowa, T. Nowicki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 #185
xxiv
Flow and structure interaction: inclined cables and cylinders FSI–INC
C. Lemaitre, P. Hémon, E. de Langre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 #276
Dry inclined cable galloping — Theoretical analysis and structural damping required for its prevention
J.H.G. Macdonald, G.L. Larose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 #190
S. Poulin, A. Larsen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 #197
High-rise buildings: dynamic response due to wind effects HIG–DYN

X. Chen, A. Kareem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 #256
H. Eimani-Kalehsar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 #272
Monitoring tall buildings under the action of wind: the role of GPS in urban zones
M. Kochly, T. Kijewski-Correa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 #246
Dynamic response of two high-rise residential buildings during a typhoon
K.C.S. Kwok, H.Y. Leung, S. Campbell, P.A. Hitchcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 #319
Comparison of analytically-numerically predicted value of maximum height of tall square build-
ings subjected to peak wind loads
D. Mitra, A. Mazumdar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 #123
High-rise buildings: special effects in wind loading of high-rise buildings HIG–LOA

Wind-induced interference effects of different side ratio on high-rise buildings
K. Cho, S. Hong, Y.S. Kim, K.S. Hwang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 #194
Effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force spectrum on a tall rect-
angular building
H. Eimani-Kalehsar, M. Abitorabi, A. Kolahdoz-Mohammadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 #294
J. Král . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 #148
H.F. Wang, Y. Zhou, C.K. Chan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 #314
Wind loading: atmospheric boundary layer, gradient LOA–BOU

Modelling of the wind speed profiles obtained by a sodar in complex terrain
J. Hošek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 #312
K. Nozawa, T. Tamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 #176
LES analysis of turbulent boundary layer over 3D steep hill covered with vegetation
T. Tamura, A. Okuno, Y. Sugio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 #170
K. Wang, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 #193
xxv
Wind loading: dynamic deterministic/random loading, turbulence, admittance LOA–DYN
The surface pressures of 2-D rectangular cylinder with small angle of oncoming flow
J.H. Chen, D.H. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 #187
C. Li, M.H. de Wit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 #228
U. Peil, M. Behrens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 #155
Time domain model for buffeting wind loads verified in full-scale measurements
U. Peil, M. Clobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 #154
F. Ricciardelli, E.T. de Grenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 #207
Wind loading: combined wind/rain/snow effects LOA–RAI

B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 #110
Correlation influence between snow and wind loading on their combination factor
R.I. Kinash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 #104
M. Sadaghashvili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 #106
M. Sadaghashvili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 #107
Wind loading: static component or equivalent LOA–STA

S. Amoroso, K. Hebert, M.L. Levitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 #230
C.P.W. Geurts, P.W. Bouma, A. Aghaei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 #232
C.P.W. Geurts, C. van Bentum, P.A. Blackmore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 #231
Variations in static pressure — application to wind engineering
R.P. Hoxey, A.D. Quinn, P.J. Richards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 #315
Design wind loads for a low-rise building taking into account directional effects
M. Kasperski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 #278
Universal wind load distribution simultaneously reproducing maximum load effects in all sub-
ject members on large-span cantilevered roof
A. Katsumura, Y. Tamura, O. Nakamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 #252
Wind loading: thunderstorm structure and induced loading LOA–THU

L. Chen, C.W. Letchford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 #298
V. Durañona, C.J. Baker, M. Sterling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 #254
G. Solari, F. Tubino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 #263
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 #163
xxvi
Roofs and low-rise structures: large roofs under turbulent wind RFS–LAR
J. Blessmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 #122
G. Breeze, J. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 #303
Identification of wind pressures on the buildings of the Ciudad de la Cultura in Santiago de
Compostela (Spain)
S. Hernández, J.A. Jurado, J. Toimil, J. Dı́az . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 #250
Roofs and low-rise structures: special low-rise structures RFS–LOW

G. Doudak, A. Ghallagher, B. Kasal, G. McClure, M. Mohammad, I. Smith, T. Stathopoulos, I. Zisis . 94 #285
Numerical simulation of wind loads on structures and effects of incident turbulence
M.A.K. Elsayed, Y.M. Elokda, S.A. Ragab, M.R. Hajj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 #282
P.J. Richards, R.P. Hoxey, B.D. Connell, D.P. Lander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 #313
Y. Uematsu, T. Orimo, S. Watanabe, S. Kitamura, M. Iwaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 #101
Y. Uematsu, E. Iizumi, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 #102
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 #164
Slender structures: chimneys SLE–CHI

Dynamical analysis of the wind response of tall industrial chimney with flexibility of soil
T. Chmielewski, P. Górski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 #180
Cross-wind vibrations of steel chimneys — a new case history
J. Kawecki, J.A. Żurański . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 #183
Long-term measurements of structural response of a tall steel chimney equipped with different
damping devices
P. Tranvik, G. Alpsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 #134
Slender structures: groups SLE–GRO

O. Kopylov, J. Wojciechowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 #269
Measurement of extreme aerodynamic interference forces acting on circular cylinders in turbu-
lent boundary layers
I. Krönke, H. Sockel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 #130
M. Studničková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 #261
Slender structures: masts SLE–MAS

Guyed masts subjected to wind and other environmental actions
J. Bȩc, A. Flaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 #139
A.L. Materazzi, I. Venanzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 #199
xxvii
Slender structures: towers SLE–TOW
Wind effects on out-of-service tower cranes
S. Bodéré, G. Grillaud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 #212
C.F. Carril Jr, R.M.L.R.F Brasil, N. Isyumov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 #165
Ambient vibration measurements and along-wind response of the Brancusi Endless Column, Romania
D. Lungu, G. Solari, R. Vacareanu, A. Aldea, C. Arion, S. Demetriu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 #267
Slender structures: transmission lines SLE–TRA

O. Flamand, J. Leclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 #215
Galloping simulation and observation of a 4-conductor bundle transmission line
M. Shimizu, J. Sato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 #268
Means of transport: trains and other vehicles and interaction with supporting structure TRA–VEH
Determination of safe vehicle driving speeds on highways during hurricane evacuations
S.R. Chen, C.S. Cai, M.L. Levitan, B. Wolshon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 #258
Unsteady crosswind forces on trains and corresponding aerodynamic parameters
Y. Ding, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 #306
P. Hémon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 #244
A new approach to estimate the wind speed probability distribution along a railway track based
on international standards
J. Herb, U. Hoppmann, C. Heine, T. Tielkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 #125
J.Th. Snæbjörnsson, C.J. Baker, R. Sigbjörnsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 #296
Twisted flow wind tunnel design for yacht aerodynamic studies
A. Zasso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 #153
Urban wind problems: building internal and near field aerodynamics URB–BUI
Numerical study of wind-induced ventilation with the local dynamic similarity model
C. Hu, T. Kurabuchi, M. Ohba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 #150
H.H. Koss, C.T. Georgakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 #266
R.N. Pavlovskiy, P.N. Vinogradskiy, S.G. Kuznetsov, P.V. Artamonov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 #159
Influence of the aerodynamic test conditions on the aerodynamic efficiency of cowls
S. Sanquer, B. Blanchard, S. Deuchst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 #218
Penetration of snow into roof construction — Wind tunnel testing of different eave cover designs
T.K. Thiis, P. Barfoed, P. Delpech, A. Gustavsen, V. Hofseth, S. Uvsløkk, M. Dufresne de Virel . . . . . . . 320 #179
Urban wind problems: urban wind comfort URB–COM

A numerical study of the wind speed conditions in passages between buildings and the venturi-effect
B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet, T. Stathopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 #112
J. Franke, W. Frank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 #138
xxviii
Z. Jaňour, K. Bezpalcová, H. Šeděnková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 #136
Effects of street orientation on dispersion at or near urban street intersections
K.F. McNamara, X. Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 #265
Effects of roadside trees on thermal environment and pollutant diffusion in street canyon
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Iwata, N. Hataya, H. Yoshino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 #309
Numerical study on the regional characteristics of heat balance inside a city located at coastal areas
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Yoshida, H. Yoshino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 #310
Comparison of high resolution spectra to mean velocity approaches for urban wind comfort
simulations — A CFD study
Ch. Reichl, M. Mann, G. Haider, H. Lang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 #322
Design for wind comfort in The Netherlands: procedures, criteria and open research issues
E. Willemsen, J.A. Wisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 #311
Urban wind problems: pedestrian wind environment URB–PED

P. Delpech, C.J. Baker, P.A. Blackmore, H.H. Koss, A. Sanz-Andrés, T. Stathopoulos, E. Willemsen . . . 82 #217
T. Johnson, T. Prevezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 #234
Cooperative project for CFD prediction of pedestrian wind environment in the Architectural
Institute of Japan
R. Yoshie, A. Mochida, Y. Tominaga, H. Kataoka, K. Harimoto, T. Nozu, T. Shirasawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 #292
Urban wind problems: dispersion of pollutants URB–POL

Eolian erosion of a granular material placed on a rectangular box
A.D. Ferreira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 #316
The level-3 mesoscale turbulence model for wind climate and pollutant dispersion in cites
A.F. Kurbatskiy, L.I. Kurbatskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 #113
V.G. i Llorens, A.M. Sánchez, V. Berbegall, G. Verdú . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 #119
H. Nakayama, T. Tamura, Y. Okuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 #168
Wind tunnel experiments on the dispersion of continuous heavy gas spill for different ground
surface roughness lengths
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yin-Chin Chen, Meng-Xun Wu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 #133
The physical modelling of gas dispersion in topographically complicated terrain
R. Ulman, Z. Jaňour, H. Šeděnková, J. Drbohlav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 #189
Urban wind problems: airflow in stadia URB–STA

Thermal comfort assessment in semi-outdoor environments: application to comfort study in stadia
J. Bouyer, J. Vinet, P. Delpech, S. Carré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 #219
A. Szucs, S. Moreau, F. Allard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 #216
Wind energy: environmental studies WEN–ENV

G.A.M. van Kuik, W.A.A.M. Bierbooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 #260
xxix
Wind energy: wind turbines WEN–TUR
Multidisciplinary optimization of wind turbine blades
M. Jureczko, A. Mȩżyk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 #126
M. Pawlak, A. Mȩżyk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 #182
U. Peil, C. Corte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 #149
xxx
KEYNOTE LECTURES
EACWE4 — The Fourth European & African Conference on Wind Engineering
J. Náprstek & C. Fischer (eds); ITAM AS CR, Prague, 11-15 July, 2005, Paper #K01
The International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE):

birth, development and perspectives
G. Solari1
ABSTRACT: The International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE) was born in 1975, at the 4th In-
ternational Conference on Wind Engineering (ICWE), London, U.K. It operated, most unformally, up 1999,
when the IAWE Steering Committe Meeting at the 10th ICWE, Copenhagen, Denmark, decided to study a re-
newed organisation of IAWE. Following to this decision, new by-laws were approved at the 11th ICWE, Lub-
bock, Texas, 2003. This paper provides a framework of the IAWE birth, development and perspectives.
1 BIRTH OF IAWE AND ICWE’S view toward its addition of an appropriate masthead
statement representing it as the official IAWE jour-
The process that transformed a set of distinct topics
nal, and prepared a draft of IAWE by-laws for con-
related to wind into a homogeneous and autonomous
sideration at next ICWE.
discipline, wind engineering, began with reference to
As a result, in 1980, the Journal of Industrial
wind actions and effects on structures in the first half
Aerodynamics changed its name as the Journal of
of the XX century, and reached its completion when
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
Davenport (1961) published a famous paper where
(JWEIA), and became the official Journal of the In-
basic concepts of meteorology, micrometeorology,
ternational Association for Wind Engineering. Fur-
climatology, aerodynamics, structural dynamics and
thermore, the IAWE Chairman compiled the first
probability theory were first integrated into a homo-
draft of the IAWE by-laws, that was submitted to the
geneous model of the wind-excited behaviour of
IAWE Steering Committee Meeting at the 6th
structures.
ICWE, held in Gold Coast and Auckland (Australia
In 1963, Scruton and his group organised the 1st
and New Zealand, 1983). This draft was approved
International Symposium on Wind Effects on Build-
four years later, with minor amendments, at the 7th
ings and Structures in Teddington, U.K. At the close
ICWE held in Aachen (Germany, 1987).
of this conference, an International Study Group on
Also thanks to these formal decisions, the matters
Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures was con-
dealt with by wind engineering grew and enlarged,
stituted to ensure that a further international confer-
likewise the competences and interests of the schol-
ence be held in three or four years’ time. As a conse-
ars and technicians attending wind engineering con-
qunce of this decision, such group promoted the or-
ferences. The 8th, 9th and 10th ICWEs, held in Lon-
ganisation of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th International Con-
don (Canada, 1991), New Delhi (India, 1995) and
ferences on Wind Effects on Buildings and Struc-
Copenhagen (Denmark, 1999), respectively, offered
tures held in Ottawa (Canada, 1967), Tokyo (Japan,
full witness of this new reality.
1971) and London (U.K., 1975), respectively.
Faced by a development almost not controllable,
Especially the London conference gave rise to
during the 10th ICWE, the Regional Secretaries
fundamental decisions for wind engineering. In par-
submitted the IAWE Steering Committee Meeting an
ticular, the Steering Committee Meeting of the Inter-
analysis on the growth of wind engineering since
national Study Group decided the foundation of the
1979, when the first draft of IAWE by-laws was
International Association for Wind Engineering
compiled, to 1999, when such document was still in
(IAWE), with the aim of organising international
force with fewl changes. Especially, they stressed
meetings and liasing with national and international
the importance of the increasing number of scholars
organisations in similar fields, and that following
and technicians working in wind engineering, the
meetings are called International Conferences on
growing number of conferences in this field, the
Wind Engineering (ICWE).
wider and wider participation and contibutions to
The 5th International Conference of this series,
wind engineering from different countries.
held in Fort Collins (Colorado, 1979), was also the
Based on these considerations, it was apparent
first ICWE. During the IAWE Steering Committee
that IAWE by-laws and organisation were conceived
Meeting, two new important motions were offered to
in a period in which the ICWE’s were the only scien-
establish that IAWE Chairman contacted the Editor
tific and technical forum available for a small num-
of the Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics with a
ber of delegates, coming from a limited number of
1
Prof. Giovanni Solari, Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, University of Genoa, Italy, e-mail
solari@diseg.unige.it
2
G. Solari
countries, to discuss a narrow band of topics. In the contacts in almost 100 countries. As a consequence
course of the years, however, this situation deeply of this procedure, all reference persons were con-
changed. At the end of the second millenium, IAWE tacted, inviting existing wind engineering organisa-
calendar was full of meetings and initiatives which tions to apply for IAWE membership. Besides, coun-
suggested the opportunity of creating a permanent tries without established organisations were recom-
coordination and specific guidelines. The scientific, mended to formalise wind engineering activities into
technical and social impact of wind engineering ex- associations or societies that could become IAWE
panded so much, that many fields of IAWE interest members. This action gave rise to an impressive
interacted with those of other associations; thus, im- worldwide response creating the bases for a sis-
proved liaisons with other scientific and technical tematic organisation of wind engineering activities,
communities working on similar matters as very and a better spreading and dissemination of initia-
suitable and advantageous. Furthermore, a better co- tives.
ordination was profitable between IAWE chairman, As a preliminary result to this response, the
regional secretaries and national delegates, to agree IAWE Executive Board accepted into membership
on decisions and spread the information more effica- eight existing organisations - the Czech Society for
ciously. Mechanics, Wind Engineering Group; the Indian So-
ciety for Wind Engineering; the Japanese Associa-
2 IAWE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSPECTIVES tion for Wind Engineering; the Associazione Nazi-
The IAWE Steering Committee Meeting at the 10th onale per l’Ingegneria del Vento, Italy; the Wind
ICWE acknowledged this framework and decided to Engineering Institute of Korea; the U.K. Wind Engi-
appoint an international committee aimed at opening neering Society; the American Association for Wind
a wide debate on the organisation of the Association, Engineering; and, the Australasian Wind Engineer-
and formulating a revised scheme of the IAWE, to ing Society - and two organisations just constituted
propose for consideration at the next Steering Com- as a reaction to the new IAWE by-laws - the Taiwan
mittee Meeting. Association for Wind Engineering; and, the Asocia-
With such mandate, this committee carried out a cion Nacional de Ingenieria del Viento, Spain. Strict
capillary discussion to debate the matter dealt with, contacts were also established with a lot of countries
and reached the 11th ICWE, held in Lubbock currently in progress to apply for IAWE member-
(Texas, 2003), with a refined proposal for a novel ship, i.e. Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Greece,
draft of the IAWE by-laws and a new scheme for France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Iceland, Norway,
IAWE organisation. Such scheme, submitted to the Russia, Ukraine, China, Argentina, Brasil, Uruguay,
IAWE Steering Committee Meeting on June 3, 2003, Cuba, South Africa, Egypt and Sudan.
was characterised by several innovatory aspects, two Furthermore, suitable strategies were decided to
of which deserve special consideration. assure a better visibility of the Association and to
First, IAWE members, in the past individuals, be- improve the distribution of the information through
came organisations accepted into membership. Sec- the wind engineering community. It was decided that
ond, the Steering Committee was replaced by a Gen- these aims are pursued by means of two tools, IAWE
eral Assembly with a formal constitution, seconded web site (www.iawe.org), to be opened in the first
by an operative Executive Board appointed to drive months of 2005, and IAWE newsletters, to spread
the IAWE, through its manyfold activities and inter- through internet within the end of the same year. It is
ests, between two subsequent ICWE’s. expected that IAWE journal, IAWE web site and
This proposal was unanimously approved by the IAWE newletters jointly provide a complete and up-
Steering Committe Meeting that, after less than to-date framework of the Association and its activi-
thirty years since its constitution, opened a new era ties, interests and initiatives.
for wind engineering and its Association. As the first president of this new course, I feel
Further to these decisions, the IAWE Secretariat deeply honoured but also very burdened with a
was established at the Department of Structural and heavy responsibility. I know how much difficult was
Geotechnical Engineering of Genoa University, It- drawing the new scheme of IAWE and agree on the
aly, and IAWE was formally established, as a formal new organisation of the Association, and how much
and legal entity, by means of a deed drawn up on more difficult is put in practice the programs and de-
September 17, 2003. These operations put the Asso- veloping new initiatives really profitable for our
ciation in the condition of carrying out a new series community. Nevertheless, I feel as very stimulating
of institutional activities. to work, in cooperation with a board of distinguished
The first and most important among these activi- colleagues, towards a renewed organisation of a field
ties consisted in creating the conditions to accept exceptionally vital and multidisciplinary, bursting
into membership many organisations. With this aim, out for multifold interests and aims, rich in expecta-
a datebase was created with almost 200 reference tions not only scientific and technical but, even
more, human and social.
3
Wind Engineering – past, present and future
C. J. Baker1
ABSTRACT: This paper firstly considers the history of wind engineering in five rather arbitrary time periods
- the “traditional” period (up to 1750), the “empirical” period (1750-1900), the “establishment” period
(1900-1960), the period of growth (1960-1980), and the modern period (1980 onwards). In particular it
considers the development of the discipline in terms of the socio-economic and intellectual contexts of the
time. This leads to a description of the current state of the discipline and a forward look at possible
developments, again taking into consideration the likely socio-economic and intellectual changes in the next
few decades.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is relatively easy to write a history of the subject 2. THE HISTORY OF WIND ENGINEERING
of wind engineering that simply lists the “facts” and
applications of the subject to various situations, and a) The “traditional” period (up to 1750). This period
this is the approach that has been taken by several covers a huge period of time and is characterised by
authors recently. Indeed parts of this paper draw the development of traditional structural forms that
heavily on the work of these authors who provide were appropriate to the wind conditions for specific
excellent summaries of the development of the regions. It is however argued in the full paper that
aspect of the aspect of the subject under their structural form was driven more by the prevailing
consideration. However all the developments within religious / ritual environment than by technical
wind engineering have taken place within specific advances. Towards the end of the period these
socio-political and intellectual contexts and cannot drivers were becoming of less significance, and
properly be considered without a consideration of modern building forms evolved – which displayed a
such contexts. In particular future developments will significant vulnerability to strong winds. The end of
inevitably be driven by the prevailing social and the period also saw the birth of the modern scientific
intellectual conditions of specific times and places, method.
and thus if the future prospects of wind engineering b) The “empirical” period (1750-1900). This period
are to be properly considered, some attempt must be saw the development known as the industrial
made to predict the contexts in which the revolution, and developments in science and
developments will take place. This paper thus technology were driven by major economic
considers the history and future of wind engineering, expansion and the establishment of the European
with due regard to the prevailing social conditions empires.. Major infrastructure projects were
and intellectual environment. To structure the undertaken, some of which, such as the Tay Bridge,
historical discussion we consider five periods – the proved very vulnerable to wind effects. Major
“traditional” period (up to 1750), the “empirical” developments also occurred in classical
period (1750-1900), the “establishment” period hydrodynamics, but at the close of the period the
(1900-1960), the period of growth (1960-1980), and work of Reynolds began to undermine this work.
the modern period (1980 onwards). These periods c) The “establishment” period (1900-1960). In this
are to an extent arbitrary, and should not be regarded period technological developments were largely
as fundamental in any way – but simply serve as a driven by the military requirements of the two major
useful framework for discussion. This is followed by wars. In wind engineering terms the wind tunnel
a discussion of how wind engineering may develop became an increasingly used tool, and there was a
over the next decade or so. It will be seen that this realisation that to obtain wind load measurements
abstract is presented to some extent in a very that were agreement with reality, some simulation of
abbreviated form which outlines in summary the the atmospheric boundary layer had to be attempted.
main points that are discussed in the full paper. This period also saw the development of classical
turbulence theory and extreme value analysis which
1. Professor of Environmental Fluid Mechanics and Head of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham,
Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom, c.j.baker@bham.ac.uk
4
C.J. Baker
were to prove of major importance in the greater interest in air quality. This will make low
development of the discipline.. wind speed conditions of greater interest to wind
d) The period of growth (1960-1980). In this period engineers.
wind engineering developed rapidly, to a large d) There is a need to develop a full understanding of
extent in central government laboratories and the effect of climate change on wind conditions,
universities, and wind loads on a wide variety of which implies that the current confusion of design
buildings and other structures were measured in wind speed levels across Europe needs to be
increasingly sophisticated wind tunnel tests. The addressed.
work of Davenport established the use of frequency e) Advances in instrumentation and analytical
domain methods as the dominant calculation techniques suggest that some of the basic
procedure for studying wind effects on structures. assumptions of wind engineering need to be
There were also major developments in the revisited, for example
codification of wind effects around the world, the x the van der Hoven spectrum – does a
series of international conferences began and the “spectral gap” really exist?
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial x is the structure of turbulence generated in
Aerodynamics began publication. environmental wind tunnels actually a good
e) The modern period (1980 onwards). This period representation of reality?
has seen a great deal of social change, one effect of x is the conventional rule of thumb that
which has been the closure or privatisation of many Reynolds number effects can be ignored if it
government laboratories that were involved in the exceeds a certain value as universally true as
study of wind engineering. Despite this there have is often assumed?
been continuing developments in the discipline – x etc., etc
primarily in instrumentation techniques, the f) It seems inevitable that there will be an increasing
increasing use of CFD, and the development of a use of CFD techniques for problems where the
number of advanced analytical methods. The IAWE, velocity field is of prime importance. This will
after a period of fairly informal existence, was given probably involve a decrease in the use of RANS
a more formal structure in 2003, and this has models, and an increase in the use of LES and DES,
encouraged the development of a number of national and the increase in the use of such techniques may
and regional associations around the world. well result in a concentration of wind tunnel testing
into fewer institutions.
3. THE FUTURE OF WIND ENGINEERING g) There will be an increasing realisation of
importance of non stationary wind systems such as
As with its history, the future of wind engineering downbursts, frontal systems etc and the development
will be shaped by the prevailing socio-economic and of physical and numerical models of these situations
intellectual conditions of the time. A consideration h) It is likely that time history methods will be come
of these conditions leads the author to suggest that more widely used in the calculation of loads and
the following developments within the discipline load effects, with simulations and measurements of
may occur. surface loads input into time domain finite element
a) There is a need for the development of wind models. This will allow the proper treatment of non-
energy resources in less developed countries which linear structural behaviour and will probably lead to
will involve the development of appropriate a reduced use of classical frequency domain
technologies for wind turbines in such countries and methods
investigations of the wind climate in these countries. i) There is a continuing need for full scale
There are other topics that are of relevance to LDCs experimentation to validate experimental and
that also require investigation – for example wind computational work.
damage to agriculture, shelter belt design etc.. j) There is likely to be a radical code revision in 10
b) There will be falling need for wind engineering to 20 years time which may allow the use of CFD
input for large structures in the developed world, calculations and the use of standard wind velocity
although such work will still be required for the and loading datasets in FE models.
rapidly developing economies in Asia. In Europe k) There is a need for wind engineering education
there is a need for the wind engineering community for other related disciplines (architecture, urban
to become more involved in the maintenance and planning, environmental scientists etc), together with
sustainability of the existing building stock. the possible development of specialist Masters
c) The requirement of reducing greenhouse gas programmes in the discipline. There is also an urgent
emissions and improving the quality of life will lead need for the archiving of the report literature from
to an increasing need for the development of wind the major laboratories that have recently been
energy resources in the developed world, and a closed.
5
Flutter Lnstability of Vtructures
M. Matsumoto
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a historical development of flutter instability is briefly described and a new
research works on flutter instability are introduced from the point of flutter branches. The flutter control of
structures is discussed, basing upon both aerodynamic and structural points. As a flutter application, the wind
power system, originally proposed by Isogai, is discussed in detail.
1 INTRODUCTION 1971, Scanlan (R.H.Scanlan abd J.J.Tomko, 1971),

measured the flutter derivatives, Ai* and Hi* (i=1-4),
Up to date, many long span bridges have been for fundamental structural sections and bridge girder
constructed through a lot of developed researches sections by the free vibration method and showed
and technologies, and at present the construction that the coupling terms could be obtained in the
project of a super long span bridge over 3000m main heaving and torsional two degrees of freedom by
span length is just waiting for its onset. In these using uncoupled terms obtained in the heaving or the
histories, bridge designers have contended against torsional one degree of freedom, similarly with a
the flutter instability. In this paper, the research work thin plate case. 2DOF (heaving and torsional
history on flutter instability is overviewed and the system) differential equation of motion can be
author’s recent new study on flutter characteristics, expressed as follows:
flutter stabilization technique and mechanism of
flutter power generation are introduced. (dȘ2/d2t)+ȦȘ02Ș=(ȡb2ȦFH1*/m)(dȘ/dt)+( ȡb3ȦFH2*/m)
(dĳ/dt)+( ȡb3ȦF2H3*/m) ĳ +(ȡb2ȦF2H4*/m) Ș (1)
(dĳ2/d2t)+Ȧĳ02ĳ=(ȡb3ȦFA1*/I)(dȘ/dt)+( ȡb4ȦFA2*/I)
2 RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF FLUTTER (dĳ/dt)+( ȡb3ȦF2A3*/I)ĳ+(ȡb2ȦF2A4*/I) Ș (2)
STABILIZATION OF BRIDGE STRUCTURES
where, Ș, ĳ; heaving and torsional displacement,
Since Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, the flutter m,I:mass and mass inertia per unit span length, ȡ:air
instability had become the most concerning issue in density, b:half chord length, ȦȘ0, Ȧĳ0: natural
the design of long spanned bridges, and to stabilize circular frequencies of heaving and torsional modes,
this instability the two different design-flows of ȦF :flutter frequency, Hi*, Ai*(i=1-4): flutter
bridge girder had been mainly promoted in United derivatives
Kingdom and USA. The former type is the In 1995, the author (M.Matsumoto, K.Kobayashi,
stream-line like box girder, such as Severn Bridge Y.Niihara, H.Shiarto and H.Hamasaki, 1995;
(l=988m,1966), Humber Bridge (l=1410m,1981), M.Matsumoto, H.Hamasaki and F.Yushizumi, 1997;
Bosporas Bridge (l=1074m,1973) and the later one M.Matsumoto, Y.Daito, F.Yoshizumi, Y.Ichikawa
is the truss-stiffened girder, such as New Tacoma and T.Yabutani, 1997) proposed the different flutter
Narrows Bridge (l=853m,1959), Mackinac Bridge analysis method, so called “Step-by-Step flutter
(l=1158m,1957), Verazano Narrows Bridge analysis method” (in abbreviation by SBS method)
(l=1298m,1964), respectively. The longest and the from the conventional complex eigen-value flutter
second longest suspension bridges, Akashi Strait analysis (in abbreviation by CEV method). In this
Bridge (l=1991m,1998) in Japan and the Great Belt SBS method, the torsional branch and the heaving
East Bridge (l=1624m,1998) in Denmark, are branch are separately analyzed in the heaving and
classified to the later type and the former one. For torsional 2DOF system in the sense of the forced
practical use, Tiele and Kloeppel (T.Kloeppel and vibration and the free vibration systems. The SBS
Tiele, 1967) showed the critical flutter velocity method has an advantage of clarification of the each
modification factors of various structural sections flutter derivative(s) role on the flutter instability and
from the thin plate case through wind tunnel tests. In contributes to find how to aerodynamically stabilize
Prof. Masaru Matsumoto, Department of Civil and Earth Resources Engineering,
Advanced Research Institute of Fluid Science and Engineering, Kyoto University, e-mail matsu@brdgeng.gee.kyoto-u.ac.jp
6
M. Matsumoto
Table 1 aerodynamic improved bridge girder sections and their flutter stability performances
* * * * * *
Bridge Girders Vrcr A2 /A2 plate A1 /A1 plate H3 /H3 plate remarks
Modified Rhombus Girder
1.16 1.88 1.28 0.79 (H3* control)
Ellipse Girder
1.01 0.75 0.52 1.59 A1* control
B/D=20 Rectangular 2-box Girder

>>1 0.92 0.53 1.02 A1* control
Strait Crossing Road Projects in Japan

(0.1)
3.8 0.36 0.40 A1* ,(H3*) control
at Vr=10
B/D=5 Rectangular 2-box Girder with Fairing

1.4~1.5 0.79 0.58 0.88 A1* control
Messina Strait Bridge

>>3 0.37 0.19 0.65 A1* ,(H3*) control
All Grating Girder(opening ratio =60%)

>2.8 0.04 0.002 0.12 A1* ,H3* control
Rectangular B/D=20 with a Vertical Plate 3.75

1.11 H1* /H1*plate 2.05 0.79 (H3* control)
(1.03)
Hexagonal Box Girder with a Vertical Plate 0.5

(>2.5 ) H1* /H1*plate 1.08 -0.33 H3* control
(0.83)
of structures against the flutter instability. In curve never crosses with the heaving one in CEV
particular, it was clarified that A2*, A1* and H3* are analysis, but they cross mutually in SBS analysis,
mostly effective derivatives on the flutter instability and the HB (Heaving Branch) damping curve
and these derivatives control is a key-point of flutter suddenly decreases at certain velocity less than the
stabilization. On the aerodynamically stabilized flutter onset critical velocity and tends to approach
bridge girders or basic structural sections, the flutter to the TB (Torsional Branch) damping curve.
stability indices, Vcr/Vcr plate, and their associated However, the HB damping curve is not identified at
flutter derivative ratios, A2*/A2*plate, A1*/A1*plate and the certain velocity range near flutter onset critical
H3*/H3*plate, to ones of a plate are summarized in velocity because of non-convergence of the
Table1. frequency to the unique value, and then it can be
identified again closely with the TB damping curve
3 FLUTTER BRANCHES SWITCHING FROM TB obtained by CEV analysis. On the other hand, the
TO HB TB damping at higher velocity range than flutter
onset velocity by SBS analysis approaches to the HB
SBS analysis has significant advantage of verifying damping diagram obtained by CEV analysis. The
the role of flutter derivatives on flutter instability in frequency crossing in SBS analysis means the flutter
each branch (M.Matsumoto, H.Hamasaki and branch should switch from TB to HB over certain
F.Yushizumi, 1997). Besides, another advantage of specified velocity, in another expression, the flutter
SBS analysis is described as follows. If the flutter instability at the high velocity range appears in HB
characteristics of a thin plate with certain structural but not in TB. TB flutter instability at the high
dynamics obtained by CEV analysis and SBS velocity range has been predicted from the
analysis are compared in Fig.1, then the detail of conventional CEV analysis. These peculiar
flutter mechanism can be in more detail investigated. behaviors in V-į diagram and V-Ȧ diagram of TB
Both flutter characteristics obtained by two different and HB obtained by SBS analysis can be confirmed
analyses show fairly well agreement at the lower by direct measurement of the dampings( įȘ and įĳ),
velocity range and the higher velocity range even frequencies(ȦȘ and Ȧĳ), amplitude ratios((Ș0/ĳ0)Ș
though the branch difference. But the drastic and (Ș0/ĳ0)ĳ) and the phase difference(ȥȘ and ȥĳ) in
difference in them can be observed in the V-į free vibration test in smooth flow by use of a
diagram and the V-Ȧ diagram at the specified rectangular cylinder with the side ratio of 20, as
velocity range. In detail, the torsional frequency
7
The Fourth European & African Conference on Wind Engineering, Paper K04
0.8 Logarithmic 6
Decrement
f [Hz]
0.4 4
0.0 2
-0.4 0
0 10 20 V[m/s] 0 10 20 V[m/s]
3.0 270 < [deg.] : CEV (Heaving Branch)
K0/I0
: SBS (Heaving Branch)
180
: CEV (Torsional Branch)
2.0
90
: SBS (Torsional Branch)
0
1.0
B=0.3 m, fK=4.0 Hz, fI=5.2Hz
-90 M=2.42 kg/m, I= 0.0181 kgm2/m
0.0 -180
0 10 20 V[m/s] 0 10 20 V[m/s]
Fig.1 comparison of coupled flutter characteristics of thin plate between obtained by CEV analysis and SBS analysis
0.8 Logarithmic 5
Decrement
f [Hz]
4
: CEV (Heaving Branch)
: SBS (Heaving Branch)
0.4
3 : measured (Heaving Branch)
: measured (forced vib. 3)
2
0.0 : measured (coupled state)
1 : CEV (Torsional Branch)

: SBS (Torsional Branch)
-0.4 0
: measured (Torsional Branch)
0 5 10 V[m/s] 0 5 10 V[m/s]
3.0 270 < [deg.] : measured (forced vib. 2)
K0/I0
: measured (forced vib. 1)
180
2.0
90
B=0.3 m, fK=3.26 Hz, fI=3.84Hz
M=2.98 kg/m, I= 0.0198 kgm2/m
0 GK(2K=10mm)=0.0124
1.0
GI(2I=1.0deg)=0.0413
-90
ScK(2K=10mm)=274.2
0.0 -180 ScI(2I=1.0deg)=26895

0 5 10 V[m/s] 0 5 10 V[m/s]
Fig.2 comparison of calculated coupled flutter characteristics of B/D=20Rectangular cylinder
with tested ones in free vibration test
8
M. Matsumoto
shown in Fig.2. The wind tunnel test has been resonant frequency was searched by the forced
carefully conducted under the state of 2 torsional vibration (×: forced vib. 1, in Fig.2).
DOF(heaving and heaving system). At the lower Furthermore, under softly confining the torsional
velocity range than flutter onset velocity, heaving or motion, the 2DOF system frequency was searched
torsional vibration has been initially given and the by suitable giving Heaving vibration (Ÿ: forced vib.
damping, the frequency, the amplitude ratio and the 2 in Fig.2). On the other hand, for the detection of
phase difference of the heaving and torsional mode heaving frequency for HB, rotational axis was also
have been obtained from the sequential damping similarly confined then the frequency to make the
time history record. On the other hand, after softly confined mid-chord point violently diverging
appearance of flutter in free vibration test, in order was searched by giving suitable torsional vibration
to detect the torsional frequency for TB, the ( : forced vib. 3 in Fig.2). Furthermore, the
mid-chord rotational axis was forcedly but softly heaving frequency for HB was detected by searching
confined to prevent the divergent vibration, and the the coupled Heaving frequency (+, in Fig.2).
G
KI
GI re-appearance by SBS
(agreement with GK by CEV)
GK sudden approach to GIҏby CEV
GK SBS analysis stop
co-exist of HB and TB flutter

V[m/s]
GK SBS analysis stop
discrepancy of GK
by SBS and GI by
GI SBS analysis stop CEV depends upon V[m/s]
the str. dynamics
GK re-appearance by SBS
Z <
ZK SBS analysis stop
ZK re-appearance by SBS
in this range,
V[m/s]
HB and TB switches
ZI re-appearance by SBS

-90 deg
(agreement with ZK by CEV)
Vcr V[m/s] quasi.-steady flutter

separate co-exist separate
zone zone zone
quasi.-steady flutter
K min
wind
I max I min I max
K max K max
time
Fig.3 illustration of complicate branch switching in coupled flutter
9
sliding system with bearing

(for Heaving motion) guide rail
(fixed)
wind
model
motor
Torsional vibration
system
Fig.4 experimental system of flutter power generation
0.6 K0/I0
test result calculation

result
, : fI=0.40Hz
0.4 , : fI=0.49Hz
, : fI=0.60Hz
, : fI=0.72Hz
, : fI=0.81Hz
0.2
, : fI=0.90Hz
, : fI=1.00Hz
B=0.3m, fK=0.713Hz, fI=0.49-0.90Hz

0.0 M=4.08kg/m, GK=0.656, ScK=19847
0 2 4 6
V[m/s]
Fig.5 comparison of the heaving response generated by forced Torsional motion (I0=5[deg])
between calculated and experiment (B/D=20 Rectangular cylinder)
As the substantial property of coupled flutter, as sections, such as rectangular sections with B/D=
shown in the illustration of Fig.3, flutter branch 12.5, 15, and 20, a two separated box girders,
feature might change as follows: at low velocity diamond sections, elliptical sections and so on as
range, heaving and torsional branches(HB and TB) shown in Table1.
separately exist, then at higher some specified
velocity, the heaving branch(HB) suddenly tends to
approach to the torsional branch(TB) where two 4 UTILIZATION OF FLUTTER INSTABILITY
branch frequencies mutually cross, and at more
increasing velocity range, the two branch Isogai (K.Isogai et.al., 2003) has recently
flutters(HB and TB) co-exist, where the coupled reported the utilization of flutter for a power
flutter appears, and further high velocity range, generation system. This system consists from the
heaving and torsional flutter branches(HB and TB) torsional vibration part and the heaving free
again separately exist. By use of SBS analysis, these vibration one, and in this system, enough large
flutter branch switching characteristics of a thin electricity generated by the heaving vibration can be
plate discussed above are also observed for another obtained by giving torsional forced vibration in
10
M. Matsumoto
small electrical supply. This heaving vibration is 7 REFERENCES

associated with coupled flutter, which originally
excited by the given forced torsional vibration. The Isogai, K. et.al. ”Design Study of Elastically Suported Flapping
author has also conducted the same experiment in Wing Power Generator” Proceeding of International Forum
on Aeroelasticity and Structural Dynamics, 2003
wind tunnel by use of rectangular cylinder with the Kloeppel, T. and Tiele, ”Modellversuche im Windkanal zur
side ratio of 20 (shown in Fig.4. The test conditions Bemessung von Brucken gegen die Gefahr winderregter
are as follows: B=0.3m, m=4.083kg/m, fȘ=0.713Hz, Schwingungen2”, Stahlbau, Heft 12, 1967
įȘ0=0.6558, which depend upon the heaving Matsumoto, M., Daito, Y., Yoshizumi, F., Ichikawa, Y. and
amplitude, ĳ0=5degrees and fĳ=0.4, 0.49, o.6, 0.72, Yabutani, T., “Torsional Flutter of Bluff Bodies”, J. of WEIA,
0.82, 0.91 and 1.0Hz. If the forced torsional 69-71, 1997
Matsumoto, M., Hamasaki, H. and Yushizumi, F.,”On Flutter
vibration is given at certain wind velocity, then the Stability of Decks for Super-Long-Span Bridge”, Structural
heaving vibration is generated. This heaving Eng./Earthquake Eng., JSCE, Vol.14, No.2, 1997
vibration can be produced as a forced vibration by Matsumoto, M., Kobayashi, K., Niihara, Y., Shiarto, H. and
the external lift force induced by torsional vibration, Hamasaki, H., “Flutter mechanism and its Stabilization of
The calculated heaving response is compared with Bluff Bodies”, Proc. of 9th ICWE, 1995
Scanlan, R.H. abd Tomko, J.J., ” Airfoil and Bridge Deck
the experimental results in Fig.5. As far as the Flutter Derivatives”, J. of Engng Mech. Divisions, ASCE,, 97,
amplitude ratio, Ș0/ĳ0, the experimental result is EM6, 1971
much smaller than the calculated one at small
heaving amplitude because of the large damping
during small heaving amplitude as the heaving
vibration-guiding device used here. However, the
phase difference(ȥ) and the amplitude ratio(Ș0/ĳ0)
indicate agreement in between test and calculation.
5 CONCLUSION
The major results obtained in this study is

summarized as follows:
1) By use of SBS analysis, the coupled flutter
shows usually branch switching from the
torsional branch to the heaving branch with
velocity increasing, then,
2) the coupled flutter is classified into the two
branch separate existing range, then their
co-existing range and again their separate
existing range with velocity increasing,
3) the flutter derivative H1* control is extremely
effective for flutter stabilization, and how to
stabilize the coupled flutter instability depends
upon the heaving or the torsional vibration mode
modification, and
4) the power generation by flutter instability is the
sophisticated utilization of the heaving branch
flutter.
Furthermore, mathematical reason why the
branch switching is not observed by the
conventional complex eigen value analysis should
be more precisely investigated.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Finally, the author should acknowledge

Mr.K.Mizuno, Mr.K.Okubo, Mr.Y.Ito of Kyoto
University for their devoting contribution in carrying
out this study.
11
J.A. Wisse1
ABSTRACT: Important African applications of wind engineering are identified, although most African
countries do not participate in IAWE. African issues are assessment of wind energy potential and application
of small wind mills; shelter of crops from mechanical damage and from desiccating dry air; drifting sand
deposits; shelter from dust and sand storms in the built environment. Wind effects on structures, dispersion of
air pollution and wind comfort are also relevant in Africa. However, no reactions from Africans are received
on these subjects. There is a lack of wind climatic data. Ongoing projects on wind energy and climatic change
could generate these data, if the benefit of wind statistics was elucidated and additional projects to publish
wind data were initiated. This is a challenge for IAWE. Wind engineering of informal housing and of the use
of shelterbelts by farmers cannot be initiated by Europeans. Also introduction of wind energy in rural
societies has to be local. How to further wind engineering in Africa?
Serving building industry in Europe the wind

1 INTRODUCTION engineering community has learned how application
Vritually no Africans participate in the activities of of wind engineering to societal important issues is
possible in cooperation with others. In Europe
the IAWE. It is strange for an international
application is imbedded in procedures and structures
organization as IAWE which whishes to promote in society. In Africa, on the contrary, ways to apply
international co-operation in her field to have no wind engineering in societies have to be invented.
contacts in the second largest continent of the world, How to score success in informal housing over a
embracing 20% of the earth surface. continent? How to introduce know-how on the
3EACWE, 2001, had a first plenary session on design of buildings in informal housing, about
wind engineering in Africa. The relevance of wind shelterbelts into African agriculture? Wind
engineering under African conditions Goliger, engineering of African issues can only be fruitful if it
(2001) and some African case studies of problems is set up by Africans. This paper presents
caused by wind in small holder agroforestry Stigter information on African issues. The character of
et al., (2001) were discussed. A working group implementation of further action is considered.
“Europe Africa Initiative” –EAI- was to further
action. The present paper will report on African wind 2 DATA ON WIND CLIMATE
engineering issues. It is based on information
collected by the EAI working group, in particular by Wind engineering needs statistics of wind speed as
e-mail exchange with some 80 Africans. Despite this function of wind direction. In general, there are three
highly appreciated input, the input from Europeans is relevant sources of wind data: operational data
still dominant. The following topics were brought administered by WMO; historical data and wind
forward: energy assessment.
x Data on wind climate
x Wind energy 2.1 Operational data administered by WMO
x Wind related disasters and building
x Wind and agriculture Wind data originate from the Global Observing
x Wind and environment System GOS and the Global Observing Systems for
x Wind and fire propagation Climate, GCOS. Both networks are administered by
the World Meteorological Organization, WMO.
Are these items wind engineering? The IAWE GOS is for weather forecasting. The data are hourly
has not formally defined wind engineering. transmitted by a Global Telecommunication System.
However, many accept the statement of J.E.Cermak Data from a large part of Africa are received too late
“Wind engineering is best defined as the rational by the computer centres to be processed. The data of
treatment of the interactions between wind in the GOS are collected in the Integrated Surface Hourly
atmospheric boundary layer and man and his works Database at NCDC, Asheville, North Carolina. It
on the surface of earth". The mission statements of contains data from about 20,000 synoptic locations
some national wind engineering associations suggest world-wide. Most of the data in this digital archive
room for the above African topics. starts in the early 1970s. There are separate data
1
Prof.Ir.J.A.Wisse, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Dept. Building and Architecture, P.O. 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The
Netherlands, jawisse@worldonline.nl
12
J.A. Wisse
bases for observations over the oceans. WMO has 3 sub-models: the first to deal with hills and
concludes: “There are no research quality global other orographic features; the second to take
near-surface wind products for climate change roughness changes into account for hub height; the
studies. Thus, development of international archives third to handle shelter effects behind obstacles. The
that cover at least 50 years of synoptic observations obtained wind data are presented and processed as
is warranted.” Wind engineering is not alone in its Weibull distributions. It is noted that the more wind
search for wind data, but it is not known to other is driven by large-scale phenomena, the more it will
parties. The coverage of the GCOS network is much generally adhere to the Weibull statistics. Typical
denser than GOS. The availability and quality of reasons not to adhere are local thermally driven
African stations is poor. In the year 2002 only a few winds during daytime or severe orographic effects
per cent of the data of the African stations was like channeling in a valley. Thermally induced winds
received by an international center. do not fit well a Weibull-distribution. Moreover,
WAsP uses average stability constants in a
2.2 Historical data geostrophic drag law. To what extent these
assumptions may be a problem in Africa is not
As suggested during 3EACWE, the archives of the mentioned. In section 3.1 an example of a WAsP
weather monitoring organizations of the former application in South Africa is described.
colonial countries might contain valuable data. Since In the second technique wind data in a grid are
then, research in climatic change has become a topic. generated by a NWP system, in which data from the
To this end data bases of historic data are under GOS network are analyzed and grid data are
construction. This is an internationally coordinated generated. Such a NWP-system includes a world-
action. Griffiths et al. (2004) have drawn up an wide model as operated by the European Centre for
inventory in connection with the NOAA Climate and Medium range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF),
Global Change Climate Data and Detection program. which generates boundary conditions for a set of
Moisselin (2000) reports on surface and upper-air High Resolution Limited Area Models (HIRLAM).
climatological data of 14 African countries. Climatic These systems are for some years operational in
research concentrates on temperature and Europe and in the USA. Daily wind fields for Africa
precipitation and not on wind. It is a challenge for are presented and grid data are available for
wind engineering to call attention to wind data and to processing. See section 3.1. Giebel (2000)
search these historical archives. demonstrates the satisfying accuracy of these wind
data for Denmark. He applied a combination of
2.3 Data from wind energy assessment NWP, WAsP, a model for the turbines and model
output statistics. In Denmark, the coverage of GOS
In section 3 wind energy in Africa will be discussed. appears sufficient and large synoptic systems are
Many future reports on this subject will be based on dominant. The ECMWF model has a typical grid
wind statistics, which will not be mentioned in the distance at the equator of about 120km; a HIRLAM
publications. Their subject is wind energy. For about 16 km. It is tempting to use such a system in
example, UNEP conducts a project, in which wind data sparse regions as Central Africa. However, one
energy potential will be assessed with a horizontal might expect that e.g. local convection and thermally
resolution better than 5km. It would be very driven winds are important. These can only be
worthwhile to address the international bodies modeled properly by fine-mesh models, which need
furthering the application of wind energy in Africa appropriate data coverage. Some projects in which a
and state the benefits and needs of wind engineering. HIRLAM-system has been used for Central Africa
Cooperation with IWEA could be offered. have already been finished; see Undén, P et al.,
There are two techniques for assessing wind 2002.
energy potential. In the first, data based on
measurements of a nearby meteorological station are 3 WIND ENERGY ASSESSMENT
processed; in the second wind data are generated by
a numerical weather prediction system NWP. The typical 19th century wind mill power was 0, 7
In the first technique wind measurements are kW. At the end of World War I it had been increased
transformed to local conditions. The model WAsP, to 25 kW. At the end of the 1960’s 200 kW was
Wind Atlas Application and Analysis program, see possible. Nowadays turbines as small as 20- 500
Giebel, 2000 and Troen, et al. (1989) is much used. Watt, the micro turbines, and turbines as big as 3, 6
The model is meant for a flat to medium complex MW are technically possible. 5MW turbines are
terrain on the basis of local measurements or NWP- being developed. The extent to which wind energy
generated grid data. It transforms data from one site might be harvested depends on the characteristics of
to another taking into account local terrain. WAsP wind turbines and on wind climate.
13
3.1 Wind climate sites. NWP generated data for the Eastern Cape,
showed several sites with annual mean wind speeds
According to some studies, large parts of Africa
appear to have very low wind energy potential. It is in excess of 6 m/s at 10 meters above ground level. It
doubtful that the climatic data are good enough for is remarkable that no indication of the accuracy of
this conclusion. Moreover, the use of small wind these estimates of the potential wind energy of a
particular country is given in these commercial
turbines could be neglected in this conclusion.
products. Far reaching policies and large and
G.Czich (1999) estimated wind energy potential
important investments will be made on the basis of
in the world and in North West Africa in particular
on basis of ECMWF data, without a HIRLAM- these data, which might be - I guess - 50% wrong.
Might the experience of wind engineering
system. Data for 33m and 144m height were used.
Because of this coarse grid, his data do not contain contribute?
A world map of average mean wind speed for the
information on local circulations. The hub height
period 1976-1995, is made with a HIRLAM, see
chosen indicates that small turbines have not been
WAsP (2004). This reference also contains an atlas
considered. There could be more wind power than
suggested. After all, at the coast of Nigeria small for Egypt. UNEP conducts a project SWERA, in
which wind power is assessed for Ghana, Ethiopia
boats use sea wind to sail the first few kilometers
land inwards. Czich suggests that in large parts of and Kenya. The Ghana assessment is ready. It is
shown that at Ghana’s coast and in the mountains
Africa a 1, 5 MW turbines at a height of 80 m will
(maximum height 900m at the Eastern border with
only yield 1, 5 MW during 1000 hours per year or 11
Togo) wind power is significant, in contrast to earlier
% of time. Not enough for an investment of millions
results. The maximum power is potentially 620
of Euro. Czich concluded that a 1, 5 MW turbine has
W/m2 at a height of 50m. The meso-scale physics is
good chances in 7 countries. The African
apparently better modeled.
Development Bank selected 8 countries which
The position of wind engineering in wind energy
should have good potential for the development of
assessment is unclear. A HIRLAM-project for Africa
Wind Energy (by large turbines).
is meteorological research; wind engineering could
Robert (2004) used NWP models from Canada
contribute to the processing of wind data; the
and USA, and an own model to introduce
implementation of the interaction of the airflow and
topographical features. The study selects 15
the local conditions, and to measuring campaigns.
countries with high wind energy potential for a mix
Development of (small) wind mills seems opportune.
of large scale and small scale wind power projects,
SSWES states: “We perceive a huge gap between the
addressing the needs of rural and urban areas. In
complex and expensive equipment offered by
rural areas the development of small wind energy
industrialised-world manufacturers, and local efforts
(hybrid) systems for remote areas and small local
focussing on effective, low-cost solutions. Designers
grids is mentioned; in urban areas the development
and manufacturers in the South continue to be
of grid-connected utility scale wind farms is noted.
hampered by scarce resources and limited production
Again, the question about the accuracy of the map is
skills”.
open. Are meso-scale winds effectively simulated in
this study? It is doubtful.
4 WIND DAMAGE OF BUILDINGS
A wind resource atlas has been developed for
South Africa (CSIR, 2004) which estimates annual
There is little information on wind damage to
mean wind speeds in at a 10 m height above ground
buildings and structures on the African continent, but
level for approximately 67% of the country. WAsP
for the Republic of South Africa, Mauritius,
was used for the estimations of all the provinces
Madagascar and Mozambique. Data from insurance
within South Africa, except the Eastern Cape. Input
companies are lacking, because informal housing is
parameters to the WAsP model included: data of
not insured.
about 100 automatic weather measuring stations;
We should be careful: informal housing is more
roughness values, derived from the 1996 National
vulnerable to wind and information lacks on extreme
Land Cover database; 20 m contour elevation
wind speeds. One might expect damage to buildings
information. The WAsP model was run for each
by severe weather, associated with convective
automatic weather station with a specific extent or
systems. In fact, in Abuja the capital of Nigeria in
modeling area that was based on the terrain of the
the center of the country, a velodrome failed in a
area. Radii of 40, 50, and 75 km from the station site
thunderstorm last year. Much has to be learned on
were used to define the model area: flatter areas have
wind damage to buildings on the African continent.
a larger radius and more mountainous areas a smaller
Tropical cyclones enter Mauritius, Madagascar
radius. The model did not perform well in
and the East coast of Mozambique and cause loss of
mountainous terrain, where excessively high annual
life and damage. Various projects are summarized
mean wind speeds have been estimated at certain
14
J.A. Wisse
which aim at simple, economic building strategies Because of the lack of measured wind data on the
for housing with the emphasis on improved African continent, a procedure to establish wind
constructions and available materials. statistics for wind engineering purposes seems to be
Numerical Weather Prediction systems. This
5 WIND AND AGRICULTURE meteorological research should be supplemented
with know-how on airflow interaction with the
Stigter et al. (2005) describe the impact of wind on landscape and with ad hoc measuring campaigns.
crops: mechanical damage; desiccation of crops; Further development of small wind turbines and
drifting sand deposits. Goliger (2001) describes the the assessment of local wind power potential are
impact of sand erosion on building and structures. opportune. Initiatives should be in cooperation with
Wind engineering might help to mitigate these relevant international bodies and local African
adverse effects of wind by developing and experts.
transferring know-how on the design of shelterbelts.
There is a lack of knowledge on the aerodynamic 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
properties of shelterbelts made of brushwood and
trees. We use model-shelterbelts in wind tunnels to Cooperation of the Wageningen University, The
simulate the effects on traffic and wind comfort Netherlands, in processing the GIS data of SWERA
without proper documentation and verification. CFD is thankfully acknowledged.
is a new tool which might be used to model sand
transport and sedimentation over a shelterbelt and 8 REFERENCES
over a make-up of shelterbelts. Research in the
industrialised-world by an African guest is CSIR, 2004, Sarerd-Wind, http://www.csir.co.za
necessary. Cooperation with African specialists and Czich, G, 1999, Potentiale der regenerativen Stromerzeuguing
a policy for transfer of know-how is essential for in Nordafrika, Perspektiven ihrer Nutzung zur lokalen und
success in this issue. See Stigter et al. (2005). grossräumigen Stromversorgung, www.iset.uni-kassel.de
Moreover, the EAI-working group received a Giebel, G, 2000, on the benefits of distributed generation of
wind energy in Europe, PhD dissertation, Oldenburg,
reaction to the issue of wind and environment. http://gregie.hjem.wanadoo.dk/
Would it be possible to design dwellings in which no /GGiebel_DistributedWindEnergyInEurope.pdf
sand and dust could penetrate? Again, to this end Goliger A.M., 2001, the relevance of wind engineering
cooperation with local experts is necessary. under African conditions, in: Proc. 3rd European African
conference on wind engineering, Eindhoven, the
6 CONCLUSIONS Netherlands
Griffiths J.F. & Peterson, Th.C. 2004, Hardcopy Sources of
Surface Climatic Data, Part I, Colonial Africa
If IAWE wishes to find ways to further application http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/ghcn/
of wind engineering in Africa, there are two roads: africa.html
international cooperation and assistance to African Moisselin (2005), data of African countries,
projects, defined by Africans. A European may take www.wmo.ch/web/wcp/wcdmp/reports/WCDMP-
49/WCDMP49_Annex12.pdf
the lead in the latter, but history has lessons to tell in Robert, L., 2004, Strategic Study on Wind Energy
that respect. Development in Africa, Tunis Wind Energy Conference,
Cooperation with international bodies as UNEP, http://www.afdb.org/en/content/download/1572/11646
WMO, IAHS, European Wind Energy Association, /file/BAfD%20TunisWEC%20Helimax%20%202004- 10-
and FAO is necessary to generate wind statistics and 28LR.ppt
to include wind engineering know-how in SSWES, 2002, Newsletter, Small scale wind energy systems in:
http://www.arrakis.nl/
international projects. Stigter, C.S. Onyewotu, 2001, L.O.Z., Al-Amin N.K.N.,
Assistance to African projects is potentially Some African case studies of local solutions to
fruitful. There are issues on agriculture, wind energy problems caused by wind in small-holder agroforestry,
and building and constructions which require in Proc. 3rd European African conference on wind
international wind engineering know-how and engineering, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
Stigter, C.S. Onyewotu, L.O.Z., Al-Amin N.K.N., 2005,
African know-how. Ways to start up capacity Wind and agriculture: an essential subject of the African
building and transfer of know-how should be found. Participatory Research Agenda, Proceedings 4EACWE
The EAI-working group was advised to develop a Troen, I. and E.L. Petersen (1989), European Wind Atlas, Risø
participatory research agenda, but the advice was not National Laboratory, Roskilde. 656 pp. ISBN 87- 550-
accompanied by funding. 1482-8.
Since 2001 research in climate change has Undén, P et al., 2002, HIRLAM-5 scientific documentation,
http://hirlam.knmi.nl
become a topic. Data bases of historic data are under WAsP, Wind Atlases of the world, http://www.wasp.dk
construction. Additional projects to retrieve wind (Egypt)
statistics seem opportune.
15
1
A. Kareem
ABSTRACT: Notwithstanding the developments made in recent decades in bluff body aerodynamics and
aeroelasticity which have enhanced our abilities to better understand and capture the effects of wind on
structures, now is the time to refelect on these developments, reassess their merits and shortcomings, and
identify the need for embarking on different modeling philosophies and paradigms. In this context, there is a
need to reassess the current paradigms and to look for improved solutions concerning the nature of wind field,
associated aerodynamics and the resulting load effects in light of the following emerging themes: non-
stationarity/non-homogeneity/transient events; spatio-temporal correlation; nonlinearity; non-Gaussianity;
mechanical/convective turbulence; unsteady/transient aerodynamics; coupled effects. Also one needs to take
note of recent advances in the analysis and identification tools, modeling frameworks and model to full-scale
monitoring of wind effects that promise to better understand the underlying complexities associated with the
preceding themes. The paper discusses these issues and illustrates their significance as the next frontiers in
bluff body aerodynamics and aeroelasticity to wind effects on built infrastructure perspective.
1 PAPER OUTLINE the portability of computational codes, once the

monopoly of supercomputers, to most laboratories
The assurance of structural safety and reliability
and some design offices. Rapid advances on all
under wind loads requires accurate modeling of wind
fronts have accordingly led to advances in our
load effects which relies heavily on our
understanding of aerodynamics and aeroelasticity
understanding of bluff body aerodynamics and
and associated load effects and a consequence the
aeroelasticity. The intractability of wind-structure
prospect of improved codes and standards, the next
interactions amidst complex urban topography has
generation of load simulating facilities, new versions
precluded analytical treatment of the subject.
of wind tunnels, database assisted design aids and
Therefore, physical modeling of wind effects in
web-based e-technologies.
boundary layer wind tunnels has served as the most
Notwithstanding these developments, which have
effective tool for ascertaining these load effects.
enhanced our abilities to better understand and
Accordingly, the last decade has witnessed advances
capture the effects of wind on structures, it is
in wind tunnel technology, full-scale monitoring,
appropriate time to reflect on these developments,
sensors/transducers, instrumentation, data acquisition
reassess their merits and shortcomings, and identify
systems, laser Doppler-based technologies,
the need for embarking on different modelling
geographical information and positioning systems
philosophies and paradigms. In this context, the rest
(GIS) & (GPS) and information technologies, which
of this paper will identify and discuss a few selected
have increased our ability to better monitor and
frontiers in bluff body aerodynamics and
process gathered information for improved
aeroelasticity with particular reference to wind loads
understanding of the complexities and nuisances of
on structures and the challenges these pose to wind
how wind interacts with structures and the attendant
engineering community. These frontiers include the
load effects and their modeling. On the other hand,
following:
in last few decades, there have been major
I. Stationary versus Nonstationary/Transient
developments in the computational area to Winds
numerically simulate flow fields and their effects on II. Correlation Structure/Non-Uniformity of Flow
structures. These developments have been & Pressure Fields
complemented by other areas, e.g., stochastic III. Non-Linearity
computational mechanics, which have led to useful IV. Non-Gaussianity
tools to further advance the role of numerical V. Mechanical/Convective Turbulence
analysis. The availability of high-speed computers, VI. Effects of Turbulence
individually or in networked clusters, has enhanced
1
Prof. Eng. Ahsan Kareem, NatHaz Modelling Laboratory, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA ;
kareem@nd.edu
16
A. Kareem
VII. Changing Dynamics of Aerodynamics 2 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Quasi-steady Aerodynamics This paper reflected on the recent developments in
Unsteady Aerodynamics aerodynamics and aeroelasticity of bluff bodies with
Transient Aerodynamics a viewpoint concerning wind effects on structures.
Aerodynamics in Nature Some of the overarching issues for the future
Aerodynamic/Aeroelastic Tailoring encompass the modeling and impact of imperfect
VIII. Coupled Effects
correlation, transient/nonstationary effects, non-
High-Rise Buildings
Long Span Bridges Gaussian and nonlinear features, coupled load
Multimode Coupled Aeroelastic effects, in the formulation of loads and their effects
Analysis on structures. Advances in computational methods
Integrated Analysis of Buffeting and and in experimental methods with improved sensing
Flutter capabilities based on wireless sensors, smart sensors,
Curve Veering of Eigenvalue of GPS, laser Doppler based technologies and optical
Bridges with Aeroelastic Effects and sonic systems would aid in effectively
VIV. Model- to Full-Scale Monitoring addressing some of the needs highlighted. With these
Wind Tunnels and Beyond foundations steeped in bluff body aerodynamics and
Scale Models in Wind Tunnel aeroelasticity and projected research paths, coupled
Full-scale Monitoring with an embracing of advanced and e-technologies,
IX. Analysis, Computational, Identification and our abilities will certainly be lifted up to a higher
Modelling Tools and Frameworks level of understanding, modeling, analysis, design
Computational Methods and monitoring of wind effects on structures.
Proper Orthogonal Decomposition
Simulation of Random Pressures
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Time-Frequency Analysis
X. Codes/Standards and Design Tool
Equivalent Static Wind Loads
Implications of Gust-front Velocity Profile
Aerodynamic Loads Database
17

C. Borri1, P. Biagini2
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the experimental tests carried out in the Boundary-Layer Wind Tunnel
(BLWT) for the design of large roofs of the new Olympic stadium (Karaiskaki) in Pyraeus (Greece), Manfre-
donia (Italy) and “Delle Alpi” of Turin (Italy). In addition, a report about some results of the T.D. dynamic
response analyses performed on the Karaiskaki structure and on the Olympic stadium in Rome will be given.
The peculiar shape of these large structures and their particular location (two of them are in the immediate
sea vicinity) let arise the question about the actual distribution of the wind loads, i.e. on the pattern of pres-
sure coefficients (cp) over the entire roof.
are obtained through coefficients obtained by wind

1 INTRODUCTION tunnel tests.
Dynamic response of large roofs is dominantly
determined by extreme winds and (for seismic areas)
by earthquake induced vibrations. This paper focuses
its attention on the significant effects of wind actions
on the lightweight (usually large and therefore highly
geometrically nonlinear) structures which are often
employed for covering stands of stadiums and/or
sports facilities.
A careful and thorough analysis of the design
loads requires wind tunnel tests. These last deliver
useful information on both aspects: first, the actual
pressures over exposed surfaces (included the “net”
values, in case of open surfaces, where wind can act
on two opposed sides); second, the “correlation Figure 1 View of the CRIACIV Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel.
structure” of the wind field, which allows the nu-
merical generation of an arbitrary number of pres-
sure time series having the same time/space correla-
2. WIND TUNNEL TESTS
tion as in the wind tunnel modeling.
The paper presents the experimental campaign, Wind tunnel tests reported in the present paper
carried out in the CRIACIV Boundary Layer Wind have been performed in the Boundary-Layer Wind
Tunnel (Fig. 1), on three rigid models of large sta- Tunnel (BLWT) of the CRIACIV in Prato (Florence)
dium roofs: Karaiskaki stadium in Pyraeus, the new (Fig. 1). All models have been equipped with a cer-
roof of Manfredonia sport plant and the new Delle tain number of pressure taps, in order to measure the
Alpi stadium in Turin (Fig. 2). instantaneous pressures on the roof. As all the struc-
These pressure fields can finally be used as the tures are not closed ones, one has to measure the
input (excitation forces) of a dynamic problem, outer and inner pressure of the roof. This make nec-
whose output (induced displacements) can be ob- essary to install two sets of pressure taps over the
tained by integrating a system of equations of mo- whole surface investigated: the first one to measure
tion. As for the aspect of reproducing the dynamic the pressure under the roof and a second one to
behaviour, analyses in T.D. can be carried out by measure the value above the roof. In this way every
means of integrating the system of equations of mo- couple of taps will deliver the “net” value of the in-
tion. External forces are considered as a set of corre- stantaneous pressure and, consequently, of the “net”
lated time series of the wind pressures (multiplying a pressure coefficient cp.
factor considering a relevant surface) which, in turn,
1
Prof. Ing. Claudio Borri, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Florence, e-mail cborri@dicea.unifi.it
2
Eng. Paolo Biagini, Dept. of Civil Engeneering, University of Florence, e-mail paolo.biagini@dicea.unifi.it
18
C. Borri, P. Biagini
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2 General view of the treated roof structures: (a) Olympic stadium in Rome, (b) Manfredonia roof structure, (c) Karaiskaki
stadium in Pyraeus, (d) new Delle Alpi stadium.
Once known the time history of the cp at the outer
and inner surfaces, one can evaluate the net value of
the pressure coefficient as:
cp (t ) c p ( t ) c p ( t ) (4)
net sup inf
3. MAIN TESTS RESULTS

The main results obtained in the wind tunnel tests,
for the three roofs examined in the following, are
given by showing the wind pressure fields as a map
(Fig. 3) representing the time/space dependence of
their distribution on the whole surface. Generally,
the same map of the elementary influence areas, con- Figure 3 View of the distribution of the cp design value for the
tributing to each single tap, is used to generate the Karaiskaki stadium: min values.
time series of the pressure coefficient. In fact, for
each elementary area, the time history of the re- According to the procedure proposed by Cook
corded pressure can be stored. Once obtained the cp and Maine (1980) and also used in the Eurocode 1,
time histories relevant to all directions measured, the each pressure coefficient time history has been sub-
next step is to perform a statistical analysis of the divided in 11 intervals of 2.4-sec duration; this cor-
processes. responds to a full scale 10-minutes storm, i.e. the
reference duration for the evaluation of the max and
min values. At this time it is possible to match the 11
19
extreme values (max or min) with a Gumbel function ficially generated by means of the GEWIN com-
and by means of the so-called BLUE correction puter program, which is able to generate multi-
(Best Linear Unbiased Estimators, Box, Jenkins and correlated fields of wind velocity and/or pressure
Reinsel, 1994) one can estimate the design value of with a given spectral property or auto and cross-
the pressure coefficients. correlation. Numerical simulation of the structural
response was performed under the following hy-
4. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF STRUCTURES potheses:
Numerical simulation, via dynamic analysis, per- - auto-spectra according to the Davenport’s model;
formed on the numerical model of the Karaiskaki - across-wind cross-correlation according to the
stadium and Olympic stadium in Rome are presented (root) coherence function proposed by Vickery
in this work. At this time, the first structure is still (1989);
under study, so that it is possible to show only pre- - along-wind correlation according to the Taylor hy-
liminarily results about the dynamic response. In the pothesis;
first case, a first dynamic analysis has been per- - pressure coefficient as derived from the values
formed assuming directly the wind tunnel time histo- measured in wind tunnel, taking the extreme values
ries, that assumes the meaning of a quasi-static in order to evaluate the heaviest loading condition.
analysis. In this case, one shall consider only the The obtained results show a peak value of the dis-
background response of the structure, without con- placement at the inner ring (leeward side) variable
sidering the resonant response. Results obtained in between 1.23 m and 1.37 m depending on the wind
terms of the maximum, mean and minimum strength incidence direction (average: # 0.90 m). Figure 5
in the structural elements for the cantilevered struc- shows the time history of the response at the inner
tures have been eventually used to evaluate the de- tension ring.
sign value of the net pressure coefficient to be as-
sumed; this is typically considered as uniformly ap-
plied over the whole roof, to obtain (via static analy-
sis) the same maximum, mean and minimum values
obtained through the dynamic approach.
0.6
0.51965 dir=259.3°
cp,netcpnet=1.0
= 1.0
0.4
0.36597 dir=202.5°
with con
0.2
eolico
load
/ Carico
0
load / wind
Figure 5 Olympic stadium in Rome: time history of the re-

effettivo
-0.2 -0.17931 dir=169.3° sponse.

wind
eolico
Actual
-0.4
Carico
-0.6 -0.57548 dir=169.3° 5. REFERENCES

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Traliccio IDID
Cantilever Borri, C., Majowiecki, M., Spinelli, P. (1992), Wind response
of a large tensile structure: the new roof of the olympic sta-
Figure 4 Karaiskaki stadium: uniform cp that maximize the ten- dium in Rome, J. of wind Eng. and Ind. Aerod., 41-44 pp.
sion strength in the cantilever structures. 1435-1446.
Borri, C. and Zahlten, W. (1991), Fully simulated nonlinear
Results are shown in Figure 4, where it has been analysis of large structures subjected to turbulent artificial
evidenced that a uniform pressure coefficient of wind, Mech. Of Struct. And Machines, vol. 19, N. 2, pp.
213-250.
about 0.57 leads to the same maximum tension
strength in the cantilever structure. In the case of the
Olympic stadium in Rome, the simulation of the
wind velocity field has been performed by simulat-
ing 91 cross correlated time series of the wind veloc-
ity. In a first phase, a field of multi-correlated one-
dimensional time series of the wind loading was arti-
20
CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
J. Náprstek & C. Fischer (eds); ITAM AS CR, Prague, 11-15 July, 2005, Paper #196
Effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force

spectrum on a tall rectangular building
H. Eimani-Kalehsar1, M. Abitorabi, A. Kolahdoz-Mohammadi
ABSTRACT: In the present paper, effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force
spectrum on a tall rectangular buildings have been studied. The survey of literature has been shown that no
research has been published to date which addresses derivation of non-dimensional acrosswind force
spectrum to the wind interference effect on tall rectangular buildings. Therefore, the lack of the non-
dimensional acrosswind force spectrum for wind interference effect provoked the authors to make such a
model for direct calculation of acrosswind forcing power of tall rectangular buildings, that is very useful at
the preliminary design stage of tall buildings. The study has shown that the values of normalized acrosswind
force spectrum are observed to decrease with increase in the size of the interfering building.
1 INTRODUCTION as short afterbody orientation and the dynamic

response measured in interference due to a single
In designing for wind, a tall building can not be
upstream or downstream building. A turbulent shear
considered independent from its surroundings. The
flow with the mean velocity corresponding to center
influence of interfering (nearby) buildings can be
of large cities, was generated to simulate the
substantial. Structural innovation and lightweight
boundary layer.
construction technology have reduced the stiffness of
A model of the natural wind flow for a large city
modern tall buildings. The reduction of the stiffness
center type terrain was developed which is
is caused that tall building is becoming very
compatible with the geometrical scale of the building
flexible, and consequently the vibration of tall
by using augmented growth method in which a set of
buildings under wind has become a major concern
vortex generators and roughness blocks were used.
for the structural engineer. Therefore, prediction of
The measured mean wind velocity profile is
the response of tall buildings for wind load prior to
represented by a power law profile with an exponent
its construction becomes very important.
of 0.30. The measured longitudinal turbulence
Spectral analysis techniques provide a convenient
intensity at 0.8 height of the model was 7 %.
method for dealing with the random turbulence of
A stick type aeroelastic model of
wind. Thus Making of the non-dimensional
acrosswind force spectrum is seemed very important. 62.5mm×125mm plan dimensions and 750mm tall
For the same, the scope of the present work is has been used in the study to represent the principal
generation of the non-dimensional acrosswind force building.. All measurements have been made on the
spectrum. principal building model.Three interfering building
models have been used, each with the same height
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE and width as the principal building model and having
the other aspect ratios as 1:1.5, 1:2.5 &1:4, These
In the present work, the wind interference effect due models were rigid and have been named as M1, M2,
to interference from three types building of plan size and M3 respectively. The interfering building model
different from the building under consideration was placed at various locations on grid spacing of b
located upstream or downstream of the principal in both perpendicular directions, where b is the width
building has been studied. For this purpose, an of the buildings.
aeroelastic model of a tall rectangular building 300m
high and 25m×50m plan size, The prototype 3 INTERFERENCE EFFECTS DUE TO
characteristics of the modeled building are: width A‌‌ SINGLE INTERFERING BUILDING
25m; length 50m; height 300m; structural density
When the principal building was located in the long
182 kg / m3; and structural damping 1.5 % and 2.0%
afterbody orientation, the interfering building were
of critical damping in the two principal directions,
kept in the long after body as well as short afterbody
was subjected to test in a large size boundary layer
wind tunnel (2.0m×2.1m) for long afterbody as well
1
Prof. Houshyar.Eimani-Kalehsar, University of Mohaghegh-Ardebili, Iran, e-mail: hoshyar_1@yahoo.
22
G. Alonso, J. Meseguer, I. Pérez-Grande
orientation, too. In the present paper, the result of 2) The acrosswind response can be predicted
first case is reported. analytically only with the help of force spectra a
In all the above mentioned studies, the strain similar type of building, which may not generally
gauge and accelerometer signals were acquired be available in which case wind tunnel
through the data acquisition system. In each record a investigation on aeroelastic model can be provide
minimum of 4000 samples of a signal were recorded. the answer.
This means 16 seconds record length which may be 3) Non-dimensional acrosswind force spectrum has
considered to correspond to 20 minutes duration in been generated in simulated atmospheric
the full scale (during Lock-in phenomenon half of boundary layer for approach terrain with power
these values). It is necessary to say that in the law index equal to 0.30 for a tall building of
isolated case, the lock-in phenomenon observed for 1:2:12 proportions and 300m high in the vicinity
short afterboy orientation which it is eliminated in of interfering buildings.
interference cases. For showing the effect of 4) The non-dimensional acrosswind force spectra
interfering building location and mean wind velocity thus generated can be used to predict the
on the normalized non-dimensional acrosswind force acrosswind displacements, accelerations and
spectrum , the results are illustrated as contours corresponding overturning moments at the
which are function of X/b, Y/b and mean wind preliminary design stage of tall rectangular and
velocity. square buildings as well as at the final design
stage of similar buildings.
4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5) This study has revealed that the acrosswind force
The values of normalized acrosswind force spectrum spectrum value of tall rectangular building
are observed to decrease with increase in size of the studied depends on: a) Mean wind velocity: b)
interfering building. The normalized acrosswind Location of interfering building: c) Orientation of
force spectrum attains a maximum value 1.246 with principal building as well as interfering building.
the small interfering building in the critical position
(13.4b,0.5b) at a reduced velocity of 9.28. 6 SELECTIVE REFERENCES:
5 CONCLUSIONS Eimani-Kalehsar, H.(2000), “Experimental Aerodynamic
Studies on Tall Rectangular Buildings. “, Ph.D. Thesis,
The outcome of the present work is summarized as Dept. of Civil Eng. , University of Roorkee, India.
follows: Kareem, A. (1982a), “ Acrosswind Response of Tall
Buildings.”, J. Struct. Eng, ASCE, 108(ST4), pp. 869-887
1) The values of normalized acrosswind force Saunders, J. W. (1974), “ Wind Excitation of Tall Buildings.”,
spectrum are observed to decrease with increase Ph.D. Thesis, Monash University, Australia
in size of the interfering building.
23
S. Amoroso1, K. Hebert2, M. Levitan3
ABSTRACT: A parametric wind tunnel experiment measuring the mean base shears on building models with
various partially clad, fully clad, and unclad (frame-only) configurations was carried out in the LSU Wind
Tunnel Laboratory. A majority of the experiments were modeled in grid turbulent flow, with limited testing of
selected models conducted in nominally smooth flow and boundary layer flow conditions. Force coefficients
for some of the partially clad configurations were found to deviate significantly from the fully clad case.
1 INTRODUCTION Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other

Structures (ASCE, 2003), ASCE 37-02, Design
Wind loads on partially clad structures such as Loads on Structures During Construction (ASCE,
buildings under construction or industrial structures 2002), and ASCE Wind Loads and Anchor Bolt
have not been well studied. Walshe (1965) Design for Petrochemical Facilities (ASCE, 1997).
conducted wind tunnel tests for a particular structure,
with forces measured on a model at eleven stages of
construction. This study found that the maximum 2 RESULTS
base shear occurred at one of the stages when only
the leeward half of the building frame was clad. Figure 1 illustrates the coordinate, angle, and
Other research applicable to wind loads on either cladding configuration conventions that are used in
buildings under construction or industrial structures the presentation of the data. A “1” indicates the
is focused primarily on the lattice framework without presence of cladding, and a “0” indicates that no
cladding. In general, the available codes, standards, cladding is on a wall. The first digit corresponds to
and guides do not recognize any gross changes in the windward wall at D = 0º. The following three
aerodynamic behavior that would result from a digits correspond to successive walls clockwise from
partially clad configuration. the windward wall. Results for 3:1 plan aspect ratio
The wind tunnel experiments consisted of models are all presented such that the windward wall
measuring the mean base shears on building models at D = 0º is the wide face, as shown in Figure 1.
with various cladding configurations. Building
models were constructed to a 1:100 scale for typical Cfy
full scale building dimensions. All models were 10
stories and based on one of two plan aspect ratios,
1:1 or 3:1. Cladding configurations tested in grid Cfx
turbulent flow for the 1:1 and 3:1 plan aspect ratio
models were fully clad, 3 sides clad, 2 sides clad
(multiple configurations), 1 side clad and unclad
lattice frame. Fully clad and unclad models of both
aspect ratios were also tested in nominally smooth
flow to allow comparisons with previous studies.
Initial goals for this study are: 1) investigation of
the wind loading behavior of partially clad buildings;
and 2) identification of the structural geometries and
force coefficients associated with upper bound
conditions. Further experiments in boundary layer
flow are planned, with results anticipated to be
relevant to further development of wind loading Figure 1 Structure coordinates and wind incidence angle (top)
codes, standards, and guides, such as ASCE 7-02, and cladding configuration notation defined for D º (bottom)
1
Graduate Fellow, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA, e-mail samoro1@lsu.edu
2
Graduate Fellow, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA, e-mail khebe31@lsu.edu
3
Director, LSU Hurricane Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA, e-mail levitan@hurricane.lsu.edu
24
S. Amoroso, K. Hebert, M.L. Levitan
Force coefficients are measured along structure axes. forces for the 3:1 plan aspect ratio models (not
The areas used to calculate the force coefficients are shown) exhibit more variety. Some notable effects
the envelope areas of the faces normal to the correspond to arrangements in which only narrow
direction of the force in question. faces are clad and arrangements in which only wide
Four models were tested in smooth flow, fully faces are clad. Again, the asymmetric 1100 has
clad and unclad models of both plan aspect ratios. peculiar behavior.
The results from the smooth flow experiments yield 2
data that compare well with published results.
The majority of testing was conducted in grid 1.5
turbulent flow. The Cfx data for the 1:1 model in 1

Figure 2 shows wide variation for the various
cladding cases. Three of the configurations yield 0.5
higher coefficients for greater ranges of wind angles
Cfx
0
than the fully clad case. Arrangement 1010 is 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
notable. For small inclination angles, the force -0.5

1111
1110
coefficients are similar to the fully clad case, but as -1 1101
1100
the wind angle increases, the flow can pass through 1010
0101
the structure, but its path is directed by the parallel -1.5
1000
walls. This change in flow direction (or momentum) 0001
-2 0000
wind angle , D
requires a large force normal to the walls. One of the
most interesting results is for configuration 0110. Figure 3 x-axis force coefficients for 3:1 plan aspect ratio
This case results in positive x-axis forces for wind models in grid turbulent flow
angles well beyond D = 90º. This result illustrates
how the overall aerodynamic actions on the structure
are significantly affected by the cladding 3 CONCLUSIONS
configuration.
2.5
It was found that significantly higher loads occur
on some partially clad configurations compared to
2
fully clad prisms. The range of angles for which
1.5
force coefficients remain high are sometimes
1 extended beyond the range for fully clad structures.
0.5 Grid turbulent flow results compared well in general
with smooth flow results. Force coefficients for
Cfx
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
configurations with two adjacent sides clad and with
-0.5
only one side unclad compared well with existing
1111
-1
1110 data for angle sections and channel sections,
0110
-1.5
1010
respectively. Although interesting behaviors have
-2
0010 been measured in this study, the results so far are not
0000
-2.5
sufficient for use by designers. The boundary layer
wind angle , D
testing underway in this research project is the next
Figure 2 x-axis force coefficients for 1:1 plan aspect ratio step toward results that are appropriate for design.
models in grid turbulent flow
A notable effect for the Cfy results (not shown) is 4 REFERENCES

the reduction in along-wind force for the case where
walls parallel to the flow are clad compared to the ASCE (1997), Wind Loads and Anchor Bolt Design for
unclad case. At D § 90º, Cfy for arrangement 1010 is Petrochemical Facilities, Task Committee on Wind Induced
more than 10% less than the value for arrangement Forces and Task Committee on Anchor Bolt Design, American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
0000. The differences are even greater for the angles
at which Cfy is maximized. ASCE (2002), Design Loads on Structures During
The x-axis force coefficients for the 3:1 plan Construction, ASCE Standard SEI/ASCE 37-02, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
aspect ratio models are shown in Figure 3. The data
generally follow the trends established by the fully ASCE (2003), Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
clad and unclad models. Arrangements 1010 and Structures, ASCE Standard SEI/ASCE 7-02, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
1000 show the lifting effect mentioned earlier.
Configuration 1101 experiences higher forces and Walshe, D.E. (1965), Measurements of wind force on a model
for wider ranges of wind inclination angle when the of a power station boiler house at various stages of erection,
NPL Aero Report 1165, National Physical Laboratory,
wide, open side is facing into the wind. Y-axis Aerodynamics Division, Teddington, UK.
25
Systemic methodological approach for the analysis of exploitation and

development environment of a Wind power station
M. Annabi1, Y. Abdellaoui2
ABSTRACT: Within the framework of universalization, Tunisia engaged in a process of total up grading
concerning as well private production companies as the strategic structures of which those covering the
energy sector. To this end, a policy of promotion of renewable energies and environmental protection was
adopted where the structures of Research had to play a significant role. Thus a Research Project Federate
(PRF) on wind systems was identified. This project implies various teams of Research in partnership with
public companies as well as private.
In order to manage a PRF, we adopted a methodology of Project planning adopting a participative and
structured approach implying the various partners. Method PPO (Planning Projects by Objectives) made it
possible to identify the various activities as well as the associated persons in charge, timing and other
parameters. A system of follow-up and evaluation of the various steps was founded.
Moreover, this method was extended to analyze and model various technical processes such as that of the
Wind power station functions or that power station integration in the national dispatching system.
We present also the impact of such methodological approach supporting the communication between various
partners whose waiting and contributions are multiple.
1 CONTEXT constraints to work to adopt a environmental
Within the framework of the organization and the protection strategy on the other hand, a particular
interest was reserved for the power stations using of
scientific research orientation activities in Tunisia,
less polluting fuels. Thus it was retained to adopt
the Ministry for Scientific Research, Technology
Wind power stations. Thanks to the evolution of
and Development of Competences (MRSTDC)
technology, the Wind power stations cover today a
undertook a national study relating to four priority
range of competitive power while meeting the
sectors: water, energy, health and of free exchange.
environmental standards (they do not emit nitrogen
From this study, emerged from the Terms of
oxides (Nox), of sulphur (SOx), nor of gas for
References (TdR) for Research topics –
Development as regards promotion of renewable purpose of greenhouse: CO2, CH4).
energies; it is about: By its favorable geographical situation, Tunisia
has a significant wind potential. Two topics was
• Individual air-conditioning with natural gas; defined: the first is on the analysis of technology in
• Analysis of technology in order to develop a order to develop a local industry, the second is about
local industry; the development of a dispatching model integrating
• Development of a dispatching model wind central. A Systemic methodology was adopted
integrating wind central; to define the various components as well scientific
• Solar cold; and technical that of management of the Project.
• Solar heating domestic water. Thus using method PPO identified the objectives
The new orientation consists to engaging Federate and the various activities as well as the persons in
Research Program (PRF) in sight to get concrete charge, the timing and other parameters necessary to
solutions to precise requests of the company the success of the realization of the PRF.
expressed by the economic and social development This step, initiated by the scientific coordinator
country. In addition to the will of federate research of the PRF, profited from the adhesion of the various
between various partners (Laboratories and Units of structures of research as well as various economic
Research, companies industrial, Technical Centers...) partners of the Project.
Taking account of the increasing deficit of the We present in this paper the method as well as
national energy balance on the one hand and results obtained.
1
Ecole Supérieure des Sciences et Techniques de Tunis, 5 avenue Taha Hussein Montfleury 1008, Tunisia,
mohamed.annabi@esstt.rnu.tn
2
dtto, E-mail: youssef.abdellaoui@esstt.rnu.tn
26
M. Annabi, Y. Abdellaoui
2 METHOD PPO PPO and to define new baptized method "MISDIP"
Method of Planning Projects by Objectives PPO [1] (Integrated Method of Specification, Development
[2] [8] [9] [10] is a participative method utilizing and Implementation of project) [7].
various competences concerned with the situation to
3 SCIENTIFIC WORK OF UR "SEPE"
analyze in Workshops of production. This method
constitutes a tool of total systemic modeling making The UR "Systemic energetic computer-integrated
it possible to analyze a situation complex by manufacturing & environment" School (ESSTT)
breaking up it in a hierarchical way and while assumed the scientific role of coordination of the
bringing back it to elementary situations leading to Project. It recruited for this purpose an engineer to
an elementary operational planning. ensure the scientific management of the Project.
The two determining stages for the development Students and researchers of various Tunisian
of the implementation of the Project strategy are: university institutions undertook the scientific work
• The Diagram of Planning of the Project of UR SEPE within the framework of the Project.
(SPP) which consists in on the one hand The logical framework was always based on
establishing a total diagnosis of the situation systemic analysis PIPO.
and this by working out a Tree of the
4 CONCLUSION
Problems using a causal logic and on the
other hand to reverse this tree to constitute a The planning of the Research projects never was led
Tree of the Objectives according to a logic in Tunisia according to the approach "Project"
"Means - End"; implying various partners and mobilizing various
• The Planning Diagram of the Activities Resources.
which consists in carrying out a hierarchical Method PIPO used made it possible to occupy
analysis of the results to realize and to various teams of Research and to define the
identify the various parameters of realization interfaces of communication with the economic
(responsible, resources, timing, place, partners laying out one Knowledge-To make and of
indicators of realization) [1] [2]. useful Operating data.
We think that this step is reproducible and that it
The identification and the analysis of the is necessary to work with its diffusion.
information exchanged by the activities inform us
about dynamics and the communication between the 5 REFERENCES
components of the system which one proposes to [1] Administration Générale de la Coopération au
study or to manage. Thus we define a matrix of Développement (AGCD), Manuel pour l’application de la
information [4][5][6] which establishes a correlation «Planification des Interventions Par Objectifs (PIPO)»,
between the activities and information. Information 2ème Edition, Bruxelles 1991.
governing an activity can be classified in two [2] M. ANNABI, "Formation à Distance : pour quel Besoin ?"
Symposium International sur la formation de l’ingénieur,
categories: the information imported by the activity Conseil de l’Ordre des Ingénieurs, Tunis 26-27 mai 1999.
and which is supposed to be available; they are [3] M. ANNABI, "Approche systémique de l’entreprise",
either produced by other system activities, or Cours, INSAT, 2001.
coming from external sources. The information [4] M. SOUISSI, "Thèse d’État", Faculté des Sciences de
produced by the activity reflects the state of this Tunis, 2002.
[5] F. BEZEOUIA, "ARENA et la simulation du flux :
activity; this last information will be exploited and Application à la restauration d’athlètes", ENIS, Oct 2001
divided by other activities of the project. [6] Y. BEN SALEM, "Modélisation et commande d’une
In fact, the information produced by an activity can structure de réfrigération solaire", DEA, ENIS, Janv 2002.
be regarded as the transformation of the information [7] M. ANNABI, " PIPO étendue : Méthode Intégrée de
imported by this same activity. Spécification, de Développement et d’Implémentation de
Projet MISDIP ", STA’2003 Sousse décembre 2003.
In order to specify this information, we define a [8] Administration Générale de la Coopération au
information matrix associated with analysis PIPO Développement, Manuel pour l’application de la
allowing to «Planification des Interventions Par Objectifs (PIPO)»,
• Determine the relations between the 2ème Edition, Bruxelles 1991.
[9] Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, ZOPP in
activities or the structures concerned Brief, Eschborn, Germany, 1988.
• Identify the sources of information [10] Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, Methods
• Determine the way in which the information and Instruments for Project Planning and Implementation,
Eschborn, Germany1991.
are exploited.
[11] Le premier congrès sur les énergies renouvelables et
This methodological step enabled us to extend l’environnement, Sousse, Tunisie 2003
27
C. J. Baker1
ABSTRACT: This paper firstly outlines recent work on the prediction of the trajectories of wind borne debris,
the main conclusion of which is that for sheet debris, the precise solutions are very sensitive to the boundary
conditions of the calculation. It then goes on to check some of the assumptions made in these predictions
concerning the nature of the force and moment coefficients, through a parametric investigation in which the
assumed numerical values are varied.
shows that these tend to different values depending

1. INTRODUCTION upon the mode of flight. However perhaps the most
In recent years it has come to be realised that important conclusion is that the mode of debris
considerable damage is caused during windstorms from flight that is adopted is very sensitive to the initial
impact by windborne debris. Historically little work has inclination angle and to the parameters :, with
been carried out in this area, and the rather limited sudden transitions between flight modes as these
amount that has been done is described by Holmes parameters vary. The practical implication of this is
(Holmes et al 2004). In the 1980’s Tachiwaka in Japan that only an envelope of trajectories can be
carried out some experiments to measure the flight of developed for such debris, and because of the
debris in a wind tunnel (Tachikawa 1983, 1988) and difficulty of imposing boundary conditions, no
compared these experiments with solutions of the precise values of trajectories or velocities can be
equations of motion for debris flight. Wills et al (2002) found
developed a model for the prediction of damage from These points being made however the
debris, and also introduced a useful classification scheme. calculations for sheet debris rest on some fairly
They identified three types of debris – compact (such as major assumptions for the form of the aerodynamic
gravel, spherical missiles etc), sheet (such as roof tiles, force and moment coefficients. Whist a few checks
cladding elements) and rods (such as timber frame were carried out to determine that the solutions were
components). In a recent paper the author (Baker 2005) not affected by changes in these assumptions during
has presented a set of solutions of the debris equation for the calculations reported in Baker (2005), these
both compact and sheet debris. The equations of motion checks were not extensive. In this paper therefore we
for both types of debris were set out in a dimensionless consider variations in these assumptions to
form, and it was shown that the major important determine whether the major conclusion of the sheet
parameter was : Mg /(0.5 UAU 2 ) where M is the debris calculations - the sensitivity of the velocities
mass of the object and I is its moment of inertia, U is and trajectories to initial parameters – can be
the density of air, A is a reference area and l is a regarded as robust.
reference length (taken in what follows as the
significant dimension of the debris in the x-y plane). 2. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOLUTION
Using the equations so derived the author then METHOD
goes on to give solutions of the equations for both In Baker (2005) it is assumed that the force and
compact and sheet debris. For compact debris the moment coefficients on sheet debris can be
solutions are well behaved, with the dimensionless considered to consist of two components – a quasi-
velocities and trajectories being a function of : steady component that is a function of the
only. For sheet debris however the situation is instantaneous angle of the debris to the flow
somewhat more complex. It is shown that it is direction relative to its direction of travel, and an
possible for one of three types of debris flight to be autorotating component that is due to streamline
established – clockwise rotation, anti-clockwise displacement (the equivalent of the Magnus effect).
rotation and translational (no rotation) flight. Baker This is similar to the approach that was adopted by
(2005) then goes on to derive results for the Tachikawa. The quasi-steady forces and moments
dimensionless displacements and velocities, and
1. Professor of Environmental Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston , Birmingham B15
2TT, United Kingdom, c.j.baker@bham.ac.uk
28
C.J. Baker
are usually assumed to be equal to the values Holmes, J.D (2004). Trajectories of spheres in strong winds
measured on static inclined plates. with application to windborne debris, Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 92, 9-22
3. TYPICAL RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS Tachikawa, M (1983). Trajectories of flat plates in uniform
flow with applications to wind-generated missiles, Journal of
As an example of the results of the calculation Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics., 14 pp 443-
method, figure 1 shows the results for the variation 453.
of dimensionless horizontal, vertical and radial Tachikawa M (1988), A method for estimating the distribution
velocities with dimensionless time, for square sheet range of trajectories of windborne missiles. Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 29 pp 175-184.
debris and a value of : = 0.05, for a variety of initial Wills, J.A.B., Lee, B.E. and Wyatt, T.A.(2002) A model of
inclination angles. At first sight the results seem wind-borne debris, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
rather odd with no smooth variation of the results as Aerodynamics., 90, pp 555-565.
the initial inclination angle varies. However they can
be explained by considering the rotational velocities
of figure 1c. This shows that for the 0 and 30 degree 1.4
cases, a positive radial velocity is quickly adopted, 1.2

for the 60 degree case a negative radial velocity is 1
adopted and for the 90 degree case, the flight is 0.8
0 deg
30 deg
primarily translational with little velocity variation. 60 deg
0.6
This can be seen to be reflected in the velocity time 90 deg
histories where the positive and negative velocity 0.4
cases are sharply distinguished. It is interesting to 0.2

note that for large values of dimensionless times the t
0
horizontal dimensionless velocities approach a limit 0 5 10 15
greater than 1 for the anti-clockwise rotation case
and a limit less than 1 for the clockwise rotation a) Dimensionless horizontal velocity
case, whilst the vertical velocity traces all approach
the same limit. In Baker (2005) it is shown that these 0.4
limits can be predicted by an asymptotic analysis of

0.2
the flight equations.
0
t
0 deg
The parametric investigation outlined in the full 0 5 10 15
30 deg
paper suggest that in broad terms the solutions to the -0.2
60 deg
equations of motion are insensitive to the precise -0.4
90 deg
values of the force and moment coefficients that are
used, in that the results all show both positive and -0.6
negative rotations occurring, with sharp transitions
-0.8
between the two modes of flight, and also all show a
translational flow to occur for initial inclination b) Dimensionless vertical velocity
angles near to 90 degrees. However it does appear
1000
that as some force parameters are varied, primarily
those associated with producing the rotational
motion (the quasi-steady pitching moment and the 500
maximum autorotational velocity) then the nature of t 0 deg
the solutions can change for some ranges of these 0
30 deg
parameters. Coupled with the fact that the basic 0 5 10 15

60 deg
90 deg
assumption that the forces on sheet debris can be
-500
described by the sum of a quasi-steady component
and an autorotational component has not been fully
substantiated, this suggests that some more -1000
experimental work is required in this area..
c) Dimensionless radial velocity
REFERENCES
Baker C J (2005) The debris flight equations, submitted to the
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
29
A simplified method to evaluate the critical flutter speed for flexible

bridge decks
G. Bartoli1, C. Mannini2
ABSTRACT: Flutter instability of flexible bridge decks is investigated following the semi-empirical Scanlan’s
approach based on flutter derivatives. In the present work, the equations of the stability eigenvalue-problem
are manipulated and simplified on the basis of a large number of dynamic and aerodynamic data. A simple
expression for the critical reduced wind speed and for the coupling frequency is then obtained. The major
interest of this approximate method is the fact that the critical parameters depend on three flutter derivatives
only. In addition, these aerodynamic functions are known to be the most reliable and the easiest to be
identified through wind tunnel tests. The proposed formulas seem to work well in a wide range of cases, unless
the frequencies susceptible to couple are not too close to unity.
..
I D 1 ig D IZD D MD (2)
1 INTRODUCTION
Flutter stability is one of the problems of major where h and Į indicate respectively the heaving
concern in the design of long-span flexible bridges. displacement and the torsional rotation, m and I the
Consequently a long campaign of wind tunnel tests mass and mass moment of inertia per unit length, Ȧh
is usually needed to ensure a high enough critical and ȦĮ the circular frequencies of the heaving and
wind speed and to optimize the cross-sectional torsional modes (in still air), gh and gĮ the
geometry. Nevertheless, in the case of medium-span coefficients of rate-independent damping, Lh and MĮ
cable-stayed and suspended-span bridges, flutter is the lift and moment per unit length, i is the
less concerning but still it is not possible to exclude imaginary unit and the dot indicates derivative with
the problem without any check. The present research respect to time.
work would like to represent a first step in the Supposing a sinusoidal critical coupled motion
assessment of a simplified procedure to calculate and expressing self-excited lift and moment in the
critical flutter wind speed, which should help to Scanlan’s form (Simiu & Scanlan, 1996), flutter
avoid wind tunnel tests at least at pre-design stages critical wind speed and coupling frequency can be
of medium-span bridges and for conventional deck calculated solving an eigenvalue-problem of stability
geometries. which defines two flutter equations (Fung, 1993).
The well known flutter equations have been These equations can be studied and simplified on the
simplified on the basis of a large number of basis of a large number of available structural and
aerodynamic and dynamic data relative to a wide experimental data, reducing to the following simple
range of flexible bridges and easy simplified equations:
formulas for critical reduced wind speed and
coupling frequency were then obtained. Finally, the
g D A3*
2

g D rD2 PA3* 2 J Z2 A2* A3* J Z2 rD2 H 1* A3*
degree of approximation of the formulas have been (3
checked in several practical instances.
*
2
rD PA J Z 1 rD P g D J Z2 1
2 2
4 2
0
2 SIMPLIFIED FLUTTER PROBLEM rD2 P g h g D A3* g h g D A2* rD2 H 1*

X J Z2 (4
It is known that in most cases only two modes (one
rD2 P J Z2 g h g D g D A3* A2* J Z2 rD2 H 1*
torsional and one vertical bending) contribute
significantly to flutter instability (Bartoli & Mannini, where:
2005). This observation allows to apply the 2m I ZD Z D2
equations of motion valid for a two degree-of- P rD JZ X (5-8)
UB 2 mB 2 Zh Z2
freedom section model (Fung, 1993):
.. being U the air density, B the deck width, H1*, A2*
m h 1 ig h mZ h h Lh (1)
and A3* three particular flutter derivatives, which are
supposed to depend on the reduced frequency of
1
Prof. Gianni Bartoli, Ph.D., Dept. Civil Engineering, University of Florence, e-mail gbartoli@dicea.unifi.it
2
Claudio Mannini, Ph.D. stud., Dept. Civil Engineering, University of Florence, e-mail claudio.mannini@dicea.unifi.it
30
G. Bartoli, C. Mannini
oscillation and deck geometry only. Ȧ is the 10
Approximate flutter solution
coupling critical frequency which can be determined

Eig. sol.
8
from equation 4, once the reduced critical wind Approx. sol.
speed URc has been calculated using equation 3. The 6
knowledge of Ȧ and URc allow the calculation of the
4
dimensional flutter wind speed, which is the
parameter of practical interest for engineers. 2
Since it is assumed that flutter derivatives depend

0
on reduced wind speed and deck cross-sectional
geometry only, it is possible to combine the -2
aerodynamics of a bridge with the dynamics of a -4

completely different one and to perform calculations
-6
on hybrid structures, so disposing of a large number 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
URc
of data.
The degree of approximation of equations 3-4 Figure 2 Graphical solution of the approximate formula for
flutter reduced wind speed in the case of the Akashi Kaikyo
with respect to the complete eigenvalue-problem
Bridge.
solution is first studied for some reference cases,
letting the frequency ratio ȖȦ vary. The main 3 CONCLUDING REMARKS
conclusion is that the approximate method seems to
give accurate results provided that ȖȦ is not very The approximate method of calculation of flutter
close to unity. It is also interesting to underline the wind speed seems to give accurate results for a wide
capability of these approximate formulas to take into range of bridge dynamics and aerodynamics, unless
account correctly the effects of damping. Figure 1 the frequency ratio is not very close to unity. In
exemplifies this behavior in the particular instance of particular it is worth noting its large versatility,
a bridge deck with dynamic properties µ = 35.7 and applying both for streamlined and bluff bridge deck
rĮ = 0.249, considering the aerodynamics sections.
characteristics of a rectangular cylinder with chord- The most important characteristic of this
to-thickness ratio equal to 12.5 (Matsumoto, 1996). approach is that the knowledge of just three flutter
Then the proposed formulas were also checked derivatives is required, instead of eight or even
for several real and fictitious cases and their eighteen if drag force and sway motion are not
solutions seem to be generally accurate both for neglected. Moreover these aeroelastic functions (H1*,
critical reduced wind speed and coupling frequency. A2* and A3*) are known to be the most reliable and
Figure 2 shows the graphical solution of equation 3 also the easiest to be identified through wind tunnel
in the particular case of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge tests.
(Katsuchi et al., 1999; Miyata & Yamaguchi, 1993).
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Aerodynamics: R12.5 - Dynamics: P = 35.7, r = 0.249
D
14
The work has partially been supported by the MIUR
12 (Italian Ministry of University and Research) as a
part of a National Research Program.
10
8
5 REFERENCES
URc
Bartoli, G. & Mannini, C. (2005) From multimodal to

6 bimodal approach to flutter. Proc. of VIth European
[h=[D=0%; eig. sol. Conference on Structural Dynamics, Paris. (In press).
4
[h=[D=1%; eig. sol. Fung, Y.C. (1993) An introduction to the theory of
[h=[D=0%; approx. sol. aeroelasticity. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
2
[h=[D=1%; approx. sol. Katsuchi, H., Jones, N.P. & Scanlan, R.H. (1999) Multimode
coupled flutter and buffeting analysis of the Akashi Kaikyo
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Bridge. J. Struct. Eng., ASCE 125-1: 60-70.
JZ Matsumoto, M. (1996) Aerodynamic damping of prisms. J.
Figure 1 Comparison between the solutions of the eigenvalue- Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 59: 159-175.
problem of flutter stability (eig. sol.) and those of the Miyata, T. & Yamaguchi, K. (1993) Aerodynamics of wind
approximate equations 3 and 4 (approx. sol.) for several values effects on the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge. J. Wind Eng. Ind.
of the frequency ratio ȖȦ and two structural damping ratios (0 % Aerodyn. 48: 287-315.
and 1 %). Simiu, E. & Scanlan, R.H. (1996) Wind effects on structures.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
31
Guyed Pasts Vubjected to Zind and Rther Hnvironmental Dctions
J. Bęc 1, A. Flaga 2
ABSTRACT: Guyed masts response to wind action, ice load and thermal action has been analysed in this
paper. Computational model of wind action based on quasi-steady theory has been applied. The obtained
results have been compared with the ones calculated according to patch loads method presented in
Eurocode 3.
1 INTRODUCTION Static calculations have been performed to obtain

Guyed masts due to large heights and slenderness of neutral position for modal analysis. Small linear
shafts are supported with guys and this generates at vibrations around this neutral position obtained with
least geometrical non-linear behaviour. Main loads dead loads, mean wind action and other static
for such structures are environmental actions such as environmental actions have been analysed (Bęc &
wind action and ice load, but most dangerous may be Flaga, 2000). It has been assumed that structure
the combination of both of them. In this paper, the displacements may be expressed as a linear
response of guyed masts to turbulent wind action, combination of representative mode shapes (Flaga,
regarding other environmental actions, has been 1994, 1995).
analysed. The equation related to the i-th mode shape may
be written in the following form:
2 WIND ACTION MODEL M i ⋅ψ&&i ( t ) + Ci ⋅ψ& i ( t ) + K i ⋅ψ i ( t ) =
Special computer program based on commercial Ni Ni
FEM system ALGOR has been made to provide = Fi ( t ) + ∑ Aij ( t ) ⋅ψ j ( t ) + ∑ Dij ( t ) ⋅ψ& j ( t ) + (1)
j =1 j =1
analysis of guyed masts subjected to wind action
Ni Ni
according to quasi-steady model. The procedure of
+ ∑∑ Gijl ( t ) ⋅ψ j ( t ) ⋅ψ& l ( t )
the structure analysing according to the presented j =1 l =1
method is shown in Figure 1.
Static wind Non-linear static

Static wind action Static response
velocity field analysis
Modal analysis
Generation of Generation of
Dynamic wind Integration of
turbulent wind system of motion
action motion equations
velocity field equations
- FEM model of structure (nodes and elements) Response of structure

subjected to wind action
- rough model of structure (supernodes and superelements)
- generalized model of structure

Figure 1 Computational procedure
1
Dr. Sc. Eng. Jarosław Bęc, Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil and Sanitary Engineering, Lublin University of
Technology, e-mail jbkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl
2
Prof. Dr. Sc. Eng. Andrzej Flaga, Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil and Sanitary Engineering, Lublin
University of Technology, e-mail afkmb@pollub.pl, Wind Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow
University of Technology, e-mail a.flaga@usk.pk.edu.pl
32
J. Bȩc, A. Flaga
The system of equations has been solved with use The course of nodal displacements and the
of Newmark method (Chmielewski, 1996). extreme forces in structure elements have been
Nodal displacements may be calculated with the obtained (Fig. 3).
formula:
Ni Ni 4 CONCLUSIONS
q ( t ) = q + ∑ Φi ⋅ψ i ( t ) = q + ∑ qi ( t ) (2)
i =1 i =1 Aerodynamic analysis of guyed mast should be
where Φ i are the displacements in the i-th preceded by the detailed analysis of mode shapes to
obtain the best possible results. The following
representative mode shape and q are the
criteria should be used to get good selection of the
displacements obtained with static non-linear representative mode shapes:
analysis considering mean wind action. • Mode shapes with high generalised amplitudes of
Similar procedure may be used to obtain forces in shaft displacement should be taken into account;
the m-th structure member: • Modes which generate the highest response
Ni
N m ( t ) = N m + ∑ N mi ⋅ψ i ( t ) (3) separately are most important for the total structure
i =1 response;
where N mi is the force coming from generalized • Due to the shape of the wind spectrum mode
inertial forces associated with i-th mode shape and shapes should be found for natural frequencies
below 2 Hz, where amplitudes of the spectrum are
N m is the force from static non-linear analysis. significantly bigger than for higher frequencies.
The results of calculations have been compared
3 EXEMPLARY CALCULATIONS with the ones obtained with use of Eurocode 3
Numerical analysis has been performed for a test (1997) (patch loads). The calculated dynamic
mast of 100 m height with a triangular shaft and two component of the response is about half of the one
guy levels (Fig. 2). Wind action with two different obtained with Eurocode. Analysing the structure
mast locations and different terrain roughness with the presented software, safety factor with the
parameters has been taken into account. The case of value equal to 2 should be used to obtain the same
iced mast has also been analysed. safety margin.
The software prepared for calculations of guyed
9.0m
masts may also be used for other cable rod structures

12
°
such as cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

120
0°
50.4m
120°
5 REFERENCES
Bęc, J. & Flaga, A. (2000) Analysis of Environmental Actions
100.0m
Influence on Natural Frequencies of Guyed Mast,

Proceedings of the 46th Scientific-Technical Conference,
Wrocław-Krynica, pp. 27-34 (in Polish)
Bęc, J. & Flaga, A. (2001) Wind and Other Environmental
40.6m
Actions Influence on Static and Dynamic Characteristics of

Guyed Masts, Proceedings of the 3rd European and African
5 9°
45 °
Conference on Wind Engineering, Eindhoven, pp. 119-123

Figure 2 Geometrical scheme of the test mast Chmielewski T. (1996) Fundamentals of Structure Dynamics,
25 ARKADY, Warszawa (in Polish)
ENV 1993-3-1 (1997) Eurocode 3. Design of Steel Structures.
20 Towers and masts, CEN
Flaga A. (1994) Quasisteady models of wind load on slender
axial force [kN]
15 structures. Parts I & II, Archives of Civil Engineering, XL,

1, pp. 3-41
10 Flaga A. (1995) Quasisteady models of wind load on slender
structures. Part III. Applications of Quasisteady Theory in
5 Aerodynamics of Slender Structures, Archives of Civil
Engineering, XLI, 3, pp. 343-376
0
Flaga A. (1994) Quasisteady Theory in Aerodynamics of
0 20 40 60 80 100
height [m] Slender Structures, Sonderforschungsbereich 151 –
Tragwerksdynamik, Wissenschaftliche Mittelungen,
Figure 3 Maximum axial forces in shaft’s legs produced with
Berichte Nr. 25, Ruhr Universität Bochum
dynamic component of wind action
33
Comparison among different techniques for reliability

assessment of no-tensile structures under turbulent wind
M. Betti1, P. Biagini2, L. Facchini3
ABSTRACT: In this paper, with the aim to move a first step toward a simplified computational tool for the
dynamic analysis of slender no-tensile structures, a comparison between different techniques for reliability as-
sessment is presented. With this aim, a simplified 2D model of a typical slender no-tensile structure, under tur-
bulent wind speed has been developed. A direct integration method with a finite element commercial code
(ANSYS) and an automatic procedure based on a modal reduction scheme implemented under MATLAB, are
employed for a comparison between the linear and the non-linear behaviour.
two dimensional masonry tall structure under turbu-

1 INTRODUCTION lent wind loading is analysed. When the system
Tall buildings are particularly sensitive to wind ef- DOFs increase, the direct integration method require
fects. The wind induced response of slender struc- a large amount of computer resources to be solved,
tures could cause discomfort to the building occu- while there are some alternatives methods, such as
pants, or it could make inoperative the construction. the modal reduction scheme (Bucher, 2001), which
The safety of building structures and their contents allows to condense the problem dimension by taking
as well as the comfort of occupants under such ex- in to account only the first significant modes. Even-
ternal forces as earthquakes and wind remains a sig- tually, a theoretical approach where the no-tensile
nificant engineering concern. In the present study, a mechanical behaviour is approached inside the Non-
cantilever no-tensile beam is used to represent a Smooth Non-Convex mechanics framework, is ana-
slender structure which is a more reasonable model lysed. The problems are formulated as constrained
for a tall building in which bending is the dominant minimization problems of the potential energy of the
vibration mode (masonry chimneys, f.i.). A more re- structural system (Panagiotopoulos, 1985).
alistic wind load model is employed where the turbu-
2 NUMERICAL RESULTS
lent wind speed is idealized as a stochastic process in
time and space (Facchini, 2004). The mechanical model of a cantilever no-tensile
A typical example of no-tensile structure are ma- beam is used to represent a more general no-tensile
sonry buildings because of their mechanical proper- structure building (a prototype of an historical ma-
ties: highly non-linear behaviour and very small ten- sonry tower or a masonry chimney).
sile strength. Masonry structures are made of blocks
connected by mortar joints. Due to this intrinsic p (y,z,t)
x
ft
geometrical complexity, which is obviously reflected H H
z
in the computational effort needed, it is necessary to x
assume a properly homogenizated material. At the y

B
fc
s
same time it is important to have a simplified tools to
Figure 1 No-tensile slender beam and Constitutive law (ı-İ)
reduce the computational effort required by the tradi-
tional FEM programs. As a first step towards the de- The material is assumed to have a linear behav-
velopment of simplified integrated computational iour obeying to the Hooke’s law in compression with
tools for dynamic modelling of no-tensile slender compression strength fc and tension strength ft. If the
structures under turbulent wind loading, a finite ele- material is subject to compression stresses the behav-
ment commercial code and an automatic procedure iour is linear until cracking, otherwise if the material
implemented under MATLAB® (MORE), are em- is subject to tension stress, after the limit stress ft is
ployed. reached, there is a suddenly drop to zero of the ten-
For a comparison between the results, and then to sion and a crack develops.
test the simplified computational tool, a cantilever
1
Eng. Michele Betti Ph.D., Dept. of Civil Engeneering, University of Florence, e-mail mbetti@dicea.unifi.it
2
Eng. Paolo Biagini, Dept. of Civil Engeneering, University of Florence, e-mail paolo.biagini@dicea.unifi.it
3
Prof. Eng. Luca Facchini Ph.D., Dept. of Civil Engeneering, University of Florence, e-mail luca@dicea.unifi.it
34
M. Betti, P. Biagini, L. Facchini
2.1 Turbulent wind load Table 1 Mode shape
The load induced by wind turbulence on the vertical ANSYS – freq.[Hz]] MATLAB – freq. [Hz]
beam was numerically generated as a random pres- 1 4.6513 1 4.6843
sure field obtained by the multiplication of the 2 25.275 2 25.3902
squared velocity field by the pressure coefficient and
the air density: A FEM model, a time domain analysis and a mo-
p y, z , t 1 Uc v 2
y, z, t (1) dal reduction are employed. Results are reported in
2 p
the following Figure.
Pressure acts only on the negative x-ward face of 0.05
the beam and is positive when acting towards the 0
positive x axis. The velocity field on the windward

-0.05
face was divided into its mean vm (varying according
Stress [N/mm2]
an exponential profile) and its fluctuation v0, mod- -0.1
elled by means of a linear combination of radial ba-

-0.15
sis functions with time-dependent coefficients:
v y, z , t vm z v0 y, z , t -0.2
NM MATLAB (TD)
(2) -0.25
v0 y, z , t ¦ wh t M h y, z MATLAB (MR100)
ANSYS
-0.3
h 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time [s]
The time-dependent coefficients, wh(t), were
computed as components of a gaussian vector proc- Figure 3 Comparison for ızz (N/mm2) at the left base node
ess with spectral density Sww(f) such that:
A numerical procedure employing a modal reduction
S vv p1 , p 2 , f M t p1 S ww f Mp 2 (3) scheme that moves toward a development of a sim-
where ph are position vectors, and the components ple integrate computational tool for the dynamic
of vector M(p) are the radial basis functions. The analysis of slender no tensile structures under turbu-
spectral function of the velocity field was modelled lent wind load speed has been developed. A com-
by means of a Von Karman auto-spectral density and parison has been done between the proposed method
exponentially decaying coherence and phase angle and alternative schemes in order to test the feasibility
of the proposed method. At this purpose a intention-
2.2 Preliminary modal analysis
ally simple 2D structural system representing a slen-
A preliminary modal analysis has been carried out in der masonry tower (e.g. masonry chimney) has been
order to assess a first comparison. done. The comparison between the results obtained
2.3 Non-Linear time domain analysis by a commercial code and the simplified computa-
tional tool developed at the Dept. of Civil Engineer-
The model used in this study uses a strength criterion ing, Univ. of Florence, shows a good agreement both
for crack initiation and propagation. The smeared regarding stresses and displacements field, and crack
crack modelling technique is used. Particularly pattern. Increasing the number of DOFs the reduc-
MORE routine, a smeared cracking, with multidirec- tion modal algorithm could be a valid alternative to
tional fixed cracks and strain decomposition, has the classical software code for analysing specific
been assumed. The shear force is transmitted accord- problem connected with no-tensile non linearities.
ing with the shear retention factor E.
3 REFERENCES
Facchini, L. (2004) On the statistical characterisation and simu-
lation of wind induced pressure fields. in Proceedings of the
International Conference on Urban Wind Engineering and
Buildings Aerodynamics, May 5-7, Rhode St. Geneve, Bel-
gium.
Bartoli, G., Borri, C., Facchini, L. (2002) Simulation of non-
Gaussian wind pressures on a 3-D bluff body and estimation
of design loads. Computers & Structures 80, pp. 1061 -
1070
Panagiotopoulos, P.D. (1985) Inequality problems in mechanics
and applications. Convex and Nonconvex Energy functions.
Birkhäuser Boston Inc.
Figure 2 Craking path (respectively ANSYS – MORE-TD)
35
Monitoring of the environmental action of wind on a cable–stayed bridge
J. Biliszczuk1, M. Hildebrand2, Cz. Machelski3, W. Barcik4 K. Sadowski5
ABSTRACT: Since the second half of 2001 a cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 230m and only one
pylon of height nearly 100m has been open to traffic in GdaĔsk, close to the coast, in Poland. It was built
using the cantilever method. Due to the slenderness and substantial length of the structure, as well as the
proximity of the sea with its heavy storms, aerodynamic studies were conducted from the beginning of this
project. The proper procedure of checking safety in the face of a complex wind load was employed. The
monitoring of bridge behaviour under wind and combined wind–live load action was performed during
construction and exploitation. The movements were measured by laser equipment. The results are reassuring,
the observed vibration and dynamic parameters confirmed the theoretical estimates.
1 THE THIRD MILLENNIUM BRIDGE

IN GDAēSK 61,00 168,00 143,00
Erected Cantilever erection Erected on temporary
One of the biggest cable-stayed bridges in Poland on temporary supports
supports
was built in the years 1999 – 2001 in GdaĔsk, close
to the Baltic Sea coast (Figs 1–2). The span built by
cantilever method is 230m long and the pylon has 97,04
a height of nearly 100m (Biliszczuk et al., 2003).
2 WIND RESEARCH VISTULA RIVER
After observing the specific wind conditions on site, 25,00 230,00 39,00 3 x 26,00
the following steps of aerodynamic investigation 372,00 m
were carried out: A. Estimation of aerostatic and
aerodynamic phenomena, B. Testing a segmental
VSL system - 200 SSI
model in a wind tunnel, C. Modification of the cross 21,30 m
section, D. Wind-tunnel testing of the whole 2,82 7,00 1,65 7,00 2,82
structure during construction and exploitation, E.
Detailed computer analysis of the structure. 3,0% 2,0% 2,0% 3,0%
2,14 Wind baffle Wind fairing

1,80 8,30 8,30 1,80
20,21
Figure 2 The Third Millennium Bridge in GdaĔsk. Side view

and cross section of main span
Furthermore, the safety and aerodynamic

behaviour of the bridge at various steps of
construction were analyzed, by monitoring
movement. Monitoring continued to be conducted
after completion of the bridge.
Figure 1 Construction of the bridge
1
Prof. dr hab. inĪ. Jan Biliszczuk, Wrocław University of Technology, e-mail jan.biliszczuk@pwr.wroc.pl
2
Dr inĪ. Maciej Hildebrand, Wrocław University of Technology, e-mail maciej.hildebrand@pwr.wroc.pl
3
Dr hab. inĪ. Czesław Machelski, Wrocław University of Technology, e-mail czeslaw.machelski@pwr.wroc.pl
4
Mgr inĪ. Wojciech Barcik, Wrocław University of Technology, e-mail wojciech.barcik@pwr.wroc.pl
5
Dr inĪ. Krzysztof Sadowski, Wrocław University of Technology, e-mail krzysztof.sadowski@pwr.wroc.pl
36
J. Biliszczuk, M. Hildebrand, C. Machelski, W. Barcik, K. Sadowski
3 MONITORING OF THE BRIDGE 170,00
The monitoring of wind action during construction The position

focused mainly on the movement of the single pylon, of the receiver
the tip of the cantilevered deck at advanced stages of 24 97,04
construction, as well as, the movement of the closed

span. The movements during vibration were
measured using NOPTEL OY laser equipment. Two 25,00 230,00 39,00 3 x 26,00
representative records are presented in Figures 3 - 4.
0,105
Movements [m]
vertical horizontal
Receiver 0,103
99,89 0,101
0,099
0,097
0,095
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Observation time [s]
Figure 5 The measurement of the vibration of the entire span
during exploitation
Emitter ~6,00
0,00
Railway 4 CONCLUSIONS
embankment
~130 m The following conclusions were made.
0,001 0,001 1.The procedure of structural checks regarding wind
action used in this case, including the modification
Displacement [m]
0,005 0,005
0,000 0,000 of shape of the span, was efficient.
-0,005 -0,005 2.The monitoring during construction was performed
-0,010 -0,010 in a simple manner, with no complicated
-0,015 -0,015 techniques, but it was sufficient to control the
-0,020
0
-0,020 movement of the structure. The results of this
15 30 45 60 75 90
Observation time [s] monitoring were reassuring.
Figure 3 The measurement of vibration of the pylon top 3.The monitoring undertaken after 9 months of
exploitation led to positive results. The dynamic
182,00 parameters of the bridge had not changed during
this first period of service. No disturbing
The position
of the receiver phenomena were observed.
R 97,04
REFERENCES
Biliszczuk, J., et al. (2003) The Pope John Paul II (Third
25,00 230,00 39,00 3 x 26,00
Millennium) Bridge, GdaĔsk. DolnoĞląskie Wydawnictwo
Edukacyjne, GdaĔsk – Metz – ŁódĨ – Wrocław, 2003. (In
0,120 Polish).
Flaga A., et al. (2000) Full aerodynamic calculations of
Movements [m]
0,115 vertical
horizontal
0,110 Sucharski cable-stayed bridge in GdaĔsk. Civil
0,105 Engineering Institute, Wroclaw University of Technology,
0,100 Wroclaw. (In Polish).
0,095 Flammand, O. (2000) Pont Sucharski à Gdansk: Étude en
0,090 soufflerie à couche limite atmosphérique sur modèle
0 50 100 150 200 250 aéroélastique à l'échelle 1/100 ème. Rapport CSTB EN-
Observation time [s] AEC 00.70 C, Nantes. (In French).
Glabisz, W. (2001) Identification of linear and non-linear
Figure 4 The measurement of vibration of the cantilever tip systems with Walsh wavelet packets. Archives of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, 1, 1, 2001.
Monitoring during exploitation regarded the Mossot, J., Targowski, M., Marchetti, M. (2002) The Third
Millennium John-Paul II Bridge in GdaĔsk (Poland). in:
vibrations excited by wind action combined with The French Technology of Concrete, The First fib
traffic loads, since they were recognized as vitally Congress 2002, October 13 – 19, 2002, Osaka, Japan,
important in defining structural safety, as well as Association Francaise de Genie Civil ed. pp. 29 – 30.
user comfort. A representative record is presented in Wąchalski, K. (2002) Third Millennium Bridge, GdaĔsk,
Figure 5. Poland. Structural Engineering International Journal of
the IABSE, 8/2002, SEI, vol. 12, no 3.
37
J. Blessmann¹
ABSTRACT: Influence of parapets, eaves and roof pitch on hip roofs are investigated. A small parapets
several times causes an increase on suctions. Comparison is made with results obtained with otherwise
similar gable roofs.
1 INTRODUCTION studies were made both on the investigation of wind

accidents and on wind tunnel tests. It was
The first tests on hip roofs seems to be those by demonstrated that there is a little difference in
Dawley (1928), Giovannozzi (1935), both without overall lift and overturning loads, but great
simulations of natural wind characteristics, while differences in local pressures and in the loads
Jensen and Franck (1965) have made such applied to the primary structural elements. What
simulation. Comparing with the results that they justifies the better performance of hip roofs. Among
have obtained on otherwise similar gable roofs, they these studies we name those by Meecham (1988),
concluded that there was a considerable reduction Meecham, Surry and Davenport (1991), Meecham
on the suction peaks that appeared with a wind (1992) and Xu and Reardon (1998).
incidence of 45° and 60°. But the force coefficients
only suffered little alterations. 2 EXPERIMENTAL
The interest for a more detailed study of the
wind action on hip roofs was stimulated by post- In order to supplement prior tests a set of 20 models
disaster studies. They revealed that hip roofs of with hip roofs was studied to investigate the
residential low-rise constructions have had a much influence of parapet and wall heights, the roof pitch
better performance compared with otherwise similar and the presence of eaves. Dimensions and
constructions built with gable roofs. Font (1932) had proportions of the models are given in Tables 1-2 (p:
already concluded about this better performance of parapet height; e: eaves width).
the hip roofs. Later, in the 1990 decade, several
Table 1 Dimensions and proportions of the models with parapets (16 models)
Model a x b x h (mm) ș p (mm) p/h

0 0
Low walls (lw) 320 x 160 x 60 15° 3 0.05
(8 models) (2 x 1 x 0.375) 30° 6 0.10
12 0.20
0 0
High walls (hw) 320 x 160 x 120 15° 6 0.05
(8 models) (2 x 1 x 0.75) 30° 12 0.10
24 0.20
Table 2 – Dimensions and proportions of the models with eaves (4 models)
Model a x b x h (mm) ș e (mm) e/h

Low walls (lw) 320 x 160 x 60 15°
12 0.20
(2 models) (2 x 1 x 0.375) 30°
High walls (hw) 320 x 160 x 120 15°
12 0.10
(2 models) (2 x 1 x 0.75) 30°
1
1
Prof. Eng. Joaquim Blessmann D.Sc., LAC, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, e-mail lac@cpgec.ufrgs.br
38
J. Blessmann
The tests were carried out at the TV-2 boundary eaves and of a high parapet, compared with the
layer wind tunnel of the UFRGS, with simulation of basic models (without eaves neither parapets).
the main characteristics of a natural wind. Tests
were performed for wind incidence at each 15°. The 4 ANALYSIS
time mean pressures were obtained using an alcohol 4.1 Force coefficients, C
multimanometer, with measurements made on Each quadrant of the roof surfaces was divided into
photographic records of the manometric columns. 3 zones named I, II and III (Fig. 1). The force
coefficients were calculated separately for each
3 RESULTS zone. For the Quadrant 1 the algebraic minimum
The results are presented as local time averaged values of C, regardless of wind incidence (Cmin) are
coefficients of pressure and force, respectively: presented on Table 3.
cp = ǻp/q , C=F/(qA) (1) (2)
with the dynamic pressure, q, referred to the top of

the models. II I
The full text includes 4 tables with the values of III
Į
C corresponding to the 20 models. On those tables
the influence of eaves, parapets and roof pitch can
be appreciated. Besides, isobaric curves are
Figure 1 The 3 Zones of the Quadrant 1
presented for a visual perception of the influence of
Table 3 Values of 100 Cmin on Zone 1 of Quadrant I
with parapet, p/h =

pitch with eaves
walls 0 0.05 0.10 0.20
15° -63 (90°) -84 (90°) -78 (90°) -83 (90°) -90 (75°)
low
30° -48 (0°) -57 (0°) -58 (0°) -54 (0°) -54 (0°)
15° -95 (90°) -106 (90°) -107 (90°) -117 (75°) -109 (60°)
high
30° -57 (0°) -71 (0°) -63 (0°) -63 (0°) -83 (75°)
(D) : wind direction
4.2 Suction peaks walls, roof pitch of 15° and low parapets: cpmin =3.1
The corresponding values of cpmin are given on for p/h=0.05and -2.15 for p/h=0.10.
Table 4. The worst suctions appeared with high
Table 4 Values of 100 cpmin on Zone 1 of Quadrant I
with parapet, p/h =

pitch with eaves
walls 0 0.05 0.10 0.20
15° -128 (75°) -149 (90°) -134 (45°) -154 (45°) -178 (45°)
low
30° -113 (0°) -113 (0°) -111 (0°) -109 (0°) -104 (0°)
15° -157 (60°) -203 (60°) -301 (45°) -215 (45°) -128 (45°)
high
30° -110 (0°) -118 (0°) -117 (45°) -157 (45°) -125 (45°)
(D) : wind direction
5 CONCLUSIONS there was a decrease of |C|. An important influence

Comparing with prior results on otherwise similar of both wall and parapet height was noticed.
gable roofs the tests showed that there is a rather We can conclude that a parapet has a noticeable
small difference between C values for both gable influence on the distribution of time-averaged wind
and hip roofs. But sometimes there was a pressures on a hip roof. This influence can be
considerable reduction of the suction peaks on the favorable or unfavorable, depending on the parapet
hip roofs. Though |C| has been sometimes greater height as well as on the wall height and roof pitch.
on hip roofs, in the region of the first full span truss
39

B. Blocken1, J. Carmeliet2,3
ABSTRACT: Despite the establishment of CFD as a tool for calculating the amount of wind-driven rain
(WDR) falling onto building facades, very few efforts have been made towards the validation of CFD for this
purpose. This paper presents part of a detailed CFD validation study that was conducted, supported by a new
high-resolution experimental wind, rain and WDR database for a low-rise building. It will be shown that
numerical simulation, if conducted with care, can provide quite accurate predictions of the amount of WDR
impinging on the building facade.
trajectories; (3) the specific catch ratio and (4) the

1 INTRODUCTION catch ratio and (5) the combination of the obtained
Three categories of methods exist for quantifying values for the catch ratio with meteorological data
wind-driven rain (WDR) on building facades: records containing wind speed, wind direction and
(1) measurements, (2) semi-empirical methods and rainfall intensity to determine the distribution of
(3) numerical simulation based on Computational WDR on the facade.
Fluid Dynamics (CFD). A literature review of each
4 APPLICATION AND VALIDATION
of these methods was recently provided by Blocken
and Carmeliet (2004), indicating the establishment The numerical model for WDR is applied to
of CFD as a powerful tool in WDR research. The determine the spatial and temporal distribution of
numerical simulation technique for WDR was WDR on the south-west facade of the VLIET test
developed by Choi (1993; 1994) and in 2000 it was building. The measured wind-speed profile, wind
extended into the temporal domain by Blocken and direction and rainfall intensity are used as input in
Carmeliet (2002). Validation is an essential part of the simulations. The results from the simulations
CFD simulations. However, up to now, only a few (ratio of total WDR sum at a facade position to
attempts have been made towards the validation of total reference rainfall sum, i.e. rainfall on the
CFD simulations of WDR. In this paper, part of a ground) are given in Fig. 2a and b. Fig. 2b provides
detailed validation study is reported. This study the numerical results at the positions of the WDR
was supported by a new experimental WDR gauges. These values are compared with the
database for a low-rise building facade. corresponding WDR measurements in Fig. 2c. A
good agreement is found except at the west corner
2 NEW MEASUREMENT SET-UP of the building. The reason is the presence of local
The old measurement set-up used for preliminary obstructions (trees) that shelter this corner and that
validation efforts (Blocken and Carmeliet, 2002) were not taken into account in the model.
was replaced by a new and more extensive set-up.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The building under study is the VLIET test
building (Fig. 1). The south-west facade of the At least for the low-rise building under study, CFD
building is fairly exposed to WDR. Measurements simulation of WDR can provide quite accurate
of the upstream wind-speed profile, wind direction predictions. Additional validation studies are
and rainfall intensity were made, as well as WDR needed. Future research should focus on validation
measurements by WDR gauges at a large number for other building configurations in different
of positions on this facade. environment topologies.
3 NUMERICAL WIND-DRIVEN RAIN MODEL 6 REFERENCES

CFD simulation of WDR comprises 5 steps: The Blocken, B. & Carmeliet, J. (2004) A review of wind-driven
calculation of (1) the wind-flow field; (2) raindrop rain research in building science. J. Wind Eng. Ind.
Aerodyn. 92, 13, pp. 1079-1130.
1
Bert Blocken, Ph.D., Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, 3001 Leuven, Belgium. Email: bert.blocken@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
2
Prof. Jan Carmeliet, Ph.D., Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, 3001 Leuven, Belgium. Email: jan.carmeliet@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
3
Also at: Building Physics Group, Faculty of Building and Architecture, Technical University Eindhoven, P.O. box 513, 5600 MB
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
40
B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet
Blocken, B. & Carmeliet, J. (2002) Spatial and temporal 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
distribution of driving rain on a low-rise building, Wind
Struct. 5, 5 (2002) 441-462. The first author is a post-doctoral fellow of the
Choi, E.C.C. (1993) Simulation of wind-driven rain around a FWO-Flanders (Research Fund – Flanders). Their
building. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 46&47, pp. 721-729. financial contribution is gratefully acknowledged.
Choi, E.C.C. (1994) Determination of wind-driven-rain
intensity on building faces. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
51, pp. 55-69.
Roof overhang length
0.44 m 0.44 m 0.41 m 0m 0.32/0.30/0.32/0.32 m
N-W facade S-W facade
7.9 m
22 1 4 7 19 20 10 13 16
23 2 5 8 11 14 17 4.3 m
24 3 6 9 12 15 18
7.2 m 25.2 m
Figure 1. VLIET test building. North-west and south-west facade. The building dimensions, including roof overhang
length, and the positions and numbers of the wind-driven rain gauges (indicated by black squares) are indicated.
roof overhang length

0.44 m 0.44 m 0.41 m 0m 0.32 m
(a) NUMERICAL
RESULTS
0.1
0.2 0.3
0.6
0.5 0.5
0.1 0.4
0.2 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.3
0.18
0.2
(b) NUMERICAL 0.6

RESULTS
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.49 0.49
0.21 0.13 0.20 0.37 0.38 0.42 0.2
0.34 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.31 0.36
0.1
0.29 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.26 0.31
0
(c) EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
0.43 0.44
1 0.16 4 0.15 7 0.20 10 0.29 0.39 13 0.41 16
19 20
2 0.22 5 0.16 8 0.25 11 0.24 0.39 14 0.34 17
3 0.19 6 0.16 9 0.19 12 0.26 0.27 15 0.27 18
12 number of gauge position
Figure 2. Spatial distribution of the ratio of the total wind-driven rain sum to the total reference rainfall sum for the rain event in the
period 02-05/02/2002. The total reference rainfall sum Sh = 15.7 mm. (a-b) Numerical results. In Fig. 2b, the calculated ratios
at the location of the wind-driven rain gauges are additionally indicated. (c) Experimental results.
41
A numerical study of the wind speed conditions in passages between

buildings and the Venturi-effect
B. Blocken1, J. Carmeliet2,3, T. Stathopoulos4
ABSTRACT: A numerical study of the wind speed conditions in passages between parallel buildings has been
conducted, supported by CFD validation. The numerical simulation of a horizontally homogeneous
atmospheric boundary layer flow is vital for the successful application of CFD in pedestrian-level wind
studies. Close agreement between the numerical and the experimental results has been obtained. The
simulation results show that the Venturi-effect in open passages between buildings, at least for the cases
studied here, is very weak.
(LxDxH = 40x20x20 m³) with a passage width w = 6

1 INTRODUCTION
m. The measured profiles were used as inlet into the
Many studies on wind speed in passages between computational domain. The amplification factors
buildings in the past were focused on pedestrian- along the passage center line (Kpcl) were obtained by
level winds. Often, the increased wind speed values dividing the calculated local wind speed U by the
have been attributed to the Venturi-effect. A reference wind speed U0 at pedestrian height in the
detailed analysis of the wind speed conditions above inlet profile (U0 = 5.9 m/s). Note that this is also the
pedestrian-level in passages and of the Venturi- incident reference wind speed from the
effect in the passages has not yet been performed. In measurements. The results (simulations versus
addition, the accuracy of CFD for this type of measurements) are given in Figure 1. The
studies is an issue of debate, and more validation discrepancy is in the order of 15%. The reason for
studies are needed. The aim of this paper is (1) to this discrepancy is explained below. CFD simulations
perform CFD model validation and to indicate an for Wind Engineering studies usually require a
important trouble spot inherent to CFD simulations relatively fine grid near the bottom of the
in Wind Engineering; (2) to analyze the wind speed computational domain (first-cell height < 1 m). Also,
conditions between two parallel buildings for a wide the physical roughness height KS should be smaller
range of passage widths; and (3) to investigate the than the distance from the center point of the wall-
extent to which the Venturi-effect is present. adjacent cell to the wall (yP). These two aspects
imply the use of a small value for KS. As a result,
2 MODEL VALIDATION
measurements
The wind tunnel measurements by Stathopoulos and simulations
Storms (1986) are used for model validation 1.8
y
w=6m
because these authors clearly reported the 1.6 D
x
“incident” vertical wind speed and turbulence
intensity profiles and not the “approach flow” 1.4 z
Kpcl
profiles. In this paper, “incident” profiles are those 1.2

measured in the empty wind tunnel at the location
1.0
where the buildings will be positioned; as opposed
to the so-called “approach” profiles measured at a 0.8
certain distance upstream of the turntable and 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/D
building model. This difference can be crucial for
the accuracy and success of CFD simulations. Figure 1. Measured and calculated amplification factors Kpcl
A numerical reproduction of the wind tunnel along the passage center line (pcl) at pedestrian height.
measurements was made, for two parallel buildings
1
Bert Blocken, Ph.D., Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, 3001 Leuven, Belgium. Email: bert.blocken@bwk.kuleuven.be
2
Prof. Jan Carmeliet, Ph.D., Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, 3001 Leuven, Belgium. Email: jan.carmeliet@bwk.kuleuven.be
3
Also at: Building Physics Group, Faculty of Building and Architecture, Technical University Eindhoven, P.O. box 513, 5600 MB
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
4
Prof. Ted Stathopoulos, Ph.D., F.CAE, F.ASCE, Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,
H3G 1M8. Email: statho@cbs-engr.concordia.ca
42
B. Blocken, J. Carmeliet, T. Stathopoulos
it is generally impossible to satisfy the relationship 20 y w=6m
between KS and the aerodynamic roughness length 16 D
x
y0 (Durbin and Petterson Reif 2001):
12
y (m)
z
x=0
K S | 30 y 0 (1)
8 x = 0.6D x = 0.2D
If KS is taken smaller than it should, the inlet wind x = 0.8D x = 0.4D
4
speed and turbulence profiles will change as they x = 1D
travel through the domain (horizontal inhomogen- 0
eity). As a result, the incident flow can be very 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Kpcp
different from the inlet flow. When no special
measures are taken to avoid this, a poor to very poor Figure 3. Vertical profiles of the amplification factor Kpcp in the
agreement with experiments can be obtained. passage center plane (pcp) along vertical lines.
To correct for horizontal inhomogeneity, a
When the flow rate FP through a vertical plane in the
simulation is conducted in an empty domain to
passage is compared to the flow rate FF through an
calculate the incident reference wind speed U0 (i.e.
identical plane in free-field conditions (no buildings
at the position where the buildings would be
present), the presence of the Venturi-effect would
located). This value of U0 is not 5.9 m/s but 6.8 m/s,
imply a large ratio FP/FF. The calculations however
i.e. 15% higher than the reference wind speed at the
indicate that FP is only in some cases at most 8%
inlet (!). By using this value to calculate the
larger that FF.
amplification factors, a close agreement with the
measurements is obtained (Fig. 2). Using the same
procedure, additional CFD simulations have been 4 CONCLUSIONS
conducted for the same buildings but for a wide x Simulating a horizontally homogeneous ABL flow
range of passage widths. A good agreement with is essential for accurate CFD simulations in
experiments is obtained for the entire range of pedestrian-level wind studies.
passage widths, which provides support for the x The well-studied and significant increase in
analysis in the next section. pedestrian-level wind speed in passages between
buildings is present, but limited to ground-level.
3 SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS x For the building configurations and incident flow
Figure 3 shows amplification factors Kpcp along six conditions studied here, the flow rate through a
vertical lines in the passage (passage width w = vertical plane in the passages is at most only 8%
6 m). These factors show directly the higher than the flow rate through a similar vertical
increase/decrease of wind speed in the passage at all plane in free-field conditions (no buildings
heights. A maximum is found near ground-level, but present). This implies that the Venturi-effect is
the wind speed is actually decreased at the upper rather weak in such configurations.
part of the passage. The very pronounced increase x This study was limited to two buildings with fixed
of wind speed in the passage is thus limited to the and identical dimensions and was conducted with
near-ground level and is not an overall phenomenon given incident flow profiles. As a result, further
in the passage. research is needed to expand the validity of the
present findings.
measurements
simulations
1.8 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
y
w=6m
1.6 D The first author is a post-doctoral research fellow of
x
the FWO-Flanders (Research Fund – Flanders), the
1.4 z financial contribution of which is gratefully
Kpcl
1.2 acknowledged.
no correction
1.0 U0 = 5.9 m/s
with correction 6 REFERENCES
U0 = 6.8 m/s
0.8 Durbin, P.A. & Petterson Reif, B.A. (2001) Statistical Theory
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 and Modeling for Turbulent Flows, John Wiley & Sons,
x/D Chichester.
Stathopoulos, T. & Storms, R. (1986) Wind environmental
Figure 2. Measured and calculated amplification factors Kpcl conditions in passages between buildings. J. Wind Eng. Ind.
along the passage center line, before and after correction. Aerodyn. 24, pp. 19-31.
43
:LQGHIIHFWVRQRXWRIVHUYLFHWRZHUFUDQHV
S. Bodéré1, G. Grillaud1
ABSTRACT: Recent storms events in Europe gave evidence of the strong wind sensitivity of the tower
cranes. The behaviour of these structures in strong winds was then studied on a reduced scale model in a
boundary layer wind tunnel in order to characterize aerodynamic effects induced by the surrounding built
environment. The model of tower crane proposed consists on a rigid mast and a rotating jib which movement
is defined as a single degree of freedom: the rotation relative to vertical axis. The overturning risk is
evaluated thanks to the quantification of the bending moment at the base of the tower crane. This data is a
function of the jib nose angular position and can be split up into four contributions: inertial, centrifugal,
gravity and obviously aerodynamic moment. A parametric study on the position of the tower crane relative to
various built environments was carried out to extract the most unfavourable erection configurations.
1 INTRODUCTION method ignores wind disturbances produced by the

The recent windstorms in Europe showed the strong surrounding environment.
sensitivity of tower cranes to wind effects. Since the The presence of the building modifies the flow
violent storm in 1999 in France, CSTB has properties around the crane which can be then in
developed a new research axis to study the various disrupted layers of circulation (Fig 2). These
overturning risks and to characterize wind actions on areas depend on the building sizes and turbulent
these structures. As far as material and human risks scales of the oncoming wind. The instability
are engaged, crane constructors try to improve as properties of each zone can be noted. The wake zone
much as possible the aerodynamic properties and can be characterized by low wind velocities and
limit wind loads of their products. strong direction fluctuations induced by the vortices.
In the shear layers, wind speed and in the same way
2 TOWER CRANE IN TURBULENT FLOW, aerodynamic loads increase.
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ROLE So, the rotating part can be located in zones of
various natures. Then, the crane can leave its
In out-of-service situation, tower cranes are free to stability position and turn till a transversal new one
turn around the vertical axis: the motor is or even keep on turning if equilibrium isn't found.
disconnected. Without surrounding buildings, the jib These behaviours are strongly dependent of the
tends to align with the mean direction of the wind in respective dimensions of the crane and the built
a safety position, counter weights backwards so environment.
upwind.
r
Mg
Wind
Wind
Wake – turbulent circulation

Figure 1 An out-of-service crane without surrounding buildings Shear zones
Separation zone (recirculation)
Standard procedures of dimensioning are used to
estimate wind actions for an isolated tower crane in Figure 2 An out-of-service crane behind a building
an optimized safety configuration. However, such a
1
CSTB, France, e-mail bodere@cstb.fr
44
S. Bodéré, G. Grillaud
The fluctuating loads and especially peak values This model crane is an efficient tool to study
of aerodynamic bending moment are complex to surrounding built environment effects on cranes.
estimate by a computed approach. CSTB According to CSTB skills and building sites tested in
experimental skills lead to design a 1/80 scale wind tunnel, a classification of the most frequently
dynamic model, studied in a wind tunnel boundary observed phenomena has been established. The study
layer. The designed model satisfies geometrical, will continue to identify significant crane and
kinematical and dynamical similarities. Therefore it building characteristics that produce the
reproduces a realistic behaviour of an out-of-service phenomenon apparition. The goals of this study are
tower crane with a rotating part governed by a one the establishment of rules and recommendations for
degree of freedom differential equation of motion. building industry actors to secure the construction
After a design period, instrumentation and then sites.
validation, this efficient model enables to detect and
estimate the built environment effects. Since 1999, 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CSTB experiments configurations of building sites Potain S.A. and INRS act as sponsors on this study.
in wind tunnel and detects few scarce cases of The assistance and co-operation of the sponsor are
interactions between cranes and their surrounding gratefully acknowledged.
built environment. As a consequence, a classification
in families of the most common environment effects 5 REFERENCES
stands out. This analysis can be evident when the
[1] D. Voisin (2003) Etude des effets du vent sur les grues à
crane is close to a single building. Nevertheless, tour. Doctoral thesis, Nantes
when several buildings interfere, it becomes more [2] D. Voisin, G. Grillaud, C. Solliec, A. Beley-Sayettat, J.-L.
difficult to clarify. Berlaud, A. Miton (2004) Wind tunnel test method to study
Next years, this research will intend to out-of-service tower crane behaviour in storm winds.
characterize each one of the relevant environment Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
92 (2004) 687-697
effects in order to elaborate rules and [3] Eden J.F., the late Iny A. and Butler A.J. (1981) Cranes in
recommendations for actors of building industry. storm winds. Eng. Struct., 1981, Vol. 3, july
This work has been initiated in 2004 and will [4] Eden J.F., Butler A.J. and Patient J.(1983) Wind tunnel tests
continue in 2005-2006. A parametric study has been on model crane structures. Eng. Struct., 1983, Vol. 5,
October Building Reseach Establishment, Garston, Watforf
scheduled in collaboration with INRS to detect the WD2 7JR, UK
characteristic and relative dimensions of cranes and [5] Fetizon F., Jouannet J.C., Watremetz M. (1979) Tower
buildings responsible for such phenomena. As a first crane in turbulent wind. Pratical experiences with flow
step, mappings will be established for a specific induced vibrations Symposium, Karlsruhe 3-6/september
1979
crane (jib length, jib height) and a built environment. [6] Vreugdenhll J. (1995) Out-of-service Wind-Loading of
They will show critical crane location in the building cranes gusts. Bulk Solids
site. Then a synthesis will be conducted to detect Handling/Volume15/No.1/January-March 1995
interaction rules. [7] Eden J.F., Butler A.J. and Patient J. (1985) A new approach
to the calculation of wind forces on latticed structures.
Building Research Institut The Structural Engineer/ Volume
3 CONCLUSION 63 A/No. 6/June 1985
[8] ESDU (1988) Lattice structures Part 1: mean fluid forces
An experimental process has been established to on single and multiple plane frames. Engineering Sciences
study environment effects on tower cranes in wind Data Unit - Wind Engineering Sub-Series, Data Item 81027,
tunnel boundary layer. A 1/80 scale model London, 1988.
reproduces the crane dynamic behaviour in an out- [9] ESDU (1988) Lattice structures Part 2: mean fluid forces
on tower-like space frames. Engineering Sciences Data Unit
of-service condition. An instrumentation of the
model enables to access to aerodynamic moment and
to the instantaneous angular position of the jib.
45

C. Borri1, C. Costa2
ABSTRACT: Aeroelastic behaviour of bridge deck cross-sections under the action of turbulent flow is
addressed here. Buffeting and self-excited forces are superimposed, both of them being modelled by means of
appropriate indicial functions extracted from flutter derivatives. Response to turbulent wind is compared with
response obtained i) under quasi-steady assumption, ii) under the hypothesis of validity of Sears’ function for
buffeting loads. Comparisons among different models in terms of displacements and critical flutter condition
are shown.
namely a quasi-static (0), a buffeting (b) and a self-

1 INTRODUCTION excited (se) action, directed along the global
reference axes. Only buffeting and self-excited loads
The response of bridges to turbulent wind is an open
are taken into account here.
topic in wind engineering. In particular, time-domain
simulations are a powerful tool to evaluate the 2.1 Buffeting forces
dynamic behaviour of bridges in atmospheric flow. Buffeting load component includes the effect of
In fact, structural non-linearity, that can be relevant turbulence on aerodynamic loads.
in the case of long or super-long spans, can be Strip assumption is assumed valid.
accounted for in the analysis, combined with the Different models for buffeting are taken into
action of turbulence. account. In particular, a quasi-steady approach is
In this paper, the main goal is to compare different considered. Such an approach is corrected by means
modelling of buffeting forces, for cross-sectional of Sears’ admittance functions (Fung, 1969). A third
models. In particular, attention is focused on the load model is considered in numerical simulations,
comparison of heaving and torsional displacements, that could take into account aerodynamic characters
in terms of root mean squares and maximum values
of the specific cross-section. Indicial functions are
attained, and on critical flutter threshold. Only
used. Each indicial function describes the non-
vertical turbulence is taken into account.
stationary evolution in time of the aerodynamic load
Self-excited loads are modelled via appropriate
due to a unit step change in sectional motion. The
indicial functions (see Costa & Borri, 2005).
same concept is addressed, considering the action of
Buffeting loads are applied by i) quasi-steady model,
a vertical gust analogous to the action of the vertical
ii) quasi-steady model corrected via Sears’ function
bridge velocity (Scanlan, 1984).
and iii) indicial model.
Results confirm a reliable representation of This fact suggests that indicial functions obtained
aeroelastic behavior of a cross-section in smooth and from flutter derivatives can be used also in the
turbulent flow, with an appropriate indicial model, definition of buffeting loads. In order to clarify the
especially in terms of vertical displacements. physical meaning of such indicial functions regard
This allows us to be confident that an indicial to buffeting forces, corresponding equivalent
function-based load scheme could be a satisfying admittance functions can be calculated and
approach to model full bridge-boundary layer compared with Sears’ function (see also Borri &
interaction, with the appropriate further removal of Costa, 2004).
the strip assumption.
It need to be outlined that extension of cross- 2.2 Self-excited forces
sectional results to the entire structure is not A formulation of self-excited forces in time domain
straightforward and free of uncertainties. But the is considered here. Indicial functions, as proposed by
sectional analysis is still a fundamental starting point Scanlan et al. (1974) and further discussed by Borri
to compare more easily results with boundary-layer & Höffer (2000) and Costa & Borri (2005), are
wind tunnel tests. adopted.
2 LOAD MODEL 3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSES
Wind load, acting on each bridge deck section, is The aeroelastic behaviour of a selected mechanical
expressed as superposition of three components, model is compared under the action of various
1
Prof. Eng. Claudio Borri, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Università di Firenze, Italy, cborri@dicea.unifi.it
2
Carlotta Costa Ph. D., Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Università di Firenze, Italy, carlotta@dicea.unifi.it
46
C. Borri, C. Costa
buffeting load models, superimposed to self-excited In particular, as shown in Figure 2, quasi-steady
forces. buffeting modelling greatly overestimates sectional
Analyses are performed in wind tunnel response. A response overestimation is expected in
conditions, considering: any case, independently on the load model, because
1. vertical turbulence spectrum and quasi-steady of the effective loss of coherence of the grid-
buffeting model; generated wind turbulence.
2. vertical turbulence spectrum corrected via In the indicial model, the effects of turbulence on
Sears’ function and quasi-steady buffeting torsional displacements are overestimated, with
model; respect to quasi-steady and corrected quasi-steady
3. vertical turbulence spectrum and unsteady models. In fact, in this case, the effective loss of
buffeting model with equal indicial functions coherence is expected to play a significant role in the
for self-excited and buffeting loads. definition of the aerodynamic moment. Therefore,
Target and simulated spectra are shown in Figure the equivalent admittance function obtained for
1. moment does not appear to play a meaningful role, at
least for the analyzed section.
1.4
Aeroelastic behaviour captured by the indicial
S (f)(Lumley & Panofsky)
w function model seems to be representative of the
2
1.2 χ(k) *S (f)
w effective sectional behaviour in ambient vibrations.
1 Further experimental tests are planned, in order to
verify the quantitative accord of results.
0.8
Regard to the critical flutter threshold, no
f*Sw(f)
0.6 significant variation in critical wind velocity and

frequency can be observed. The slight variation that
0.4
can be observed are due to the formulation of self-
0.2 excited loads, which include the vertical turbulence.
0 −1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10 4 CONCLUSIONS
f [Hz]
Figure 1 Comparison of target and simulated spectra Results obtained in the present analyses regard to
buffeting models confirm that:
Self-excited forces are modeled via indicial 1) quasi-steady assumption greatly overestimates
functions obtained from flutter derivatives. sectional response;
A closed rectangular section characterized by 2) analyses performed assuming an airfoil-like
dimensional ratio B/D=12.5 is considered. behavior, therefore by utilizing Sears’ function, give
Root mean squares and maximum values for a sectional response in any case smaller with respect
heaving and torsional displacements are obtained in to the quasi-steady model;
the three analyzed cases, at different wind speeds. 3) indicial analyses give a sectional response smaller
with respect to heaving, but larger with respect to
60.0 torsion.
50.0 Further analyses will be performed on different
rms(z) [mm]
40.0 cross-sections.
30.0
20.0 5 REFERENCES
10.0
Borri, C. & Höffer, R. (2000) Aeroelastic wind forces on
0.0 flexible girders. Meccanica, 35(10), pp. 1-15.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Costa, C. & Borri, C. (2005) Application of indicial functions
in bridge deck aeroelasticity. Submitted for publication
U [m/s] Fung, Y. C. (1969) An introduction to the theory of
aeroelasticity. Dover Publication, Inc., Mineola, New York
Scanlan, R. H., Béliveau, J. & Budlong, K. S. (1974) Indicial
IF QS Sears aerodynamic functions for bridge decks. J. Eng. Mech. Div.
100-EM4, pp. 657-670.
Figure 2 RMS of heaving displacements Scanlan, R. H. (1984) Role of indicial functions in buffeting
analysis of bridges. J. Struct. Eng. ASCE, 110(7), pp. 1433-
1446.
47
Thermal comfort assessment in semi-outdoor environments: application

to comfort study in stadia
J. Bouyer1, J. Vinet2, P. Delpech2, S. Carré2
ABSTRACT: The present study addresses thermal comfort assessment of outdoor and semi-outdoor
environments. Two stadium case studies are used to demonstrate the potentiality of the approach that
combines wind tunnel data and the calculation of human heat balance due to particular climatic
environments. The thermal index PET (Physiological Equivalent Temperature) is used to evaluate the thermal
comfort in such complex environments. The specificities of stadium semi-outdoor spaces are summarized and
the necessary assumptions made to apply the computation procedure are described. The approach includes
assumptions on the thermo-physical phenomena as well as geometric computations. This work benefited from
the development of an interactive design tool of built environments (outdoor urban surroundings): EVE
(Enriched Virtual Environments). EVE is a virtual reality platform developed at CSTB to help designers,
architects and urban planners to evaluate the various options in competition regarding pedestrian acoustic,
visual, thermal and wind comfort, of a particular urban environment.
ASSESSMENT OF SEMI-OUTDOOR THERMAL the same thermal environment as it is felt by a
AMBIENCES "standard" person.
A computer virtual reality platform EVE was The PET is computed at pedestrian level by a two
developed by CSTB to become an interactive step procedure. First, the thermal balance of the
communication, design and evaluation tool for the standard person placed into the micro-climatic
built environment (buildings and urban scenes). It conditions of the environment under study is
involves technical evaluations in various fields of calculated by using the Munich Energy Model for
building sciences with the final objective to help Individuals (MEMI) physiological model (Höppe,
designers, architects, and urban planners to explore 1999). Second, the virtual indoor air temperature is
the different characteristics of the spaces (visual calculated with specified hygrothermal indoor
aspects, lighting, acoustics, and climatic parameters) conditions.
and to evaluate the consequences of their choices
(morphology, materials, colours,…) on the built APPLICATION TO STADIA
environmental features as they are felt by users. The Two case studies are presented: the Stade de France
study presented here uses only a part of the EVE in Paris (Figure 1) and the Atatürk stadium in
computational environment to assess the thermal Istanbul.
comfort in Stadia.
Stadia are specific semi-outdoor environments
that host many recreational activities and are often
evaluated for wind comfort. This is usually done
using a physical model of the building in an
atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel. A step
forward in the expertise was the combination of the
wind comfort experimental analysis to the
computation of equivalent temperature to produce a
comprehensive comfort assessment. Figure 1 Stade de France (Paris)
The Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) In order to make the computation procedure
is used to assess the thermal comfort of outdoor compatible with an interactive Virtual Reality
environments. PET thermal comfort assessment system, simplifications were introduced.
relies on quantification of all thermal inputs of a By examining the general shapes of actual stadia
particular outdoor environment summarized into a in the world and the architectural literature, a
single ambient indoor temperature that would induce morphological classification was established. Four
1
Julien Bouyer, Ecole d'architecture de Nantes, France, e-mail julien.bouyer@cerma.archi.fr
2
Jérome Vinet, Philippe Delpech, Samuel Carré, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Nantes, France, e-mail
vinet@cstb.fr
48
J. Bouyer, J. Vinet, P. Delpech, S. Carré
main stadium categories were identified: Open sky, compact category, has a limited sky opening that
half open compact, discontinuous stand and dome. mainly induces spatial PET variation during the day.
Along with this classification, geometrical indicators On the other hand, the Ataturk stadium, as an
have been set-up: Lateral porosity, Sky opening. asymmetrical discontinuous stand building,
In order to assess clearly the effect of experiences higher PET variation magnitude during
architectural design on the thermal comfort, the two the day owing to the larger opening coefficient.
stadia were studied in the Paris geographical and It is quite remarkable that in certain circumstances,
thermal conditions. A warm situation, typical period the PET level depends mainly on the mean radiant
of Olympic Games or major Football competition as temperature. In a semi-outdoor environment like a
World Cup was chosen. Hence, air temperature and stadium, the mean radiant temperature is dominated
radiative data were obtained for 15 July in Paris from by the radiation from the stands rather than direct
the averaged values of meteorological records over solar radiations. From this point of view, choice of
ten years. Sport events usually happen in the material according to their thermal and optical
afternoon or in the evening, so three calculation properties should be more often considered
hours were selected: 14h, 17h and 20h. For the wind especially for the roofing that is primarily designed
velocity field, two typical setting were studied: to meet structural performances, the stands being
- Constant indoor wind field of 3.6 m/s, usually made of concrete.
corresponding to the criterion threshold of wind The wind uncomfortable situations do not appear
comfort assessment procedure in use at CSTB. in PET maps. A high (or even unacceptable) level of
- Resultant wind field from wind tunnel wind velocity combined to a high amount of solar
measurements with prevailing wind conditions for loads leads to acceptable PET values. It is quite
the two stadia. possible to superimposed wind stress zones on
Figures 2 presents an example of PET thermal perception maps.
distributions computed in the Stade de France. PET maps bring a lot of information. However
they should not be regarded as "absolute" results.
Detailed analysis of the main heat transfers, due to
wind and radiative contributions are necessary. A
high (or even unacceptable) level of wind velocity
combined to a high amount of solar loads leads to
PET values that could have been obtained with mild
conditions.
The appreciation of comfort is not the same for
indoors than for outdoors. Psychological adaptation
concepts like expectation, short and long term
experience and naturalness (Nikolopoulou and
Steemers, 2003) could smooth high level of
thermophysiological solicitations. However,
considering the long duration of exposure and the
absence of environmental stimulation (relative to
walk through urban pass), the critical levels of
discomfort cannot be tolerated in the same way as in
a plain outdoor environment. This makes even more
complicated the design of semi-outdoor spaces like
stadia.
Figure 2 PET map for experimental wind conditions 14h
REFERENCES
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Höppe, P.R. (1999) The Physiological Equivalent Temperature-
On the whole, the bioclimatic maps revealed two A universal index for the biometeorological assessment of
sorts of thermal area illustrating the strong the thermal environment. Int. J. Biometeorol., 43, pp. 71-75.
dependence of the index to the local radiation level. Matzarakis, A. and Mayer, H. (1999) Application of universal
This is mainly the consequences of the uneven thermal index : Physiological Equivalent Temperature.
Intern. Journal of biometeorology, 43, pp. 76-84.
ambiance warming due to the tilted solar radiation. Nikolopoulou, M and Steemers (2003) Thermal comfort and
These general remarks should be commented with psychological adaptation as a guide for designing urban
respect to the specificities of the stadia. Hence, the spaces. Building and Environments, 35, pp. 95-101.
Stade the France, which belongs to the half open
49
G. Breeze1, J. Smith2
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the findings of testing, the aim of which was to establish whether using
retro-fit devices can reduce wind uplift loads on pitched roofs. Testing was conducted using a pressure-tapped
1/10th scale building model, and a full-scale test rig. Attention was concentrated around the ridge and eave
regions of the pitched roof.
Different eave and ridge device configurations were tested. It was found that a device located in the eave area
had to be sufficiently large to have any significant effect; once a significant effect was established, then the
shape of the device influences the behaviour of the uplift reduction. At the ridge, it was found that the choice
of ridge cross-section had a large effect upon the uplift forces
The results from this research programme demonstrate that by attaching appropriate retro-fit devices,
significant wind uplift load reductions are possible at the ridge, and at the roof adjacent to the windward
eave.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper quantifies the aerodynamic performance
of retro-fit devices located at the ridge and eave of a
pitched roof. Results are presented that were
obtained from wind tunnel investigations undertaken
at BRE. The testing investigated a large number of
different devices to ascertain whether or not a given
approach was likely to be successful. Hence testing
was concentrated upon finding which devices and
methods were most likely to produce large wind Figure 1. 1/10th Scale Wind Tunnel Model
uplift reductions.
2.2 Full-Scale Test Rig
2 EXPERIMENTAL HARDWARE
A full-scale test rig was constructed that simulated
2.1 1/10th Scale Model the top portion of a 22.5o pitched roof that included
A photograph of the 1/10th scale model mounted in the ridge. The test rig was mounted downstream of
the wind tunnel looking upstream is shown in the BRE wind tunnel, as shown in Figure 2. Note
Figure 1. The roughness elements used to generate a that the roughness elements and mixing grids shown
turbulent sheared boundary layer simulation can be in Figure 1 had been removed from the upstream
seen in the upstream fetch. fetch. This meant that the flow approaching the rig
was smooth and had a relatively uniform profile.
The aerodynamic performance of eight different
eave configurations were studied; details of these Five different ridge cross-sectional shapes were
configurations are given in the full paper. investigated. Details of these shapes are given in the
full paper, and note that the Triangular and Rounded
High-Rise ridges tested are commercial ridge cross-
section designs.
1
Senior Consultant, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, UK. e-mail BreezeG@BRE.co.uk
2
Consultant, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, UK. e-mail Smithj2@BRE.co.uk
50
G. Breeze, J. Smith
Figure 4 shows the uplift reduction that occurs using
the large triangular and circular retro-fit eave
devices. It can be seen that for all azimuth angles
tested there are large aerodynamic benefits (i.e. uplift
reductions) of using such devices. The magnitude of
the reduced peak uplift load is about CL/2.
1.5
Conventional Eave
Large Triangular Eave Device
Large Circular Eave Device
1.0
Peak Uplift Coefficient, CL

Figure 2. Full-Scale Test Rig (Looking Downstream)
0.5
3 RESULTS
For wind approaching perpendicular to the roof
ridge, the mean Cp values measured around the
0
model centre-line are shown in Figure 3. Note that 0 15 30
Wind Azimuth Angle (Degrees)

45 60
the areas of interest in this investigation are the eave

(s = 16%) and the ridge (s = 50%). Figure 4. Eave CL Behaviour at Model Centre-Line
Triangular ridge + conventional eave

Triangular ridge + small triangular eave device
The Cp results around the full-scale ridges are
1.0 Triangular ridge + medium triangular eave device
Triangular ridge + large triangular eave device
Triangular ridge + small circular eave device
presented in Figure 5. It can be seen that the two
Triangular ridge + large circular eave device
Triangular ridge + 5mm eave gutter gap
Triangular ridge + 10mm eave gutter gap
rounded ridges generate the lowest pressures just
0.5 Rounded Ridge + conventional eave
Flat ridge + conventional eave upstream of the ridge peak, and this observation
suggests that, compared with the other ridges tested,
Mean Pressure Coefficient, Cp
0
the rounded ridge cross-sections are likely to
produce large wind uplift forces.
-0.5
0.5
-1.0
-1.5 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage Swept Distance, s
Figure 3. Cp Distribution Around Model Centre-Line

Cp*
-0.5
Figure 3 shows clearly that compared with the -1.0

Triangular Ridge
Rounded High-Rise Ridge
conventional eave configuration, large increases of Ridge

Perforated Ridge
Flat Ridge
Rounded Low-Rise Ridge
mean Cp (corresponding with wind uplift reductions)

are produced by the large triangular and large -1.5
-0.50 -0.25 0 0.25 0.50
circular eave devices. It can also be seen clearly that Non-dimensionalised Swept Distance
modifying the ridge geometry has a significant effect

Figure 5. Cp Distribution Around Full-Scale Ridge Cross Sections
upon the mean Cp distribution; however, it is not
obvious whether the effects seen are favourable or
adverse. 4 CONCLUSIONS
For each approaching azimuth angle, the CL values

for the centre-line line of taps are shown in Figure 4. The results from this research programme
It can be seen that the curves plotted decrease almost demonstrate that by attaching appropriate retro-fit
linearly as the azimuth angle increases. It can also be devices, significant wind uplift load reductions are
seen that the largest wind uplift loads on this part of possible at the ridge, and at the roof adjacent to the
the roof occur for winds approaching perpendicular windward eave.
to the eaves. The two lower curves presented in
51
Numerical simulation of turbulent wind fields at airports in complex

terrain
M. Burlando1, L. Carassale2, M. V. Borghesi1, F. Tubino2, C. F. Ratto1, G. Solari2
ABSTRACT: A procedure to numerically simulate the wind average velocity and turbulent fluctuations at
airports located in complex terrains is presented. The simulations are finalised to the detection of wind
conditions critical to landing and take-off (e.g., wind-shear phenomena locally induced by topography), or the
occurrence of wind direction inversions due to the presence of turbulent eddies close to the landing points. An
application to the Albenga Airport, in Northern Italy, is shown.
turbulent fluctuations) by a mass-consistent

computer model coupled with the Monte Carlo
1 INTRODUCTION simulation of turbulence. The method is applied to
the case of the Albenga Airport, and, in particular, a
From the early days of aviation, it was realised that simulation of the instantaneous wind field
meteorological information is important for the experienced by an aircraft approaching the landing
planning of airport activities and a vital factor for the point is showed.
safe conduct of flights. The first important
improvement in aeronautical meteorology, in the
1940s, was the development of meteorological 2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF WIND
radars, followed, in the early 1950s, by the FIELDS
introduction of numerical weather predictions and
the use of weather satellites for nowcasting. In the present study, average wind fields are
Following these major advances, several focused calculated through a diagnostic mass-consistent code
regional studies were conducted, e.g. the PROFS, (Ratto et al. 1994) used to perform high-resolution
JAWS, CLAWS, and CINDE projects. Numerical simulations under unstable, neutral, and stable
simulations of many physical processes related to atmospheric conditions in order to represent a large
airport activities also contributed to the set of different meteorological situations.
understanding of local phenomena so relevant to For each simulation, the average flow field is
airport activities. calculated by means of a two steps procedure. The
It should be noted, however, that these studies first step provides a three-dimensional wind field
involved mainly big airports located on flat areas, based on the law-of-the-wall on flat terrain. The
whereas in case of small airports located in complex second step minimally adjusts the first-guess wind
areas the safety and operability of airports can be field taking into account the influence of the
also influenced by turbulence and wind shear topography on the flow.
phenomena caused primarily by the local Then, a procedure is applied, involving the use of
topography. In such situations, the numerical the law-of-the-wall in complex terrains (Besio et al.,
simulation of wind average velocity and turbulent 2003), aimed at determining the effective parameters
fluctuations can be finalised to the detection of wind of the simulated wind profiles, i.e. the effective
conditions critical to landing and take-off (e.g., friction velocity and the effective roughness length,
wind-shear phenomena locally induced by along the glide paths.
topography), or the occurrence of wind direction The turbulent field is schematised as a three-
inversions, i.e. from headwind to tailwind and vice- variate, four-dimensional stochastic stationary zero-
versa, due to the presence of turbulent eddies close mean Gaussian process. Its first-order representation
to the landing points. is provided by the standard deviations of each
The present paper proposes a general method turbulence component:
suitable for airport activities to determine an σ v = α v ( x) u*eff ( x ) ( i = 1,2,3)
i i
instantaneous wind field (average wind plus
1
Department of Physics, University of Genoa, Italy
2
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, University of Genoa, Italy
52
M. Burlando, L. Carassale, M.V. Borghesi, F. Tubino, C.F. Ratto, G. Solari
where α vi are dimensionless coefficients, and u*eff is 2 AN APPLICATION TO THE ALBENGA
the effective friction velocity defined above. The AIRPORT
second-order representation is given by the cross-
power spectral density functions: In complex terrain, wind-shear is primarily due
either to speed-up or speed-down phenomena in
Svi v j (x, x′; n) = Svi (x; n) S v j (x′; n) Coh vi v j (x, x′; n) correspondence to ridges or valleys, or to flow
where Svi (x; n) is the power spectral density channelling inside valleys of variable section.
function of the velocity component vi(x;t), n being Actually, the intensity of speed-up, speed-down and
channelling of the flow are strongly dependent on
the frequency; Coh vi v j (x, x′; n) is the coherence
wind speed and direction, on the shape of the
function of vi(x;t) and vj(x';t). The models applied in topography, and on the atmospheric stratification.
this paper are chosen among the most recognised, Indeed, two physical factors, function of Reynolds
with the aim of covering, consistently, the full range number and atmospheric stratification, contribute to
of different neutral, stable (Kaimal, 1973) and determine the wind-shear intensity: the
unstable conditions (Hojstrup, 1981). For sake of mechanically-induced vorticity, and the thermally-
simplicity, it is assumed here that the coherence conditioned turbulence. The relative weights of these
functions of different turbulent components are null. factors in determining wind-shear events depends on
Thus, only the two-point coherence functions of the the meteorological situation taken into account and,
same turbulence components, Coh vi vi (x, x′; n) , shall even more, on the atmospheric stability.
be defined to identify the cross-correlation structure The phenomenon of channelling is clearly
of the turbulence field (see for example Ropelewsky identified by means of simulations of the average
et al., 1973). wind field, especially during neutral or stable
Finally, realizations of v(x;t) can be generated atmospheric conditions. On the contrary, if the
through the formula (Di Paola 1998; Carassale & average wind speed is low enough to be negligible
Solari, 2002): respect to the corresponding fluctuation, i.e. under
 ∞ N n 2π in t  unstable atmospheric conditions, turbulent eddies
v(x; t ) = ℜ ∑∑ e j θ k (x, n j ) 2γ k n j ∆n p jk  control the flow dynamic and random direction
 k =1 j =1  inversion of the flow can occur.
where ℜ[•] represents the real part of a complex- Finally, Monte Carlo simulations have been
valued number, nj=j∆n (j=1,...,Nn) are discretized performed in order to study the details of some
frequency values over a suitable frequency range, pjk particularly critical situations, as revealed by the
are Gaussian complex random numbers, θk(x;n) and previous analysis.
γk(n) are suitable sets of functions defining the
factorisation of the cross-power spectral density REFERENCES
function Svv(x,x';n).
An unusual problem in wind engineering is the Besio, S., Mazzino, A. & Ratto, C. F. (2003) Local log-law-of
simulation of the turbulence along a trajectory (a the-wall in neutrally-stratified boundary-layer flows.
point moving in space), as in the case of an aircraft Boundary Layer Meteorol. 107, pp. 115–142.
approaching the landing point. In this case, Carassale, L. & Solari, G. (2002) Wind Spectral Modes for
Structural Dynamics: A Continuous Approach. Prob.
turbulence is still a Gaussian zero-mean random Engrg. Mech., 17, pp. 157-166.
process but, in general, it is not stationary. Its Di Paola, M. (1998) Digital simulation of wind field velocity. J.
complete probabilistic representation is provided by Wind Engrg. Ind. Aerodyn., 74-76, pp. 91-109.
its auto-correlation function, and realizations of this Hojstrup, J. (1981) A simple model for the adjustment of
process can be generated through the formula: velocity psectra in unstable conditions downstream of an
∞ abrupt change in roughness and heat flux. Boundary Layer
vˆ ( t ) = ∑ φk ( t ) λ k pk t ∈ [ 0, T ] Meteorol. 21, pp. 341–356.
k =1 Kaimal, J. C. (1973) Turbulence spectra, length scales and
where pk are real-valued, zero-mean, Gaussian, structure parameters in the stable boundary layer. Boundary
Layer Meteorol. 4, pp. 289–309.
independent random numbers, while φk and λk are, Ratto, C. F., Festa, R., Romeo, C., Frumento, O. A. & Galluzzi,
respectively, sets of functions and positive numbers M. (1994) Mass-consistent models for wind fields over
defining the factorisation of the autocorrelation complex terrain: The state of the art. Environ. Soft. 9, pp.
function over the time domain [0,T]. 247–268.
Ropelewsky, C. F., Tennekes, H. & Panofsky H. A. (1973)
Horizontal coherence of wind fluctuations. Boundary Layer
Meteorol. 5, pp. 353–363.
53
L. Carassale1, A. Freda2, G. Piccardo3
ABSTRACT: The present paper presents a generalization of the quasi-steady theory for the definition of the
aeroelastic forces on yawed and inclined dry circular cylinders. The proposed two degree-of-freedom model is
able to replicate experimental behaviours observed during a series of recent wind-tunnel tests, and to predict
the galloping-like instability phenomena.
1 INTRODUCTION consistent two dof theoretical model suitable for

representing experimental tests, as those presented in
The development of mathematical models for
Cheng et al. (2003a, 2003b) and Larose et al. (2003).
evaluating wind loads on moving structures is a
Such a model makes possible a reliable prediction of
fundamental topic in wind engineering. The quasi-
the aerodynamic instability of yawed circular
steady hypothesis has been often adopted due to its
cylinders (Freda 2005).
simple derivation and application, mainly for the
cases of flow perpendicular to the structural span. A 2 WIND-FORCE MODELLING
more general approach is desirable since structures
(or structural elements) are often in a very generic Let’s consider a circular cylinder inclined of the
position with respect to the wind, with both the vertical angle φ with respect to the ground and
inclination and the yaw angles different than zero. A yawed of the horizontal angle θ with respect to the
wide experimental campaign on cable models has wind direction. The configuration determined by the
been recently carried out at the National Research angles φ and θ can be equivalently defined through
Council of Canada (NRC), in collaboration with the angle α and β (Figure 1). Verifying the validity
Rowan Williams Davies and Irwin Inc. (RWDI) and of the quasi-steady hypotheses, the aerodynamic
the University of Ottawa (Cheng et al. 2003a, Cheng forces acting on a moving cylinder in turbulent flow
et al. 2003b, Larose et al. 2003). The aerodynamic can be expressed by the model derived for the case
behaviour of dry, non-iced, smooth cables against of fixed cylinder in laminar flow (Carassale et al.
skew wind has been examined by a series of 2005), substituting the steady wind velocity U with
dynamic and static experiments. Cases of divergent the instantaneous flow-cylinder relative velocity
oscillations similar to galloping ones have been U*(t) defined as:
recognized for some combinations of the cable
inclination and the yaw angle in the critical Reynolds U∗ (t ) = U + u(t ) − q (t ) = U (n + z (t )) (1)
number range.
The open problem concerns with providing a
where the vectors u(t) and q (t ) collect, respectively,
theoretical explanation of the divergent oscillations
the components of the wind turbulence and of the
observed in wind-tunnel tests and defining a criterion
cylinder velocities; z(t)=(u(t)- q (t))/||U|| represents
for their prediction. In Cheng et al. (2003a) a
the nondimensional instantaneous fluctuation of the
modified Den Hartog criterion is proposed to
relative velocity. The instantaneous wind force f*
evaluate the critical condition for dry inclined cables,
depends on time only through the vector z, which
using the derivative of the lift coefficient with
has small modulus; therefore, the linearized
respect to the skew-related angle (in place of the
expression of f* may be represented by the following
angle of attack). Macdonald and Larose (2004)
McLaurin expansion (Carassale et al. 2005):
propose a general expression for the quasi-steady
aerodynamic damping of a dry inclined cylinder, but
limited to one degree-of-freedom (dof) motion.
The present paper proposes a generalization of the
( )
f * (z ) = f0 + f1z + O z
2
(2)
quasi-steady theory for the definition of the flow-

induced forces - comprehensive of fluid-structure where:
interaction terms - acting on yawed and inclined
circular cylinders. The objective is to propose a
1
Dr. Luigi Carassale, DISEG, University of Genova, Via Montallegro 1, 16145 Genova (Italy) e-mail: carassale@diseg.unige.it
2
Dr. Andrea Freda, e-mail: freda@diseg.unige.it 3 Prof. Giuseppe Piccardo, e-mail: piccardo@diseg.unige.it
54
L. Carassale, A. Freda, G. Piccardo
Cheng et al. 2003b). Afterwards, the model has
x3 Β − plane permitted an exploration of the possible critical
conditions in the plane of parameters (Freda 2005). It
should be noted that the β-angle and the Reynolds
number play a role that is essentially aerodynamic,
whereas the α-angle and the frequency detuning
n mostly influence the behaviour of the element from a
mechanical viewpoint.
The proposed theoretical model is suitable to
β obtain the wind load acting on elements having an
n arbitrary attitude in the wind flow; this objective is
U Α − plane
reached by means of a quasi-steady approach
α developed through a vectorial formulation which
allows a compact notation. For small detuning the
l
motion involve both the two dof producing wider
α d α
x1 orbits in excellent agreement with those observed
η
during the experimental tests. Numerical applications
x2 highlight the existence of a bifurcation region in the
β space of variables α−β−Re; this results could be act
as a guide for new experimental tests. The detuning
parameter appears as fundamental in order to obtain
the instability phenomenon. The presence of a small
detuning can sensibly differ from the case of large
detuning (i.e. predominance of a sole dof).
Moreover, critical conditions can be achieved on
both the modes of vibration for proper combinations
of the β-angle and the Reynolds numbers. Both these
Figure 1. 3-D representation of the fixed cylinder facts highlight the importance of using a coupled
two-dof model to study this problem. Finally, further
investigations are required to clarify if the Reynolds
1 1 number affects this problem only by means of a
f0 = ρ b U C ( β, Re ) n
2
(3)
2 cos ( β ) “slow” dependence (i.e. the mean value of forces) or
through a “quick” dependence.
2 C ( β, Re ) ng1 + g 0 C ( β, Re ) nβ1 + 
1 ′
f1 = ρ b U   (4) 4 REFERENCES
2  + g 0C ( β, Re ) 
Carassale, L., Freda, A., & Piccardo, G. (2005) Aeroelastic
Forces on Yawed Circular Cylinders: Quasi-steady
ρ being the air density, b a reference size of the Modeling and Aerodynamic Instability, Wind & Structures,
cylinder, C a properly assembled matrix collecting accepted for publication.
the aerodynamic coefficients, Re the Reynolds Cheng, S., Irwin, P.A., Jakobsen, J.B., Lankin, J., Larose, G.L.,
number, C’=dC/dβ, and: Savage, M.G., Tanaka, H. & Zurell, C. (2003a) Divergent
motion of cables exposed to skewed wind. in: Proc. of Fifth
Int. Symposium on Cable Dynamics, S. Margherita Ligure
1 (Italy), pp. 271-278.
g0 = Cheng, S., Larose, G.L., Savage, M.G. & Tanaka, H. (2003b)
cos β
(5) Aerodynamic behaviour of an inclined circular cylinder,
1  cos α cos 2β sin α cos 2β  Wind and Structures, 6, pp. 197-208.
g1 = 2sin β 
cos β  cos β
Freda A. (2005) Behaviour of slender structural elements
cos β  having any arbitrary attitude in the wind field, Ph.D. Thesis,
DISEG, University of Genova, Italy.
Larose, G.L., Jakobsen, J.B., Savage, M.G. (2003). Wind-
β0 = β tunnel experiments on an inclined and yawed stay cable
(6)
β1 = [ − cos α sin β − sin α sin β − cos β] model in the critical Reynolds number range. in: Proc. of
Fifth Int. Symposium on Cable Dynamics, S. Margherita
Ligure (Italy), pp. 279-286.
Macdonald, J.H.G., and Larose, G.L. (2004). Quasi-steady
3 NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS analysis of dry inclined cable galloping in the critical
Reynolds number range. in: Proc. of WES2004, UK Wind
The reliability of the proposed model has been Engineering Society, Cranfield (UK).
verified by replicating the experimental dynamical
tests performed in recent wind-tunnel tests (e.g.
55
C. F. Carril Jr1, R. M.L.R.F Brasil1, N. Isyumov2
ABSTRACT: With today expanding communication systems a large number of latticed communication towers
are being built in Brazil. These structures are very wind sensitive and questions arise about their performance
under wind action. There are several methods and approaches to determine the wind dynamic response of
these structures. All of them are based in statistical concepts. This paper examines the response of a typical
tower designed using procedures followed in Brazil. The software SAP2000 was used to determine the natural
frequencies and mode shapes of this tower. The tower response is first obtained with the statistical method
using influence lines, which can account for higher modes of vibration, unbalanced loading effects, shear and
axial loads. The method was adapted for this type of lattice tower. Influence lines for bending moment and
shear were used in this analysis. Only the along wind or the drag response was considered. The results were
compared with those of the discrete model of the Brazilian Code NBR6123, which is based on a similar
approach. It was found that the resonant response of the structure was small compared to the combined mean
and background dynamic responses. Results are presented to describe the variation of the resonant response
with height along the tower and its dependence on the dynamic properties of the tower and roughness of the
surrounding terrain.
1 INTRODUCTION The peak response can be represented in the form:

Most of the towers used for telecommunication
r̂ r g~r (1)
purpose are freestanding latticed steel towers. The
dynamic analysis is necessary when the lower
in which r is the mean response, g is the peak factor,
natural vibration frequencies are less than 1 Hz, or
low enough to be excited by the turbulence of the and ~r or V is the rms or standard deviation.
natural wind. Finally the gust factor is given by:
The present paper examines the along wind
r̂ g
response of a typical freestanding latticed G 1 ~r (2)
telecommunication tower. Expression derived by r r
DAVENPORT (1993) for calculating the dynamic
response of slender structure is presented as well as 3 DISCRETE APPROACH OF NBR 6123
the method used by the Brazilian National Code In this approach only the influence of the fluctuating
NBR6123 (1988) – Wind forces on Buildings. component in wind direction is considered in the
The gust response factor was derived from both structural response. The structure is separated in n
methods. An example of a typical free standing parts. The wind action at a certain instant at coordinate
telecommunication tower is presented for both i is given by a mean part and a fluctuating part:
methods and the results were compared.
~
F( t ) Fi F( t ) (3)
2 DAVENPORT’S APPROACH
DAVENPORT (1993) used the statistical approach The mean force is
with influence lines to simplify the program to 2p
§ z ·
calculate the gust factor of slender structures like Fi 2
q 0 b C Di A i ¨¨ ¸¸ (4)
chimneys, towers and bridges. © zr ¹
1
Departamento de Engenharia de Estruturas e Fundações, Laboratório de Estruturas e Materiais Estruturais, Escola Politécnica da
Universidade de São Paulo, Paulo C.P. 61548 – CEP 05424-970 – São Paulo, Brazil e-mail cfcarril@usp.br
2
Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
56
C.F. Carril Jr, R.M.L.R.F Brasil, N. Isyumov
in which CDi is the drag coefficient at coordinate i, in which m0 e A0 are the mass and reference area, [ is
Ai is the solid area of the tower face at coordinate i, the dynamic amplification coefficient presented. The
zr is the reference height, b e p are parameters dynamic amplification coefficient was derived by
specified by NBR6123, q0 is he wind dynamic RIERA;GALINDEZ (1979) with the peak factor g
pressure given by q 0 1 / 2UVp2 , U is the air equal to 4 and a linear mode shape. The fundamentals
density. of the procedure used by NBR6123 for determining
~ the along-wind dynamic response of structures can be
The fluctuating component F(z ) is given by found in BLESSMANN (1998) and RIERA;
BLESSMANN (1979)
J
~ §z ·
Fi FH \ i ¨ i ¸ (5) 4 EXAMPLE
©H¹
A typical microwave lattice tower geometry was
in which: considered in this work. The first mode shape was
determined using the finite element program
n SAP2000.
2
¦E x
1
i i The results for both methods were obtained
FH q0b A0 n
[ (6) considering the variation of the drag coefficient CD(z),
¦\ x i
2
i
and I(z) over the tower height. For each tower section
i a different CD was determined using the specification
of the Brazilian Code.
p
Ai § zi · Table 6 shows the results from both approaches for
Ei C Di ¨¨ ¸¸ (7) comparison.
A0 © zr ¹
Table 6 – Comparison of the results

Shear (N) at z=0 Displacement (cm) at z=1
Mean Fluctuating Total G=peak/ Mean Fluctuating total G=peak/m
mean ean
Davenport 119000 243100 362100 2.05 27.7 32.6 60.3 2.18
NBR6123 134548 44168 178716 1.33 32.5 34.5 67 2.06
NBR/Dav. 1.15 0.38 0.74 0.65 1.17 1.06 1.11 0.95
5 CONCLUSION 7 REFERENCES
The Brazilian code underestimate the fluctuating BLESSMAN, J. (1988) Introdução ao estudo das ações
part of the shear response if compared to dinâmicas do vento, Editora da Universidade, 1 ed. Porto
Alegre.
Davenport’s approach, but it overestimate the top
DAVENPORT, A. G. (1993) The response of Slender
displacement. For the top tower deflection, the Structures to Wind, Proceedings of the NATO advanced
Brazilian code gives peak results of 15 % higher Study Institute, Wind Climates in Cities, Waldbronn,
than Davenport’s approach. For the type of latticed Germany, July 5-16.
tower studied, the resonant response is negligible. It DAVENPORT, A. G. (1967) Gust Loading factors, Journal of
is noticed also that the gust factor varies with tower the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol 93, No. ST3, June.
height. NBR 6123 (1988) – Forças Devidas ao Vento em Edificações,
ABNT-Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, June.
RIERA, J. D.; GALINDEZ, E.E. (1979) Determinación de la
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
acción dinámica del viento en Normas sobre cargas en las
This work was carried out with funding by Brazilian construcciones, XX Jornadas Sudamericanas de Ingeniería
Foundation CAPES - Fundação Coordenação de Estructural, Cordoba/Argentina, v.3 p.b20-1 a B20-25.
RIERA, J. D.; BLESSMANN, J. (1979) Respuesta dinámica de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior.
estructuras en dirección del viento, XX Jornadas
Acknowledgement is also made to the BLWTL, Sudamericanas de Ingeniería Estructural,
London, Canada, where the research was done and Cordoba/Argentina, v.2 p.B8-1 a B8-23.
FAPESP- Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do
Estado de São Paulo.
57
Z. Chára1
ABSTRACT: The contribution deals with an experimental investigation of the turbulent flow along a ribbed
channel bottom. The main goal is an application of ultrasound velocity profile technique for measurement of
the turbulent flow characteristics in complex geometries. Four configurations of the ribbed surfaces were
tested with fixed ribs of square cross section and variable groove widths. The experiments were performed in
a water channel.
1 INTRODUCTION method measures local velocities in 128 points
Surface roughness represented of a sequence of simultaneously. The mutual distance between two
uniform transverse ribs is still an important problem adjacent points depends on a sound velocity of
in fluids engineering and has been subjected to the moving medium, for water the minimum distance is
numerous studies in different fields as e.g. enhancing 0.74 mm measured in a probe axis direction. Since
the heat transfer in heat exchangers, stabilising the projection of a velocity vector onto a transducer
mountain river streams. Such geometries can be used axis is measured by the UVP it is necessary to direct
as the simple models for exploring an influence of the transducers at different angles to map a velocity
roughness effects on a friction factor. field. Nine transducers operating at the frequency 4
There are two major groups of rib configuration MHz were mounted on a single holder that was
depending on the ratio of groove length to rib height located just below a free surface. The transducers
(w/H). For w/H<4 (d-type roughness) the flow were inclined with respect to the flow direction by
patterns are more or less independent on the groove angles +50o, –50 o and +90 o. The holder was moved
along the channel centre line with step 1 cm. In each
length, for higher values of the ratio the flow is more
position 1000 velocity profiles were picked up and
controlled by the individual ribs (k-type roughness).
subsequently were processed on PC to obtain mean
This contribution presents the results of the velocity
as well as fluctuating values of the velocity
measurements for four rib configurations of
components in the vertical plane. For w/H=3 the
roughness pitch ratio w/H=3, 5, 7 and 10.
velocity field was measured over the whole channel
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP section covered by the ribs, for other roughness pitch
ratios only last two downstream sections were
The experiments were carried out in an open water analysed. To verify the UVP data the velocity
channel of cross section 0.25x0.25 m and length 6 m profiles were compared with the LDA measurements
where a sequence of five ribs was attached to the realised in the centres of the each groove for w/H=3.
channel bottom. The ribs of square cross section The comparison showed relatively good agreement
H=30 mm were oriented perpendicularly to a flow between both methods except a near wall region
direction over whole width of the channel. The slope where the data obtained from UVP were lower. The
of the channel bottom was set to zero. The channel UVP handled the velocities from a considerable
outlet was equipped with a weir to keep the water larger volume compared to the LDA and therefore
level at a sufficient height to minimise an effect of the UVP has tendency to average the data mainly in
free surface. Measurements were carried out for the regions where a steep velocity gradient occurs.
mean velocity U=0.27 m/s and a flow depth about
0.125 m (actual depth depended on the rib 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
configuration). The channel inlet was directly The streamlines of mean velocity upstream and
connected with a centrifugal pump and therefore the downstream the last rib are shown in Fig. 1. For
incoming stream was not turbulence free - the w/H=3 a vortex fills the whole cavity and the
turbulence intensities attained about 10% of mean streamlines above the ribs are nearly parallel, for
velocity. w/H=5 there are apparent the contours of two
The velocity profiles were measured using of the vortices formed in the cavity, with an additional
Ultrasound Velocity Profile meter (UVP). The UVP increase of roughness pitch ratio both vortices are
1 Dr. Zdenek Chara, Institute of Hydrodynamics ASCR, e-mail: chara@ih.cas.cz
58
Z. Chára
including a comparison with a simple 2D CFD
w/H=3
applying a standard k-Hmodel.
4 CONCLUSION
The contribution has shown that the UVP method
can be applied for mapping a velocity field even in
complex flow situations. The results can be used for
verification of the numerical models.
w/H=5
w/H=3
w/H=7
w/H=5
w/H=10
w/H=7
Fig. 1 Mean velocity streamlines
separated. Due to a lower space resolution of the

UVP method small corner vortices are poorly
detectable. w/H=10
The reattachment points downstream the ribs are
practically independent on the pitch ratio and their
location is about four times of the rib height. The
configuration of the UVP probes enabled to measure
not only the mean values of the velocity components,
but also the turbulence (rms) values and Reynolds
shear stresses. Fig. 2 shows the contours of
Reynolds shear stresses normalised by the square of Fig. 2 Reynolds shear stress (-u’v’/Umean2)
mean velocity. For w/H=3 the maximum of
Reynolds stresses is located in the front edge of the 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
rib, with an increasing groove length the maximum The support under the project No. 103/03/0724 of
of Reynolds stresses is shifted toward the preceding Grant Agency of the Czech Republic is gratefully
rib. More results are available on the CD-ROM acknowledged.
59
Analysis of building glass-aluminium façades subjected to wind loadings

K. T. Chatzinikos, C. C. Baniotopoulos1
ABSTRACT: Glass-aluminium façades comprise the building envelope and protect the internal part of the
building from the external environmental actions including wind. Therefore, the design and verification of the
glass-aluminium façades and their components is an important procedure during the overall design procedure
of the building and it must be respectively based on a reliable analysis. The present research work intends to
propose a methodology that will provide engineers with the appropriate tools regarding the analysis of façade
performance subjected to wind loading. To this end, a number of models were implemented in order to
simulate the performance of glass-aluminium façades with different grid dimensions including dynamic
analyses with regard to the wind loading. The proposed methodology is illustrated by means of a numerical
application.
Both mullions and transoms are modelled using

1 INTRODUCTION two-node beam elements with 6 degrees of freedom
During the last decades, the use of glass-aluminium at each node. The glass panels were modelled as
façades being the envelopes of buildings is very shell elements defined by four nodes.
common in modern construction. However, the The geometrical properties of the cross sections,
frequent use of glass-aluminium façades nowadays such as the area and the moments of inertia are, that
as building envelopes revealed that the latter are were used for the analyses can be determined in two
extremely vulnerable to natural actions (i.e. wind ways. They can be calculated manually and inserted
pressure). This fact makes the detailed and well- in the model as values of the beam elements or they
documented structural analysis of glass-aluminium can be calculated automatically by the software
façades a necessity. package in case the shape of the section is fully
The present research work aims to contribute to described. Concerning the glass panels, their cross
such a pilot methodology that would provide section is simple and therefore their thickness was
engineers aiming to design glass-aluminium façades assumed to be uniform with a value of 10 mm.
with the appropriate technique regarding the The materials employed in the analyses were
modelling and the performance of the aluminium and glass. The modulus of elasticity of
aforementioned structures under static and dynamic aluminium is 7.0x104 MPa and the mass density
wind loadings. The modelling and analysis of the 2700 kgr/m3. The stress-strain curve of aluminium
façade systems has been carried out using well- used to simulate aluminium behaviour depends on
known finite element method software packages the alloy employed. For structural purposes, alloys
(e.g. ANSYS and SAP2000). 6082 and 6063 are usually employed. The curve used
in the analyses was designed based on the following
2 ANALYSIS ASSUMPTIONS formula proposed by Ramberg-Osgood:
ı
The glass-aluminium façade consists of a load- İ = + 0.002(ı / ı 0 )n (1)
carrying grid of aluminium vertical and horizontal Ǽ
elements supporting the glass panels. A parametric Concerning the wind actions, it should be noted
model was implemented in order to define the that the wind flow varies randomly in space and time
geometry of the model and simulate the performance and exhibits a turbulent response especially close to
of glass-aluminium façades with different grid the ground level. The characteristic measure of the
dimensions. The vertical elements (mullions) are wind flow is the wind velocity, which is described as
fully constrained to the main load-bearing steel the sum of a mean velocity and of the turbulent
structure, usually at every floor. The horizontal components. The main contributions to the wind
elements (transoms) are pin-connected at their edges actions are given by the mean velocity U(z) and the
to the mullions. The load-carrying aluminium grid is longitudinal turbulent component u(x,y,z,t); this was
connected to the main building usually at every floor the reason why in the following analyses only these
at the mullions and the connections were assumed to components have been taken into account.
be rigid.
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Charalambos C. Baniotopoulos, Institute of Steel Structures, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, e-mail
ccb@civil.auth.gr
60
K.T. Chatzinikos, C.C. Baniotopoulos
The mean wind velocity U(z) depends only on two components, a vertical and a lateral to the plane
height z and is given according to Eurocode-1 by the of the façade. In this case, the lateral supports of the
expression (2). glass-aluminium façade to the building were taken
U(z) = c r (z) * c t * U ref (2) into account.
In situ measurements showed that the fluctuations The next step was to perform a non-linear time-
of wind velocity after a 10-minute duration are more history analysis of the glass-aluminium façade
or less constant. Therefore, the mean velocity is subjected to time-varying wind loading. The results
considered to be constant and the turbulent of the dynamic analyses were derived from the
component to have a mean value equal to zero. solution and time integration of the following
During the 10-minute period, the turbulent dynamic equation of motion:
.. .
component u was assumed to take random values [m] u + [c] u + [k ]u = F( t ) (6)
according to existing anemographic measurements,
so that the mean value of the turbulence component 3 ANALYSIS RESULTS
to be zero.
The static wind pressure applied on the surface of The maximum deflection regarding the static
the glass-aluminium façade was determined analysis was measured for different grid dimensions,
according to Eurocode-1. The value of the wind varying from 1.0x1.0 m to 1.5x1.5 m. Figure 1
pressure applied on a surface is the sum of external presents the maximum deformation vertical to the
and internal wind pressure. façade plane for various typical height dimensions
Regarding the dynamic analysis, the wind load and in particular for height openings 1.0, 1.2, 1.4 and
was applied as a force exciting the corresponding 1.5m. It should be noted that we assumed that the
masses. Wind force in general is proportional to the load-carrying aluminium grid was supported to the
square of wind velocity and is generally given by the main building at every three openings at height.
following equation: Taken into account that the distance L between
Ftot = ½CDAȡ(Utot )2 (3) the supports of the columns is three openings at
Wind velocity in the case of the present study is height, (varying from 3000 to 4500 mm), the
the sum of the mean value and the turbulence maximum deflections observed are in good
component. It should be noted that the turbulence accordance with Eurocode-9, which assigns the limit
component was assumed to be dependent only on of L/250 or 15mm (whichever is less) for curtain
time. The mean wind velocity is much greater than wall mullions and transoms.
the turbulence component u and therefore, the
maximum deflection (mm)
12,00
quantity u(t)2 is assumed zero and the square of wind 10,00
velocity is expressed by the equation (4):
8,00
U 2tot = U(z) 2 + 2U(z)u ( t ) (4) 6,00
Thus the wind force that excites the discrete 4,00
masses of the dynamic analysis model at a given 2,00
time t is calculated by the following expression: 0,00
1 1,00 1,10 1,20 1,30 1,40 1,50
F( t ) = C D Aȡ (U(z) 2 + 2 U(z)u ( t )) (5) opening width (m)
2
At first, a static analysis was performed with
regard to wind loading as it is calculated according
Figure 1: Maximum deflection for various grid dimensions
to Eurocode-1. The surface pressure wind load
vertical to the plane of the glass-aluminium façade Concerning the analysis, in which the wind load
was taken into consideration. The glass panels were was applied in a 45º direction to the plane of the
assumed to be non load-carrying elements therefore façade, no important lateral deflections were
the surface wind loading is transferred directly to the presented.
structural aluminium elements as uniform distributed The results of the time-history analysis are only
loading. The distribution of the surface wind load slightly different from the maximum deflections
depends on the influence area of each corresponding obtained from the primary static analysis. For
aluminium element. instance, regarding an aluminium grid with
An analysis was also performed, which regarded dimensions 1.0x1.0, the maximum deflection is 0.91
the wind load applied in a 45º direction to the plane mm, which is in good accordance with Eurocode-9.
of the façade. The wind action is then composed of
61
$QDO\VLVRIZLQGWLPHKLVWRU\XVLQJZDYHOHWWUDQVIRUP
A. Chen 1, Y. Wang2
ABSTRACT: A wind velocity time history is analyzed by continuous wavelet transform (CWT) and discrete
wavelet transform (DWT). Comparing with the Fourier transform presenting the relationship between
frequency and the energy of time history, the wavelet transform exhibits the energy varying with time and
frequency. The time-scale scalogram of wavelet coefficients are gained by CWT. The components of wind time
history in different frequency bands stretched by twice are obtained by DWT analysis. The characteristics of
the wind time history are presented in this paper by these analysis methods, which are important for predicting
the peak pressures on structures and simulation of the atmospheric surface layer in practice and digital.
V u =2.103m/s, sampling frequency is 10Hz, namely,

1. INTRODUCTION sampling once per 0.1 second. And 6000 points are
Wavelet analysis has attracted wide attention in sampled.
recent years, which is the forward development of
Fourier analysis. The Fourier transform is performed 300
by projecting a signal onto a number of infinite
sinusoids in extent, while the wavelet transform is 250
Power spectrum (f)
done by projecting the signal onto a set of higly

200
localized basic functions. The time-varying
characteristics of a time-varying wind time history 150
can be examined using short-time Fourier transform
which analyzes the local character of signal using a 100
single window function. Compare with the short-time
50
Fourier transform providing fixed time-frequency
resolution of signal over the entire time-frequency
plane, the wavelet transform is a localized analysis 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (Hz)
method in time and frequency domain with the Figure 1 Power spectrum of wind time history
windows of constant area, and of short windows at Note that the predominant frequency is
high frequencies and long windows at low frequency. concentrated in the lower frequency range (Fig. 1). It
Because the time-varying and intermittent is shown that the components of this wind time
characteristics of wind time history, wavelet analysis history with lower frequency (<0.06Hz) contain most
is a more suitable technique for it. of the energy. The peak frequency with highest
energy is at 9.8h10-3Hz, where energy of the time
2. FOURIER TRANSFORM OF WIND TIME
HISTORY history is higher than any other higher frequency.
The traditional method to characterize the wind 3. CWT OF WIND TIME HISTORY
velocity time history is Fourier transform in
frequency domain. The frequency components and The wavelet function is the base of wavelet
their energy distribution of it are obtained from the transform, which is a series of wavelets got by
power spectrum. The FFT technique is effective to stretching and shifting the basic wavelet (or named
perform rapidly the Fourier decomposition. 1 t b
A longitudinal fluctuation component of wind mother wavelet) as \ a ,b (t ) \( ) , where a
a a
velocity measured at the site of Sutong Bridge is and b is scale and shifting parameter respectively.
investigated in this work, shown in Figure 2 later. It The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is
is measured at z = 50m height, whose averaged defined as the integral convolution between a
velocity is u ( z ) =11.018m/s, variance is function and the wavelet function. In digital
1.
Prof. Eng. Airong Chen Ph.D., Bridge Engineering Department, Tongji University, e-mail a.chen@mail.tongji.edu.cn;
2.
Y. Wang, China Highway Planning and Design Institute Consultants.Inc., e-mail asgarfield@163.com
62
A.R. Chen, Y. Wang
implementation, it becomes a discrete convolution numerable several times of forking. It displays the
between the measured wind time history and sampled process of cascade that turbulence splits from larger
versions of all scaled analyzing wavelet. As vortexes into smaller ones (Hu, 1995).
suggested by Hajj et al. (1998), A relationship can be
established between the wavelet scale and the peak 4. DWT OF WIND TIME HISTORY
frequency, fp, of the scaled wavelet bandpass filter. In Decomposing the scale parameter a and the
this work, the relationship is given by: shifting parameter b as: a a0j ˈ b kb0 a0j , where
5.0 a0>0, bęR, j kęZ. The equation of discrete
fp (2)
a wavelet transform (DWT) is obtained. Note that j
with fp in Hz. For the wind time history mentioned here is led by a in CWT, and the former is called the
above, the largest scale is a = 513. This equation scale in DWT. DWT decomposing a signal into
results in a peak frequency range between 9.8h10-3 approximation and detail. The approximations and
and 5Hz. Note that the highest energy happens at the details in different scale can be obtained using
largest scale, namely the smallest frequency, which methodology of multi-resolution analysis (MRA) of
agrees with the conclusion of Fourier transform. wavelet. The implementation of DWT for the actual
10
Time hitory of wind recording signal is same as the multi-sampling filter in the
5
digital signal processing.
The periodical Daubechies wavelet having vanish
u (m/s)
0
moment 7 (db7) is employed in DWT of the wind
-5
time history in this paper. All the details of the
-10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 above-mentioned wind time history, namely the time
(a) Time history of wind recording histories of components of the original wind time
513
401
history in different frequency bands stretched by
twice are presented. The summation of these detail
Scale
301
201 time histories is quite similar to the original one and
101 the error between them only 3.3313e-11. It can be
1
100 200 300 400 500 600 known from them that the energy of this wind time
time (s)
(b) Scalogram of CWT using Morlet wavelet
history concentrates in the frequency band of 9.8h
Figure 2 Scalogram of CWT of wind time history 10-3~7.8h10-3Hz, and this frequency band contains
In the scalogram, the values of CWTa ,b are the peak frequency of this wind time history. These
shown by the shade or gray-scale image with axes of details can be used to exciting the structures directly
time in second and dimensionless scale a, which is a for analysis of pressures on structures in time
3-dimensional figure in fact. The black denotes zero domain.
or negative. The brighter the shade is, the larger the
value of CWT is. The shade being much brighter 5. CONCLUSIONS
than other area in Figure 3(b) is at the higher scales The Fourier transform, CWT and DWT of a wind
as about a>300, corresponding to the lower time history are examined in this paper. The
frequency as around fp<0.017Hz, which agrees with distributions of energy contents with frequency
the main energy range presented in the power shown in all of the methods are accordant. In the
spectrum. Moreover, it is shown concentrating in a gray-scale scalogram of CWT, the relationship
period of time between 300 and 500s., which between scale and peak frequency is established, the
illuminates that the fluctuation containing larger distribution of energy, peak frequency, and turbulent
energy contents appears only part of time, so the scales are presented .
intermittency of the time-varying wind time history These conclusions are important for predicting the
is presented. The different turbulent scales changing peak pressures on structures and simulation of the
with time and scales are presented in the scalogram, atmospheric surface in practice and digital.
too, e.g. some turbulent scale appears at large scale
6. REFERENCES
and in the time between 0 to 200s and does never
thereafter. The number of forks in the scalogram is Hajj, M. R., Jordan, D. A., Tieleman, H. W. (1998) Analysis of
atmospheric wind and pressures on a low-rise building,
increasing with the scale decreasing and the forms of Journal of Fluids and Structures, 12, pp. 537-547
it is reducing simultaneously, while the process of Hu, F. (1995) Turbulence, intermittence and atmospheric
transformation from the long period at large scale to boundary layer (in Chinese), Science Press, Beijing, pp.
the chaos at small scale is taken through only 184-193.
63
Determination of Ilutter Gerivatives by Waut strip Podel

I: Theory
A.R. Chen1, R.J. Ma2
ABSTRACT: Taut strip model is an aeroelastic model, which can be regarded as in-between model between
the sectional model and the full aeroelastic bridge model. Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip
model has rarely been studied. In this paper, a theory of determination of flutter derivatives using taut strip
model is established based on the eigensystem realization algorithm. Considering the restriction of measuring
points, modal coordinate expansion technique is introduced to get the information of unknown measuring
points. Generalized inverse matrix theory is employed to obtain the stiffness matrix and damping matrix of
taut strip models. Then, the flutter derivatives can be extracted. A method of identifying of flutter derivatives in
turbulence flow is also proposed through the random decrement technique.
2004). In recent years identifying of flutter

1 INTRODUCTION derivatives through full aeroelastic model or real
In current practice, flutter derivatives of bridge bridge also have been put forward such as Zasso
decks are extracted by sectional model testing. And (Zasso, 1996), Diana (Diana, 1992).
the testing method evolved from single-DOF motion
2 THEORY OF EIGENSYSTEM REALIZATION
to coupled motion of sectional models, while the
ALGORITHM (ERA)
methods of identification also evolved through
different kinds of methods. In 1970s, R.H. Scanlan Considering a structure having N DOFs, its motion
proposed a free decay method with three different of equation function is written as
kinds of motions of a section model (Scanlan, 1971). >M @^xt ` >C @^x t ` >K @^xt ` >F @û t ` (1)
In his method, direct derivatives were firstly If (1) is written in state space model, it will be
extracted with single-DOF motion, then cross ^y t ` >A'@^yt ` >B'@û t `
derivatives were extracted by the vertical and torsion (2)
motions of the model with the same frequency at all
^xt ` >R'@^y t `
wind velocities. In view of this situation, many If the continuous system is represented as a discrete
efforts have been made to simplify the identifying system in time series, Eq.(2) will be
procedure. Kumarasena and Scanlan proposed a xk 1 Axk Bu k
coupled model method (Kumarasena, 1989). ARMA ® (3)
model was used by M. Shinozuka et al. in 1982 to ¯ y k 1 Rxk 1
identify the flutter derivatives (Shinozuka, 1982). H. In which,
Yamada et al. introduced the extended EKF method A e A'T (4)
into the identifying procedure of these derivatives T
based on the coupled vibration time histories B §¨ ³ e A's ds ·¸ B' (5)
© 0 ¹
(Yamada, 1989). In 1994, Sarkar and Scanlan
proposed a Modified Ibrahim Time-domain (MITD) In ERA method, Hankel matrix H 0 is constituted
method to extract all the direct and cross derivatives first. Then singular value decomposition is
from the coupled free vibration data of a 2-DOF performed,
model (Sarkar, 1994). In 1998, Zhang proposed H 0 PDQ T (6)
unifying least-square method to obtain flutter
derivatives of bridge decks (R. Zhang, 1998; Gu, The state matrix of discrete system and some related
2001). Other methods of identifying of flutter matrix can be obtained by those condensed matrixes,
1 1
derivatives in smooth flow as well as turbulence
flow have been proposed, such as Zhang (L. Zhang, A DN 2 PNT H 1QN DN 2 (7)
2001), Qin (Qin, 2004), Chowdhury (Chowdhury,
1
Airong Chen, Ph.D., Professor, Director of Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University., Shanghai, P.R. China e-mail
a.chen@mail.tongji.edu.cn
2
Rujin Ma, Ph.D., Lecture, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, P.R. China, e-mail rjma@mail.tongji.edu.cn
64
A.R. Chen, R.J. Ma
1 methods have been tried in identifying of structural
B DN2 QN EQ (8) parameters. In this paper, RDT method is used to get
1 the signature signal from random-excited signal.
R E PT PN DN2 (9)
6 CONCLUSION
The modal parameters can be obtained by eigenvalue
decomposition of matrix A . Then > A'@ can be obtained In this paper, the theory for identifying of flutter
derivatives by taut strip model in smooth flow as
by restructuring of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
well as in turbulence flow is discussed. The
3 THEORY OF IDENTIFYING OF FLUTTER verification will be discussed in the next paper.
DERIVATIVES IN SMOOTH FLOW
7 REFERENCES
Considering the equation >m@q >r @q >k @q 0 , we Asmussen, J. C., John, C.,(1997), Modal Analysis based on the
can get random decrement technique-application to civil
>m@^q` >r @^q` >k @^q` Fij N uN> @ engineering structures[R], Department of Building
technology and structural Engineering, University of
>A @ (1)
ij N u N ^q` >Aij( 2) @N u N ^q` (10) Aalborg, Sohngaardholmsvej 57, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark.
Chowdhury, A. G., Sarkar, P. P. (2004), Identification of
Transferring the right items to the left-hand of eighteen flutter derivatives of an airfoil and a bridge deck[J],
equation, Eq.(10) will be Wind and Structure, Vol. 7(3), pp187-202
> @ > @
>m@^q` >r @ Aij(1) ^q` >k @ Aij( 2) ^q` 0 (11) Diana, G., Cheli, F., Zasso, A., Collina, A., Brownjohn, J.
(1992), Suspension bridge parameter identification in full
scale test [J]. J. Wind Eng. & Ind. Aerodynamics, Vol.41-
During the identifying of flutter derivatives, modal 44, pp.165-176
parameter identifying technique will be utilized to Gu, M., Zhang, R. X., Xiang H. F. (2001), Parametric study on
determine the frequencies, damping ratios and modal flutter derivatives of bridge decks [J]. Engineering
shapes of structure. Then generalized inverse theory Structures, Vol. 23, pp.1607-1613
will be adopted to obtain the generalized stiffness Kumarasena, T., Scanlan, R.H., and Bosch, H.R., Wind
response prediction of flexible bridges[C], Proceedings
matrix and the generalized damping matrix of sixth US National Conference on wind engineering, March,
structure. One can subtract those generalized 1989
matrixes at wind speed of zero to obtain the flutter Qin X. R., Gu M. (2004), Determination of Flutter Derivatives
derivatives of bridge decks. by Covariance-Driven Stochastic Subspace Identification
Technique[J],Wind and Structure, 7(3),2004,pp173-186
rij rij 0 Sarkar, P. P.(1994), Identification of Aeroelastic parameters of
A, H ij l
(12a)
I
³ j i 0
x I x dx flexible bridge[J], J. Eng. Mech., ASCE, Vol 120(8),
pp.1718-1741
k ij k ij 0 Scanlan, R. H. and Tomko, J. J. (1971), Airfoil and Bridge
A, H ij l
(12b) Deck Flutter Derivatives[J]. J. Eng. Mech. , ASCE , 97(6),
³ I j x Ii x dx
0
pp. 1717-1737
Shinozuka, M., Yun, C. B., Imai, H. (1982), Identification of
linear structural dynamic systems [J]. Journal of the
4 MODAL COORDINATE EXPANSION Engineering Mechanics Division, Vol.108, No. EM6,
TECHNIQUE December, pp.1371-1390
Yamada, H. and Ichikawa, H. (1989), Estimation of
Modal coordinate expansion technique will map the Aerodynamics Parameters By Extended Kalman Filter
information of the measured points to unknown Algorithm [J]. J. Wind. Eng. Vol.41
points. So, this technique will transfer the Zasso, A., Negri, C. S. (1996), Flutter derivatives identification
through full bridge aeroelastic model transfer function
uncompleted information of structure to complete
analysis [J]. J. Wind Eng. & Ind. Aerodynamics, Vol.60,
information. In this paper TAM expansion technique pp.17-33
is utilized. The transferring matrix is Zhang Lingmi (2001), Report of identification of non-
ª I º stationary aerodynamic derivatives for flexible bridge 㧘
>T5 @ « » ˄13˅ state key laboratory for disaster reduction of civil
¬«> ) s @> ) m @ ¼» engineering of tongji university, shanghai, china (in
Chinese)
Zhang Ruoxue(1998). Theoretical and Experimental Study on
5 IDENTIFYING OF FLUTTER Identification of Aerodynamic Parameters of Bridge
DERIVATIVES IN TURBULENCE FLOW Decks㧘a PhD dissertation submitted to Tongji university
In order to obtain the stiffness matrix and damping (in Chinese)
matrix of structure in turbulence flow, several
65
The surface pressures of 2-D rectangular cylinder with small angle of

oncoming flow
J.H. Chen1, D.H. Chen2
ABSTRACT : A series of aerodynamic experiments were conducted in wind tunnel to investigate the
characteristics of surface pressure on 2-D rectangular cylinders with small angle of oncoming flow. The
numerical simulation was also adapted with the same condition, and the results were compared with the
measured data. The pressure coefficients of numerical results were quite similar to the measured data when
the angle of oncoming flow was small. The vortices and velocity contours of surrounding flow field of cylinder
from numerical results given a good vision in the explanation of measured data. The probability density
function (PDF) and peak factor of measured surface pressures data also been studied in this paper. The
results shown most of PDF of the cylinder surface pressure were identical to the normal distribution, except the
leading area of side face, at the 5% signification level. On the leading area of side face, the PDF of pressure
would fit to normal distribution as the turbulent intensity increased. The distribution of independent peak
events of surface pressure were found to be fitted to Type I distribution on each side of cylinder, especially in the
turbulent flow filed.
1 EXPERIMENTS SETUP 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The aerodynamic experiments were conducted in a 3.1 Variation of force coefficients of cylinder
open suction type wind tunnel with 15m(logn) x
The results shown, that the coefficients of mean drag
0.8m(width) x 0.8m(height) test section. There are
force of rectangular cross section cylinders will
different square mesh size grids put on the upstream
decline with the increasing of depth-to-width ratio or
zone of test section to generate uniform turbulent
higher level of turbulent intensity of flow field. The
flows. The turbulent intensity of approaching flow
coefficients of fluctuating drag force will be affected
in wind tunnel without any grid for experiments were
by the turbulence intensity, reattachment
0.8%, and there were 7% and 11% of turbulence
phenomenon of separation shear layers and wake
intensity with different grid. The ratio of length
formation. Comparing with the results of numerical
scale of turbulence to the width of cylinder is about 5.
simulation, the variation of CD’ would have different
The flow fields were measured and monitored with a
trend for the “thin” cylinders or the cylinders with
hot-film probe equipped with TSI IFA-100
D/B > 2.5, because the cylinders with D/B > 2.5 the
anemometer. The aerodynamic models used in this
intermittence reattachment phenomenon of
study are 2-D rectangular cross-section cylinders, the
separation shear layers will be enhanced. The
height of them are all 78cm and the depth-to-width
variations of width and formation length of the wake
ratio (D/B) are included 0.6, 1.0, 2.5 and 4.0.
would make affection to the pressures on the back
2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION face and the force coefficients.
In this study, a weakly-compressible-flow method 3.2 Variation of pressure coefficients of cylinders

which incorporated with a space-averaged On the pressure coefficients, basically the value of CP
large-eddy-simulation technique is adopted. The at the front face of cylinder would not vary with the
numerical simulations were adapted with the same turbulent intensity. But the CP on side faces and
condition, and the results were compared with the back face will be slightly rising up with the
measured data in experiments. increasing of turbulence intensity. The CP’ on the
front face of cylinder will directly reflect the
1.Corresponding author, Associate Prof. Jwo-Hua Chen Ph.D., Department of Space Design, Chien-Kuo Technology University,
Changhua, Taiwan, R.O.C. e-mail vickery@ms1.hinet.net
2.Di-Hong Chen, Master Degree, Institute of Civil Engineering, National Chung-Hsin University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.
66
J.H. Chen, D.H. Chen
turbulence effect of oncoming flow, the value will should also be similar and symmetric, no matter on
corresponding to the level of turbulence intensity. which face.
In the other hands, the turbulence may weaken the The PDF of independent peak events tends to be
conformity of separation shear layers and push the identical to Type I distribution for most flow field
wake vortices formation zone to downstream. So conditions and geometric conditions of cylinders in
the values of CP’ are decreased on side faces and this study. Especially in the higher level of turbulent
back face in the turbulent flow fields. intensity flow field, almost all of the PDF of
independent peak events of pressure taps are identical
3.3 Probability density function (PDF) of surface with Type I distribution.
pressures
The time histories of wind pressure on models were 3.5 Numerical simulation
identified by the K-S test with 5% of significance The results of numerical simulation in this study
level to find out the most likely type of the PDF. were match well to the results of aerodynamics
The result shown, that the PDF of surface pressure of experiments in smooth flow condition and also well
cylinders, with depth-to-width ratio varied from 0.6 in the experiment of cylinders with non-zero small
to 2.5, will more identical to the normal distribution angle of wind direction. But there are still evident
in smooth flow. The PDF of surface pressures will differences between the results of numerical
become closer to normal distribution in higher level simulation and aerodynamics experiments in
turbulent intensity flow field or larger depth-to-width turbulent flow condition or larger angle of wind
ratio of cylinders. For the wind direction with direction. The results of numerical simulation still
positive non-zero small angle, the PDF of pressures given us a good vision to verify or explain the
will close to the normal distribution for the faces phenomenon of flow field around the models and
which turn into front side where will be affect by the their interaction with the different models in this
turbulent flow directly. But the PDF of pressures on study.
the faces which turn into the back side are seldom
close to normal distribution. The skewing of 4 CONCLUSION
separation shear layers would make the type of PDF A series of aerodynamic experiments were conducted
of surface pressures on side faces very different. in wind tunnel to investigate the characteristics of
3.4 Independent peak events surface pressures on 2-D rectangular cylinders with
small angle of oncoming flow. The force
The turbulent flow will change the ensemble coefficients, pressure coefficients, PDF of surface
averaged shape of independent peak events of pressures and independent peak events were
pressures on the front face of cylinders, higher level discussed in variant flow field conditions. Lots of
of turbulent intensity will make the shape of peak numerical simulation works were also adopted in the
events into broad shape. But the shape of ensemble same setup conditions of experiments for comparing.
averaged independent peak events on the other faces Although there were some difference between
seems not affected by the variation of turbulent numerical simulations results and measured data of
intensity. Furthermore, we have observed that the experiments. But the results of CFD had still given
shape of each independent peak events is quite a good explanation about the flow field around the
similar and symmetric. This hints that the process models.
of wind peak pressure acted on cylinder surface
67

L. Chen1, C.W. Letchford2
ABSTRACT: In Chen (2005), a nonparametric deterministic-stochastic hybrid (NDESH) model was proposed
for characterizing and simulating nonstationary thunderstorm downburst wind fields, and two sets of full-
scale downburst wind speed records were fitted this model. This paper aims to build an empirical numerical
model for downburst wind fields according to the NDESH model and based on the results in Chen (2005) and
Chen & Letchford (2005), so that correlated downburst wind speeds can be synthesized from this empirical
model.
method (SRM). This empirical model can be viewed

1 INTRODUCTION as a refined version of the empirical model presented
The distribution of fluctuating wind speed with in Chen and Letchford (2004) and wind speeds
height is important for the structural analysis of simulated from this empirical model contain many
high-rise buildings. For severe winds like common stochastic properties of the full-scale
thunderstorm downbursts, vertical profiles of mean downburst records.
wind speeds and turbulence intensities, and power
2 THE EMPIRICAL MODEL
spectral densities and coherence functions of
fluctuating wind speeds are expected to differ greatly According to the NDESH model (Chen, 2005), the
from those of ‘traditional’ boundary layer winds proposed empirical model can be expressed as
(Chen & Letchford, 2005).
Targeting the stochastic properties of a particular > @
U * z, t ) 1 z U1* t 1 I u* z u z, t . (1)
full-scale nonstationary downburst wind speed time
sequence at some height, we can use the empirical
In the above model, U1* t is the first mode mean
modal decomposition (EMD) and Hilbert transform
(Xu & Chen, 2004; Wen & Gu, 2004), or the wavelet speed time function, which can be estimated from
transform (Kitagawa and Nomura, 2003), to full-scale data or generated from Holmes’ model
characterize and then digitally simulate time (Holmes & Oliver, 2000; Chen & Letchford, 2004).
sequences with the same stochastic properties. The first mode mean speed profiles ) 1 z is
However, these advanced approaches have the modelled by Wood’s model (Wood et al., 2001;
following drawbacks: 1) lack traditional physical Chen & Letchford, 2004) for downburst mean wind
meaning, 2) experience difficulty for multi- speed profiles. The empirical model for ‘traditional’
dimensional correlated wind speeds, 3) are boundary layer wind turbulence densities proposed
inconvenient for consistent property inferences and in ASCE7-98 is used as the empirical turbulence
empirical model building and 4) are typically intensity profile for downbursts.
inaccessible for engineers. To circumvent these Chen and Letchford (2005) showed that it was
drawbacks, Chen (2005) proposed a novel sufficient to use AR(2) processes to model the
nonparametric deterministic-stochastic hybrid normalized fluctuations u(z, t) of RFD and the
(NDESH) model to characterize and sequentially derecho, if they were viewed as being stationary.
simulate multi-dimensional correlated nonstationary Therefore, the following power spectral densities
wind speeds. In this paper, the proposed NDESH (PSD) for an AR(2) process is utilized as the
model will be briefly introduced in terms of model empirical model for PSD’s of the normalized
definition, identification and application; then an fluctuations, u(z, t).
empirical numerical model for downburst wind
speeds will be built based on the results of fitting the >1 I2 z @2 I1 z 2 ½
1
NDESH model to two sets of full-scale downburst V z °

2
°
wind speeds, one is termed RFD and the other the S u Z, z ® 2I1 z >1 I2 z @cos Z ¾ , (2)
2S ° °
¯ 4I2 z cos Z
derecho; finally, it will be demonstrated that 2
¿
downburst wind speeds can be synthesized from this
empirical model using the spectral representation
1
Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX79401 e-mail lizhongchen@yahoo.com
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX79401, e-mail chris.letchford@coe.ttu.edu
68
L. Chen, C.W. Letchford
where I1(z) and I2(z) are two coefficients of the Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93, 3, pp. 187-
216.
AR(2) process and V(z) is the standard deviation of Chen, L. & Letchford, C.W. (2004) A deterministic–stochastic
the driving white noise of the AR(2) process. hybrid model of downbursts and its impact on a
The coherence functions among the normalized cantilevered structure. Engineering Structures, 26, 5, pp.
fluctuations are functions of separation distance, 619-629.
heights and potentially mean wind speeds. Full-scale Donoho, D.L., Johnstone, I.M., Kerkyacharian, G. & Picard, D.
(1995) Wavelet shrinkage: asymptopia?. Journal of the
downburst wind speed records at more heights are in Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 57, 2, pp. 301-369.
demand for empirical model building with Holmes, J.D. & Oliver, S.E. (2000) An empirical model of a
confidence. It is conventional to use the following downburst. Engineering Structures, 22, pp. 1167-1172.
empirical model for the square roots of coherence Kitagawa, T., Nomura, T. (2003) A wavelet-based method to
functions in wind engineering, generate artificial wind fluctuation data. Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 91, pp. 943-964.
Wen, Y.K. & Gu, P. (2004) Description and simulation of
U z1 , z 2 , Z U 0 z1 , z 2 e K z , z
1 2 Z'z
(3) nonstationary processes based on Hilbert spectra. ASCE
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 130, 8, pp. 942-951.
Wood, G.S., Kwok, K.C.S., Motteram, N.A. & Fletcher, D. F.
Primarily based on the two sets of downburst wind
(2001) Physical and numerical modelling of thunderstorm
speed records, it is assumed that the square roots of downbursts. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
coherence functions are just functions of separation Aerodynamics, 89(6), pp. 535-552.
distances, 'z = |z1-z2|, so that Xu, Y.L. & Chen, J. (2004) Characterizing nonstationary wind
speed suing empirical mode decomposition. ASCE Journal
of Structural Engineering, 130, 6, pp. 912-920.
U 'z, Z U 0 'z e K 'z Z'z . (4)
45
For each estimated coherence function with a 40
separation distance 'z, U0('z) and K('z) can be
Simulated wind speeds
35
obtained by the least squares method, which are 30
plotted in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. Further, the
25
following empirical models are proposed for
20
functions U0('z) and K('z), respectively.
15
10
U 0 'z e D 'z , (5)
5
K 'z -k1 ln'z + k 0 . (6) 0
0 600 1200 1800
3 SIMULATION RESULTS Time (s)
Figure 1. A simulated wind speed time history at 10m height

Given the empirical models, correlated downburst
using RFD’s mean speed time function.
wind speeds over the height can be synthesized, of
which the key step is to simulated the normalized 45
fluctuating wind speeds via the spectral
40
representation method (SRM) (Chen and Letchford,
Simulated wind speeds
35
2004) according to empirical models for PSD’s and
30
coherence functions of the normalized fluctuations.
25
As an illustrative example, the empirical model
20
based on the results of RFD is used to simulated
downburst wind speeds. Figures 1 show the 15
simulated wind speed time histories at 10m heights; 10
for comparison, Figure 2 shows the full-scale wind 5
speed time history at 10m height of the RFD. 0

0 600 1200 1800
Time (s)
4 REFERENCES
Figure 2. The observed full-scale wind speed time history at
Chen, L. (2005) Vector time-varying autoregressive (TVAR) 10m height of RFD.
models and their application to downburst wind speeds. A
PhD Dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas.
Chen, L. & Letchford, C.W. (2005). Proper orthogonal
decomposition of two vertical profiles of full-scale
nonstationary downburst wind speeds. Journal of Wind
69
Determination of safe vehicle driving speeds on highways during

hurricane evacuations
S. R. Chen1, C. S. Cai2, M. L. Levitan3, B. Wolshon4
ABSTRACT: The negative effects of strong winds on the safety of vehicles have been recognized and reported
upon for some time worldwide. In the United States, wind gusts have been found to be a primary contributor to
motor vehicle accidents, especially those involving trucks. Traffic safety is a key component of hurricane
evacuation, especially when weather conditions are not favorable. After including a brief summary of the
current criteria used for determining route closures as well as several examples of how these criteria have
been established, this paper presents a methodology for determining safe driving speeds on highways in windy
environments, including hurricane evacuations. With the current model, dynamic interaction analysis is first
conducted on the vehicle-highway system. The results of the vehicle-highway interaction vibrations then serve
as the basis for the accident analysis, such as sliding and overturning. The stability conditions of the vehicles
in wind are analyzed and the safe driving speed is then identified with accident criteria that consider the
surface conditions of highways, such as roughness and friction. Complicated weather, road and driver
operation process, such as rain, snow, camber, grade and acceleration/deceleration processes are modeled to
replicate the real environments during evacuations.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 ACCIDENT ASSESSMENT MODEL

While comprehensive statistical information has The accident assessment model consists of two
not been collected and published, negative effects steps: the first one is the general global dynamic
of strong winds on the safety of vehicles have been interaction model of vehicles on bridges/highways;
recognized and reported upon around the world. In the second step is the local analysis of accidents for
the United States, wind gusts have been found to be a single vehicle.
a primary contributor to motor vehicle accidents, Assuming all displacements remain small,
especially those involving trucks. In addition to the virtual works generated by the inertial forces,
injuries, fatalities, and financial losses of each damping forces, and elastic forces acting on each
individual accident, a more serious issue in coastal vehicle on the bridge at a given time can be
areas is that accidents on the highways may cause obtained. Assuming there are totally nv vehicles
significant delays or completely obstruct important running on the bridge, and the initial conditions are
transportation routes during a hurricane evacuation. the equilibrium positions of the bridge under the
There is a need to develop a rational methodology self-weight of the bridge only without vehicles on
for determining safe driving speeds under different it. The coupled equations can be finally built from
wind and road conditions for the general public and the principle of virtual work as follows; detailed
for emergency response vehicles. One of the derivations can be found in (Cai & Chen 2004,
critical gaps in evacuation research and practice is Chen 2004)
vehicle stability in high wind conditions. Most
transportation and emergency management ªMv 0 º[v ½ ªCv Cvb º[v ½ ªKv Kvb º[v ½
« 0 M »® ¾«C Cs +Cv»® ¾«K Ks +Kv»®[ ¾
officials responsible for the coordination of ¬ b¼¯[b ¿ ¬ bv b b¼¯[b ¿ ¬ bv b b¼¯ b ¿
evacuations are working in a virtual knowledge ° ^F`v +^F`v ½°

vacuum relative to road and bridge closures under r w
® b b b¾
(1)
adverse weather conditions. For the most part, the °¯^F`r +^F`w ^F`G°¿
criteria used for determining the closure of
evacuation routes are based on judgment and Eq. (1) can be used to predict the dynamic
experience, rather than quantitative data, testing, response of vehicles as well as the bridge under
and experimentation. Because of this, closure wind action. As a special case for vehicles on the
criteria also vary widely from location to location. bridge model, the dynamic response of vehicles on
1
Civil Engineer, Michael Baker Jr. Inc, Jackson, MS, former graduate student at Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng., Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, LA 70803, email: schen@mbakercorp.com
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng., Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, email: cscai@lsu.edu
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng. and LSU Hurricane Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803
4
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng. and LSU Hurricane Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803
70
S.R. Chen, C.S. Cai, M.L. Levitan, B. Wolshon
the road can be predicted using Eq. (1) after accident-related response is studied and accident
removing the bridge-related terms in the equations. risks are then assessed.
In the present study, only the case when vehicles
are on highway roads is considered. 4 CONCLUSIONS
It should be noted that the position of any The current study aims at studying dynamic
vehicle moving on the bridge/road changes with properties and accident risks under several different
time. Correspondingly, the coefficients of the typical situations on the highway with the proposed
coupled equations are also time-dependent. model. As the first step toward simulating accident
Therefore, the matrices in Eq. (1) should be risks under various real situations, the complicated
updated at each time step after a new position of road, weather conditions are tried to be simulated
each vehicle is identified. After solving the coupled in the study. These conditions include different
equations in Eq. (1) interactively, the dynamic road roughness, wet and icy road surface, road
response of the integral system can be identified. grade and camber. The attempt was also made to
Such model is used to consider the dynamic simulate the acceleration and deceleration process
interaction effects between vehicles and the bridge by the drivers. The accident-related responses
based on the detailed simulation of vertical under these situations are studied. Some discussion
stiffness and damping effect from the suspension on how to improve the model was also made in the
system as well as from the tires. This interaction end of the paper. From the analysis, it is found that
analysis model, however, is built based on the accident model is able to approximately simulate
assumption that each vehicle wheel has full point and consider different road and weather conditions.
contact with the bridge/road surface all the time The acceleration/deceleration process can also be
and there exists no lateral relative movement simulated with the proposed model. The parametric
between the wheels and the bridge/road surface. studies suggest following observations
The current model predicts the responses of
1) Road roughness may affect global dynamic
vehicles only in several directions such as vertical, vibrations of vehicles, but has very limited effect
rolling and pitching directions. on vehicle accident risks with the current model,
The global dynamic responses of vehicles in the so does the road grade;
vertical, rolling, and pitching directions from 2) Camber angle has relatively more significant
global bridge-vehicle analysis will be carried into effect on accident risks compared with road
the local accident analysis. Relative lateral and yaw grade;
responses of vehicles, which are not available in 3) Wet and icy road surfaces do increase the risk
the global analysis, however, will be calculated for vehicle accidents. It is mainly because it
separately with the local accident model which affects the lateral sliding coefficients.
emphasizes on simulating the lateral relative Longitudinal coefficients do not have significant
movement and friction effects. The effects from effect on accident risks with the model used
lateral vibrations of the bridge on vehicle dynamics here;
are considered through treating the lateral 4) Deceleration in a sudden is very prone to lead to
acceleration of the bridge as the external base an overturning accident. When the deceleration
excitation source of the vehicles. happens on a wet or icy road, side slipping
accident is also very likely to happen.
3 MODELING ROAD, WEATHER AND Comparatively, a sudden acceleration is slightly
OPERATION CONDITIONS less dangerous than deceleration;
5) Driver behavior model can be further improved.
Use the established model, different road and
The research findings will help state department
whether conditions are modeled and parametric
of transportation and emergency management
study has been conducted. The stability conditions
agencies to prolong evacuations by delaying
of the vehicles in wind are analyzed and the safe
unnecessary road closures and/or closing bridges,
driving speed is then identified with accident
roads down that can be kept open.
criteria that consider the surface conditions of
highways, such as roughness and friction. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Complicated weather, road and driver operation
process, such as rain, snow, camber, grade and The research is partially supported by NSF Grant
acceleration/deceleration processes are modeled to CMS-0301696. The support from Michael Baker
replicate the real environments during evacuations. Jr., Inc. for the first author is also highly
With the accident assessment model, the appreciated.
71
X. Chen1, A. Kareem2
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a framework for quantifying coupled dynamic wind load effects on build-
ings. The wind loading input for this scheme may be derived either from multiple points synchronous scanning
of pressure on building model surfaces or through high-frequency force balance (HFFB) measurements. The
analysis takes into account the cross-correlation among wind loads in principle directions and the inter-modal
coupling of modal response components with closely spaced frequencies. This study focuses on the modeling
of buildings whose mass centers at different floors may not be located on a single vertical axis. The Complete
Quadratic Combination (CQC) rule is clearly defined for the analysis of wind load effects under correlated
multiple excitations as it differs from conventional uni-component earthquake excitation. A representative tall
building with 3-D coupled modes and closely spaced frequencies is utilized to demonstrate the proposed frame-
work and to discuss the coupled building response to wind.
1 RESPONSE ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK tion. In the case of seismic response of buildings

with a single ground motion excitation, the gener-
Contemporary buildings with complex geometric alized forces associated with two modes whose fre-
shapes or structural systems with non-coincident cen- quencies are close together are fully coherent around
ters of mass and resistance, or both, may undergo the modal frequencies. Therefore, the correlation co-
three dimensional (3-D) coupled motions to wind efficient of two modal responses depends only on
excitations. The wind-induced building response is their frequency ratio and damping ratios. However, in
separated into the mean (static), background (quasi- the case of wind induced response of buildings with
static) and resonant components. Predictions of the partially correlated multiple inputs of wind load exci-
mean and background response components using tations, the generalized forces are generally partially
static and quasi-static analyses in terms of influence correlated/coherent. This fact will lead to a reduc-
functions result in more accurate estimates than the tion of correlation coefficients of modal responses as
modal analysis involving only the three fundamen- compared to fully correlated loading. It also makes
tal modes in three principle directions. Nonetheless, the modal correlation coefficient vary with wind di-
for tall buildings with a dominant resonant response, rection. This important consideration for accurate uti-
when only integrated wind forces through the HFFB lization of the CQC scheme has neither been com-
measurements are available, three response compo- pletely recognized in literature on the analysis of wind
nents can be quantified by the modal analysis. load effects on buildings and structures nor imple-
Unlike buildings with one dimensional mode mented in current wind tunnel practice.
shape in each primary direction in which building
response in each respective direction can be stud- 2 APPLICATION AND DISCUSSION
ied separately, a comprehensive analysis framework
is required for 3-D coupled buildings in which the A tall building is considered as an example to demon-
cross-correlation of wind loads acting in different di- strate the proposed framework and to discuss the cou-
rections and the inter-modal coupling of modal re- pled building response to wind. Due to set-backs
sponses must be taken into consideration. The Com- at upper floors, the centers of mass and resistance
plete Quadratic Combination (CQC) rule is clearly though coincide at each floor, but do not lie on a
defined in this study for the analysis of wind load ef- single vertical axis. As a result, the building ex-
fects under correlated multiple excitations as it differs hibits 3-D coupled mode shapes, particularly, strong
from conventional uni-component earthquake excita- coupled motion in two translational directions is ob-
1
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, TX 79409, USA,
e-mail: xinzhong.chen@ttu.edu
2
Professor of Engineering, NatHaz Laboratory, University of Notre Dame, IN46556, USA, e-mail: kareem@nd.edu
72
X. Chen, A. Kareem
served. The HFFB measurements at different wind 0.14
CQC with |α12r| ≤ 1
directions over 360 degrees with an interval of 10 de- 0.12 CQC with |α12r|= 1
grees were conducted in a large cross-section bound- 0.1
Mx’
0.08
ary layer wind tunnel. These measurements include
0.06
base bending moments in two translational directions
0.04
and base torque in torsion. 0 50 100 150 200
Azimuth (degrees)
250 300 350
Fig. 5 Influence of modal correlation coefficient on base

Maximum (w/ resonant)
Maximum (w/o resonant) bending moment response, Mx
Mean
1 Minimum (w/o resonant)
Minimum (w/ resonant)
0.5 Fig. 1 shows the normalized mean, maximum
and minimum base bending moment, for the 50-
Mx’
−0.5 year return period wind event, at varying wind az-

−1 imuth. The variation of cross-correlation coefficients
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Azimuth (degrees)
between measured base bending moments and torque
Fig. 1 Mean, maximum and minimum base bending with wind direction is shown in Fig. 2, which also
moment response, Mx represent the cross-correlations of integrated loads in
the three primary directions. Fig. 3 shows the modal
1
r
Mxy correlation coefficient of the translational modes with
rMxθ
0.5
rMyθ and without the consideration of partially correlated
rMxy, rMxθ, rMyθ
0
feature of wind loads. The influence of cross-
correlation of wind loads and modal correlation on
−0.5
the base bending moment response is shown in Figs. 4
−1
0 50 100 150 200
Azimuth (degrees)
250 300 350 and 5. Detailed discussions on a variety of response
components are also conducted in this study.
Fig. 2 Correlation coefficients between the integrated
wind loads in terms of base bending moments and torque
3 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper presented a framework for the analysis
of 3-D coupled dynamic wind load effects on build-
0.5 ings. A tall building with 3-D coupled modes was
used to demonstrate the proposed framework and to
discuss the coupled building response to wind. For
r12
0
this building example, wind loads were obtained from
|α | ≤ 1
12r
|α12r|= 1 the HFFB measurements. It was noted that the mode
−0.5
0 50 100 150 200
Azimuth (degrees)
250 300 350 shape corrections used for the case of uncoupled
modes can be applied to coupled modes following
Fig. 3 Modal correlation coefficient, r12
the proposed methodology. The results showed that
different response components have different sensi-
tivity to the cross-correlation of wind loads and the
inter-modal coupling of modal responses. Neglect-
0.14
w/ load correlation + CQC ing any of those may result in marked over- or under-
0.12 w/o load correlation + CQC
w/ load correlation + SRSS estimation of building response.
0.1
x
M’
0.08
0.06
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
0.04
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 The support for this work provided in part by the NSF
Azimuth (degrees)
Grant CMS 03-24331 is gratefully acknowledged.
Fig. 4 RMS value of base bending moment response, Mx The first author also gratefully acknowledges the sup-
port of the new faculty start-up funds provided by the
Texas Tech University.
73
0RGLILFDWLRQVRQWKHDORQJZLQGGHVLJQZLQGORDG
Chii-Ming Cheng 1
ABSTRACT: A modified procedure for alongwind design wind load is proposed. The mean and dynamic wind
forces on the windward face follow the strip theory strictly; the wind forces on the leeward face assumed to be
uniformly distributed. A correlation reduction factor is introduced to amend the spatial correlation effect on
the background part wind load. The resonant part of dynamic design wind load is distributed based on the
inertia force. Numerical study is then performed on a 200m prototype building. The equivalent static wind
load based on the present model is compared with DGLF, MGLF and current wind code.
1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 The Resonant Part
In most of the wind codes, the alongwind design
wind load of a tall building at height z adopted the The RMS resonant part is:
1
E
equivalent static wind load format, which is based on
§ z · ª Sf F ( f ) S ( f ) º
2
the gust loading factor approach. Recently, 2

H
FD , R ( z ) 2E 1 UU WI H ¨ ¸ « 0 R 0 u 0 »
4[
©H¹ ¬ ¼
modification has been proposed mainly in two areas:
(i) adopting the moment-based gust loading factor In which, S u ( f ) is the normalized wind speed
(MGLF) to replace the traditional displacement spectrum, and F R ( f ) is the resonant part
based gust loading factor (DGLF) (Zhou and Kareem aerodynamic admittance function,
2001); (ii) the resonant part of equivalent static wind FR ( f ) Jx ( f )
load having the spanwise distribution similar to the
inertia force. These modifications can be viewed as >C 2
W J 1z ( f ) 2CW Cl J z2 ( f ) N ( f ) Cl2 J z3 ( f ) @
the improvement on the structural dynamic D E D E
1 1 H H §z · § z2 ·
procedure of the equivalent static wind load. The J (f)
z ³ ³ R z ('z , f )¨ 1 ¸ ¨ ¸ dz1dz 2
characteristics of the wind load are the other H2 0 0
©H¹ ©H¹
D E E
important factors on the accuracy of the equivalent 1 H H §z · § z2 ·
J z2 ( f ) ³ ³ Rz ('z , f )¨ 1 ¸ ¨ ¸ dz1dz 2
static wind load. This paper will focus on the issue H2 0 0
©H¹ ©H ¹
of characteristics of wind load. An independent E E
dynamic wind load for the leeward side will be 1 H H §z · §z ·
J z3 ( f ) 2 ³0 ³0
Rz ('z, f )¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ dz1dz 2
introduced to formulate the equivalent static wind H ©H¹ ©H ¹
load. 1 W W
W 2 ³0 ³0
Jx( f ) R x ('x, f )dx1dx2
1 1 15.4 fD
2 ALONGWIND DESIGN WIND LOAD N( f )
K 2K

2 1 e 2K , K
U 23 H
§ fC z z ·
2.1 Mean Wind Load Rz ('z , f ) exp¨¨ z 1 2 ¸¸
© UH ¹
The mean alongwind force can be expressed in the § fC x x ·
form of, Rx ('x, f ) exp¨¨ x 1 2 ¸¸
© UH ¹
2
ª§ z · 2D º
FD ( z ) 2 UU H W «¨ ¸ C w Cl »
1
¬«© H ¹ ¼» 2.3 The Background Part
Then RMS background part on the windward and
1
Corresponding Author: Professor & Director Department of Civil Engineering & Wind Engineering Research Center, Tamkang
University, Tamsui, Taipei County 25137, Taiwan, E-mail: cmcheng@mail.tku.edu.tw
74
C.M. Cheng
leeward faces is, higher background part at building height. The
D present model also gives a more uniform spanwise
§ z ·
FD1,B ( z ) OQ UU H2 ¨ ¸ WI H C w distribution, FD , B ( z ) , than the DGLF and MGLF.
©H¹
2 Both MGLF and the present model give resonant
FD 0, B ( z ) OQ UU H WI H Cl
part wind load distributed similar to the assumed
The equivalent static wind loads for the RMS of the structural mode shape. The DGLF approach shows
background part are wind load distribution similar to the wind velocity
2
ª§ z ·D º pressure. At the building height, the wind load based
FD , B ( z ) OQ UU H WI H «¨ ¸ CW Cl » on the present model has the largest value among the
¬«© H ¹ ¼» three methods, and the DGLF gives the lowest
OQ is a correlation reduction factor. resonant part of wind load.
f
OQ2
³
0
S Q ( f )df
f 4 CONCLUSIONS
³ S Q ( f )df
0
S Q ( f ) is the PSD of base shear, S Q ( f ) is the base A modified model for the tall building’s alongwind
design wind is proposed. In this model, the mean and
shear spectrum under the perfect spatial correlation
RMS wind pressures on the leeward face are
assumptions
uniformly distributed. A background part correlation
2.4 The Equivalent static wind load reduction factor is introduced to amend the
difference of spatial correlation between equivalent
Then buildings’ equivalent static wind load at height static load and dynamic wind load. The resonant part
z is of wind load is distributed same as the inertia force.
D ( z ) FD ( z ) g DV D ( z ) The proposed new model tends to yield a higher
equivalent static wind load than the ASCE 7-02
G ( z ) FD ( z )
especially in the upper part of the building height.
Where V D ( z ) FD2,B ( z ) FD2, R ( z )
G ( f ) Gust response factor
5 REFERENCES
V D ( z)
1 gD
FD ( z ) Zhou, Y. and Kareem, A. (2001). “Gust loading factor: now
V D ( z) model.” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 127,
2I H
FD ( z ) No. 2, 168-175.
1 Solari, G. (1993a) “Gust buffeting I: peak wind velocity and
2 2 2
ª z D º ª 2E
Sf 0 F R ( f 0 ) S u ( f 0 ) º ½° equivalent pressure.” Journal of Structural Engineering,
° 2 § · 2§ z ·
®OQ «¨ ¸ CW C l » «2E 1 ¨ ¸ » ¾ ASCE, Vol. 110, 2, 365-382.
°̄ ¬«© H ¹ ¼» «¬ ©H¹ 4[ ¼» °¿ Solari, G. (1993b) “Gust buffeting II: dynamic alongwind
2D
§ z· response.” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
¨ ¸ CW C l 110, 2, 383-398.
©H¹
250 Į=0.15 250 Į=0.15
Present Present
DGLF DGLF
MGLF MGLF
200 200
3 COPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT
MODELS
150 150
A 200 m prototype building is used for the

Z(m)
Z(m)
comparative study between the present model and 100 100

the DGLF and MGLF approaches.
Results show that all three methods give the
50 50
same mean design wind pressures at building height.
The present method gives higher mean wind load on
the lower part of the building than the DGLF and 0 0
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8
MGLF. The DGLF and MGLF have almost the same Background Part, FD,B (kN/m2) Resonant Part, FD,R (kN/m2)
value of background part design wind load. The comparisons of background part and
present model would yield a similar or slightly resonant part wind load components
75
Dynamical analysis of the wind response of tall industrial chimney

with flexibility of soil
T. Chmielewski1, P. Górski2
ABSTRACT: The paper is concerned with the numerical analysis of both the along and cross-wind responses
of a tall industrial chimney in a turbulent wind. The flexibility of soil under the circular foundation slab of the
chimney is taken into account.
1 INTRODUCTION description of the soil under foundation are shown in

Figure 1 a, c, d. The calculation model of the
Many mathematical models have been developed in
chimney and model of the soil under foundation are
the past for the prediction of along and cross-wind
shown in Figure 1 b, e, f. The natural frequencies
responses for tower-like structures. Their slenderness
and mode shapes of this chimney with flexibility of
enables that these structures may be analysed as one-
soil have been evaluated through the application of
dimensional structures with aerodynamic properties
the finite element method using SAP 90+ and are
that are well defined by the local cross-section.
given in the paper (Chmielewski et al., 2005).
Models existing in literature and simple formulae
existing in different standards have been applied to 3 ALONG-WIND RESPONSE OF THE
evaluate the both the along and cross-wind responses CHIMNEY
of the tall industrial chimney. The results have been
compared and unexpected conclusions have been The along-wind response of the chimney has been
formulated. computed by means of the procedures presented in:
the Polish Standard (1977), the ISO Standard (1997),
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE CHIMNEY, ITS the Eurocode Standard (2003) and the random
CALCULATION MODEL AND FREE vibration approach which was outlined by Davenport
VIBRATIONS OF THIS CHIMNEY (1962). The calculation results of the top deck
chimney displacement for the different reference
The view of the chimney with the longitudinal and
cross section, the most important dimensions and wind velocity V10 are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1 Industrial chimney of Opole power station: (a) view and longitudinal section, (b) subdivision of the chimney into
elements with soil springs, (c) cross-section, (d) description of the soil under foundation, (e) model of the soil under
foundation to evaluate soil springs, (f) subdivision of the foundation slab
1
Prof. Tadeusz Chmielewski, Technical University of Opole, ul. Katowicka 48, 45-061 Opole, Poland, e-mail tch@po.opole.pl
2
Dr Piotr Górski, Technical University of Opole, ul. Katowicka 48, 45-061 Opole, Poland, e-mail pgorski@po.opole.pl
76
T. Chmielewski, P. Górski
response computed according to the Eurocode is
bigger about 25% than the ISO Standard. The
random vibration response is dependent on the
power spectral density.
The cross-wind displacements of the chimney
computed according to the Vickery-Basu’s model,
the Flaga’s model and the Polish Standard differ
also slightly (about 9%). The responses due to the
ISO and the Eurocode are much bigger (the ISO
about 70% and the Eurocode about 110% for the
Approach 2 and about 300% for the Approach 1)
Figure 2 Comparison of the top deck chimney along-wind than the first three results.
displacements for different values of V10
4 CROSS-WIND RESPONSE OF THE

CHIMNEY
The cross-wind response of the chimney has been
computed by means of procedures presented in: the
Vickery and Basu’s model (1983), the Flaga’s
model (1996), the Eurocode Standard - Approach 1
and 2 (2003), the Polish Standard (1977) and the
ISO Standard (1997). The comparison of the cross-
wind chimney displacements for Vcr = 25.92 m/s
computed by means of these five procedures
mentioned above is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 depicts the comparison of the along
and cross-wind chimney displacements for
Vcr 25.92 m / s . Figure 4 Comparison of the along and cross-wind chimney
displacements for Vcr = 25.92 m/s ( V10 19m / s , St=0.2)
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been funded by the Commission of
the European Communities under the FP5, contract
No. G1MA-CT-2002-04058 (CESTI).
7 REFERENCES
Chmielewski, T., Górski, P., Beirow, B. & Kretzschmar, J.
(2005) Theoretical and experimental free vibrations of
tall industrial chimney with flexibility of soil.
Engineering Structures, 27, pp. 25-34.
Davenport A. G. (1962) The response of slender, line-like
structures to a gusty wind. Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 23, pp. 389-408.
Flaga, A. (1996) Wind vortex-induced excitation and
vibration of slender structures. Single structure of
circular cross-section normal to flow. Cracow University
Figure 3 Comparison of the cross-wind chimney of Technology, Kraków, Monograph No 202.
displacements for Vcr = 25.92 m/s (St=0.2) Vickery, B. J. & Basu, R. I. (1983) Across-wind vibrations of
structures of circular cross-section. Journal of Wind
5 CONCLUSIONS Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 12, Part I pp.
49-73, Part II pp. 75-97.
The procedures for calculating the along-wind ISO 4354 (1997) Wind actions on structures.
response of line – like structures are similar in the PN-77/B-02011 (1977) Wind loads.
ISO and Polish Standards. Thus, the responses of prEN 1991-1-4 (2003) Eurocode 1: Actions on structures –
the chimney differ slightly for these two codes. The Part 1-4: General actions – Wind actions. Final draft,
December 2003.
77
Wind-induced interference effects of different side ratio on high-rise

buildings
K. Cho1, S. Hong1, Y.S. Kim2, K.S. Hwang3
ABSTRACT: Specifications of Korean Standard Design Loads for Buildings are generally based on wind-
tunnel tests performed on isolated structures considering wind exposure. However, it has been shown that
wind loads on buildings in realistic environments surrounded by neighbouring buildings may be considerably
different from those measured on isolated buildings. The most important factor in wind-induced interference
effects is the arrangement of building structures, which can directly change the flow. It is examined in this
study that how wind loads on a high-rise building with square section are affected by the arrangement of
neighbouring buildings with side ratios of 1.0-2.5 to the measured building. The study of wind-induced
interference effects on high-rise buildings was performed by wind-tunnel tests of force balance model.
Interference factor was defined as ratio of wind force on a building with interfering buildings present to wind
force on an isolated building.
1 INTRODUCTION guidelines for wind load modifications caused by

adjacent buildings. Three main reasons appear to
The evaluation of wind loads on buildings in Korea
explain the lack of the guidelines. First, the complex
is carried out by using Korean Standard Design
nature of the problem even for a single additional
Loads for Buildings, wind tunnel tests, and CFD
building; second, the scarcity of adequate
(computational fluid dynamics) techniques. It is
experimental data; and third, the widely held notion
normal to use standards and codes in the initial
that wind loads on a building are expected to be
design stage. The specifications in the standard are
generally less severe if surrounded by other
based on wind-tunnel tests performed on isolated
structures than when it is isolated. This last reason
structures. However it has been shown that wind
becomes debatable where only two or three buildings
loads on buildings in realistic environment may be
interact, since several studies have shown quite
considerably different from those measured on
adverse effects depending on the relative location of
isolated buildings.
these buildings.
Wind-induced interference effects on buildings
There are many parameters which cause wind-
are not a recent research topic. The earliest work
induced interference effects. These are size and
related to interference effects dates back in the
shape of the building, wind velocity and direction,
thirties. Harris found that torque on the Empire State
type of approach terrain and above all, the location
building in New York would be doubled if two
of proximity of neighbouring buildings. The most
building blocks were built across the two streets
important one among these parameters may be the
adjacent to the building. Bailey and Vincent
arrangement of building structures which can change
attempted to determine general relationships between
air flow directly. It is examined in this study that
wind-speed and the distribution of wind-pressure
how wind loads on a high-rise building with square
over sloped, flat and stepped roofed buildings, both
section are affected by the arrangement of
under fully exposed conditions and when in close
neighbouring buildings with side ratios of 1.0-2.5 to
proximity to other buildings. A lot of studies on
the measured building. The study of wind-induced
interference effects have been studied since the
interference was performed by wind-tunnel tests of
collapse of three out of the eight natural draft cooling
force balance model.
towers at Ferrybridge, England, The studies include
shielding effects of upstream buildings, aerodynamic 2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
interference due to tall buildings, interference effects
2.1 Wind tunnel
due to groups of buildings and flow visualization
studies to explain the phenomenon of interference. Force balance wind-tunnel tests were performed
Although many works have been done, there are for the investigation of wind-induced interference
very few of a comprehensive and generalized set of effects. The wind-tunnel tests were conducted in the
1
Assistant Prof. Ph.D., Senior Researcher Ph.D., Wonkwang University, Korea, e-mail kpcho@wonkwang.ac.kr
2
President Ph.D., Total Engineering Solution, Korea
3
Senior Researcher, Hyundai Institute of Construction Technology, Korea, email kshwang@hdec.co.kr
78
K. Cho, S. Hong, Y.S. Kim, K.S. Hwang
boundary layer wind tunnel of Hyundae Institute of decreased or increased the flow-induced forces on a
Construction Technology (4.5m wide, 2.5m high, building. If the interference factor (IF) is greater than
25m long) (see Fig. 1). The wind flow was simulated 1, the wind force of the measured building is
in the tunnel, standing for the wind blowing in the increased by the neighbouring building. If the IF is
suburban or forests. The power-law index is 0.22. smaller than 1, the wind force is decreased by the
shielding effect of the upstream building.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The wind-induced interference on building load was
affected mainly by the geometry and arrangement of
these structures, their orientation and upstream
terrain conditions. This study was focused on the
building arrangement of the neighboring building.
The wind-induced interference was studied with
variation of side ratio of the neighboring building.
Figure 1 Boundary layer wind tunnel The 4 different side ratio was in the range of
1:1~1:2.5 with increment of 0.5B.
2.2 Wind-tunnel model The wind-induced interference effect is very
The wind tunnel model is a 1/200 scale-down model complex problem. The neighboring building may
with square section, aspect ratio of 6. Neighbouring increase or decrease wind loads, depending on the
buildings with side ratios of 1.0-2.5 to the measured relative location to the measured building. For the
building are arranged up to the 4B in across-wind along-ind mean force, the shielding effect was
direction and 10B in along-wind direction (B is the dominant but in a certain arrangement the adverse
width of the measured building). The definition of effect increased the wind loads up to 10%~20%. For
separation is distance between the centres of the the across-wind direction, in a certain arrangement
measured building and the neighbouring building. the across-wind wind load increased up to 30% that
B=90
of the isolated building. Torsional moment also can
B=90 increase up to 40%.
The wind-induced interference effect was mainly
Wind Wind
1.5B
B
dependent on the shielding area, wake region, and

B
B B B
B
Fx
Mx
Wind the vortex street of the neighbouring building. It
H=540
My H=540 Wind Wind
seems that visualization study is essential to the
2.0B
2.5B
B
Fy
B B
interference study. Authors believe that the
B
B interference factors under the given condition may
be quite helpful to the structural designers in the
initial design stage.
Figure 2 Wind-tunnel models
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS This research (03R&D C04-01) was financially
Interference factor was defined as ratio of wind force supported by the Ministry of Construction &
on a building with interfering buildings present to Transportation of South Korea and Korea Institute of
wind force on an isolated building. The vertical axis Construction and Transportation Technology
is along-wind separation and the horizontal axis is Evaluation and Planning, and the authors are grateful
span-wise separation. Neighbouring buildings either to the authorities for their support.
79
The Uole of Xltrasonic Dnemometry in Wind Engineering

A. Cuerva 1, A. Sanz-Andrés , S. Franchini
ABSTRACT: Most of the experimental tasks in Wind Engineering require the determination of the 3D
turbulent characteristics of the wind speed with large time resolution. Ultrasonic anemometers are able to
provide measurements of the wind speed vector in one point with time resolutions ranging from 1 up to 100
samples per second. Additionally they are robust, and only need one initial calibration. These requirements
are generally not fulfilled by cup anemometers.
However not all the problems regarding sonic anemometers are solved. Their response is highly dependent on
the geometry and operational parameters of the sensor. Additionally vibration of the measuring system can
affect the measurement. Measured spectra and derived parameters such as turbulence intensities, friction
velocities or length scales of the flow, all of them very important in Wind Engineering, can contain important
errors if the proper correction methods are not applied.
This paper shows the state of the art in the modeling of sonic anemometers measuring process of, useful to
optimize the design of sonic anemometers or to obtain correction functions for the measured spectra. The
response of the sonic is modeled considering the following input parameters: the geometry of the sensor, the
operational characteristics (sampling rate), the mean wind direction and vertical inclination and the averaged
Mach number of the flow.
Additionally, latest techniques for wind tunnel calibration of sonic anemometers are presented focusing on
automatic calibration sequences oriented to reduce the wind tunnel operation time needed for calibration.
the single path measurements and for resetting the
1 INTRODUCTION electronic is also needed.
Ultrasonic anemometers (SA from now on)

measures the wind speed in one point by detecting
the influence of the wind speed field in the
transmission of ultrasound pulses along one or more
acoustic paths configured by at least one pair of
transmitter-receiver transducers. Typically, the
parameter controlled in the process is the time
needed by an ultrasound pulse front to cover the
acoustic path length in both senses (here referred as
12 and 21 or +/ and /+ respectively). Figure 1
shows a commercial design of a sonic anemometer,
where the three acoustic paths are marked by dotted
lines. Figure 1: Details of a sonic anemometers METEK
At least three non co-planarian acoustic paths are USA 1.
required to measure the three components of the
wind speed vector. Most sonic anemometers can provide directly the
A full sequence leading to a complete wind speed vector measured from single sequence
measurement of the wind speed vector comprises at or even the single path transit times. However it is
least six shots of ultrasound pulses, two per each also normal that SAs provide averaged values of the
acoustic paths. A time delay zB between consecutive wind speed vector comprising several single
pulses exists and a time after the six pulses zE sequence measurements. The type of averaging
required for computing the wind speed vector from influence the measurement of the spectral
characteristics of the turbulent wind speed.
1
Dr. Alvaro Cuerva., Prof. Angel Sanz-Andrés, Mr. Sebastian Franchini. IDR-UPM, Spain, e-mail acuerva@idr.upm.es
80
A. Cuerva, A. Sanz-Andrés , S. Franchini
represent the result interval for a Gill Solent sonic
for different runs under the same nominal conditions
uf (different unit in different wind tunnel that in case
un
B).
up
c t- c t+
ut - un t + u t+ 2 COMPARISON WITH OTHER SENSORS.
u nt -
uP t Sonic anemometers present several advantages
uP t - l +
compared to cup anemometers, propellers and hot
wire anemometers. Dynamic effects do not affect
Figure 1: Scheme of the linear approach to the sonic anemometers since they have not any moving
measuring process of a sonic anemometer of one parts (as it is the case with cup anemometers).
acoustic path. On the other hand they can measure 3D wind
vector, whereas cup can not and they do it with a
time resolution much higher than cups and
1.2 Importance of Sonic Anemometry in Wind propellers. Although hot wire anemometers can
Engineering reach sampling rates in the order of 10 kHz, their
The calculation of the atmospheric parameters fragility and their need to keep the wire free of
affecting the performances of structures and systems deposit of dust, constitutes a great problem in
operating in the atmospheric flow requires outdoor applications. Finally the maintenance of
knowledge on the wind speed vector with large time sonic anemometers is rather simpler than in the case
resolution. A sonic anemometer is the most of other sensors.
extensively used sensor for this purpose, mainly in
places where the turbulent flow is highly 3D, as it
occurs in natural complex terrain or in the built 3 CONCLUSIONS.
environment. However there is not a general In this paper a short review of the state-of-the-art
confidence in sonic anemometers. Although their of the sonic anemometry concerning wind
adequacy has been widely evidenced, their response engineering applications has been presented,
is not well characterized (see Figure 2) and it is underlining the advantages of this kind of
highly model dependent, which makes their anemometers with regard to other types (mainly cup
utilization, as standard sensor in wind engineering anemometers) and also the difficulties that SA has to
applications, somehow risky. A remarkable research overcome to be considered as the suitable sensor for
activity trying to improve the situation is ongoing, Wind Engineering applications. In fact, there exist a
being the ACCUWIND project and COST 14 two lack of experimental background in SA
good examples. characterization, carried out in high quality wind
M
1.05 tunnels, so that the industrial users can trust. The
uf C
other situation to be solved is the lack of a standard
uf 1.00 calibration procedure which helps to the industrial
application. Both tasks have been evidenced within
0.95 COST 14 EU actions and are being studied within
B
the ACCUWIND project framework.
0.90
0.85
A 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
0.80
0.00 50.0 120.0 180.0 240.0 300.0 360.0
Wind direction (º) The authors are indebted to Mr Tröels Friis
T [º] Pedersen as head of ACCUWIND proeject and to the
Figure 2: Ratio of the measured wind speed module
M COST 14 organisation.
u f on the real one u f obtained in different wind
tunnel tests of sonic anemometers. Continuous line
(C) represents results for a Kaijo TR-61B unit.
Dotted lines (B) represent the range limits for the
Gill Solent sonic for different wind speeds within the
normal range of operation. Dashed lines (A)
81

P. Delpech1,* C.J. Baker2, P.A. Blackmore3, H. Koss4, A. Sanz-Andres5, T. Stathopoulos6, E. Willemsen7
ABSTRACT: In the frame of the European Concerted Action COST C14 "Impact of wind and Storm on City
Life and Built Environment", Working Group 1 has undertaken a comparative evaluation of the methods used
throughout Europe to assess pedestrian wind comfort in urban environment. Further to previous theoretical
comparative assessments, the present study aims at delivering a multi-operator analysis of pedestrian wind
comfort of the same virtual case study. The approach presented here aims at being an impartial wind comfort
assessment comparison that includes practitioners’ expertise and comments. Although the study leads to a
classification of criteria according to their severity, it is believed that the definition of a common comfort
criterion requires more fundamental investigation of comfort perception. The criteria in use at the moment in
the various institutions have been refined by several decades of practice and may be very well related to the
particular conditions of the local environment.
1 THE TEST CASE Besides the wind tunnel data, two sets of wind
The test case study includes a tower block: 80m environment data for the 12 wind directions were
high, 66m wide and 22m broad and a medium rise provided. A climatic data set from UK presented a
building: 40m high, 80m wide and 16m broad more even distribution of wind speeds over all
(Fig.1). Two configurations, with and without nearby directions with strongest winds from the SW, while
obstacles, were considered to include local effects the other from the Rhone valley (RV) in France had
induced by surrounding buildings. 20 locations were a strong prevailing wind approaching from the
defined in the vicinity of the two building blocks. North.
The wind tunnel measurements were carried out at
these locations for 12 wind directions and for both 2 WIND COMFORT ASSESSMENT
configurations (with and without obstacles). The The wind comfort assessment is done by comparing
velocity measurements were expressed in percentage the probability of exceedance of threshold wind
of reference wind velocity at the highest building speeds at pedestrian level at particular urban site to
level. The wind tunnel data included the 15-min pre-defined percentage values.
mean and RMS wind velocity, as well as the 3-sec The total probability of exceedance of a given
gust wind velocity. value VTRH, Pexc(VTRH), is the addition of the
contributions of N directions
ª § k
· ci º
N « ¨ VTRH ¸ »
Pexc (VTRH ) ¦ P(T i ) exp « ¨
« ¨ A (T ) VR c ¸ »
¸ »
« ¨© P R i VMET ci ¸¹ »
i 1
¬ ¼
where AP R (Ti ) is the amplification at point P of
the reference speed (VR) measured in the wind tunnel
for each climatic wind direction Ti, VR/VMET is the
relation between the speed at the reference point and
the speed measured at the meteorological station and
Figure 1 Wind tunnel model (no surrounding buildings) cci = cc(T i), kci = kc(T i) are the Weibull parameters
for each climatic wind direction
1
Philippe Delpech Ph.D., CSTB, e-mail delpech@cstb.fr
2
Prof. Chris Baker Ph.D., School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, e-mail c.j.baker@bham.ac.uk
3
Paul Blackmore Ph.D., BRE, e-mail blackmorep@bre.co.uk
4
Holger Koss Ph.D., FORCE-DMI, e-mail hko@force.dk
5
Angel Sanz-Andres Ph.D., IDR/UPM, ETSI Aeronauticos, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, e-mail asanz@idr.upm.es
6
Prof. Theodore Stathopoulos Ph.D., CBS, Concordia University, Montreal, e-mail statho@cbs-engr.concordia.ca
7
Eddy Willemsen Ph.D., DNW, e-mail eddy.willemsen@dnw.aero
*Co-author list in alphabetical order.
82
P. Delpech, C.J. Baker, P.A. Blackmore, H.H. Koss, A. Sanz-Andrés, T. Stathopoulos, E. Willemsen
The comfort criteria used in several institutes the criteria to stated parameters, like mean velocity
have been applied to the data sets. Almost all and gustiness, but also to undeclared ones like
comfort criteria included in the comparative study thermal contributions and acclimatising to local
are based on the mean wind speed. One criterion environment.
associates the time-mean wind speeds and standard Although, the criteria in use at the moment in the
deviations of wind speeds to define an equivalent various institutions were initially based on a few
gust wind speed that encompass the influence of experimental studies, they have been refined by
turbulence. several decades of practice by taking into account
The criteria involve an activity based evaluation the feedback from urban project managers and users.
that relies on exceeding frequency of the thresholds
value. This was reduced here to three main activity 3 CONCLUDING REMARKS
categories for comparison purpose: traversing or The comparative study aimed at revealing
brisk walking, lounging or pedestrian walking and differences in the assessment methods when using
sitting/standing or long steady position. The activity the same starting point, i.e. data set of measured
categories were associated to three grades of comfort wind speeds and wind climate. The authors would
depending on the annual probability of exceeding a like to make available the wind speed and
local threshold (good, medium, poor). climatological data used in this study. Hence, it is
Table 1 shows the assessments for a particular offered to other institutes to try their own method
activity category for both configurations, i.e. two- and submit their results, in the format given in the
building and two-building + surroundings with the paper, for further comparisons.
application of the UK MET wind statistical data or
with the application of the Rhone valley MET wind 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
statistical data. The estimated wind climate level
associated to the three activity categories is marked The authors would like to acknowledge the COST
with symbols indicating a good (+), moderate (o) and C14 Action for supporting this collaborative work.
poor (-) wind climate quality.
5 REFERENCES
Table 1 Configuration 1 / 2, UK Climate, sitting or steady Cadre Réglementaire, Arrondissement Ville-Marie, Ville de
activity (+ good, o medium, - poor) Montréal, April 1992, pp.50-51.
Koss, H. (2004) On differences and similarities of applied wind
Concordia Force-
comfort criteria. In: Proc. of COST Action C14 Workshop,
Point DNW CSTB Univ. DMI BRE
Rhode-Saint-Genèse, pp.B.2.1-B.2.12.
1 +/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o Koss, H. & Sahlmen, J. (2002) Method in pedestrian wind
2 +/o -/- +/+ o/o o/o comfort assessment; Theoretical and practical comparisons.
3 +/o -/- +/+ o/- o/o In: Proc. of COST Action C14 Workshop, Nantes.
4 +/o -/- +/+ o/- o/o Lawson T (2001) Building Aerodynamics, Imperial College
5 o/- -/- +/+ -/- o/o Press, London.
6 Melbourne, W.H. (1978) Criteria for environmental wind
-/o -/- +/+ -/- -/o
conditions, Journal of Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., pp. 241-
7 o/+ -/- +/+ -/o o/o
249.
8 o/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o Sanz-Andres, A. & Cuerva A. (2004) Pedestrian wind comfort.
9 -/- -/- +/+ -/- -/o Feasibility study of criteria homogenisation. In: Proc. of
10 -/- -/- -/o -/- -/- COST Action C14 Workshop, Rhode-Saint-Genèse,
11 -/- -/- -/- -/- -/- pp.B.3.1-B.3.10.
12 -/- -/- -/- -/- -/- SBI-Anvisning 128 (1981) Vindmiljø omkring bygninger (Wind
environment around buildings), Statens
13 -/o -/- +/+ -/o o/o
Byggeforskningsinstitut.
14 -/- -/- +/+ -/- -/o Stathopoulos, T., Wu, H. & Zacharias, J. (2004) Outdoor
15 -/- -/- +/+ -/- -/o human comfort in an urban climate. Building and
16 +/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o Environment, 39, 3, pp.297-305.
17 +/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o Verkaik J.W. & Smits A. (2001) Interpretation and estimation
18 o/o -/- +/+ -/o o/o of the local wind climate. In: Proc. of IIIrd European &
19 +/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o
African Conference on Wind Engineering, Eindhoven,
pp.43-57.
20 +/+ -/- +/+ o/o o/o
Willemsen, E. & Wisse J.A. (2002) Accuracy of assessment of
The study enables a classification of criteria wind speed in the built environment. Journal of Wind Eng.
according to their severity. The observed differences Ind. Aerodyn., pp.1183-1190.
are partly due to the individual definition of Wisse J.A. & Willemsen, E. (2003) Standardisation of wind
pedestrian comfort. This is rendered by sensitivity of comfort evaluation in the Netherlands. In: Proc. of XIth
Intern. Conf. on Wind Engineering, Lubbock, pp.43-57.
83
An experimental and numerical approach to consider vortex induced

vibrations in brige aerodynamics
G. Diana1, F. Resta1, M. Belloli1, D. Rocchi1
ABSTRACT: Vortex induced vibration are not negligible while evaluating the aerodynamic and aeroelastic
behavior of a long span suspension bridge. This kind of forcing, that can produce high vibration levels, occurs
at very low reduced velocities concerning low wind speed and high frequency modes. This work presents
results of experimental tests performed on the multi box deck shape of the Messina Strait bridge investigating
vortex shedding phenomena and developing a numerical model to reproduce the vortex shedding forcing. The
experimental tests, focused on low reduced velocities, highlight the typical non linear pattern of the vortex
shedding.
Recent projects of long span bridges strengthen bration on cables and on slender structure consists in
the need to investigate the low reduced velocity performing free motion tests in wind tunnel on rigid
range because of the increase in structured’ di- or flexible models to define: the lock-in region in
mensions. Depending on the deck shape, inter- terms both of vibration amplitudes and wideness of
esting aerodynamic phenomena can appear at low the synchronisation range and the energy introduced
reduced velocities as it was highlighted by the by the wind in the mechanical system. On the other
Messina bridge experience [Diana G. et al. (2003), hand, the usual approach adopted in bridge aerody-
Diana G. et al. (2004)]. A typical wind-bridge inter- namics is to define a set of coefficients called ”Flutter
action, occurring in that region, is the vortex shed- derivatives” representing an aeroelastic transfer func-
ding phenomenon that potentially causes large dy- tion between the wind force and the system displace-
namic oscillations, as it happened on the Great Belt ment. Both the methodologies have been used and the
Bridge at full scale [Larsen A. et al. (2000)]. obatined results have been compared, in particular the
The experimental campaign carried out at Politec- analysis performed at very low reduced velocities (V ∗
nico di Milano Wind Tunnel to study the aerody- lower than 5: lock-in region and strongly non station-
namic behavior of the Messina Strait suspension ary conditions) showed that flutter derivatives are able
bridge, gave us the opportunity to study in detail to detect the critical regions where VIV could occur.
the vortex induced vibration (VIV) on a multibox The experimental set-up and the 1:60 scale
deck section. During this study the influence on dynamometric model, described in details in
bridge aerodynamics of different appendixes, like [Diana G. et al. (2004)] allow us to perform force
winglets, trip-wire, splitter and airfoils, was tested and displacement measurement both in free motion
[Diana G. et al. (2003)]. The solutions that showed and in imposed motion conditions. The test rig and
critical aerodynamic behaviour have been avoided the model dimensions allow us to investigate a wide
in the design procedure but have been used to bet- range of reduced velocity. An active turbulence gen-
ter understand the vortex shedding phenomena and erator has been used to evaluate the complex admit-
to develop the numerical model. Several tests have tance functions and to analyse the dynamic response
been performed on the bridge configuration reported to turbulent wind condtions.
in figure 1 that suffers vortex induced vibrations. In order to define lock-in ranges and vibration
amplitudes due to vortex shedding, progressive
regime tests have been performed. In figure 2
the steady state non dimensional vibration ampli-
tudes are shown as function of the reduced ve-
locity V ∗ : two lock-in regions are observable at
Figure 1 Vortex shedding affected bridge deck section V ∗ = 0.5 and V ∗ = 1. At these values of re-
duced velocity, very high vibration levels have been
Common practice in studying vortex induced vi-
1
Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 34, Milano, Italy, e-mail: marco.belloli@polimi.it
84
G. Diana, F. Resta, M. Belloli, D. Rocchi
recorded, revealing dynamic amplification according
to the first flexural mode of the model at 5.5 Hz. KAer RAer
1.8
MAer η
1.6
1.4
KAcc RAcc
1.2
z
1
U/B ‰
0.8
Kst Rst
0.6
0.4 Figure 3 The equivalent oscillator

0.2
The equivalent oscillator parameters depend only on
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 the deck shape and the identification procedure needs
V* only free motion tests since the parameters are evalu-
Figure 2 Non dimensional vibration amplitudes at steady ated on the basis of deck displacement. Once the os-
state as function of V ∗ cillator have been identified, the model has been val-
idate against other experimental evidence and it has
been applied to a FEM schematization of the whole
The same lock-in regions have been highlighted bridge. Each oscillator is connected to a node of the
by exciting the model with an actively generated tur- bridges deck FEM model, the equations of motion,
bulence at a fixed frequency equal to the natural fre- written for the whole structure, deck FEM model and
quency of the first flexural vibration mode (5.5 Hz). oscillators, are numerically integrated using a New-
Analysing the data the power imparted by the wind mark method in time domain [Resta F. et al. (2003)].
to the model [Farquharson, Mc Hugh (1956)],the dy- Each oscillator depends on local wind velocity, allow-
namic lift coefficient and the flutter derivatives have ing to take in account spatial and time correlation of
been calculated with different approach to compare wind turbulence. Simulations have been performed at
different metodology and to check the results. A different wind velocities and changing the damping
strong motion amplitudes dependence of wind-bridge to critical ratio of the structure in order to study the
interaction in this condition has been highlighted, difference in the dynamic response of the bridge.
deleting the possibility to describe the vortex shed-
ding forcing by means of an aerodynamic transfer REFERENCES
function, but, at the same time, the analysis of the
Diana G. et al. (2003) Wind effects on suspension bridges:
flutter derivatives trend in lock-in range suggests to
The case of the Messina Strait Bridge. 5th International
reproduce the fluid structure interaction and the re-
Symposium on Cable Dynamics, Santa Margherita,
lated non linearities by using a second order mechan- Italy
ical system for each synchronization zone. Consider- Diana G. et al. (2004) Forced motion and free motion
ing a single section of the bridge FEM a new aerody- aeroelastic tests on a new concept dynamometric sec-
namic state variable η, representing the displacement tion model of the Messina suspension bridge. Journal of
of a non-linear 1 d.o.f. oscillator, has been added for Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, n. 92,
each lock-in zone. Figure shows a sketch of the 2 p. 441.
d.o.f. system made up by the deck section and its os- Larsen A. et al. (2000) Storebaelt suspension bridge -
cillator, where z and η are, as said, displacements of vortex shedding excitation and mitigation by guide
bridge deck and of aerodynamic mass, MAer , while vanes, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
KAcc , RAcc etc. are cubic-functions that define the Aerodynamics, n. 88, pp 283-296
non linear dampers and springs. These functions are Farquharson, Mc Hugh (1956), Wind tunnel investigation
characterized by 8 numerical parameters estimated on of conductor vibration with use of rigid models , AIEE
the basis of experimental tests in order to reproduce Transactions, 75
Resta F. et al. (2003), A numerical model to reproduce
the lock-in range and to obtain fluid structure interac-
the dynamic behaviour of steel catenary risers, 5th
tion forces as function of vibration amplitudes.
International Symposium on Cable Dynamics, Santa
Margherita Ligure, Italy
85
A numerical and experimental investigation on aerodynamic non

linearities in bridge response to turbulent wind
G. Diana1, S. Bruni1, D. Rocchi1
ABSTRACT: Aerodynamic non linearities have been investigated by an experimental and numerical point of
view. The dynamic response of a suspended sectional model has been measured in wind tunnel when it is run
over by a turbulent flow actively generated by an array of oscillating wings. The experimental test rig allows
to reproduce flow conditions with single or multiple fluctuating wind components with controlled frequency
and amplitude. Experimental results have been compared with numerical results of linear and non linear
numerical approaches.
model can be moved by three oil dynamic actuators

1 INTRODUCTION or can be suspended on stays.
A comparison between wind tunnel measurements
and numerical results is proposed to validate
numerical approaches simulating the bridge response
to turbulent wind. Tests have been performed on a
dynamometric deck sectional model free to vibrate
suspended on stays. Forces and accelerations have
been recorded while the model is run over by
different turbulent wind conditions. In order to
reproduce harmonic turbulent fluctuations an active
turbulence generator has been designed. It consists in
an array of wings whose pitching rotation generate
wind fluctuations that are highly correlated along the Figure 1. Sectional model and active turbulence generator
deck axial direction with controlled amplitude and
frequency. The experimental device allows to
investigate non linear effects induced by turbulence A complete aerodynamic characterization of the
and in particular by the variation of the angle of section has been performed by measuring all the
attack due to the low frequency components of the static and dynamic coefficients at different angles of
wind spectrum with high amplitude usually present attack and reduced velocities, following the
in the real atmospheric conditions (Bocciolone methodology descript in (Diana 2004).
1992). The active turbulence generator is 7 m upwind the
The sum of motion induced forces and buffeting sectional model and is made of 10 airfoils 4 m long
forces are measured when the model is left free to and with a chord of 0.2 m.
move while the only contribution of buffeting forces
can be studied keeping the deck sectional model at 2 NUMERICAL MODELS
rest. Both kinds of experimental results have been Two different numerical models to simulate the
compared with numerical simulations computed by bridge response to turbulent wind have been
linear and non linear approaches. compared to experimental results. Both the
approaches works in time domain and adopt a modal
2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP description of the structure dynamics. The static
Test have been performed in the boundary layer test position reached by the structure under the mean
section of the wind tunnel at the Politecnico di wind speed is computed by an iterative process that
Milano with a mean turbulence intensity less then takes into account the non linear dependence of the
2%. The 1:60 sectional model represents a deck static coefficient with the angle of attack.
configuration of the Messina bridge. The model is 2.1 Linear model
3.6 m long and measure the forces and accelerations
on its central part. A complete description of the The linear approach adopts the flutter derivatives
model is reported in (Diana 2004). The sectional coefficients and the aerodynamic admittance
1
Daniele Rocchi, Mechanical department, Politecnico di Milano, e-mail Daniele.rocchi@polimi.it
86
G. Diana, S. Bruni, D. Rocchi
functions to define the motion induced aerodynamic frequencies of the model. Under that conditions
forces the buffeting ones. The problem is solved as motion induced forces become important and
linear and all the coefficients are valued at the static interact with buffeting forces. These situations
angle of attack. represent e very interesting test case for numerical
model validation.
2.3 Band superposition
As an example is reported in Figure 2 the
The band superposition method splits the solution spectrum of the torsional acceleration and of the
in the high reduced velocity range and in the low aerodynamic moment, measured on the suspended
reduced velocity range. In the former range the model when it is was run over by two harmonic
solution is computed by a non linear approach based fluctuations at 0.4 Hz and 2.4 Hz representing an
on the quasi steady theory where a dynamic angle of oscillation of the angle of attack respectively of 3.5
attack is defined by: deg and 0.9 deg.
w − B1,iθ − z torsional acceleration
ψ i = arctg 0.3
V + v − y Exp
lin
0.2 Bs
where V is the mean wind speed, v and w are
2
rad/s
respectively the horizontal and vertical turbulent 0.1
wind components, y, z and θ are the degree of
freedom of the deck section while B1,i.represents the 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
distance from the rotation axis to define the velocity Moment
1.2
in torsional motion. At each time step, the Exp
aerodynamic forces are computed from the static 0.8
lin
Bs
coefficients at the value of the instant dynamic angle
Nm
of attack. In the low reduced velocity range, 0.4

aerodynamic forces are computed by flutter
derivatives and admittance functions taken at the 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
slowly changing angle of attack computed solving Hz
the high reduced velocity range. Figure 2 Numerical-experimental comparison on torsional
acceleration and aerodynamic moment spectra
2 RESULTS COMPARISON
Comparisons are provided on forces and The major contribution on the deck torsional
accelerations expressed in the local reference system acceleration is due to the harmonic at 1.2 Hz at a
of the model. Experimental results are depurated frequency three times higher then the wind one that
from inertial effects on forces and from gravity is able to excite the torsional natural frequency of the
acceleration on accelerations. model. Non linear numerical approaches are able to
reproduce this complex behaviour.
2.5 Tests on still model
By the analysis of experimental results of tests 4 CONCLUSIONS
performed on still model excited by a fluctuating The presented experimental-numerical comparison
component at low frequency and high amplitude and outlines the importance of non linear effects in the
a fluctuating component at high frequency and low bridge response to turbulent wind and propose a
amplitude, it is possible to notice: numerical non linear approach able to reproduce the
Ɣ the presence in the force spectra of components main feature of the aeroelastic system behaviour.
at a frequency multiple of the low frequency one;
Ɣ the presence of harmonics sum or difference of 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
those present in the wind spectrum; Special grant is due to the Società Stretto di Messina.
These non linear effects induced by the
fluctuation of the angle of attack induced by the low 6 REFERENCES
frequency wind harmonic are of same order of
Bocciolone, M., Cheli, F., Curami, A., Zasso, A. (1992)
magnitude of the fundamental one and are obviously Measurements on the Humber bridge and numerical
reproduced by non linear numerical approach. simulations. JWEIA, 41-44, pp. 165-173.
Diana, G., Resta, F., Zasso, A., Belloli, M., Rocchi, D. (2004)
2.6 Tests on free model
Forced motion and free motion aeroelastic tests on a new
Tests on the free model highlighted the possibility concept dynamometric section model of the Messina
that the harmonics of higher order excite the natural suspension bridge. JWEIA, 92, pp. 441-462.
87
A fully coupled method for computing uniform fluctuating flow around bluff
bodies
E. Didier½, A.R.J. Borges¾
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the computation of unsteady two–dimensional incompressible viscous uni-
form fluctuating flow around bluff bodies. The study focuses on the case where the upstream uniform flow
around a circular cylinder is fluctuating in time, harmonically. An implicit second order fully coupled reso-
lution method is developed using a finite volume technique for cell-centered collocated grids . This approach
is an alternative to classical segregated approaches, like SIMPLE or PISO. Whereas the segregated methods
lead to a sequential resolution of discrete equations and under–relaxation procedures, only one linear system in
velocity–pressure is solved using the fully coupled method. The non-linear effects are thus handled better, and
the non-linear residues convergence is considerably accelerated. Efficiency and robustness of this numerical
technique allows to simulate with accuracy unsteady flows such as uniform fluctuating flow around circular
cylinder.
1 INTRODUCTION 2004, is developed on unstructured and structured
cell–centered collocated grids.
The study of flow past circular cylinders has been ex- Results, such as mean drag and mean lift coefficient
tensively studied. Effectively, detailed information values, rms coefficients for drag and lift, Strouhal
about flow fields around bluff bodies is of special in- numbers, are analyzed and compared with uniform
terest for basic understanding of aerodynamics. Des- flow reference values.
pite the simplicity in geometry, the flow around a
cylinder is very complicated and of particular impor-
2 FULLY COUPLED RESOLUTION METHOD
tance, since it may induce unsteady forces on struc-
tures associated with vortex shedding. One of the The unsteady Navier–Stokes equations in a conserva-
fields of study relates to the flow–induced vibration of tive integral dimensionless form are discretized using
structures, phenomenon encountered in various fields a finite volume framework.
of engineering, just like the case of cross–flow oscil- An implicit three–level second order scheme is used
lations under Von Kármán vortex excitation. Compu- for time discretization. Central differencing and li-
tational investigations were made, such as an orbiting near interpolation are used to obtain respectively dif-
cylinder in a fluid at rest or in an uniform flow. Never- fusive flux and pressure to control volume interface.
theless the situation where the upstream uniform flow Linear and gradient reconstruction allow to preserve
fluctuates in time, harmonically, around a motionless second–order accurate discretization. Convective flux
cylinder, has deserved little attention. This paper fo- is evaluated using the deferred correction approach,
cus on the case where the fluctuating component of Khosla & Rubin, 1974, combining first–order UDS
the flow varies in a frequency band ranging from 0.05 and a higher–order scheme, WACEB, Song et al.,
to 0.62, including the vortex shedding frequency, and 2000. A true pressure equation is obtained from dis-
with amplitudes between 5% to 20% of the mean ve- crete momentum equation applying the divergence
locity, at three Reynolds numbers, , and operator. A Rhie and Chow reconstruction technique
. allows to determine the pressure gradient flux. The
Computational investigations are carried out consi- FC system is constructed gathering the discrete mo-
dering unsteady two-dimensional incompressible vis- mentum and pressure equations.
cous uniform fluctuating flow around a circular cylin- Whereas the segregated methods, like SIMPLE or
der, and performed using an implicit second order PISO, lead to a sequential resolution of discrete equa-
fully coupled (FC) resolution method. This tech- tions, with the fully coupled method only one linear
nique, an attractive alternative to classical segregated system in velocity–pressure is solved using an itera-
methods, Deng et al., 2000, Ammara & Masson, tive resolution algorithm, BiCGSTAB– , in conjunc-
½ Dr. Eric Didier, Industrial and Mechanical Engineering Department, New University of Lisbon, e-mail deric@fct.unl.pt
¾ Prof. A.R.J. Borges, Industrial and Mechanical Engineering Department, New University of Lisbon, e-mail ajb@fct.unl.pt
88
E. Didier, A.R.J. Borges
tion with a LU preconditioner. In opposition to segre- strong, the shedding frequency is equal to the natural
gated method, the FC method does not require cor- shedding frequency and the mean drag coefficient is
rection steps, under–relaxation or special treatment to maximum. This phenomena is referred as synchro-
ensure convergence. The residual convergence is fast nisation. It can be noticed that the lock–in acts par-
due to velocity–pressure coupling and seven orders ticularly for excitation frequency lower or equal than
residual convergence is obtained in a few number of . The lock–in region increases when the Reynolds
non-linear iterations. number and the velocity fluctuation amplitudes in-
crease.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 2 shows the difference between the true
mean value of drag coefficient and the na-
tural value . This representation makes
1.1
it possible to compare the variations of the mean

1
drag coefficient compared to the natural one ob-
tained for stationary flow. The mean drag coef-
0.9
ficient is maximum when lock–in occurs. The

maximum peak of takes place for synchro-
0.8
nisation, i.e. . However, an other
0.7
smaller peak appears when
, for the larger
Reynolds number and amplitude velocity fluctuation.
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0.25

Figure 1 Normalized versus the frequency and ampli- 0.2

tude velocity fluctuation. Square symbol, , gra-

dient symbol, , right triangle symbol, .

0.15

The behavior of the normalized Strouhal number is 0.1

plotted in figure 1 versus the normalized excitation

0.05
frequency ,where is the natural shedding fre-
quency obtained for stationary flow. The shedding 0
frequency , or the corresponding Strouhal number
, is calculated using the lift coefficient time history 0.5 1 1.5

2 2.5 3

and normalized using the natural Strouhal, . The
line indicates the natural shedding fre-
Figure 2 Variation of the for Reynolds number
quency. and amplitude velocity fluctuation versus the frequency.
It can be observed that, as has been reported by va- Dashed line, , dashed–dot line, , solid
rious authors for cross–flow oscillating cylinder in line, .
uniform flow, the in–line fluctuating velocity compo-
nent of the freestream alters the flow field significant- Drag and lift rms coefficients are calculated. When
ly. These effects manifest in the aerodynamic forces flow fluctuates, the longitudinal and traversal forces
experienced by the cylinder and the related Strouhal acting to the cylinder increase. The mean drag and
number for the vortex–shedding frequency. As can be lift rms coefficients show a similar behavior and the
seen, forced in–line fluctuation flow causes a global larger amplitudes of lift coefficient occur at synchro-
diminution of the shedding frequency. This is not true nisation. For and
, mean
for frequencies higher than , where the shedding drag and rms lift coefficients are equal to the natural
frequency is overall higher or equal than . The mi- ones. However, the rms drag do not follow this be-
nimum shedding frequency decreases when velocity havior and increases with , but the mean drag coef-

amplitude fluctuation and Reynolds number, i.e. , ficient preserving a mean value equal to the . This
increase. However, the shedding frequency is con- effect is connected with inertial effects. Numerical
trolled by a type of lock–in. Effectively, the shed- values well agree with theoretic formulation, consi-
ding frequency locks–on the excitation frequency, in dering the added mass and neglecting viscous effects,
a frequency band around of , with the following more especially at high frequencies where the inertial
law: . For , the lock–in is effects dominate the viscous non–linear phenomenon.
89
Numerical simulation of two–dimensional cross flow past a cylinder using an

unstructured mesh based fully implicit second order coupled method
E. Didier½, A.R.J. Borges¾
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the computation of unsteady two-dimensional incompressible viscous flow
on unstructured cell–centered collocated grids using a finite volume technique. A fully second order coupled
resolution method is presented for solving unsteady Navier–Stokes equations, an alternative to classical se-
gregated approaches, like SIMPLE or PISO. Whereas the segregated methods lead to a sequential resolution
of discrete equations and under–relaxation procedures, with the fully coupled method, only one linear system
in velocity–pressure is solved, no relaxation or special treatment is required to ensure convergence, as equa-
tion coupling is done implicitly. The non-linear effects are thus handled better, and the non-linear residues
convergence is considerably accelerated. Robustness and efficiency, ability and accuracy of this method are
demonstrated to simulate unsteady flow around a cylinder at various Reynolds numbers.
1 INTRODUCTION cell–centered unknowns and adapted for unstructured
and structured grids.
Fluid flow over circular cylinders has been the sub- An implicit three–level second order scheme is used
ject of a great number of investigations, mainly be- for time discretization. Central differencing and li-
cause of the geometrical simplicity of cylinders and near interpolation are used to obtain respectively dif-
their common use in engineering applications. The fusif flux and pressure to control volume interface.
flow structure is a classical and important problem in Linear and gradient reconstruction allow to preserve
fluid engineering, due to vortex shedding and flow in- second–order accurate discretization. Convective flux
stability causing unsteady forces on the structures. is evaluated using the deferred correction approach,
This paper discusses the computation of unsteady Khosla & Rubin, 1974, combining first–order UDS
two-dimensional incompressible viscous flow on un- and a higher–order scheme, WACEB, Song et al.,
structured cell–centered collocated grids using a fi- 2000. The introduction of pseudo–velocity allows
nite volume technique. A Fully Coupled (FC) se- to write a new discrete momentum equation. The
cond order resolution method is presented for solving pressure equation is obtained from this equation ap-
Navier–Stokes equations, alternative to classical cou- plying the divergence operator. Pseudo–velocity flux
pled approaches, like SIMPLE, Issa, 1985, or PISO, are evaluated employing linear interpolation. A Rhie
Patankar, 1980. Whereas the segregated methods lead and Chow reconstruction technique, Rhie & Chow,
to a sequential resolution of discrete equations, only 1983, allows to determine the pressure gradient flux.
one linear system in velocity–pressure is solved using The FC system is constructed gathering the discrete
the FC method, Deng et al., 1994, 2000, Ammara & momentum and pressure equations, and the definition
Masson, 2004. The non-linear effects are thus hand- of the pseudo–velocity:
led better, and the non-linear residual convergence is
considerably accelerated. Results of flow simulations

around a circular cylinder demonstrate robustness, ef- Í
(1)
ficiency and accuracy of the adopted FC resolution Ô
method.
where is the identity matrix.
2 FULLY COUPLED RESOLUTION METHOD The only one linear system preconditioned LU
is solved using an iterative resolution algorithm,
The unsteady Navier–Stokes equations in a conserva- BiCGSTAB– , Sleijpen & Van der Vorst, 1995. In
tive integral dimensionless form for an incompressi- opposition to segregated method, the FC method does
ble viscous fluid are considered. Finite volume dis- not require correction steps, under–relaxation or spe-
cretization schemes are adopted with collocated and cial treatment to ensure convergence. The residual
½ Dr. Eric Didier, Industrial and Mechanical Engineering department, New University of Lisbon, e-mail deric@fct.unl.pt
¾ Prof. A.R.J. Borges, Industrial and Mechanical Engineering department, New University of Lisbon, e-mail ajb@fct.unl.pt
90
E. Didier, A.R.J. Borges
convergence is fast due to velocity–pressure coupling low Reynolds numbers, ranging from to
and seven orders residual convergence is obtained in .
a few number of non-linear iterations (figure 1). The mean bubble recirculation length , figure 3,
0 agree well with numerical results from other authors,
10
Lima e silva et al., 2003, Park et al., 1998, Sucker &
-1
10 ½ velocity residual Brauer, 1996, Ye et al, 1999.
10
-2 ¾ velocity residual
pressure residual
Figure 4 presents the Strouhal number . The
present FC numerical method predicts the same
Residual
-3
10
vortex shedding frequency that two–dimensional
-4
10 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) results from
10
-5 Henderson and Karniadakis & Kedar, taken from
-6
Williamson, 1996, and experimental data obtained
10
by Williamson, 1996, whereas classical segregated
-7
10
5 10 15 20 methods, like Lima e Silva et al., 2003, un-
Non–linear iteration derestimate this frequency. The agreement bet-
ween present two–dimensional numerical results
Figure 1 Non–linear residual convergence, . and 3D experimental data of Williamson is excel-
. lent, until the transition regime at
where three–dimensional instabilities appear, as
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION can be seen measuring the Strouhal number.
Two applications are proposed. The first one is
the time development of the symmetrical standing 3 Fully coupled method
zone of recirculation formed in the early stage of Lima E Silva et al., 2003
2.5 Park et al., 1998
the flow around a cylinder impulsively set in mo-
and , simulated up
Bouard & Coutanceau, 1980
tion at 2 Nishioka & Sato, 1978
to a dimensionless time and compared to

1.5
experimental data, Bouard & Coutanceau, 1980.
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0

½
Figure 3 Mean bubble recirculation length as a function

-0.5
of the Reynolds number.

-1 FC method
0.24
-1.5
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0.2
Figure 2 Velocity profiles of ½ on the near wake of a cylin-

der, .

0.16 Fully coupled method

Lima e Silva et al., 2003
The results show consistent agreement with previous Henderson
0.12 Karniadakis & Kedar
numerical and experimental results. Accurate nume-
DNS 2D, Williamson, 1996
rical solutions are obtained for these complexe sepa- Exp., Williamson, 1996
rated flows, as can be seen for the several velocity 0.08
profiles at , figure 2.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Simulations of the flow past a cylinder are done for Figure 4 Strouhal number vs. Reynolds number.
91
Unsteady crosswind forces on trains and corresponding aerodynamic

parameters
Y Ding1, M Sterling2 C J Baker3
ABSTRACT: This paper analyses full scale data collected in the UK during the period of December 2002 to
May 2003. The data relates to a “Mark 3” coach, a traditional vehicle found on the UK train network and
one perceived as “safe” due to the lack of wind induced accidents associated with it. The analysis builds on
the previous work of the authors and will examine a number of key aerodynamic parameters which are
important to train stability.
,1752'8&7,21 turbulence intensity (Iw). Most of the length scales in

This paper builds on the work of Baker et al. (2003) the North train case are approximately 30m. The
and analyses a number of the unsteady aerodynamic length scales in the South train are somewhat lower,
parameters in detail. Attention is focused on the but still within acceptable tolerances.
force and moment coefficients and conditional Two conditional sampling techniques were used
sampling is used to examine the behaviour of the to analyse the velocity data. The traditional quadrant
extreme events. Consideration is also given to the approach (Willmarth and Lu, 1972) highlighted that
correlation between the force/moment coefficients in all situations the ejections and sweeps play an
and the correlation between force and velocity. An important role in the momentum transfer. The
examination of the aerodynamic admittances is second analysis technique enabled an ensemble
undertaken. average of discrete events to be obtained. A discrete
event was defined as when the velocity exceeds the
%5,()2))8//6&$/(7(67 99.5th percentile value. Figure 1(a) shows a typical
set of results obtained using this approach. In Figure
The experiments were carried out at the Eskmeals 1(a) the u component has been used as a trigger. A
site, situated on the coast of Cumbria between number of points are noticeable from this Figure.
Millom and Ravenglass in the UK. Two groups of Firstly, the ensemble averaged maximum value of
three Mark 3 vehicles were used for each experiment longitudinal velocity at the event time (t=0) is of the
and are termed the North and South train order 2.5 times greater than the average velocity.
respectively for ease of reference. In each group Secondly, over the entire sampling period the
measurements were undertaken on the central instantaneous value of the u component is
carriages in order to establish the aerodynamic significantly greater than one, which implies on an
coefficients under incident wind loading. One average a large scale event occurs. Thirdly, there is
carriage on the South train had the suspension fixed, a sharp increase in velocity either side of the event
whereas the corresponding carriage on the North time, implying superposition of a small scale
train had fully working suspension. Measurements of structure on the larger scale event. And finally,
the wind-induced vertical and side forces on the across the entire sampling period the value of the v
carriages and the atmospheric conditions were component is also greater than unity, illustrating a
carried out between December 2002 and May 2003. possible correlation between the u and v components
during an extreme event.
:,1'&+$5$&7(5,67,&6
Different yaw angles are included in the ten )25&(6$1'020(17
datasets examined in the paper and range from 29º &+$5$&7(5,67,&6
yaw to 80º yaw. The 30-minute mean wind speeds of The correlation coefficient between side force
most datasets are of the order of 9m/s. The coefficient and lift force coefficient (CS-CL) remain
longitudinal and lateral turbulent intensities vary the lowest of the three cross-correlations across all
slightly with yaw angle. However this variation is the datasets. The consistently large correlation
not apparent in the data pertaining to the vertical coefficient between the side force coefficient and
92
Y. Ding, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker
rolling moment coefficient (CS-CM) suggests a good small values of yaw. The results of the South train at
relationship exists between these two parameters. large yaw angle vary significantly. The cross-
The cross-correlation coefficients in the North train correlation coefficients at a low wind velocity are
are larger than the relevant coefficients in the South larger than those at higher wind velocities.
train section, especially at small yaw angles. A The cross-correlation coefficients between the
possible explanation may be due to the differences in force components and vertical velocity are
suspension characteristics between the two trains. consistently much lower than the cross-correlation
coefficients between the force components and
5.0 horizontal velocity suggesting that the vertical
4.0 component of the wind may not contribute to the
Normalised Velocity
3.0 dynamic force response as much as the horizontal

u
2.0 wind.
v
1.0
w
All of the calculated aerodynamic admittances
0.0 indicate a peak at a reduced frequency of the order of
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5
-1.0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0.8 (~2.3Hz) for the side, lift and rolling moment
-2.0 coefficients. At low yaw angles there is a relatively
t (s) large difference between the lift force admittance
and the side and moment admittances across the
(a) u used as a trigger entire frequency spectrum. As the yaw angle
increases the differences between these admittances
reduce mainly due to a reduction in the lift
Normalised force coefficient
3.5
admittance.
3.0
2.5
CL &21&/86,21,03/,&$7,216
2.0
CS
1.5 The flow around the train has been shown to be
CM
1.0 highly unsteady. It is found that the rolling moment
0.5 is mainly affected by the side force and slightly by
0.0 the lift force. Conditional sampling confirmed the
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
existence of the high energy events which occur over
t (s)
a short time period. The different suspension mode
may affect the aerodynamic forces.
(b) CL used as a trigger
Figure 1 Conditional sampling of S2 $&.12:/('*(0(17
The conditional sampling technique is adopted
The experimental work was carried out under
again on the force and moment data (See Figure
various contracts from the Railway Safety and
1(b)). Although the South train has more wind
Standards Board (Formerly Railway Safety),
extreme events, it does not consequently have more
primarily by staff at WS Atkins.
force extreme events than the North train. This may
imply that only events of a certain scale are 5()(5(1&(6
important. The superposition of large and small scale
events is evident in the CL data of Figure 1b. Baker, C. J., Jones, J., Lopez-Calleja, F., and Munday, J. (2003)
Measurements of the cross wind forces on trains, the
11th International Coference on Wind Engineering,
5(/$7,21%(7:((1:,1'$1')25&( Lubbock, Texas.
The cross-correlation between the forces/rolling Willmarth, W. W., and Lu, S. S. (1972). "Structure of the
Reynolds stress near the wall." Journal of Fluid
moment and velocities are also examined. It is noted Mechanics, 55, 65.
that the cross-correlation between lift force and
velocity is low at small yaw angles. Thus, indicating
that the locked suspension may decrease the
influence of the horizontal wind to the lift force at
93
G. Doudak1, A. Ghallagher2, B. Kasal3, G. McClure1, M. Mohammad4, I.Smith5, T. Stathopoulos2, I. Zisis2
ABSTRACT: The NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Project “Load Paths in Wood
Buildings” entails the monitoring and collection of data from three light-frame wood buildings to assess the
application of environmental loads and their actual transferring through the building’s elements to its
foundation. The paper describes a pilot study on an existing industrial single-storey, light-frame shed located
in Sainte-Foy, Quebec and its corresponding model tested in the wind tunnel of Concordia University. Details
of the field and wind tunnel measurements and comparisons of the wind pressure data obtained are presented
and discussed in this paper.
An emerging trend is acceptance that the have caused extensive damage to these types of
performance of whole buildings can only be reliably houses. Hurricane Hugo in 1989, Andrew in 1992,
assessed via full-scale tests (FPS 1998, Mettem et al and Opal in 1995 have served to increase the
1998). Implicit in this notion is admittance that awareness of the vulnerability of light-frame
element-by-element design strategies, i.e. those all structures to wind damage. (Foliente 1998 and Grant
designers are using, are unsatisfactory. Most tests 2000).
have been conducted on isolated members or The paper describes the wind pressure
connections or on subsystems isolated from their measurements carried out in the field and the wind
systemic context. Evidence of whole building tunnel, presents, discusses and compares the results
behaviour is largely lacking, and as yet improved in terms of pressure coefficients on the building
design procedures cannot be devised. envelope. Due to limitations in obtaining a wide
The NSERC Collaborative Research and range of values for wind incidences, full-scale data
Development Project “Load Paths in Wood could only be obtained for 90, 100, 110, 260, and
Buildings” entails the monitoring and collection of 280 degrees. These were the only directions in which
data from three light-frame wood buildings to assess wind speeds were appropriately high and wind was
the application of environmental loads and their not fluctuating strongly in direction.
actual transferring through the building’s elements to The shed structure is not an isolated building and
its foundation. Structure 1 is an existing industrial is under the influence of two main features in the
single-storey, light-frame shed located in Sainte-Foy, two predominant wind directions. From the North-
Quebec and owned by Forintek Canada Corp. This East and Easterly direction, the structure falls in the
shed was monitored for wind pressures and structural wake of the main Forintek building with a height of
responses to natural, as well as artificial loading, 9 m. From the North-West and Westerly direction,
since 2002 (Doudak et al. 2005). Structure 2 has just the structure falls in the wake of the forested area.
been constructed in Fredericton, New Brunswick and The direction of wind incidence on the building and
consists of a single-storey light-frame bungalow its deviation due to the effect of surrounding
building with duo-pitch roof and platform topography is the contributing factor to the pressure
construction, typical of many North American distribution observed on the structure. Figure 1
residences. Structure 3 is a single-storey light frame shows a picture of the wind tunnel model with its
building with post-frame construction and duo-pitch surroundings.
roof in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The paper describes a Critical angles of wind incidence were observed
pilot study on Structure l. to be those where a 90-degree angle was created
Wind pressure loads are of great importance in between a particular face of the building and the
the design of buildings. In fact, light-frame wood wind incidence. For this structure, these angles were
structures comprise the majority of the building about 110 degrees for the southern wall, 200 degrees
stock most vulnerable to high wind hazards. In for the western wall, and 290 degrees for the
recent years, hurricanes and other natural hazards northern wall.
Names of authors in alphabetical order
1
McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke St. W, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 2K6
2
Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada H3G 1M8
3
North Carolina State University, 1022K Biltmore Hall, Raleigh, NC 27695-8005, USA
4
Forintek Canada Corp. Eastern Division, 319 rue Franquet, Quebec, Canada G1P 4R4
5
University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada E3B 6C2.
94
G. Doudak, A. Ghallagher, B. Kasal, G. McClure, M. Mohammad, I. Smith, T. Stathopoulos, I. Zisis
The velocities at reference height and at roof height ratio between peak and mean values was calculated
were taken from velocity profiles evaluated for to 2.5 to 4 with a mean of about 3. This ratio is
westerly and easterly winds. These represented the higher for higher Cp values. Furthermore, peak
two upstream wind possibilities: forested area for the pressure coefficients appear to have the same trend
west side and the Forintek main building for the east in their variation with direction as with the mean
side. Both profiles provided a power-law exponent pressure coefficients.
of 0.34. Several wind events have been studied to The peak pressures measured on the envelope of
the building seem to compare well with
confirm this trend.
corresponding values obtained in the wind tunnel. In
general, the peak pressure coefficients from the full-
scale tests were somewhat higher than those obtained
from the wind-tunnel test.
The western wall tapings 1, 3 and 4 also
experience slightly lower than expected values for
90, 100, 110 degrees. Flow separation could
therefore be slightly different in the wind tunnel and
in full-scale. This is likely to be due to the
recirculation experienced in the wake of the main
Forintek building. Taping 2, on the centre of the
wall, seems to provide more consistent data and the
comparison with the field is encouraging.
Finally, the roof tapings also showed some
differences in the Cp values measured in the field
and the wind tunnel for wind directions 90, 100 and
110 degrees. These deviations occur again when the
shed is in the wake of the Forintek building.
However, for wind directions 260 and 280 degrees,
Figure 1 1:200 model of Forintek shed and main building
the field and wind tunnel values are correlated very
Figure 2 shows mean and peak pressure well.
coefficients for all azimuths measured in the wind In summary, the paper reports field and wind
tunnel on the western wall as well as peak pressure tunnel data obtained during a pilot study of wind
coefficients from the full-scale data. Generally, the pressure measurements on wood low buildings.
1.0
Mean and peak pressures measured on the envelope
of the building compare generally well with
North South
0.5
corresponding values obtained in the wind tunnel
0.0
with appropriate simulation conditions. Significant
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
experience was obtained from these measurements in
-0.5
Direction (degrees) order to proceed with monitoring the wind load paths
Cp
-1.0 in the next phase of this study.

-1.5
REFERENCES
-2.0
1 Peak
Doudak, G., McClure, G., Smith, I., Hu, L.,and Stathopoulos,
-2.5 2 Peak T. 2005 “Monitoring Structural Response of a Wooden
3 Peak Light-Frame Industrial Shed Building to Environmental
4 Peak
-3.0
1 Mean
Loads” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 131,
2 Mean No. 5, 794-805.
3 Mean FPS. 1998. “Recent advances in understanding full-scale
4 Mean behaviour of wood buildings”, Special Publication 7275,
Mean average
Peak average Forest Products Society, Madison, WI.
Full-Scale 2-Peak Mettem, C.J., Bainbridge, R.J., Pitts, G.C. and Enjily, V. 1998.
Full-Scale 3-Peak “Timber frame construction for medium-rise buildings”,
Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 1(3), 253-
262.
Foliente, G. 1998. “Design of Timber Structures Subjected to
Extreme Loads”, Progress in Structural Engineering and
Materials, 1(3): 236-244.
Grant, R. 2000. “State Farm Insurance Company”, Presentation
Figure 2 Wind tunnel mean and peak Cp values measured to Technical Advisory Committee, Forintek Canada Corp,
for the western wall. Vancouver, BC, Canada.
95

V. Durañona1, C.J Baker2, M. Sterling3
ABSTRACT: A conditional sampling technique is applied to velocity data collected from a number of
different locations throughout Europe at various heights within the lower part of the Atmospheric Boundary
Layer. The aim of the conditional sampling is to identify instances of rapid changes in wind speed both in
terms of magnitude and direction. This technique has highlighted a number of sudden strong wind events,
associated with non-synoptic winds. Wavelet analysis has examined the temporal relationship between the
wavelet power and frequency and has confirmed the existence of large scale flow structures.
hours of wind speed measurements are contained in

1 INTRODUCTION the database.
In general the calculation of wind loads on Although this database has data relating to 74
structures usually considers the effects of synoptic sites, attention was restricted to locations with a
winds or tropical cyclones. However in recent years relatively flat orography, to avoid the influence of
it has come to be realised that the wind loads caused hills and mountains on the wind measurements as
by a variety of other weather systems can be well as the presence of upwind obstacles, which
important. For example recent work in both the could affect the atmospheric boundary layer shape
USA (Gast and Scroeder, 2003) and Singapore (Choi under normal wind conditions. Attention was also
and Hidayat, 2003) has been focused on examining restricted to sites that contained data at several
and simulating the unique flow characteristics measurement heights in order to obtain a good
associated with thunderstorm downbursts. This description of the wind profile. To provide
work has highlighted the importance of not information of relevance to the lower parts of the
neglecting non-synoptic winds in the design process. atmospheric boundary layer, it was decided only
In this paper the authors seek to examine a number sites with anemometers located at a minimum height
of flow features related to extreme events occurring of at least 10m or 20m above the ground should be
at full scale in a variety of non-synoptic winds. The included. Once the appropriate sites had been
events examined are taken from a number of identified threshold criteria were determined in order
experimental sites across Europe and in all cases to define and hence obtain data relating to the
examine the velocity at a number of different heights extreme events. This was achieved using an efficient
within the lower part of the atmospheric boundary conditional sampling technique which identified
layer. instances of rapid changes in wind velocity and/or
direction. Hence, an “event” was assumed to have
2 EXPERIMENTAL DATA been identified if all of the following criteria were
met:
The following analysis is concerned with full scale
• The maximum wind speed of each event
data which has been collected at a variety of rural was greater than or equal to 15 m/s,
and costal sites throughout Europe at various heights
• The ratio between the maximum / mean
above the ground using cup and sonic anemometry.
wind speed was greater than or equal to
The data used in this study was obtained from a
1.5,
unique and extensive database, WindData.com
(2004). This data has been compiled from at a • The increase in velocity occurred in a
number of different locations across the world relatively short time period, i.e. less than
(Europe, Japan, Egypt and Central and North three minutes,
America) and as such encompasses a wide variety of • The corresponding decrease in velocity
conditions and different terrains; more than 162,600 occurred in a time period corresponding to
less than 10 minutes.
1
PhD Research Student, University of Uruguay and University of Birmingham. e-mail valeriad@fing.edu.uy
2
Professor in Environmental Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15
2TT , e-mail c.j@baker@bham.ac.uk
3
Lecturer in Environmental Fluid Mechanics School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15
2TT , e-mail m.sterling@bham.ac.uk
96
V. Durañona, C.J. Baker, M. Sterling
3 VELOCITY STATISTICS is relatively little energy contained within the
One minute running averages of the velocity data velocity time series. Figure 2 clearly illustrates that
during the event time there is a large amount of
have been calculated in order to enable ease of
comparison between the different events and to energy contained at a period of 512s (~0.002Hz).
smooth out high frequency fluctuations. Figure 1
illustrates the variation of wind speed with respect to
time for one of the events identified at Alsvik
(Sweden). In Figure 1 the wind speed has been
normalised by the maximum wind speed (umax)
measured during the event. In keeping with the
above analysis the data is presented in the form of a
one minute running averages. Figure 1 illustrates
that within 2-3 minutes the wind speed increases
rapidly by 30%. The identified event lasts for
approximately five minutes and is clearly shown in
Figure 2 Sacleogram for the Alsvik event shown in Figure 1,
all of the time series corresponding to the different for V=10m
anemometers. This implies the existence of a large
scale, high energy containing flow structure. The
rapid and proportional decrease in velocity recorded 5 CONCLUSIONS
by all of the anemometers is further evidence of the The data presented in Figure 1 illustrates a sudden
existence of the large scale flow structure. change in velocity which occurs in a relatively short
period of time. Wavelet analysis has been used to
confirm the findings presented in section 2, i.e. the
existence of a large event scale flow structure of
definable scale through the array of anemometers.
The rigid framework used to identify extreme
events indicates that the flow structures possess
similar characteristics. However, there is also
evidence to suggest a number of important
differences between the flow structures associated
with the events. Finally, it is perhaps worth noting
that the effect of these structures is to ensure that
Figure 1 One minute running average of the flow statistics and profile are significantly different
normalised velocity for an extreme event at Alsvik from what would be expected in a normal boundary
layer flow. This may have important implications
for structural design.
4 WAVELET ANALYSIS
The velocity data shown in Figure 1 has 6 REFERENCES
demonstrated the temporal variability associated Choi, E. C. C. and Hidayat, F. A (2003) Variation of Wind
with the extreme events. As suggested above, it is Speed with Height during Thunderstorms. 11th International
likely that this variability is a result of the energy Conference on Wind Engineering, June 2 –5, Lubbock,
Texas. 2, 2225-2232.
contained within the wind being organized into
Gast, D. K. and Schroeder, J. L (2003) Super Rear-Flank
distinct flow structures which are directly related to Downdraft as Sampled in the 2002 Thunderstorm Outflow
the extreme events. Experiment. 11th International Conference on Wind
Figure 2 illustrates the variation of wavelet power Engineering, June 2 –5, Lubbock, Texas. 2, 2233-2240.
against period for the velocity data recorded at 10m WindData.com (2004) http://www.winddata.com. Last
accessed 8/3/05
above the ground shown in Figure 1. The vertical
axis in the Figure represents the wavelet period
which is inversely proportional to frequency. From
Figure 2 it is evident that there is a significant
proportion of energy contained at high periods (low
frequencies) across the entire sampling period. At
the opposite end of the frequency spectrum (high
frequencies, low period) it is also apparent that there
97
H. Eimani-Kalehsar1
ABSTRACT: In the present paper, the behaviour of a tall rectangular building has been studied in different
seven flow conditions. The study has shown that when the tall building is oriented in short afterbody, the
Aeroelastic lock-in phenomenon is appeared. In the presence of the interfering building(s), the aeroelastic
lock-in phenomenon disappeared. The Area, which it’s inside the Aeroelastic lock-in instability is
disappeared, is a circle. The size of this area depends on the size as well as number of the interfering
buildings.
1 INTRODUCTION c) Building Models

A stick type aeroelastic principal building model
With increasing population and land cost in large
and three types rigid interfering building models
cities, the number of the tall buildings increase, too.
were made and used in wind tunnel tests. As
With an increasing the number of the tall buildings,
mentioned above, the principal building model
case where wind loads exceeds seismic loads have
was rectangular prisms with sides ratio of 2:1 and
begun to appear. Due to the fact that the shape of a
aspect ratio of 12. The interfering model were
building has a great influence upon the
made same as principal building height and
characteristics of the wind loading, the wind load
shape with side ratios of 1:1.5, 1:2.5 &1:4
acting on buildings is usually estimating by carrying
out wind tunnel tests. Although a wind tunnel test is 3 LOCK-IN PHENOMENON AND ITS
the most reliable method at present, actual ELIMINATION
phenomena including the unsteady state of a natural
wind can not be completely simulated. In the present study, the lock-in phenomenon was
The present paper shows the results obtained from observed to occur when the aeroelastic model was
a set of experiments on a tall rectangular building exposed to the boundary layer flows as well as
with proportion 12:2:1 having 300m height. uniform flows in short afterbody orientation.
To observe the range of wind velocity over which
2 EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT this effect occurred, the fan was run at the highest
speed and turned off suddenly. The acrosswind
a) The Prototype Building response of the building model was recorded till the
A tall rectangular building with plan dimension fan came to a stop. In the recorded response, the
of the 25mu50m and 300m height has been peak zone indicates the lock-in phenomenon.
chosen for the study. Surprisingly, the lock-in phenomenon could be
eliminated by placing a pair of interfering building
b) Flow Conditions models of same height as the object building model
Wind tunnel tests were conducted in turbulent (with proportions 1:1.5:12 and 1:2.5:12) one
boundary layer flows as well as grid generated upstream and the other downstream of the principal
uniform flows. Boundary layer flows have power building model. Even with a single interfering
law index of the mean wind velocity profile 0.12, building the lock-in was found to be eliminated
0.18, 0.24 & 0.30. the height of the generated when it was placed within a close distance.
boundary layer flows were about 1.0m . Observations showed that the lock-in phenomenon
Three grid generated flows have integral scale does not occur if the interfering buildings are located
turbulence of 6cm, 9cm & 18cm, respectively. A not too far from the principal building. The
sample of the simulated boundary layer flows acrosswind responses of the aeroelastic model in
and generated uniform grid flows were shown in isolated condition and under simultaneous
Figure 1. and figure 2. interference from two buildings are shown in Fig. 1.
1
Prof. Houshyar.Eimani-Kalehsar, University of Mohaghegh-Ardebili, Iran, e-mail: HEK@uma.ac.ir, hoshyar_1@yahoo.
98
H. Eimani-Kalehsar
4 DISAPPEARING REGION OF AEROELASTIC Eimani-Kalehsar, H.(2000), “Experimental Aerodynamic
LOCK-IN INSTABILITY Studies on Tall Rectangular Buildings. “, Ph.D. Thesis,
Deptt. of Civil Engg. , University of Roorkee, India.
There is an area around principal building that in the Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(2000),
presence of a pair of interfering buildings, the “Suitable Placing Of Enabling Equipments Around Tall
Buildings For Windy Days.”, Proceedings of Fisrt Seminar
Aeroelastic lock-in instability is appeared. The Area on Enabling Structures in Construction(NS-ESC), CEPT,
has a circle shape and its diameter is equal to 8b, Ahmedabad, India, Oct 2000.
where b is the small plan dimension of the principal Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(2000), “
building. We call this area, the “Aeroelastic Stable Prediction of Response of Tall Rectangular Buildings to
circle in wind interference effect”. Wind Loads.”, Infrastructure Scenario in Twentyfirst
Century, Lucknow, India, Oct.4-5, 2000, (Paper Accepted
It is important to note that the above mentioned for Presentation).
Aeroelastic instability is disappearing with the Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(2001),
presence of a single interfering building, too. But the “Investigation of the Modelling Criteria for Wind Tunnel
region of the disappearing is very small and Study of Tall Buildings.”, International Conference on
negligible. Mathematical Modelling, Deptt. of Maths., University of
Roorkee, Roorkee, India, Jan. 29-31, 2001.
Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(2001), “
5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Wind Interference Effect Between Two Tall Rectangular
x The aeroelastic lock-in instability was observed Buildings With Different Plan Size and Orientation.”, 3rd
European and African Conference on Wind Engineering,
for isolated tall rectangular building under Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The
consideration in simulated boundary as well as Netherlands, July 2-6, 2001.
grid generated uniform flow for short afterbody Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(2001), “
orientation. Aerodynamic Interference on A Tall Rectangular Building
Due to Two Buildings- One Upstream and the Other
x In the presence of an interfering building, the Downstream.”, Recent Advances in Structural
Aeroelastic lock-in phenomenon was again Engineering(SEC-2001), University of Roorkee, Roorkee,
observed. India, pp.770-775.
x In the presence of a pair of interfering buildings, Eimani-Kalehsar, H.(2002),” Effect of Turbulence parameters
on the Response of Bluff Bodies.”, Proceedings(Under
the Aeroelastic lock-in phenomenon disappeared. Publish) of the First Conference on Chaotic Dynamic
x The disappearing Region of Aeroelastic Lock-in Systems(in Persian), Aerospace Research Institute, Tehran,
Instability depends on: The Size of the Iran, Feb. 13-14,2002.
Scruton, C. (1967), “ On the Wind-Excited Oscillations of
interfering, orientation of the interfering
Stacks, Towers, and Masts.”, Proc. Conf. Wind Effects on
building. Buildings and Structures”, NPL, London, PP. 797-832.
6 SELECTIVE REFERENCES:
Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N. (1999),
ACROSSWIND RESPONSE
20 (a) WITH TWO INTERFERING BUILDINGS(1:2.5:12)

“Interference Effects Between Two Tall Rectangular
Buildings.”, NSWE-99, IIT Kharaghpor, India, pp. 33-44.
Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K. and Godbole, P.N.(1999),
“Simulation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Wind 0
Tunnel and Its Application in the Prediction of Structural
Response”, Proceedings of 6th Iranian National Seminar on
Fluid Dyanics(In Persian), Iran University of Science and
-20
Technology, Tehran, Iran, pp. 167-178.
Eimani-Kalehsar, H. , Kumar, K., Godbole, P.N. and Krishna,
0 200 400
P.(2000), “ Acrosswind Response of Tall Rectangular
TIME(MILLISECS/4)
Buildings.”, 4th Int. Conf. on BBAA, Bochum, Germany,
(Paper Accepted for Presentation). Figure 1 Lock-in phenomenon and its elimination
99
Effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force

spectrum on a tall rectangular building
H. Eimani-Kalehsar1, M. Abitorabi, A. Kolahdoz-Mohammadi
ABSTRACT: In the present paper, effect of interfering building size on non-dimensional acrosswind force
spectrum on a tall rectangular buildings have been studied. The survey of literature has been shown that no
research has been published to date which addresses derivation of non-dimensional acrosswind force
spectrum to the wind interference effect on tall rectangular buildings. Therefore, the lack of the non-
dimensional acrosswind force spectrum for wind interference effect provoked the authors to make such a
model for direct calculation of acrosswind forcing power of tall rectangular buildings, that is very useful at
the preliminary design stage of tall buildings. The study has shown that the values of normalized acrosswind
force spectrum are observed to decrease with increase in the size of the interfering building.
1 INTRODUCTION as short afterbody orientation and the dynamic

response measured in interference due to a single
In designing for wind, a tall building can not be
upstream or downstream building. A turbulent shear
considered independent from its surroundings. The
flow with the mean velocity corresponding to center
influence of interfering (nearby) buildings can be
of large cities, was generated to simulate the
substantial. Structural innovation and lightweight
boundary layer.
construction technology have reduced the stiffness of
A model of the natural wind flow for a large city
modern tall buildings. The reduction of the stiffness
center type terrain was developed which is
is caused that tall building is becoming very
compatible with the geometrical scale of the building
flexible, and consequently the vibration of tall
by using augmented growth method in which a set of
buildings under wind has become a major concern
vortex generators and roughness blocks were used.
for the structural engineer. Therefore, prediction of
The measured mean wind velocity profile is
the response of tall buildings for wind load prior to
represented by a power law profile with an exponent
its construction becomes very important.
of 0.30. The measured longitudinal turbulence
Spectral analysis techniques provide a convenient
intensity at 0.8 height of the model was 7 %.
method for dealing with the random turbulence of
A stick type aeroelastic model of
wind. Thus Making of the non-dimensional
acrosswind force spectrum is seemed very important. 62.5mmu125mm plan dimensions and 750mm tall
For the same, the scope of the present work is has been used in the study to represent the principal
generation of the non-dimensional acrosswind force building.. All measurements have been made on the
spectrum. principal building model.Three interfering building
models have been used, each with the same height
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE and width as the principal building model and having
the other aspect ratios as 1:1.5, 1:2.5 &1:4, These
In the present work, the wind interference effect due models were rigid and have been named as M1, M2,
to interference from three types building of plan size and M3 respectively. The interfering building model
different from the building under consideration was placed at various locations on grid spacing of b
located upstream or downstream of the principal in both perpendicular directions, where b is the width
building has been studied. For this purpose, an of the buildings.
aeroelastic model of a tall rectangular building 300m
high and 25mu50m plan size, The prototype 3 INTERFERENCE EFFECTS DUE TO
characteristics of the modeled building are: width A˨˨ SINGLE INTERFERING BUILDING
25m; length 50m; height 300m; structural density
When the principal building was located in the long
182 kg / m3; and structural damping 1.5 % and 2.0%
afterbody orientation, the interfering building were
of critical damping in the two principal directions,
kept in the long after body as well as short afterbody
was subjected to test in a large size boundary layer
wind tunnel (2.0mu2.1m) for long afterbody as well
1
Prof. Houshyar.Eimani-Kalehsar, University of Mohaghegh-Ardebili, Iran, e-mail: hoshyar 1@yahoo.
100
H. Eimani-Kalehsar, M. Abitorabi, A. Kolahdoz-Mohammadi
orientation, too. In the present paper, the result of 2) The acrosswind response can be predicted
first case is reported. analytically only with the help of force spectra a
In all the above mentioned studies, the strain similar type of building, which may not generally
gauge and accelerometer signals were acquired be available in which case wind tunnel
through the data acquisition system. In each record a investigation on aeroelastic model can be provide
minimum of 4000 samples of a signal were recorded. the answer.
This means 16 seconds record length which may be 3) Non-dimensional acrosswind force spectrum has
considered to correspond to 20 minutes duration in been generated in simulated atmospheric
the full scale (during Lock-in phenomenon half of boundary layer for approach terrain with power
these values). It is necessary to say that in the law index equal to 0.30 for a tall building of
isolated case, the lock-in phenomenon observed for 1:2:12 proportions and 300m high in the vicinity
short afterboy orientation which it is eliminated in of interfering buildings.
interference cases. For showing the effect of 4) The non-dimensional acrosswind force spectra
interfering building location and mean wind velocity thus generated can be used to predict the
on the normalized non-dimensional acrosswind force acrosswind displacements, accelerations and
spectrum , the results are illustrated as contours corresponding overturning moments at the
which are function of X/b, Y/b and mean wind preliminary design stage of tall rectangular and
velocity. square buildings as well as at the final design
stage of similar buildings.
4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5) This study has revealed that the acrosswind force
The values of normalized acrosswind force spectrum spectrum value of tall rectangular building
are observed to decrease with increase in size of the studied depends on: a) Mean wind velocity: b)
interfering building. The normalized acrosswind Location of interfering building: c) Orientation of
force spectrum attains a maximum value 1.246 with principal building as well as interfering building.
the small interfering building in the critical position
(13.4b,0.5b) at a reduced velocity of 9.28. 6 SELECTIVE REFERENCES:
5 CONCLUSIONS Eimani-Kalehsar, H.(2000), “Experimental Aerodynamic
Studies on Tall Rectangular Buildings. “, Ph.D. Thesis,
The outcome of the present work is summarized as Dept. of Civil Eng. , University of Roorkee, India.
follows: Kareem, A. (1982a), “ Acrosswind Response of Tall
Buildings.”, J. Struct. Eng, ASCE, 108(ST4), pp. 869-887
1) The values of normalized acrosswind force Saunders, J. W. (1974), “ Wind Excitation of Tall Buildings.”,
spectrum are observed to decrease with increase Ph.D. Thesis, Monash University, Australia
in size of the interfering building.
101
Numerical simulation of wind loads on structures and effects of incident

turbulence
M. A. K. Elsayed1, Y. M. Elokda2, S. A. Ragab3, M. R. Hajj4
ABSTRACT: A compact upwind difference fifth-order scheme is used to effectively and accurately perform
large eddy simulations of the flow over a surface-mounted prism. Two cases of smooth and turbulent inflow
conditions are compared. The results show that the highest negative mean value of the pressure coefficient on
the roof and the sides is about 30% larger in the case of turbulent inflow and takes place closer to the windward
edge of the prism. The predicted mean characteristics of the pressure coefficients in the turbulent case match the
experimental values in terms of both magnitude and location on the roof of the prism. The effects of turbulence
and the simulation duration on the peak value and its probability of non-exceedence are discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION of flows encountered in wind engineering applica-

tions. Second, large eddy simulation of the flow field
The complex characteristics of the flow field over under two different incident flow conditions, namely
structures makes the prediction of peak values for smooth and isotropic homogeneous turbulent inflow,
wind loads extremely difficult. Issues related to sim- are carried out. A comparison of mean and instanta-
plifications made in building codes are all related to neous surface pressure characteristics under the two
the effects of turbulence in the incident flow on ex- inflow conditions is presented and results are com-
treme wind loads on structures. Consequently, there is pared to experimental data.
a need to establish procedures that allow for the simu-
lation of turbulence in different exposure categories or 2 LES OF FLOW FIELD AND IMPLEMENTA-
terrains and that would not truncate the effects of tur- TION
bulence to simple ratios or factors. To this end, recent
advances made in computational power, technologies In LES, the large scale motion is resolved directly,
and methodologies allow for the development of nu- whereas the small-scale components of motion are
merical codes capable of predicting the dynamic char- modeled (Ragab (1996)). The fidelity in large eddy
acteristics of wind loads on structures under different simulations of complex flows, especially the turbu-
incident flow conditions. Because the basic dynam- lent kinetic energy spectrum near the cut-off wave-
ics of the turbulent flow over a structure is contained number, depends on the accuracy of the numerical
in large-scale vortices and shear layers instabilities, method used to solve the governing equations for
one could accurately determine wind loads by resolv- large-scale motions as well as on the sub-grid scale
ing all large scales and use a subgrid scale (SGS) tur- (SGS) model. In this work, the Germano dynamic
bulence model for the small scales. This is the ba- SGS model is used (Germano et al. (1992)). Tol-
sic idea of large eddy simulation. One issue to be stykh (1994) and Tolstykh and Lipavskii (1998) de-
addressed when performing large eddy simulations veloped a family of fifth-order non-centered compact
of complex flows is the fact that the fidelity in such schemes (CUD-II-5) in which artificial dissipation is
simulations depends on the accuracy of the numeri- controllable. Such a scheme is very attractive for
cal method used to solve the governing equations for LES because it does not require explicit filtering, as
large-scale motions as well as on the SGS model. The with centered compact schemes, and numerical dissi-
objective of this work is two-folded. First, a compact pation can be minimized. Ragab and El-Okda (2005)
upwind difference fifth-order scheme is used to effec- showed that the magnitude of artificial damping can
tively and accurately perform large eddy simulations be minimized by using Lax-Friedrichs type flux vec-
of the flow over a surface-mounted prism as a model tor splitting.
1
Graduate Research Assistant, ESM Dept., VA Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
2
3
Professor, ESM Dept., VA Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, e-mail ragab@vt.edu
4
Professor, ESM Dept., VA Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, e-mail mhajj@vt.edu
102
M.A.K. Elsayed, Y.M. Elokda, S.A. Ragab, M.R. Hajj
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A comparison of contour plots of the mean pressure 2

coefficients on surface of the prism shows that the
-1.20
maximum values of the mean pressure coefficient on 1
the roof and sides in the case of isotropic homoge- -0.20
00
y
1.
neous turbulent inflow are larger by about 30% than
0
0
.4
00
.8
-0
0 -2
-1 .
-1
0.80 .0
0 -0.40
counterpart values in the case of smooth inflow. A
0.60
comparison of the root-mean-square (rms) pressure -1
coefficients under smooth and turbulent inflow con-

-0.80
ditions shows a higher level of variations on the roof -2
-2 -1 0 1 2
of the prism in the case of turbulent inflow in com- x
parison with the case of smooth inflow conditions.

A comparison of the profiles of the simulated mean Figure 2 Contour plots of the instantaneous pressure coef-
and rms pressure coefficients along the symmetry line ficients near the time when peak values were observed on
on the roof with experimental values shows that the the surface of the prism under smooth inflow conditions
predicted mean characteristics of the pressure coef-
ficients in the turbulent case match the experimental A comparison of the probability of non-
values in terms of both magnitude and location on the exceedence shows that the turbulent case yields a
roof of the prism. probability for the peak pressure coefficient that is
Contour plots of the instantaneous pressure coeffi- close to the one obtained from the measured data.
cient near the times when peak values were observed
on the roof are presented in figures 1 and 2. The re- 4 CONCLUSIONS
sults clearly show that the peak values have increased In this work, a compact upwind difference fifth-order
by about 30% as a result of introducing turbulence scheme is used to effectively and accurately perform
in the incident flow in the region over the symmetry large eddy simulations of the flow over a surface-
plane. The peak value of −2 obtained in the turbu- mounted prism. Two cases of smooth and turbulent
lent inflow case is about 20% smaller than the val- incident flows are considered. Mean and extreme sur-
ues measured experimentally. Yet, it is important to face pressure coefficients are compared with experi-
note that the peak value reported in the experiments mental results.
were based on a record with a nondimensional dura-
tion U T /H = 1091. By comparison, the peak value 5 REFERENCES
reported for the case of turbulent inflow is obtained
Germano, M., Piomelli, U., Moin, P. and Cabot, W. H.
from a record with a duration U T /H = 40. One
(1992) A Dynamic subgrid-scale eddy viscosity model.
would expect that the peak value would increase as
Physics of Fluids, 3 (7), pp. 1760-1765.
this duration is increased. Ragab, S. A. and El-okda, Y. M. (2005) Applications of a
fifth-order non-centered compact scheme for large eddy
simulation. 43rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Ex-
hibit, January 10-13, Reno, NV, AIAA paper 2005-
2 -0.80
1267.
-0.60
0
-0.80 -0.2
-0.40 Ragab, S. A. (1996) Numerical simulation of turbulence.
1
Handbook of Fluid Dynamics and Fluid Machinery,
0
0.8
.00
-0.
-1
Eds. Schetz, J. A. and Fuhs, A. E., John Wiley & Sons,

6
0
0
.2
y
-0
1.00 -1
.4
0 0
pp. 1506-1527.
80
-0 .
-0.20
Tolstykh, A. I. (1994) High accuracy non-centered com-
-1
pact difference schemes for fluid dynamics applications,
.00 World Scientific, New Jersey.
-0.20
-1
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
Tolstykh, A. I. and Lipavskii, M. V. (1998) On perfor-
x mance of methods with third- and fifth-order compact
Figure 1 Contour plots of the instantaneous pressure coef- upwind differencing, Journal of Computational Physics,
ficients near the time when peak values were observed on 140, pp. 205-232.
the surface of the prism under smooth inflow conditions
103
Non-Gimensional Volutions for Wrajectories of Zind-Griven Fompact

Rbjects
E.C. English1, J.D. Holmes2
ABSTRACT: Severe windstorms may cause many sorts and shapes of debris, often originating from the roofs
of buildings, to be blown downstream. One kind of object shape is the ‘compact’ type. Examples of this are
spheres and cubes, or, in the real world, roof gravel and roof-top equipment. In this paper, trajectories of
generic compact objects are examined in a non-dimensional form. Trajectories are calculated both for cases
neglecting and including the effect of vertical air resistance. In the former case a closed form solution is
available; in the latter, solutions must be obtained using a numerical method with incremental time steps. It
is shown that including the effect of vertical air resistance causes a significant increase in the horizontal
velocity of a compact object at impact.
shows the relative wind velocity vectors with respect

1 INTRODUCTION to a moving cube in a horizontal wind field.
Strong wind events such as hurricanes can generate

wind-borne debris that may cause substantial
um
damage to buildings. As proposed by Wills, Lee and U
Wyatt (2002), wind-borne debris may be classified
according to shape into three basic types: "particles"
(here called compact objects), "sheets" and "rods".
This paper, focusing on the first category, describes
-vm
numerical solutions for the trajectories of spheres
and cubes in non-dimensional form.
2 EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR COMPACT -vm

OBJECTS E
Numerical solutions for the trajectories of compact
objects (spheres and cubes) have been developed by U-um
J.D. Holmes in previous work (Holmes, 2004;
Holmes et al., 2004). The equations of motion for Figure 1. Relative wind vectors with respect to a
compact objects may be given in the form: wind-borne cube
d2x ȡ a C D " 2 (U u m ) >U u m 2 v m 2 @

(1)
Equations 1 and 2 may be expressed non-
dimensionally (after Tachikawa, 1983) in the form:
dt 2 2m
d2x
>U u @g
du
>
(KC D )(1 - u) 1 u v 2
2
@
1/ 2
(3)
m
2 2
2
d z
2
ȡ a C D " (v m ) vm dt 2 dt
(2)
dt 2 2m
d2z
where um and vm are the horizontal and vertical dt 2
dv
dt
>
(KC D )(- v) 1 u v 2
2
@
1/ 2
1
(4)
components of the missile, or debris object velocity,

U is the wind speed, Ua is the density of air, C D is where,
the drag coefficient, m is the mass of the missile and § xg ·
x ¨ 2¸ (5)
"is the characteristic length ( = (S/4) u diameter, ©U ¹
for a sphere; = side length for a cube). Figure 1 § zg · (6)
z ¨ 2¸
©U ¹
1
LSU Hurricane Center, Louisiana State University, USA, e-mail english@hurricane.lsu.edu
2
JDH Consulting, Mentone, Victoria, Australia, e-mail jdholmes@bigpond.net.au
104
E.C. English, J.D. Holmes
Non-dimensional velocity vs. horizontal

§ tg · (7)
t ¨ ¸ displacement for a sphere, CD=0.5
©U ¹ § um · 1.0
u ¨ ¸ (8) 0.9
©U ¹ 0.8 K=16
§ vm · (9) 0.7 K=8
v ¨ ¸ 0.6
K=4
©U ¹
um /U
0.5
0.4 K=2
K, the non-dimensional Tachikawa number, is: 0.3 K=1
0.2 K=0.5
0.1
0.0
U aU 2 " 2 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
K (10)
2mg x-bar
3 EFFECT OF VERTICAL AIR RESISTANCE Figure 3. Non-dimensional missile velocity vs. horizontal
displacement for a sphere, neglecting vertical air resistance.
Obtaining solutions to these equations requires an
iterative procedure using incremental time steps. A Comparing Figure 3 with Figure 2, the solutions are
set of such solutions for a sphere for varying in good agreement in the early part of the
Tachikawa number is shown in Figure 2. trajectories, but neglecting the vertical air resistance
results in underestimation of the horizontal missile
Non-dimensional velocity vs. horizontal velocity for x greater than about 0.1.
displacement for a sphere, CD=0.5
4 CONCLUSIONS
1.0
0.9
0.8
Including the effect of vertical air resistance causes a
K=16 significant increase in the horizontal velocity of a
0.7
K=8
0.6 compact object at impact. If the impact is on a
K=4
um/U
0.5
0.4
K=2 horizontal surface, the object's trajectory increases in
K=1
0.3
K=0.5
length. When the object impacts a vertical surface,
0.2
0.1
the extent of its vertical drop decreases. Neglecting
0.0 the vertical air resistance allows a simpler closed-
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
form solution to be obtained but results in
x-bar
underestimation of the horizontal missile velocity at
the end of the trajectory.
Figure 2. Non-dimensional missile velocity vs. horizontal
displacement for a sphere, including vertical air resistance.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The equations of motion for a compact object, if The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the
the effect of vertical air resistance is neglected, are Louisiana Sea Grant Program.
considerably simpler and allow a closed-form
solution (Holmes, 2004). The relationship between 6 REFERENCES
the non-dimensional missile speed, and non- Baker, C.J. (2004) Solutions of the debris equations, 6th U.K.
dimensional horizontal displacement is then an Conference on Wind Engineering, Cranfield University,
U.K.
implicit one, as follows.
Holmes, J.D. (2004) Trajectories of spheres in strong winds
with application to wind-borne debris, J. Wind Eng. Ind.
§ u · Aerodyn. 92, pp. 9-22.
KC D x ¨ ¸ log e (1 u ) (11) Holmes, J.D., English, E.C. & Letchford, C.W. (2004)
©1 u ¹ Aerodynamic forces and moments on cubes and flat plates,
with applications to wind-borne debris, 5th International
Note that for small times, Equation (3), after Colloquium on Bluff Body Aerodynamics and Applications,
integration, and Equation (11) both give the Ottawa, Canada.
following asymptotic solution : Tachikawa, M. (1983) Trajectories of flat plates in uniform
flow with applications to wind-generated missiles, J. Wind
Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 14, pp. 443-453.
u # 2C D Kx (12) Wills, J.A.B., Lee, B.E. & Wyatt, T.A. (2002) A model of
wind-borne debris damage, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 90,
for x small, and u much less than 1.0, (Baker 2004). pp. 555-565.
Equation (11) is plotted for a sphere in Figure 3.
105
Eolian erosion of a granular material placed inside a rectangular box
A.D. Ferreira1, R.A.G. Oliveira1
ABSTRACT: Some experimental results, obtained from a wind tunnel simulation, of the dust released from a
rectangular box, with the upper surface exposed to the flow, are presented. Results discuss the lost time-rate
and also the free-surface change, in time, of the bed material. This information is useful for the development
and benchmark of numerical models dealing with this phenomenon, which might be very useful for the project
of open containers for transport, the development of protection devices, or stocking strategies.
It is common to find in nature situations where development and benchmark of numerical models
aeolian erosion of solid particles occurs. This is the under development, which might be very useful for
case of, e.g., coal piles in a stockyard, sand, snow, or the project of open containers, or the development of
even other granular materials stocked or transported protection devices.
in open containers. Some of the experimental results are presented
Those materials, once exposed to the wind, are hereafter, showing the change of the free surface
subject to the erosion process, and to the consequent bed, when the main flow blows parallel with the
movement of particles through the ejection, larger lateral box surfaces. The tests were performed
suspension, rolling, creeping, impact and rebounding in a wind tunnel, using a rectangular box with the
phenomena. As a result of such particles’ movement, dimensions shown in the first picture.
namely deposition and liftoff, the free-surface of the The following pictures show the deformation,
bed load changes. measured for some time steps, of the free surface.
This problem is suitable to create environmental The free-surface shape change, in time, is presented,
impact, as the dispersion of pollutants might affect starting from flat shape (t=0 min), 10 mm bellow the
communities or the landscape, or economical lost of top level of the box. For the several time steps
valuable materials, or even creating agriculture shown, the free-surface color distribution is related
problems. For granular materials, when transported to its local “vertical deformation rate” (dz / dt),
using open cars, e.g. railway transport, among the defined as positive when the surface moves upward.
main impact factors, a human one can be pointed The last two figures show, respectively, the
out: the lost of the granular material, and the observed movement of the sand inside of the box,
consequent environmental impact due to the and the path (in light red - observed with the aid of a
deposition of dust along the railway path passing laser light plane) of the particles leaving (or just
nearby communities. moving) the box, superimposed with the
In this work some results, obtained from a wind experimental flow field (measured with a even hole
tunnel simulation, of the dust released from a probe) in the vertical central box plane. The free-
rectangular box, with the upper surface exposed to surface, defined at time step t=35 minutes, (for the
the flow, are presented. Results discuss the lost time- last two figures shown) was frozen, during the
rate and also the free-surface change, in time, of the corresponding tests, using a spray.
bed material. This information is needed for the
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Polo II, 3030-290 COIMBRA, almerindo.ferreira@dem.uc.pt
106
A.D. Ferreira
Figure 1 - The measured deformation of the free surface
107
Passive dynamic vibration absorbers – comparison of different types
O. Fischer1
ABSTRACT: Passive dynamic vibration absorbers have been used up to now as a useful mean to face wind
excited vibrations of civil engineering structures like high masts, slender bridges and esp. footbridges. Their
idea is simple, but the way of application can be different according to the type of structure and to the space
where the absorber can be placed – that is why different types of absorbers have been developed since the 60th
of last Century. The paper compares the effect of pendulum, ball and liquid absorbers and assesses the advan-
tages of each of them.
1 INTRODUCTION fective in the case of stationary excitation of known
frequency, but can be used also in case of random or
Wind-excited vibrations have been troubling the
non-stationary excitation or in case of transient vi-
engineers for some 200 years. Firstly there were
brations.
collapses of hanging bridges, later the vibrations of
The dynamic behaviour of a structure undergoes
tall chimney stacks. Since that time the development
a change when an additional mass is attached to the
of industry, construction technology as well as gen-
structure’s mass. A suitable design of the attached
eral requirements of human society have made the
mass can ensure that the amplitudes of the structure
vibrations of structures an integral part of the devel-
will grow smaller and that the energy imparted to the
opment of technical sciences both in the field of the-
structure will manifest itself primarily as a motion of
ory and experiment, and in the industry offering
the attached mass. The absorber mass must be at-
means for the struggle with vibrations. The endeav-
tached near the maximum amplitude of the vibration
our to minimize vibrations is motivated by necessity
mode of the structure and must be able to move in
to assure the safety of structures, i.e. to eliminate the
the same direction(s) as the structure is expected to
dangerous fatigue stresses on the one hand, and by
vibrate, without impairing the serviceability and
their serviceability should they be used for installa-
safety of the structure. The attachment of the ab-
tion of sensitive measuring or production equipment
sorber’s mass can be elastic, damped, or variously
on the other hand, and by the concern for human
combined. For extensive theory and optimization see
health which can be impaired by vibrations.
Korenev-Reznikov 1993, for design aid see Den
There is a number of possibilities of vibrations
Hartog 1952, for examples of practical arrangement
prevention both in advance in the design or subse-
see Ruscheweyh 1998.
quently after their appearance, and literature in this
field is extensive. However, they should be always 2.1 Absorbers with translatory mass movement
effective, feasible in the given area and operating Vertical vibrations can be absorbed only by a verti-
conditions, not too sensitive to the accuracy of set- cally moving mass, thus the absorber mass is sus-
ting of their parameters or affording the possibility pended on helical or leaf springs. Its spring constant
of their rectification, if required. They should have. is well defined by spring dimensions and the damp-
reasonable service life, maintenance requirements as ing elements can guarantee the required damping
well as costs. In these terms this paper affords atten- force. Consequently this absorber can be considered
tion to passive dynamic vibration absorbers with as optimum.
which we have good experience in our country (see Horizontal motion proceeding in one direction
Pirner & Fischer 2002). only can be damped by an absorber of the same type
installed in the position differing by 90o from the
2 PASSIVE DYNAMIC ABSORBERS
former. In such a case it is merely necessary to ad-
Passive dynamic absorbers are adequate in cases just the position and the reliable transmission of
when the structure cannot be provided with any ad- forces from the absorber to the building structure. It
ditional fixed or yielding support required for the can be mentioned here that the sum of these forces
elimination of vibrations. However, they are effec- equals to the inertia force of the absorber mass, i.e.
tive only in case of dynamic loads and, moreover, in
a not very broad frequency band. They are most ef-
1
Prof. Eng. Ondřej Fischer, DSc, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Rep., Inst. of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
e-mail: fischero@itam.cas.cz
108
O. Fischer
Fabs = mabs ⋅ vabs ⋅ ( 2π ⋅ f ) and that the damping effect ing as vibration absorber. However, the “absorber”
2
mass is only a part – approximately one half – of the

depends on the absorber mass and on its amplitude. liquid mass in the tank, consequently, such vibration
The absorber for a general motion in horizontal absorber will be adequate primarily in the cases
plane would most probably be designed as a mass of when water can serve also other purposes (swim-
plate shape supported by vertical elastic bars of cir- ming pool, fire-reservoir). For experimental verifica-
cular cross section, or by i shear-stressed rubber tion see Pirner & Urushadze 2004.
elements. These bars or rubber pads would be so
dimensioned that in their sum they would have the 3 CONCLUSIONS
required spring constant in all directions of possible When assessing the effectiveness of various types of
motion. Such vibration absorber can be used also for passive dynamic vibration absorbers in terms of the
rotary vibrations in the same horizontal plane. If the magnitude of required mass, the most advantageous
displacement and rotation natural frequencies of the type obviously is the absorber with translatory mo-
structure which is going to be damped do not differ tion described in para. 2.1, followed by the mathe-
much, it is possible to tune the absorber as a system matical pendulum, physical pendulum (para. 2.2),
with two degrees of freedom and to absorb vibra- spherical (para. 2.3), and finally free level liquid
tions simultaneously in both modes. absorber (2.4). However, engineering practice ap-
2.2 Pendulum absorber plies also other criteria, such as feasibility, space
The construction of a horizontally movable absorber requirements, local conditions, etc. In a specific
mass on metal or rubber elements, as described in case, it is necessary to take into account all relevant
2.1, may be laborious and costly and can be there- circumstances applying the knowledge of the advan-
fore replaced by suspending the absorber mass on tages and disadvantages of all relevant possibilities.
appropriate hangers, the arrangement and length of 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
which determine its kinematics and frequency. In
The support of the research projects No B 2071303,
case of major amplitudes of the pendulum, a part of
103/02/0956, 103/03/P080 and AV0Z 20710524 is
the energy of the absorber mass is absorbed obvi-
gratefully acknowledged.
ously by its lifting, and the restoring force, as well as
the damping effect, will be slightly smaller with re- 5 REFERENCES
spect to the absorber after 2.1. Den Hartog, J.P.(1956): Mechanical vibrations, McGraw-Hill
book company, Inc: N. York, London, 1956.
2.3 Ball absorber
Náprstek J. & Fischer O. (1994): An analytical-numerical solu-
The disadvantage of ball absorbers is due to the fact tion to structure-fluid interaction under seismic excitation.
that in tall structures of low natural frequency they In: Proc. confer. Engineering aero-hydroelasticity, Univ. of
require extremely long suspensions which are very Western Bohemia, Pilsen, June 6-10.1994, pp. 270-275
Pirner M. & Fischer O. (2000): The development of a ball
difficult to build similarly as extremely short sus- vibration absorber for the use on towers. Jour. of the Int. As-
pensions. In such cases it is possible to replace the sociation for shell and spatial structures – IASS, 41 (2000),
pendulum motion with the motion of a sphere in a No 2, pp. 91-99.
spherical dish or a cylinder in a cylindrical void, if Pirner M. & Urushadze S. (2004): Liquid damper for suppress-
the case involves movement in a single direction. ing horizontal and vertical motions of footbridges. Acta
technica ČSAV, 49, pp. 295-328
The absorber mass is then the mass of the rolling Housner G.W. (1961): Vibration of structures induced by seis-
body and its frequency depends on the difference of mic waves. In: Shock and vibration handbook (C.M. Harris
ball and bowl radii. The absorber has been described & Ch.E. Crede eds), Mc Graw-Hill book company, New
in detail in Pirner & Fischer 2000. A comparison of York, 1961, chap. 50
the resulting damping force according to 2.2 and 2.3 Ruscheweyh H. (1998): Damping systems against wind in-
duced vibrations of slender structures. In: Proc. 2nd East
shows that the rolling motion of the spherical ab- European conf. on Wind engineering (M. Pirner & O.
sorber somewhat reduces the efficiency of the de- Fischer, ITAM-Academy of Sciences of the Czech Rep.
vice. eds), Prague, 7-11 Sept. 1998, Vol. 1, pp. 63-80. ISBN 80-
902227-8-1.
2.4 Liquid absorber Korenev B.G. & Reznikov L.M. (1993): Dynamic vibration
A solution of the liquid motion in a vibrating tank absorbers. J. Wiley & Sons, West Sussex.
with free-level liquid was presented in Náprstek & Pirner M. & Fischer O. (2002): Galloping of slender bodies. In:
Flow induced vibrations in engineering practice.
Fischer 1994, an adequate approximate analysis was (P. Anagnostopoulos edt.), WIT Press, Southampton, Bos-
presented by Housner 1961 who divided the liquid ton, pp. 131-240.
into two masses and considered one as firmly fixed
with tank and the other as elastically connected, act-
109
Wind tunnel tests and aerodynamical analysis of a new designed

footbridge in Katowice
A. Flaga 1, 2, G. Bosak 1, M. PaĔtak 1, M. BigosiĔski 1, P. ZiĊtara 1
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with basic problems concerning aerodynamics of a new designed footbridge in
Katowice (Poland). The analysis comprises: theoretical calculations of vibrations exited by atmospheric
turbulence in conditions of aerodynamical feedbacks and wind tunnel tests. The experiment part of the
research contains: firstly, tests of a section model of the footbridge deck, secondly, investigations of an
aeroelastic model of the footbridge. Finally, conclusions concerning the ultimate and serviceability limit
states with respect to human comfort criteria for the analyzed footbridge have been formulated.
1 DESCRIPTION OF GEOMETRICAL AND

STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE
ANALYSED FOOTBRIDGE
A new designed footbridge on Drogowa Trasa - wind tunnel tests of a section model of the
ĝrednicowa in Katowice is of a shape similar to the footbridge deck to obtain aerodynamical
Gateshead footbridge in Great Britain. A computer coefficients,
visualization of the shape of the footbridge in - computer simulation of a stochastic wind
Katowice is presented in Figure 1. velocity field using in computer calculations,
- determination of wind forces taking into
consideration wind turbulence and
aerodynamical feedbacks using quasi-static
theory,
- calculations of dynamic response of the
footbridge caused by wind turbulence and
aerodynamical feedbacks using authors’ original
programs.
Figure 1 General view of the footbridge in Katowice The calculation of the dynamic response of the
The structure consists of curved in plane, circular, of structure exposed to atmospheric turbulence and
radius 125,0 m, reinforced concrete span, suspended feedbacks has been obtained using quasi-steady
to a parabolic arch, deflected from vertical direction method. It has been assumed that it is possible to
of about 20,5q calculate the displacements with the accurate
precision as the linear combination of the three
2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF DYNAMICAL lowest mode shapes.
RESPONSE OF THE FOOTBRIDGE UNDER Wind tunnel tests of a section model of the
WIND ACTION footbridge deck have been conducted to obtain the
aerodynamical force coefficients as functions of an
The theoretical analysis of the footbridge has been angle of wind inflow on the deck structure.
conducted in following main steps: A model in scale of 1:50, using in wind tunnel tests,
- modal analysis of the footbridge in use of FEM has been made of plywood, steel and epoxide resin.
system,
1
Prof. Dr Sc. Eng. Andrzej Flaga, Institute of Structural Mechanics, Cracow University of Technology, 24 Warszawska Street,
31-155 Cracow & Department of Structural Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology, 40 Nadbystrzycka Street, 20-618
Lublin, Poland,
e-mail: aflag@usk.pk.edu.pl
2
Dr. Sc. Eng. Grzegorz Bosak, M. Sc. Eng. Marek PaĔtak, M. Sc. Eng. Maciej BigosiĔski, M. Sc. Eng. Paweá ZiĊtara,
Cracow University of Technology, 24 Warszawska Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland, e-mail: GBosak@interia.pl
110
A. Flaga, G. Bosak, M. Pańtak, M. Bigosiński, P. Ziȩtara
The experiments have been performed for two 4 COMPARISON OF MODEL TESTING
situations, A and B, connected with various mean RESULTS AND NUMERICAL RESULTS
wind direction inflow on the section model. The
situations A and B schemes are presented in Figure The comparison of numerical calculations results
2. and experimental results obtained in model wind
tunnel investigations are presented in Table 1 for the
arch and in Table 2 for the deck of the footbridge.
Air inflow Situation A
Py Table 1 The comparison between displacements obtained as a
Deck result of experiment and calculations for the steel arch
y

D Mz Case xstat xmax
x Px
D [cm] [cm]
D
Wind velocity 20 m/s
Experiment 0,5 2,0
Situation B Py Calculations 0,9 1,6
Air inflow Wind velocity 25 m/s
Deck
y Experiment 0,8 3,9
Mz D Calculations 1,5 2,3
Px Wind velocity 30 m/s
D
x Experiment 1,4 6,9
D
Calculations 2,1 3,6
Figure 2 The situations A, B test schemes of the section
model in wind tunnel ( D - mean wind direction of air inflow, Table 2 The comparison between displacements obtained as a

D - positive rotation angle of the section model in motionless result of experiment and calculations for the deck
reference system Case ystat ymax arms amax
[cm] [cm] [m/s2] [m/s2]
3 WIND TUNNEL INVESTIGATIONS OF Experiment 0,2 1,3 0,08 0,34
AEROELASTIC MODEL Calculations 0,3 0,6 0,06 0,23
Experiment 0,3 2,3 - -
An aeroelastic model testing has been carried out in Calculations 0,5 0,8 - -
a boundary layer wind tunnel located in the Wind Wind velocity 30 m/s
Engineering Laboratory of the Cracow University of Experiment 0,5 3,3 - -
Technology. A view of aeroelastic footbridge model Calculations 0,7 1,4 - -
in the wind tunnel working section is presented in
Figure 3.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Basing upon the obtained results, following general

conclusions can be formulated:
1.Despite of the complexity of the analyzed structure
from the point of view of geometry and structural
solutions, it has been succeeded to realize
aeroelastic model of the footbridge, which fulfils
the most important similarity criteria.
2.Neither self-excited aeroelastic vibrations nor
critical vortex shedding have been noticed.
3.Atmospheric turbulence is the most important
phenomenon causing vibrations of the footbridge.
4.Values of vibration acceleration obtained in
analyses do not exceed the admissible ones. The
Figure 3 Aeroelastic footbridge model in the wind tunnel human comfort criteria – in case of dynamic wind
working section
action – have been fulfilled.
111
A. Flaga1, T. Lipecki2
ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to propose a way of numerical simulation of across-wind action caused
by vortices as well as a slender structures response. Basing upon our own vortex excitation model for
vibrating structure and unsteady wind flow, a computer program had been elaborated and utilised in
numerical calculations.
1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL 2 DETERMINISTIC FUNCTIONS

Basic formulas (eq.1 – load, eq.2 – non-dimensional Three zero-one deterministic functions 41(z), 42(z),
load, eq.3 – power spectral density function) of the 43(z) and function *(z) – connected with normalised
mathematical model of critical vortex excitation for space correlation function of vortex excitation
unsteady wind and vibrating structure are given by process give in final result zero-one function Y(z) in
Flaga (2004): the domain 'L (the domain where vortex excitation
can appear) – eq.4. Point z0 is the central point of the
w y ( z, t ) q c D (1 D V Kˆ ) 3 wˆ y ( z , t ) Y ( z ) , (1) domain 'L. Exemplary way of assuming zero-one
2
function Y(z) for cantilever structure is presented in
ªVm ( z , t ) º fig.1. Function *(z) can be assumed as equal to 2Lw,
wˆ y ( z, t ) « » C y ( z, t ) sin 2Sf i t M , (2)
where Lw – non-dimensional correlation length scale
¬ Vc ¼
from e.g.: Ruscheweyh (1989).
f G wˆ ( z , f ) k f ª §1 f / fi ·2 º
exp « ¨ ¸ », (3) Y ( z) 4 ( z) * ( z) (4)
V w2ˆ S B fi «¬ © B ¹ »¼
3 SIMULATION METHODS AND COMPUTER
where: in general: D, V ŵ , k, B – experimental PROGRAM
parameters from: ESDU (1986); Howell & Novak WAWS – Weighted Amplitude Wave Superposition
(1980); Vickery (1995); V Kˆ – standard deviation of method (Shinozuka, 1987) and AR – Auto-
structure response; Y(z) – deterministic function. Regressive method (Borri, 1988) were used to
generate stochastic process given by eqs.1-3.
Our own computer program “Vortex Load” (using
Finite Element Method Program – Algor) was created
to apply proposing model. According to the model
1.3Vc
load is generated as a stochastic process in point z0
(process is fully correlated in 'L) and applied to the
0.9Vc structure in the domain 'L (Timeload, Algor).
41(z) 42(z) 43(z) 34i (z) Displacements at every ordered step of time are
obtained using Ssap4, Algor. Standard deviation of
displacements V Kˆ in point z0 is calculated and next on
this basis: 'L, Y(z) and also eq.1 are actualised. So,
next load steps are assumed on the basis of V Kˆ ,
determined from displacements connected with
ordered range of time before – FT1, where T1 – first
34i(z) )1(z) 4(z) *(z) Y(z) *(z) Y(z)
period of natural vibrations; F - parameter >1.
Figure 1 The way of assuming Y(z) for cantilever structure
1
Prof. Dr Sc. Eng. Andrzej Flaga, Deptartment of Structural Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology, Wind Engineering
Laboratory, Cracow University of Technology, e-mail: afkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl.
2
Msc. Eng. Tomasz Lipecki, Deptartment of Structural Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology, e-mail:
tlkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl.
112
A. Flaga, T. Lipecki
4 EXEMPLARY CALCULATIONS 100 120 140 160 180 200
0.005
time [sec]
Exemplary calculations were carried out for a 0.004
concrete chimney: Dt=6.76m, Db=11.56m, H=120m,
f1=0.5366, '=0.055. Assumed wind parameters are: 0.003
VK
wind profile: V ( z ) V 10 z / 10 , V(10)=15m/s,
D
0.002
D=0.2. Other parameters were assumed from ESDU:
0.001
Iu=0.1, St=0.185, Vw=0.18, Lw=2.9D. Moreover it
was assumed that: k=0.80, B=0.3. The final area: step
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
'L|53m.
Exemplary calculation results are given in figs. 2-6.
Figure 6 V Kˆ for 10 processes (1000x0.1sec, short period of
0.6
time – F = 3, 1 – predicted steps, repeated 1000 times)
w y(z,t) [kN]
0.2
5 CONCLUSIONS
-0.2
x Elaborated model and computer program enable
to generate vortex load as a stochastic process as
0 20 40 60 80 100 well as a structure response in time domain, taking
time [sec]
into account feed-back phenomenon between
Figure 2 Load process wy(z,t) as a function of time, for V Kˆ =0 vibrating structure and vortices;
x A new approach to estimate structure response
2.5 2 expressed in displacements as well as for example
fG (z,t)/V
w w 10
bending moments was elaborated;
2 20
1.5 30 x WAWS method is better then AR method to
40 generate stochastic process;
1 assumed
x The aim of further computations concerning
0.5
frequency [Hz] slender structures of circular cross-sections is to
0
validate this model with respect to experimental
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
results obtained on the real structures (steel and
Figure 3 Power spectral density functions – assuming and its concrete chimneys, tower, etc.)
estimators from 10, 20, 30, 40 processes
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
0.008
Project was financed by the State Committee of
displacements [m]
0.004 Scientific Research as grant no. 4 T07E 022 26.

0
7 REFERENCES
-0.004
Borri, C. (1988) Generation procedures of stationary random
-0.008 processes simulating wind time series. Sezione Strutture,
0 20 40 60 80 100 11/88.
time [sec]
ESDU 80025. (1986) Mean forces, pressures and flow field
Figure 4 Time history of displacements velocities for circular cylindrical structures: single cylinder
with two-dimensional flow. London, ESDU International Ltd.
100 120 140 160 180 200 Flaga, A. (1996) Wind vortex-induced excitation and vibration
0.0026 of slender structures. Single structure of circular cross
time [sec]
section normal to flow. Monograph No 202, Cracow.
0.0024 Howell, J.F. & Novak, M. (1980) Vortex shedding from
circular cylinders in turbulent flow. Proc. 5th ICWE, USA
0.0022 1979, Pergamon, Oxford, 619-629.
VK
Ruscheweyh, H. (1989) Codification of vortex excited

0.002
vibrations. Recent advances in wind engineering. Proc. of
the 2nd Asia-Pacific Symp. on Wind Eng., Beijing, China,
0.0018
step Int. Acad. Publ., Pergamon Press, 1: 362-372.
0.0016
Shinozuka, M. (1987) Stochastic Mechanics, vol. I. Columbia
0 100 200 300 400 500 University, New York.
Vickery, B.J. (1995) The response of chimneys and tower like
Figure 5 V Kˆ for 10 processes (1000x0.1sec, long period of structures to wind loading. A state of the art in wind
engineering, Wiley Eastern Limited: 205-233.
time – F about 49, 2 – predicted steps, repeated 500 times)
113

O. Flamand1, J. Leclair2
EXTENDED ABSTRACT: On the second tramway line in the city of Nantes, the occurrence of large
vibrations on the aerial catenary, when crossing the Loire River on a box girder bridge, created breakdown in
the electric power. This happened a few days within a year giving way to slowdown on the whole public
transportation line. The weather conditions in these events were identified as an eastern wind, normal to the
bridge axis, with a moderate speed of 10 m/s.
The catenary line is composed of vertical pylons The wire's excitation could be issued from a
sustaining from place to place a single tensioned movement from its sustaining device.
contact wire. This copper contact wire, the upper
surface of which is grooved for the sake of the hitch
on the pylons, was prone to a large amplitude / low
frequency vibration solely when crossing the river
Loire with a concrete box girder bridge. No other
occurrence of vibration in other place had been
reported on the 76 km of catenaries of this tramway
urban network.
These vibrations occurred ten days per year, they
seemed to be in a vertical plane and their amplitude,
by eye witnesses, 10 cm.
The cross section of the contact cable is very
peculiar. It was a shape corresponding to the one of a
worn contact wire, initially round shaped, after some
years of use.
Figure 2 A view of one pylon and its supporting devices
The pylons vibration was also investigated. They are
made of HEB200 or HEB180 standard beam, the
open face of the H being oriented along the bridge
axis. The H shape of the pylons could be sensitive to
galloping, examples of negative slope in lift
coefficient curves were found in literature, that
yielded a 11m/s critical wind speed.
In the other hand, the Scruton number, expressing
the ratio of the air mass to the moving object mass, is
moderate, Sc=27, what means an excitation can
appear easily.
The company operating the tramway had the
Figure 1 The tramway line on the Pirmil bridge opportunity to change the pylons' shape from H to
square and the vibrations occurred again after this
modification, what proved the galloping of the
A series of vibrations occurrence was reported by
pylons was not the cause of the vibration of the
the tramway operator, for which the wind conditions,
wires.
were all in a very narrow range, that is incidence
As galloping is the only aerodynamic phenomenon
equal 60°±10° and one minute averaged speed equal
that was seen to be able to cause the excitation, it
10 m/s ±2m/s. For this direction only the wind can
was decided to verify the properties of the wire
be very uniform. For any other wind direction, the
through wind tunnel tests. A piece of contact wire,
tall buildings and tall trees bordering the river must
285mm long, was cut and fitted on a 5 components
make the wind more turbulent.
balance. This sectional model of the wire was fixed
on a turntable and installed vertically in wind tunnel.
1
Eng. Olivier Flamand., Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Nantes, France, flamand@cstb.fr
2
Jacques Leclair, Responsable Maintenance Installations Fixes, SEMITAN, jleclair@tan.fr
114
O. Flamand, J. Leclair
. Because the occurrence of the excitation depends
from peculiar wind conditions, it was checked
through CFD calculations if these conditions
90° happened on the Pirmil bridge.
Xc The concrete bridge supporting the tramway lines
is parallel to a 20m wide road bridge, distant only
6.5m, with a deck 1m down the level of the rails, the
85° lattice structure of which is very massive.
The CFD software FLUENT was used for the 2D
calculations on a 30m high and 100m long area, the
Yc input conditions was a 8% turbulent horizontal wind
with a logarithmic profile and a 10m/s mean wind
speed at catenary height. Stationary and segregated
Figure 3 The axis associated with the section model computations were performed with a realizable k-H
The aerodynamic mean force coefficients turbulent model with representation of the two
expressed in an axes system attached to the section bridges. The tramway bridge was settled 6 m upon
model, were measured at a 10 m/s wind speed in a the river Loire free surface, its thickness was taken
complete turn. Figure 4 shows there is a small 3m, calculation was done with and without the plain
change in slope for a wind incidence close to 90°, i.e. concrete barrier. The truss of the road bridge was
a horizontal wind. represented as a plain surface, two truss thicknesses
2 were used in computations, 3m and 6m.
1.5
Cy The calculation showed that the plain concrete
barrier didn't change the flow inclination at the
Cx et Cy (in the wire reference)
1
Cx catenary height.
0.5 The wind inclination at the upwind catenary was
quoted +7° or +5°, depending of the road bridge
0
0 90 180 270 360
thickness. The inclination at the downwind catenary
-0.5 was +5.5° for the thick truss, +2° for the thin truss
case. This way it became clear that the galloping
-1
conditions could be achieved on the tramway bridge
-1.5 and that the wind upward deviation was in the
-2
narrow range around 4° for the downwind wire,
Incidence in degrees
when the upwind wire was subject to a much
inclined flow.
Figure 4 Mean force coefficients for a 10 m/s wind speed.
The value of the slope wC y wD varied from -1.3

to -2.3 (in coefficient unit per radian) in the wind
speed range 7 m/s to 14 m/s.
Cy
0.5
7 m/s
8 m/s
10 m/s
0.4
12 m/s
14 m/s
trend 7 m/s
0.3
trend 14 m/s
0.2
0.1
0.0
80 85 90 95 Figure 6 Result of the CFD calculation
Wind incidence (in °)
The better improvement proposed was to
Figure 5 Slope of the Cy coefficient for a wind close to increase the incoming wind turbulence by a net or an
horizontal irregular cornice.
115
J. Franke, W. Frank
ABSTRACT: A numerical simulation of the flow across an asymmetric street junction formed by four rings
of buildings has been performed with the commercial flow solver FLUENT V6.1 using the Reynolds averaged
Navier-Stokes equations with six different turbulence models. The turbulence models comprised four linear
two-equation models and a differential Reynolds stress model with two formulations for the pressure-strain.
The simulations were done for two directions of the approach flow using three systematically refined grids for
each case. The results on the finest were compared with experiments that are available from the CEDVAL

database. The best results for the velocity are obtained with the realizable and standard model while the
Reynolds stress models perform best for the Reynolds stresses and slightly worse for velocity.
1 INTRODUCTION fourth linear two-equation model is the shear stress

transport (SST) model of [Menter (1994)].

The detailed knowledge of the interaction of the atmo-
In addition, two differential Reynolds stress models
spheric boundary layer flow with clusters of obstacles
are used, the model of [Launder et al. (1975)] (LRR-
like buildings, trees or other obstructions is impor-
IP) and the model of [Speziale et al. (1991)] (SSG).
tant for several reasons. Understanding and predicting
The approach flow has the power law shape provided
the forces and loadings on the obstructions requires
by the experiment and turbulence quantities are pre-
knowledge of the complex flow patterns around the
scribed as proposed by [Richards & Hoxey (1993)].
obstacles and within the streets. This information is Z
also needed to assess the mechanical wind effects on

pedestrians and to determine the dispersion of pollu- X Y
tants or contaminants. 15H U
In the present work we therefore analyse the per-
formance of the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) approach with six turbulence models, in- 10H 10H
cluding two differential Reynolds stress models, for 10H
the prediction of the flow over a moderately complex
cluster of four rings of buildings forming an asym- 30H
metric street junction. For this case velocity and tur-
bulence measurements are available for three direc-
tions of the approach flow from the C EDVAL database Figure 1 Computational domain with intersection for
(www.mi.uni-hamburg.de/cedval) [Leitl (2000)]. The approach flow.

simulations are performed for two directions of the In Figure 1 the geometry of the street intersec-
approach flow, using three systematically refined tion and the computational domain for the ap-

grids in each case. proach flow are shown. Two of the ring shaped
buidlings partly have a slanted roof while all other
2 NUMERICAL METHOD
roofs are flat. The height of the building with flat
The turbulent, neutrally stratified atmospheric bound- roof is . The cross section of the

ary layer flow is described by the statistically steady streets is quadratic with edge length . Symmetry
RANS equations. For turbulence closure six mod- boundary conditions are used at the top and at the
els are used, namely the standard (SKE), realizable sides of the domain. At the outflow constant static
(RKE) [Shih et al. (1995)] and renomalization Group pressure is prescribed. The walls of the buidlings

(RNG) [Yakhot & Orszag (1986)] model. The and the streets between the buidlings are treated as

Dr.-Ing. Jörg Franke, Department of Fluid- and Thermodynamics, University of Siegen, e-mail franke@ift.uni-siegen.de
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfram Frank, Department of Fluid- and Thermodynamics, University of Siegen, e-mail frank@ift.uni-
siegen.de
116
J. Franke, W. Frank
smooth walls, while the ground around the intersec- the LRR-IP model which is best in that plane.
tion is treated as rough wall with the experimen- 2.5
tally determined roughness length .
2
Z 1.5
Z/H
1
EXP
0.5 U EXP,REF y/H=-1
X Y
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
X/H
2.5
2
1.5
Z/H
1
LRR-IP
0.5 U SIM,REF y/H=-1
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
X/H
Figure 2 Intersection and medium surface mesh for ap- Figure 4 Velocity vectors at " $ . case.
proach flow. The results are worse for the measurement planes
For the approach flow direction the buildings

at constant %, see Figure 4. Similar results are ob-
' (
are rotated by that angle in clockwise direction around tained for the case.

the z-axis. In Figure 2 the rotated buildings are shown Averaging the hit rates for all velocity compo-
together with the surface mesh of the medium grid. nents, all measurement planes and both approach flow
The grids are all blockstructured consisting only of directions leads to the following ranking for the veloc-
hexahedral cells. The fine grid has 2 335 360 cells. ity prediction (from best to worst): SKE, RKE, LRR-
The other two grids are generated by omitting every IP, SSG, RNG, SST. For the normal turbulent stresses
second node. we find: SSG, LRR-IP, RNG, RKE, SKE, SST.
3 RESULTS 4 REFERENCES
Grid convergence is shown with the hit rate defined Leitl, B. (2000) Validation data for microscale dispersion
in [VDI (2003)]. It is the number of measurement modeling. EUROTRAC Newsletter, 22, pp. 28-32.
locations at which the relative error of the simula- Shih, T.-H. et al. (1995) A new eddy-viscosity model ) " ,
tion is below an allowed deviation. We use 25 % for high Reynolds number turbulent flows – Model de-
for the velocities and 50% for the turbulent stresses. velopment and validation. Computers & Fluids, 24, 3,
pp. 227-238.
6 6
EXP. LRR-IP Yakhot, V. & Orszag, S. A. (1986) Renormalization group
5 5 analysis of turbulence: I. Basic theory. Journal of Scien-
U EXP,REF U SIM,REF
4 4 tific Computing, 1, 1, pp. 1-51.
3 3 Menter, F. R. (1994) Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbu-
2 2 lence models for engineering applications. AIAA Jour-
1 1 nal, 32, 8, pp. 1598-1605.
Y/H
Y/H
0 0 Launder, B. E. et al. (1975) Progress in the development

of Reynolds-stress turbulence closure. Journal of Fluid
-1 -1
Mechanics, 68, pp. 537-566.
-2 -2
Speziale, C. G. et al. (1991) Modelling the pressure-strain
-3 -3
correlation of turbulence: an invariant dynamical sys-
-4 -4 tems approach. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 227, pp.
-5 -5 245-272.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Richards, P. J. & Hoxey, R. P. (1993) Appropriate boundary
X/H X/H conditions for computational wind engineering models
Figure 3 Velocity vectors at .

case. using the ) model. Journal of Wind Engineering and
" ,
The hit rate is also used to judge the qual- Industrial Aerodynamics, 46 & 47, pp. 145-153.
ity of the models. We obtain good agreement VDI (2003) Environmental meteorology. Prognostic mi-
for the velocities in the measurement planes par- croscale windfield models – Evaluation for flow around
allel to the ground. In Figure 3 the experimen- buildings and obstacles. VDI-Richtlinie 3783, Blatt 9
(Entwurf), in German.
tal results are shown together with the ones of
117
Probabilistic description of tall building response to wind: Database-

assisted design, dynamics, and wind directionality effects
W.P. Fritz1, E. Simiu2
ABSTRACT: The lack of standards on the estimation of tall building response to wind has led to a situation
where estimates for the same building by two or more consultants can differ by more than 40 %. We propose
an improved procedure for estimating response of buildings in a clear and transparent manner allowing
structural engineers to thoroughly scrutinize the estimates or perform them on their own, once the
aerodynamic and climatological information is supplied by the wind engineering consultants. The procedure
is made possible by the measurement and electronic recording of simultaneous pressure time histories at
numerous ports on the surface of the wind tunnel model. It uses influence coefficients obtained by standard
structural analysis programs, and standard structural dynamics approaches. Multi-directional extreme wind
speed time series are transformed into one-dimensional time series of extreme wind effects, allowing the
simple and rigorous estimation of wind effects for any specified mean recurrence interval.
1 INTRODUCTION mass centers. The dynamic model of the building is

The lack of standards on the estimation of tall used to estimate the displacements and accelerations
building response to wind has led to a situation at each floor. These results are combined with
where estimates for the same building by two or influence coefficients obtained using standard
more consultants can differ by more than 40 %. We structural analysis programs to compute time
present a procedure that redirects in a clear and dependent wind-induced internal forces. The
transparent manner the control for estimating wind combinations of internal forces governed by
effects on buildings from the wind tunnel operators interaction equations and by load combinations
to the structural engineer. The procedure allows cover simply and exhaustively all cases of interest
structural engineers to thoroughly scrutinize the specified by the ASCE 7 Standard or other standards,
estimates, or perform them on their own once the in a manner that is directly relevant to and usable in
aerodynamic and climatological information is the design process. The wind effects then reflect
supplied by the wind engineering consultants. The rigorously the superposition of dynamic effects in
procedure is made possible by the measurement and the x and y directions and in torsion.
electronic recording of simultaneous pressure time
histories at numerous ports on the surface of the Advantages of the DAD procedure over the High-
wind tunnel model. It is based on the principles of Frequency Force Balance method (HFFB) are
Database-Assisted Design (DAD), uses standard discussed. Most notably, the procedure uses time
linear structural dynamics methods, accounts simply domain methods, which appeal to some practicing
and rigorously for wind directionality effects, and engineers more than frequency domain methods.
integrates clearly, effectively, and naturally wind The procedure also accounts for nonlinear modal
engineering and structural engineering aspects of the shapes and any number of vibration modes, provides
design. correct information on the distribution of horizontal
loads and torsional moments over the building
2 MODELING height, readily accommodates load combination
requirements specified by standards, integrates in a
The time histories of wind pressures in the wind simple, transparent, and physically correct manner
tunnel at a large number of locations on the wind directionality effects associated with the
building’s exterior surface are used to generate wind extreme wind climate and the building
forces in the building’s principal x and y directions aerodynamics, and yields, for direct design purposes
as well as torsional moments about the elastic center and for any specified mean recurrence interval, the
at each floor. The system herein is assumed to be requisite wind effects on all individual members of
linearly elastic and to have coincident elastic and
1
NIST/National Research Council Postdoctoral Research Associate, e-mail wfritz@nist.gov
2
NIST Fellow, National Institute of Standards and Technology, e-mail emil.simiu@nist.gov
118
W.P. Fritz, E. Simiu
the structure. Although the HFFB procedure is by-sector approach to wind directionality
relatively inexpensive, the costs savings likely pale underestimates the actual 50-year wind effects, and
in comparison to the benefits inherent in the more that the preliminary design is inadequate for the
accurate DAD approach, especially given that design against wind loads causing inefficiencies as
pressure measurements are usually obtained for well as entailing inconsistencies with respect to risk.
cladding design purposes.
4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A numerical example illustrates the DAD procedure This work was performed during the W.P. Fritz’s
to the design of 198 m tall, 66 story building. The tenure as an NRC/NIST postdoctoral research
preliminary design of the structural members was associate. E. Simiu served as postdoctoral research
performed on the basis of the along-wind loads advisor. The authors would like to thank Mihai
calculated in accordance with the ASCE 7-02 Iancovici and Michael A. Riley for their earlier
Standard. The building layout and preliminary contributions to this project. The pressure data were
member sizes were assumed to be symmetrical with provided by the A.G. Davenport Wind Engineering
respect to the principal axes x and y. The wind effect Group, Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel, University of
time history of interest is the interaction equation for Western Ontario, to whom we express our
member axial loads and moments. Key results for a appreciation.
few members in the building reveal that the sector-
119
D.A. Gatey 1 , C.A. Miller 2
ABSTRACT: Once in 50-year wind speeds have been calculated by applying a single consistent methodology
to wind speed data. Individually, coastal stations show more scatter, however, observed differences between
Ireland, France and the United Kingdom decrease greatly when the north-east travelling extra-tropical
cyclones are taken into account. Most inland stations show an appreciable degree of correlation in calculated
wind speeds to nearby cross-border stations. The issue concerning the possibility of wind speeds from longer
return periods due to severe windstorms in the past decade is brought forth.
1 INTRODUCTION More recently Type II (Fréchet, ȟ > 0) and Type III

(Weibull, ȟ < 0) GEV distribution fits have been
Current design wind speed maps for Europe do not brought forth. The Type III fit is of particular
match at borders, resulting in a variation of up to interest as it implies an upper limit on wind speeds.
100% in the design wind load within relatively short
distances. Discrepancies arise across borders 3 METHODOLOGY
because of differences in the type of data used, the
methods by which data are corrected to the basic Global surface summary of the day data was
wind velocity, and the process used to analyze and obtained from the National Climatic Database
calculate extreme wind speeds. This paper is an Center (NCDC) for stations in the UK, Ireland, the
attempt to explore some of these differences, and Netherlands, France, Germany, Denmark, and
determine whether applying a consistent Belgium for the period 1973 to 2003. In attempt to
methodology to wind speed data for a number of produce better statistical fits, stations with less than
European countries will reduce observed twenty years of observations were removed and
differences, and thus make possible the production those containing 24-hour records were favoured.
of a unified once in 50-year wind speed map for Anemometer heights were obtained from the
Europe. relevant national meteorological agency. In cases
where this information was unavailable the
2 DEFINING THE PROBLEM anemometer was assumed to be at a height of 10m.
In an attempt to provide a consistent assessment of
Issues in three main areas can be identified: data, the exposure of each anemometer site across
exposure corrections, and analysis. A data set countries, the Corine Land Use Land Cover (LULC)
consisting of 10-minute continuous means is ideal, database was used. The ground roughness indicated
however measurements of this type are by the LULC database at each station location was
comparatively recent so record lengths are chosen. Once the ground roughness and anemometer
somewhat short. heights were determined, the Deaves and Harris
Correcting the data to the standard height of 10m model and the site correction factors as described by
and standard ground roughness of 0.05m can be Cook (1985) were utilized to correct the data to a
achieved several ways with ranging degrees of standard height of 10m and standard ground
complexity. Considering the scope of this initial roughness of 0.05m. After the wind speeds for each
study, a simple correction taking into account only station were corrected, the yearly maximums were
the height of the anemometer and ground roughness extracted and the once in 50-year wind speed was
at the site was made. calculated using the Gumbel fit, and the best fit
Finally, the method of extreme analysis used can GEV distribution.
lead to significant differences in calculated once in
50-year wind speeds. A summary of these 4 RESULTS
techniques can be found in Palutikof et al. (1999).
The traditional approach to extreme value analysis is Typical fit plots of the Gumbel and GEV
using the Fisher-Tippet (FT) Type I or generalized distributions are shown for Dublin, Ireland in Figure
extreme value (GEV) Type I, Gumbel distribution. 1. Interestingly, of the 41 stations to be fit with the
1
D.A. Gatey, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, Canada, email dgatey@uwo.ca
2
C. A. Miller, Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Western Ontario, Canada, email cam@blwtl.uwo.ca
120
D.A. Gatey, C.A. Miller
GEV distribution, 16 were classified as being a Type minute mean wind speed is extremely sensitive to
II Fréchet and 25 as Type III Weibull distribution. the assigned ground roughness value.
Nearly 40% of the stations suggest that there is no The effect of a potential outlier on the fitted
bounded upper limit. distributions is shown in Figure 2 for St. Catherine’s
Point, UK. As shown in Table 1, the wind speeds
calculated with the GEV and Gumbel fits assuming
open water exposure are higher then those at the
surrounding stations. Removal of this potential
outlier resulted in a decrease in the once in 50-year
wind speed of 6.4m/s and 1.5 m/s for the GEV and
Gumbel fits, resulting in once in 50-year wind
speeds of 21.5m/s and 23.4m/s respectively. The
original GEV fit was a Type II - Fréchet fit,
however, after removing the potential outlier, the
distribution became a Type III - Weibull fit. This
suggests that the tail of the GEV fit is highly
sensitive to outliers, whereas the Gumbel does not
exhibit as much sensitivity.
The east side of Ireland and the west coast of the
United Kingdom, result in once in 50-year wind
speeds with a magnitude of 20-25m/s in Ireland and
Figure 1 Typical GEV distribution fit for Dublin
around 30m/s in the United Kingdom. However,
Table 1 Stations across the English Channel between northern
when the stations on the west coast of the United
France and the United Kingdom (measurements in m/s) Kingdom are calculated assuming open water
A.T.C O.W. exposure, once in 50-year wind speeds in the region
Station drop to a range of 20-25m/s, demonstrating greater
GEV GUM GEV GUM
correlation to the values calculated for Ireland.
Plymouth,UK 32.1 33.3 23.4 24.3
For six stations along the German - French
St. Catherine’s Pt.,UK 39.5 35.1 27.9 24.9 border, results show very similar once in 50-year
Guernsey, UK 27.4 26.4 23.6 22.7 wind speeds for both the GEV and Gumbel
Jersey, UK 24.3 24.9 21.4 22.0 distributions. Since there is less change in
Brehat, Fr 30.9 31.4 22.0 22.4 directional exposure at these stations then at coastal
stations, it can be expected that there would most
likely be less variation in once in 50-year wind
speed from station to station.
5 CONCLUSIONS
x Calculated once in 50-year wind speeds for most

inland stations show an appreciable degree of
relationship to nearby cross-border stations.
x Improved correlation was found across Irish,
British and French borders when coastal stations
Figure 2 Comparison of fitted distributions with and without a
affected by the passage of north-east travelling
potential outlier for St. Catherine’s Point extra-tropical cyclones were analyzed assuming
open water exposure.
A large number of the coastal stations seem to be x With the passage of several significant
indicating two distinct populations, which is not windstorms in the past decade, methods for
unexpected given the likely exposure variations by statistically identifying outliers should be
direction. Ideally, to achieve a more accurate fit, a explored to take into consideration whether or not
directional analysis should be performed on these a recorded wind speed is from a longer return
stations. period.
In Table 1, the once in 50-year wind speeds,
calculated using the ground roughness associated 6 REFERENCES
with the station (actual terrain conditions, A.T.C), is
compared to the once in 50-year wind speeds, Cook, N.J. (1985) The designer’s guide to wind loading of
building structures - Part 1. The University Press,
assuming open water (O.W.), for five stations across Cambridge.
the English Channel from one another. For these five Palutikof, J.P., Brabson, B.B., Lister, D.H., & Adcock, S.T.
coastal stations, an average drop of 7.0m/s for the (1999) A review of methods to calculate extreme wind
GEV and Gumbel fits can be observed. This speeds, J. Appl. Meteorol, 6, pp. 119-132.
demonstrates that the final once in 50-year 10-
121
Investigation of vortex-induced vibration of Lupu Bridge -- The longest

arch bridge in the world
Y.J. Ge1, F.C. Cao2, Z.Y. Zhou2, H.F. Xiang1
ABSTRACT: Lupu Bridge is a half-through arch bridge with the record-breaking span length of steel arch
ribs with two-box sections, which behave as a very bluff body and result in sever vortex-induced vibration not
only during the construction stages but also in the service condition. The investigation of vortex vibration of
Lupu Bridge has been introduced in this paper with numerical simulation method, wind tunnel testing, and
probabilistic assessment approach.
1 INTRODUCTION ated by these two vortices above and below the plate,
are counteracted each other due to their opposite
Lupu Bridge over Huangpu River in Shanghai is a spinning directions and different shifting phases of
half-through arch bridge with two side spans of 100 the vortices.
meters and the centre span of 550 meters, the longest
span of arch bridges in the world. Two inclined arch
ribs are 100 meters high from the bottom to the
crown, and each has the cross section of modified
rectangular steel box with the 5-meter width and the CS-1 CS-5
depth of 6 meters at the crown and 9 meters at the
rib bases, a configuration for which vortex-induced
vibration (VIV) could occur in vertical and lateral
CS-2 CS-6
bending modes of arch ribs in the completion bridge
structure and the construction stages, for example,
the maximum rib cantilever and the completed arch
ribs. CS-3 CS-7
2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The random vortex method code RVM-FLUID was CS-4 CS-8

performed on the two-dimensional model of a cou- Figure 3 Preventive means of rib cross sections
ple of rib cross sections with the average depth of
7.5 m. It was found that the severe VIV happens 3 WIND TUNNEL TESTING
with the amplitude of 0.028H (rib depth) at the
Strouhal number (reduced frequency) St = 0.156. The 1:100 aeroelastic model of Lupu Bridge was de-
Several aerodynamic preventive means shown in signed and constructed for the structure configura-
Figure 3 were numerically tested, and the calculation tions corresponding to two construction stages, the
results prove the full cover plate (CS-8) to be the maximum rib cantilever (MRC) stage and the com-
most effective one. pleted arch rib (CAR) stage, and the completed
In the case of the original structure, two large bridge structure (CBS) stage. The wind tunnel ex-
scale vortices, originally formed at the top side and periments of VIV through the aeroelastic models
bottom side of the left rib box, are gradually com- were carried out in the TJ-3 Boundary Layer Wind
bined to a greater and more violent vortex, which Tunnel with a working section of the 15 m width,
induces violent VIV oscillation. But if the full cover the 2 m height, and the 14 m length.
plate is provided, these two vortices are isolated by Totally 50 wind tunnel testing cases are conducted,
the plate so that the vortex vibration forces gener- including different configurations, angles of attack,
1
Profs. Yao Jun Ge and Hai Fan Xiang, SLDRCE, Tongji University, China, e-mail yaojunge@mail.tongji.edu.cn
2
Associate Profs. Fen Chan Cao and Zhi Yong Zhou, , State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University
122
Y.J. Ge, F.C. Cao, Z.Y. Zhou, H.F. Xiang
and yawed angles, and both uniform and turbulent fore, and the partial cover plate with 30% air vent
flow conditions. Two kinds of aerodynamic preven- named means B. The main experimental results in-
tive means were experimentally investigated and cluding the maximum displacements of vertical and
confirmed in this bridges, that is, the full cover plate lateral VIV of the arch ribs at the mid span (L/2) and
called means A, which was numerically studied be- the quarter span (L/4) are listed in Table 3.
Table 3 Maximum VIV amplitudes and corresponding wind speeds of arch ribs
Bridge Attack Control Speed Frequency (Hz) L/2 Amplitude (m) L/4 Amplitude (m)
Configuration Angle Means (m/s) Vertical Lateral Vertical Lateral Vertical Lateral
16.3 0.393 0.408 0.813 0.308 0.216
Original
26.3 0.393 0.408 0.656 0.272 0.176
Maximum
17.5 0.393 0.408 0.590 0.237 0.166
Rib Cantilever 0q Means A
(MRC) 25.0 0.393 0.408 0.333 0.144 0.100
16.3 0.393 0.408 0.249 0.115 0.069
Means B
42.5 0.883 0.408 0.374 0.195 0.262 0.082
31.3 0.679 0.441 0.115 0.634
Completed Original
33.8 0.679 0.441 0.105 0.070
Arch Ribs +3q
(CAR) Means A 33.8 0.679 0.441 0.066 0.074 0.358
Means B 31.3 0.679 0.441 0.047 0.055 0.359
17.5 0.368 0.040 0.164
Original
35.0 0.368 0.135 0.588
Completed
17.5 0.368 0.067 0.070
Bridge Structure -3q Means A
32.5 0.368 0.047 0.239
(CBS)
17.5 0.368 0.067 0.023
Means B
32.5 0.368 0.037 0.203
4 PROBABILISTIC ASSESSMENT under the MRC stage, 8.7u10-5/year for the possible
wind speed margin from 20 m/s to 55 m/s in the
The probabilistic assessment began with the construction stage of CAR, and 0.072/year for the
determination of VIV lock-in wind speeds, which wind speeds within 14 m/s and 40 m/s after comple-
were obtained through the aeroelastic bridge model tion of the bridge (CBS), respectively.
testing in both antisymmetrical and symmetrical
vertical bending modes listed in Table 4. 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The discrete vortex method based on computational
Table 4 Lock-in wind speeds of VIV fluid dynamics was developed to numerically iden-
Bending mode MRC (m/s) CAR (m/s) CBS (m/s)
Antisymmetrical 10.0 ~ 20.0 19.5 ~ 36.3 13.8 ~ 25.0
tify the most effective preventive means to improve
Symmetrical 20.0 ~ 45.0 40.0 ~ 55.0 23.8 ~ 40.0 vortex vibration of bluff arch ribs. Through wind
Both 10.0 ~ 45.0 20.0 ~55.0 14.0 ~ 40.0 tunnel testing, the best preventive means was then
experimentally confirmed to be the full or partial
The statistical analysis of the wind velocities of cover plate between two arch ribs corresponding to
the bridge site is based on three main meteorological the structure configurations of the maximum rib can-
stations around Lupu Bridge, that is, Baoshan Sta- tilever, the completed arch ribs and the completed
tion at the north, Chuansha Station at the east and bridge structure. With the statistical data of wind ve-
Longhua Station at the southwest. locities, the probabilistic assessment of vortex vibra-
For the MRC stage, the longest accumulative pe- tion occurrence for these three bridge configurations
riod of possible VIV oscillation is about 28 days was performed and represented with the longest ac-
considering construction process with the return pe- cumulative time and the first occurrence probability
riod of 10 years. In the construction stage of CAR, within given return periods.
this period reduces to about 0.45 day with the same
return period of 10 years. After completion of the 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
bridge (CBS), the return period is usually set to 100 The work described in this paper is partially sup-
years and the corresponding accumulative period is ported by the National Science Foundation of China
about 32 days. under the Grant 50278069 and the private sponsor-
The probability of the first VIV occurrence is ap- ship from Shanghai Lupu Bridge Investment and
proximately equal to 0.163/year for the possible Development Co., Ltd., which are highly appreci-
interval of the wind speeds between 10 m/s and 45 ated.
m/s under the MRC stage, 8.7u10-5/year for the pos-
123
C.P.W. Geurts1, C. van Bentum1, P. Blackmore2
ABSTRACT: Wind loads on solar energy systems are not covered by current wind loading standards. This
paper describes results of a parametric study into the wind loads on solar energy systems, which are placed
on flat roofs. Wind tunnel measurements have been carried out on a number of configurations. The results
have been applied into the first prestandard for integration of solar energy in buildings, the Dutch pre-
standard NVN 7250, and in BRE digest 489.
In the Netherlands, NVN 7250, gives provisions
1 INTRODUCTION on the effects of solar energy systems on the
The use of photovoltaic and thermal solar energy performance of buildings. Regarding the wind loads,
systems has increased tremendously over the last this prestandard identifies a number of situations for
decade in many countries in Europe. which no reliable data are available in current
Many systems have been installed on flat roofs, standards, especially when the solar energy systems
positioned on a sub structure (e.g. figure 1). To are add-ons to the roofs and facades of buildings.
withstand wind loads, mechanical fasteners or added Therefore, a number of researches have been carried
weight to the structure are applied. For these out since. This paper describes the results of a study
systems, no data are available in current wind to the wind loading on solar systems, mounted on
loading codes. However, wind loads are the main flat roofs.
cause for damages on these systems. Hence, there is
3 WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS
a strong need for rules and guidelines to determine
the wind loads on such structures. Therefore, a series The wind loads on solar energy systems on flat roofs
of wind tunnel measurements have been carried out have been studied on a model scaled 1:50 of a
on a range of such systems. building with rectangular plan, with full scale height
of 10 metres, width of 30 metres and depth of 40
2 STATE OF THE ART metres. The roof of this building was divided into
Flat roofs, either already existing or newly built, four quarters to make optimal use of symmetry. One
have great potential for the location of solar energy of these quarters was not covered with solar energy
systems. Both solar thermal systems as photovoltaic systems, but with pressure taps in the roof, as a
energy systems are being applied on these roofs. A reference to compare the data with existing
range of products to support the solar energy systems standards. Solar energy systems have been modelled
or PV panels have been developed. Most of these with a dimension of 1,20 meters deep, and an
systems are mounted with an inclination of about 30 inclination angle of 35 degrees.
degrees, to ensure optimal solar efficiency. The Measurements have been carried out on four
majority of these systems are placed loosely on top different configurations of the building and solar
of the roof covering, thus avoiding structural energy systems. Two types of solar energy systems
connections through the water tight layer. The have been modelled; one with an open substructure,
resistance to wind loads on these systems can only allowing the wind to blow underneath, and one with
be given by the self weight of the structures. A low a closed substructure, where no wind is allowed
self weight will lead to damage to the solar energy underneath. The inclination of the solar energy
systems, whilst a high self weight may lead to systems is 35 degrees.
problems with the roof structure. Especially on The building has initially been modelled without
existing roofs with a steel structure, this may lead to parapet for these configurations. In an additional
problems. The choice of the weight of the structure study, a parapet has been mounted, corresponding to
is an optimum between safety and economy. To find 200 mm in full scale.
this optimum, the wind loads should be specified Within these configurations, the effects of the
accurately. location of the systems on the roof, the effects of
1
Dr. Chris Geurts, Ir. Carine van Bentum, TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, Netherlands e-mail chris.geurts@tno.nl
2
Dr. Paul Blackmore, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, UK e-mail blackmorep@bre.co.uk
124
C.P.W. Geurts, C. van Bentum, P.A. Blackmore
shielding and also the effect of orientation relative to 4: For solar energy systems mounted parallel to roofs
the prevailing winds have been studied. and facades very limited information is available. It
is recommended to carry out parametric studies into
the wind loads on such structures.
6 APPLICATION OF RESULTS
6.1 NVN 7250
The results of the wind tunnel tests are being
implemented in NVN 7250 in the Netherlands. Data
obtained in the wind tunnel results given here, as
well as results from literature presented in section
2.2 will serve as a basis for the specification of the
wind loads on solar energy systems.
6.2 Digest 489
BRE Digest 489 (2004) enables design wind loads to
be determined for the following four generic classes
Figure 13: Top view of the wind tunnel model of PV installation:
i. Nominally airtight systems integrated into
pitched roofs;
ii. Air permeable arrays of small format PV
elements integrated into pitched roofs;
iii. Systems mounted on or above pitched roofs;
iv. PV units mounted on flat roofs (both free
standing and mechanically fixed);
The wind loading guidance for classes i to iii is
based on a combination of pressure coefficients
given in BS6399-2, expert judgement and data from
the published sources cited in Section 2.2 of this
paper. The guidance for class iv (PV units mounted
on flat roofs) is based on a conservative
simplification of the wind tunnel results presented in
this paper for solar energy systems with open and
Figure 14: Detail of wind tunnel experiment with parapet. closed support structures.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
4 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS This research presented in this paper has been
financed by Novem. The assistance of Paul Kratz
Detailed results are available from [Geurts et.al,
from ZEN Solar Systems is greatly acknowledged.
2002]. Based on the review of literature and wind
tunnel experiments carried out, the following 8 REFERENCES
conclusions are drawn:
Blackmore, P., BRE Digest 489, Wind loads on roof-based
photovoltaic systems, BRE, August 2004.
1: For solar energy systems, mounted on top of flat Cook, N.J., The designer’s guide to wind loading, part 2, Static
roofs, the wind loads depend on the position on the Structures, 1986.
roof, the presence or absence of parapets. Geurts, C.P.W., Ravenshorst, G.J.P., Donkervoort, D.R.,
2: Solar energy systems which are surrounded by Windbelasting op zonnecollectoren en zonnepanelen op
similar systems, providing sufficient shelter, plat-dak opstellingen: deelrapport experimentele bepaling
van de ontwerp-windbelasting (in Dutch), TNO report
experience a reduced wind load compared to non- 2002-BS-R0061 (available on request).
sheltered systems. This reduction is recommended EN1991-1-4: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – General
only for the centre zone of the roof. actions – Part 1.4: Wind actions, CEN, 2005
3: Solar energy systems integrated in roofs and NVN 7250: Solar energy systems-integration in roofs and
facades may be designed according to rules available facades – building aspects, NEN, July 2003.
for e.g. roofing tiles or façade elements.
125
1 1 2
C.P.W. Geurts , P.W. Bouma , A. Aghaei
ABSTRACT: This paper describes two full-scale experiments in which the pressure distribution over
the layers of brick masonry cavity walls is studied. The first experiment focuses on the specification of the
wind loads on both outer and inner leafs of these walls. The second experiment is set-up to find a model to
describe the transport of moisture, heat and air inside cavity walls. The experiments are described in
detail and some preliminary results are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE OPHEUSDEN EXPERIMENT

Pressure equalization plays an important role in the 2.1 The building
performance of permeable roofs and facades. It has A full scale experiment has been set up on a small
effect on the water tightness of the structures, and house near the village of Opheusden, in the centre of
also on the wind loading the structure and its layers the Netherlands. The house is made of brick masonry
have to be withstood. A wide variety of full scale walls and has a duopitch roof. The height of the
studies on the effects of pressure equalization on the gutter is 3,0 metres. The height of the house is 8,2 m.
performance of roofs and facades have been carried
out. Most of the studies are case studies, focusing on
rain screen walls for facades and on roof tiles for
roofs. In Europe, this has lead to national wind
loading regulations for roofing tiles in the UK and
the Netherlands. In EN 1991-1-4, some simple
guidance is given to take the effect of pressure
equalisation on the wind loads into account.
Regarding water tightness, regulations and
guidelines are being developed.
This paper presents two full-scale experiments on
brick masonry cavity walls. These experiments focus
on the traditional cavity walls in the Netherlands (see
figure 1).
inner leaf
thermal insulation
cavity
outer leaf (masonry) Figure 2: View of the house and meteorological tower
2.2 Measurements and Analysis
Simultaneous measurements of pressures on the
outside of the building and inside the cavity are
made on 8 locations, together with measurements of
the wind speed and direction at a meteorological
mast.
Figure 1: Typical section of brick masonry cavity walls in Per wind direction interval, the extremes of the
the Netherlands external pressures and of pressure differences have
been analysed according to the procedures described
by Cook and coworkers
1
Dr. Chris Geurts, Ir. Peter Bouma, TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, Netherlands e-mail chris.geurts@tno.nl
2
Afshin Aghaei, Eindhoven University of Technology, E-mail: A.Aghaei@bwk.tue.nl
126
C.P.W. Geurts, P.W. Bouma, A. Aghaei
3 FIRST RESULTS climate. These measurements include differential
pressures over the outer leaf, which are introduced
Measurements have been carried out between
here.
December 2003 until April 2005.
5.2 Measurements
3.1 Wind field data
Various types of test panels at the south-west fagade
The site of the building and the meteorological tower
of the building physics laboratory at TUE
is far from ideal to perform extensive measurements
(Eindhoven University of Technology) are used in
for wind loading studies. In figure 7, Values for the
this study, see figure 4.
turbulence intensity for measurements above the
threshold are presented.
Figure 4. Different test panels at the south-west façade

of Vertigo of the building physics laboratory at TUE
(Eindhoven University of Technology)
The differential pressures across the cavity follow
Figure 3: Value of the turbulence intensities at 10m the pressure variation across the outer-leaf with
height at the Opheusden test site
noticeable time lag: this is due to the fast response of
3.2 Pressure measurements the wall. The differential pressures across the cavity
The first conclusions from the measurements carried (Pc) is smoother than those across the outer-leaf
out in Opheusden are: (Po). This means that high frequency differential
pressures across the brick wall are attenuated in the
x The turbulence intensities at 10 m height range cavity.
from 16% (no obstacles) to 38% (directly behind The results also show that there is an average
the test building). gradient of wind pressure, increasing from the
x After one year of measurements, there are not bottom of the cavity to the top. The results will be
enough data available to cover all relevant wind used for setting up a model for describing the air-
directions. leakage of the outer-leaves.
x External maximum and minimum pressure
coefficients depend on the averaging time used in 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
the analysis. The measurements in Opheusden are made possible
x The pressure equalisation coefficients for by Wienerberger Bricks.
situations relevant for design are between 0.3 and
0.5 in the situations studied here. 7 REFERENCES
x Final conclusions can only be formulated after EN1991-1-4: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – General
actions - Part 1.4: Wind actions, CEN, 2005
analysis of a more complete data set. NEN 6702: Technical specifications for structures: Loads and
Deformations, 2001
5 THE EXPERIMENT IN EINDHOVEN
5.1 Introduction
At Eindhoven University of Technology a model is
being developed for the inter-relation of physical
phenomena such as moisture, airflow and heat in
cavity walls, as a result of exposure to the outdoor
127
A.M. Goliger
ABSTRACT: The paper is a review of the development process of a new set of wind loading stipulations to
be included in the proposed South African design standard for buildings and structures. A summary of
activities that have taken place within the past five to six years is given, and the feasibility and implications
of adopting the proposed EN 1991-1-4.6 are considered.
1 INTRODUCTION 2.1 European code (old ENV version)
The current South African loading standard, SANS An analysis of the relevant draft of Eurocode
10160-1989, was developed in the mid-1980s, with available to us at the time, was undertaken towards
its wind loading stipulations, which form a the end of 1999. The code was assessed as being
substantial portion of the code, based on the old comprehensive but unfinished and contained several
British Code. discrepancies, inconsistencies and errors.
In 1998 the South African National Conference A recommendation followed that, at that point in
on Loading took place. The aim of the conference time, the adoption of draft Eurocode wind loading
was to provide a national discussion forum on stipulations should not be pursued.
loading specifications and to initiate a process
which, long term, would lead to the adoption of a 2.2 USA code (ASCE 7-95)
unified approach to the design of structures. A brief analysis of the American document
An overview and a comparative assessment of revealed the general principles and logic of the code
several wind loading stipulations were presented to be supposedly simple, albeit substantially
(Goliger et al, 1998), and a set of principles for different from those of SANS 10160.
future revision was proposed. An initial set of comparative calculations
As one of the outcomes of the conference, a indicated the loads stipulated according to the ASCE
National Loading Committee under the auspices of procedure to be substantially larger than those
the South African Institute of Civil Engineers obtained from SANS 10160. It was recommended
(SAICE) and the South African Bureau of Standards that the ASCE specifications should not be adopted.
(SABS) was formed. This committee undertook the
role of coordinating the development of South 2.3 Australian code (AS 1170.2)
African loading code.
A preliminary analysis of the Australian code
2 INTERNATIONAL CODIFICATION revealed it to constitute an excellent, well-structured
and logical document. The respective procedures
The idea of developing an original (i.e. unique) set appear to be straightforward and their principles
of South African wind loading stipulations was largely consistent with those stipulated in SANS
discarded. Instead, it was decided that the efforts 10160. A proposed draft South African standard was
should be directed at analysis of selected developed on the basis of Section 3 (Detailed
international standards, identification of those most procedure: static analysis) of the AS 1170.2, with
relevant to the South African situation. modifications and additions from other codes, where
A reasonable assumption was made that, for this relevant and feasible.
process, the loading standards of our major trading
partners – i.e. Europe (at that stage an old version of 3 ADOPTION OF EUROCODE
ENV) and USA (ASCE 7-95) – should be
considered. The Australian standard (AS 1170.2 – In 2002 information reached the Loading
1989) was also identified in view of its climatic Committee that indicated that preparatory work for a
similarities as well as technical and economical new version of the Australian wind loading standard
synergies with South Africa. was in progress. In view of this development, the
merits of adopting an ’outdated’ version of an
Adam M. Goliger, PhD, CSIR, South Africa, e-mail: agoliger@csir.co.za
128
A.M. Goliger
overseas document became questionable. At the
same time, a close relationship between the
Eurocode committee and the South African loading
committee was forged. This included several visits,
discussions and participation in meetings.
In view of the above developments, the loading
committee decided on a re-analysis of the most
recent wind loading stipulations of the Eurocode,
and the implications of its adoption to South Africa.
A brief overview of the code indicated this to be an
excellent and state-of-the-art document, at a fairly
advanced stage of finalisation. It also became
apparent that adoption of the code would
significantly increase the amount of design work.
Furthermore, a review of the basic principles of
the Eurocode indicated the problem of adopting the
definition of the ‘characteristic wind speed’ in terms Figure 1 Comparison of roof uplift
of the 10-minute mean, as opposed to the 3-second
gust wind speed, currently used in the SANS code. 4.2 Medium-rise building
This issue, as well as the differences in descriptions
of terrain categories and boundary layer profiles, is A comparison of loads generated over the walls of a
discussed in the full version of the paper. medium-rise building was also carried out.
The magnitude of pressure coefficients over the
4 INITIAL COMPARATIVE CALCULATIONS windward walls, as stipulated in both codes, was
found to be similar. However, differences are
In view of the differences between the principles apparent in the application method of pressure
and stipulations of various national codes across the distribution over the elevation as well as the
world, it is very difficult if not impossible to negative pressure coefficients over the leeward wall.
compare individual components of the design chain
in isolation, and the only fair way to compare them 5 CONCLUSIONS
would be at a level of the resulting (unfactorised) Adoption of the relevant Eurocode procedures
loads. appears to be most attractive, and is currently under
4.1 Low-rise buildings investigation. In the context of climatic conditions,
the biggest challenge will be the incorporation of the
Having in mind the discrepancies between the free- 10-minute mean basic wind speed.
stream pressure profiles, a set of initial comparative Initial comparative calculations indicate the
calculations was undertaken in order to assess the magnitude of loads obtained from EN 1991
correlation of loads as determined by using both procedures to be significantly larger than those
standards. derived from SANS 10160.
For these calculations the structure of a typical
large warehouse, located in a coastal area, was 6 REFERENCES
assumed. Variable roof slopes and different terrain
ANSI/ASCE 7-95: 1996. ASCE Standard: Minimum design
categories were considered. loads for buildings and other structures, American Society
Selected results of calculations (i.e. resultant of Civil Engineers, 1996.
uplift force) are presented in Figures 1, in a form AS 1170.2-1989. Australian Standard: SAA Loading Code,
similar to regression analysis. (A point below the Part 2: Wind loads, Standards Australia, 1989.
regression line of 45 degrees reflects the loads EN 1991-2-4.6 (2003-12-20). Eurocode 1: Actions on
stipulated by Eurocode procedure to be higher.) It structures, Part 1-4: General actions - wind.
can be seen that, excluding few isolated situations, Goliger, A.M., Niemann, H-J & Milford, R.V. (1998).
Assessment of wind-load specifications of SABS 0160-
in both cases the loads that were derived from EN
1989, Proc. of SAICE Loading Conference, Johannesburg,
1991 are significantly larger, especially for the September 1998.
localised areas. The discrepancies apparent in SANS 10160-1989. South African standard code of practice
Figures 4a and 4b result from a combination of for the general procedures and loadings to be adopted in
differences in free-stream pressures, pressure the design of buildings, The South African Bureau of
coefficients and definitions of loading zones. Standards, reprint 1994.
129
A.M. Goliger, J.V. Retief
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a review of the types and magnitude of strong and extreme wind events
which develop over the southern portion of the African continent. The origin of such events is given, together
with selected statistics and examples of damage. The implications of these events on the built environment,
in terms of the level of engineering input and the context of formal and informal development, are discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION occurrence and magnitude of devastation, namely

shallow south-easters and mid-latitude lows.
This paper considers the wind climate and related Typical south-easterly winds generate winds
damage in respect of the countries which, from a between 20 and 30 m/s close to ground level (say 2
geographical point of view, extend over the southern metres above the ground). However, several cases
portion of the African sub-continent and include of extreme wind force have been reported, including
Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, severe damage to houses and buildings, road
South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. accidents (trucks and buses being blown over) and
maritime accidents (the beaching of ships or ripping
2 ORIGIN OF SEVERE WIND STORMS off mooring). The typical range of wind speeds
generated by mid-latitude lows is between 20 and 35
The southern portion of the African continent has a m/s.
diverse climate, which is largely determined by the
presence of the easterly trade winds. 2.2 Cyclones
A schematic map of the occurrence of strong Cyclones are generated in areas where the ocean
wind events over southern Africa is presented in surface temperature is greater than 27°, between
Figure 1. latitudes 5° and 30°. On average, about 10 cyclonic
events a year develop over the southern Indian
Ocean, and they are regarded as less severe than
tropical cyclones elsewhere in the world.
They usually travel in a westerly direction and
get redirected south, to merge with westerly winds.
Upon reaching Madagascar, most of the events
dissipate and less than 40% of the events have
sufficient strength to re-generate over the
Mozambican Channel (Olivier, 1991).
Figure 1 Distribution of strong winds 2.3 Intense thunderstorms
The region is dominated by coastal winds and Most convective activity in southern Africa takes
thunderstorms (including sandstorms and place in a geographic region which overlaps South
tornadoes). Madagascar and parts of Mozambique Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. The outflow due to
are also affected by cyclonic activity. intense thunderstorms can develop wind speeds of
between 20 and 30 m/s. The occurrence of extreme
2.1 Coastal winds wind conditions is associated with the intense
thunderstorms that develop in the form of super-
A geographical distribution of zones of strong cells or squall lines. These events are also known to
coastal winds in South Africa has been proposed by produce localised extreme wind phenomena:
Goliger and Retief (2001). Two types of wind event tornadoes and downbursts.
(i.e. 3 and 4) are of particular interest in terms of the

Adam M. Goliger, PhD, CSIR, South Africa, e-mail: agoliger@csir.co.za

Johan V. Retief, Prof., Stellenbosch University, South Africa, e-mail: jvr@sun.ac.za
130
A.M. Goliger, J.V. Retief
3 RESISTANCE OF STRUCTURES: FORMAL about 140 km long and one of the most tragic events
AND INFORMAL DEVELOPMENT was the 1952 tornado, which crossed over the
southern suburbs of Johannesburg, killing 24 people
The damage to structures caused by windstorm and injuring more than 600.
events depends on wind hazard (i.e. risk) and the There are no statistics on windstorm damage and
resistance (i.e. vulnerability) of structures. disaster on the African continent. In South Africa a
In developed countries most, if not all, new wind-damage database has been set up, based on the
structures have to comply with a minimum set of surveys of the archives of the Weather Service, the
design specifications and/or regulations. In many State Library and the CSIR. The database includes
cases the regulatory requirements are also applied records of about 1 000 events, about 30% of them
retrospectively, in that existing structures have to be classified as tornadoes.
modernised or upgraded in order to comply with The initial statistics of the database are presented
current safety and structural requirements. Formal in the full paper. Figure 3 analyses the nature of
structures usually include some form of engineering damage in respect of various types of structure. It
and architectural input, and their final strength is can be seen that about 70% of the reports included
determined by several contributing factors under the damage to houses and buildings, 30% to community
design, approval, and construction activities. structures and a similar percentage damage to power
In developing countries a large proportion of and communication systems. The information on
structures have little or no engineering input and the damage to informal settlements is grossly
enforcement of abovementioned principles is underestimated, owing to poor communication and
difficult, if not impossible. As a result, in many reporting systems.
‘countries of the south’ two mainstream types of
construction markets and sectors coexist (i.e. the 100
formal and informal).

80
In South Africa, the best example of this situation
is the rural housing sector, in which, for various 60
reasons, no standard requirements have historically
been enforced. Furthermore, even within urban 40
areas, a sharp contrast between the relatively high
standards of formal housing and dismally low 20
standards of informal (often squatter) areas is
apparent. 0
4 DAMAGE
Figure 3 Damage to various types of structure
Figure 2 presents the remains of a container crane
which collapsed in the Port Elizabeth harbour under
shallow south-easterly winds. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge several

years of interaction, joint work and support from the
experts at the South African Weather Service
(formerly the Weather Bureau) as well as Professor
H-J. Niemann of Bochum University, Germany.
6 REFERENCES
Goliger, A.M., Milford, R.V., Adam, F. & Edwards, M.
(1997). Inkanyamba – tornadoes in South Africa. Joint
publication of the CSIR and the SA Weather Bureau, Dept.
of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
Goliger, A.M. & Retief, J.V. (2001). Development of zones of
Figure 2 Collapse of container crane strong wind events in South Africa. Proceedings of the 3rd
European & African Conference on Wind Engineering, (J.
In inland areas of Southern Africa the most Wisse et al., eds.). Eindhoven, The Netherlands, July 2001,
significant damage to human development is caused pp. 427-434.
by tornadoes and downbursts. A detailed analysis of Olivier, J. (1991). Tropical cyclones in the south-western
Indian Ocean and their impact on South African rainfall.
tornadoes have been reported in Goliger et al Dept. of Geography, University of Stellenbosch.
(1997). The path of a longest recorded tornado was
131
A reduced-order model for the lift on a cylinder undergoing forced
transverse oscillations
M. R. Hajj1, L. Qin2, F. Owis3
ABSTRACT: A consistent approach is applied to show that the forced van der Pol equation should be used
to model the lift coefficient on a transversely oscillating cylinder. Two cases of forced excitations, namely no
resonance with soft and hard excitations, are considered. Spectral parameters derived from spectral analysis of
the RANS data are combined with approximate solutions of representative models to determine their parameters.
1 INTRODUCTION where E{} represents ensemble averaging and

τ1 , ..., τn−1 represent time differences. By Fourier
Applications where vortex-induced vibrations are of transforming the second, third and fourth-order
great concern include offshore oil production sys- moment functions, one obtains, respectively, the
tems, wind flow around tall building, bridges, and auto-power spectrum, auto-bispectrum and auto-
chimney stacks and heat exchanger tubes. An op- trispectrum (Kim & Powers (1979), Powers & Im
timal solution of vortex-induced vibrations of struc- (1995) and Kim & Powers (1979) and Hajj, Miksad
tures would be a time-domain numerical simulation of & Powers (1997)).
the fluid flow and the structure’s response. Obviously,
this is not a simple task. Alternatively, one could con- 3 LIFT MODELING
struct a reduced-order model that takes into consider-
ation all of the physical aspects and is capable of pre- The lift coefficient on the transversely forced circu-
dicting vortex-induced vibrations. This work aims at lar cylinder is modeled by the van der Pol oscillator
providing a consistent approach for the development that is externally excited by a harmonic function and
of a reduced-order model for the lift coefficient on a described by
circular cylinder that is undergoing forced transverse
¨l + ω 2 l2 − µv l˙ + αv l2 l˙ = F cos(Ωt + τe ) (2)
oscillations. The approach is (1) to develop higher- s
order spectral moments as tools to characterize and
where ωs is the shedding frequency, µv and αv rep-
identify the nonlinearities in the time series of lift co-
resent the linear and nonlinear damping coefficients,
efficients and (2) combine amplitude and phase esti-
and F and τe are respectively the amplitude and phase
mates of these moments with approximate solutions
of the external harmonic force.
of the governing equations to determine the parame-
ters in the reduced order models. The validity of the
3.1 Case of no resonance with soft excitation
proposed approach is shown through its application to
RANS generated data. In this case, the excitation is assumed to be soft, and
F is scaled as F where is a small parameter used
to balance the effects of the different terms. µv and
2 HIGHER-ORDER SPECTRAL MOMENTS αv are scaled as µv and αv , respectively. The forced
van der Pol equation is then written as
Higher-order spectra are multi-dimensional Fourier
transforms of higher-order statistics. If x(t) is a real ¨l + ω 2 l2 − µv l˙ + αv l2 l˙ = F cos(Ωt + τe ) (3)
s
random process and its moments up to order n are sta-
tionary, one could define the nth -order moment func- Using the method of multiple scales, an analytical ap-
tion proximate solution is derived for equation 3 for the
no-resonance condition, i.e. Ω is away from 0, ω, 3ω,
mn (τ1 , ..., τn−1 ) = E{x(t)x(t + τ1 )...x(t + τn−1 )} and ω/3. The amplitude of the trispectrum is used to
(1) determine the coefficient of nonlinearity and its phase
1
Professor, ESM Dept., VA Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, e-mail mhajj@vt.edu
2
3
Assistant Professor, Cairo University, Egypt
132
M.R. Hajj, L. Qin, F. Owis
is used to determine the validity of modeling the non- 2
CFD data
Modeled data
linear system with a van der Pol equation. 1.5
1
The validity of the estimated parameters is estab-
lished by comparing the time series of the simulated 0.5
response, obtained with RANS simulation, and the
lift
0
modeled response, obtained by integrating the van der −0.5
Pol equation with its derived parameters. The results −1
are presented in figure 1. The results show a high level −1.5
of agreement. −2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
time
Figure 2 Comparison of RANS simulated and modeled

2
CFD data
Modeled data
time series of the lift coefficients for the transversely os-
1.5
cillating cylinder. Case of hard resonance.
1
0.5 4 CONCLUSIONS
lift
0
In this work, a consistent approach for the develop-
−0.5
ment of reduced-order models for the lift on a cir-
−1
cular cylinder undergoing forced transverse oscilla-
−1.5
tions is presented. Lift coefficient data are obtained
−2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
from RANS simulations of the flow field over a cir-
time
cular cylinder undergoing forced transverse oscilla-

Figure 1 Comparison of RANS simulated and modeled tions. The third-order spectral moment, namely the
time series of the lift coefficients for the transversely os- trispectrum, is used to determine the phase relation
cillating cylinder. Case of soft resonance. between the vortex shedding frequency and its third
harmonic. Based on this phase relation, it was deter-
mined that the forced van der Pol equation should be
used to model the lift coefficient on the transversely
3.2 Case of no resonance with hard excitation oscillating cylinder. Two cases of forced excitations,
namely no resonance with soft and hard excitations,
In this case, the excitation is assumed to be hard, and are considered. The resulting models are validated by
only the damping and nonlinear parameters, µv and comparing time and frequency domain characteristics
αv , are scaled as µv and αv , respectively. The forced of data obtained from the forced van der Pol equation
van der Pol equation is then written as with data obtained from the RANS-simulations.
5 REFERENCES
¨l + ω 2 l2 − µv l˙ + αv l2 l˙ = F cos(Ωt + τe ) (4) Hajj, M.R., Miksad, R.W., and Powers, E.J. (1997) Per-
s
spective: measurements and analysis of nonlinear wave
interactions with higher-order spectral moments. Jour-
nal of Fluids Engineering, 119, pp. 3-13.
Using the method of multiple scales, an analytical Kim, Y.C., and Powers, E.J. (1979) Digital bispectral
approximate solution can be derived for equation 4 analysis and its applications to nonlinear wave interac-
for the no-resonance condition, i.e. Ω is away from 0, tions. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., PS-7, pp. 120-131.
ω, 3ω, and ω/3. The auto-trispectrum relates the vor- Powers, E.J., and Im, S. (1995) Introduction to higher-
tex shedding response and its third harmonic. Thus, order statistical signal processing and its applica-
its magnitude is used to determine αv . Additionally, tions. in: Higher-Order Statistical Signal Processing
the phase of the auto-trispectrum is used to validate (Boashash, Powers & Zoubir eds.) Longman, Australia.
the use of the van der Pol equation as a model. Time
series of the RANS simulated response and the inte-
grated response based on equation 4 are compared in
figure 2. The results clearly show that the identified
parameters can be used to correctly determine the am-
plitude variations in the lift time series.
133
P. Hanzlík1, P. Marek2, L. NČmec3
ABSTRACT: The development of qualitatively new approaches to the structural design and reliability
assessment corresponding to the computer era leads to introduction of non-traditional probabilistic methods
in codes. Application of these methods in designers’ everyday work would require re-engineering of the entire
assessment procedure and transition from deterministic to probabilistic way of thinking of designers.
The paper turns attention to the effects of omni-directional wind load (expressed by a new type of two-
component wind rosette) and to the probability- and simulation-based structural safety and serviceability
assessment according to SBRA method. The consequent steps in the analysis from the two-component data on
omni-directional wind load to the response of the structure to the load effects combination applied in the
reliability assessment are indicated. The attached pilot example illustrates the proposed complex procedure.
1 INTRODUCTION
The development of new approaches to the structural

reliability assessment leads to introduction of
probabilistic methods. Application of these methods
requires first of all introduction of a probabilistic
way of thinking to designers, development of
corresponding codes and software, and improvement
of databases containing information regarding
individual input variables (including loads). The
paper turns attention to the field of wind load and
wind engineering considering one of the proposed
probabilistic structural reliability assessment
methods, Simulation Based Reliability Assessment,
SBRA, see Marek et al. 1995.
In SBRA method, wind load is represented by a
two-component wind rosette, which is based on
long-term recording performed on numerous stations
in the country by the Czech Hydro-Meteorological
Institute, NČmec et al. (2000), see Figure 1. Such
rosette and application of SBRA method allow for
consideration the effects of omni-directional wind Figure 1 Two-component wind rosette
load in the design.
A two-component wind rosette (see Fig. 1) contains
information on the duration of twelve wind
2 WIND VELOCITY AND DIRECTION directions and the wind velocity duration curves in
those directions (if non-dimensional time axis is
The time-dependent wind parameters are being used, the curves would represent the probability of
recorded at several meteorological stations in the non-exceedance of particular wind velocity).
Czech Republic in last several decades (NČmec et The application of such wind rosettes and their
al. 2000). The modern devices and computer transformation to wind load duration curves is
technology allow for evaluation of the wind speed explained on examples in textbooks Marek et al.
and the wind directions which are the most important 2001 and Hanzlík (2002).
parameters.
_________________________________________________________________________
1
Ing. et Ing. Petr Hanzlík, VŠB-TU Ostrava, e-mail hanzlikp@post.cz
2
Professor Ing. Pavel Marek, DrSc. – ITAM CAS CZ Prague and VŠB TU Ostrava, Czech Republic, e-mail
marekp@itam.cas.cz
3
RNDr. Luboš NČmec, Czech Hydrometeorogical Institute, Prague, e-mail nemec@chmi.cz
134
P. Hanzlı́k, P. Marek, L. Němec
3 WIND ROSETTE TRANSFORMATION Phase A: Determination of the wind load effect
related to the particular structural component.
The Figure 3 indicates some of the tens of stations
Using simulation technique according SBRA, in
located in Czech Republic and producing the
each simulation step one of the twelve wind
updated wind rosettes based on long-term
directions is selected from the wind rosette first, next
recordings.
wind pressure magnitude is obtained from the
corresponding wind pressure duration curve, the
“shape factor” of the building is introduced
corresponding to the selected wind direction, and the
response of the investigated structural component is
calculated.
Phase B: Load effects combination.
The response of the investigated structural
component to all other loadings is calculated in each
simulation step considering the corresponding load
duration curves. By summation, one value of the
load effects combination S (including wind effect) is
Figure 3 Interpolation of wind rosettes obtained.
After enough large number of simulation steps the
The question is how to proceed in case when the load effects duration combination curve corre-
rosette is not available for the specified location of sponding to the particular structural component can
the investigated structure. Assuming the data given be developed.
by one or several wind rosettes in the vicinity, the Phase C: Assessment of the particular component.
wind rosette representing the specified location can In each simulation step one value of the reliability
be estimated using available models and computer function RF = (R - S) is obtained. Large number of
programs, such as WAsP (Wind Energy and simulation steps leads to the probability of failure Pf
Atmospheric Physics Department v Riso National which is compared with the target probability Pd, see
Laboratory). Marek et al. (1995) and Marek et al. (2003).
Pilot example attached next illustrates the
4 APPLICATION OF WIND ROSETTE proposed procedure.
Once the two-component wind rosette is obtained for
the specified location, it gives the starting point in 6 EXAMPLE
the evaluation of loads and load effects combination A concrete column footing (shown in Figure 3) is
considering the investigated structure. exposed to load effect combination of several
First of all it is necessary to transform the wind variable and mutually independent loads including
rosette data considering the terrain conditions around wind load. The “shape wind factor” is assumed to be
the structure. The following factors have to be constant for all wind directions. What is the
considered (Simiu et al. 1996 and Pirner et al. 2004). magnitude of the pressure (concrete – soil) in corners
- the terrain roughness (points 1, 2, 3 and 4) for given probabilities?
- the height at what the wind velocity is recorded. Solution and discussion of results are given in the
Due to the friction of the wind close to the full version of the paper (see attached CD ROM).
surface, the wind speed measured at the higher
- wind speed averaging time 7 CONCLUSIONS
- service life of the structure The proposed approach could be profitably used in
The transformation of the wind rosette can be the case, in which the omni-directional wind load is
done by considering the factors mentioned above. very important and critical for the design.
More attention should be given to the “interpolation”
of wind rosettes and their application in the futures. 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5 RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT Support for this study has been provided by the
Grant Agency of C R (Project No. 103/04/1451).
The actual structural reliability assessment procedure
consists of following three phases. Simplified, it can 9 REFERENCES (see the full paper at CD ROM)
be indicated:
135
Renewable energy for Sub-Saharan Africa – structural aspects of classi-

cal wind turbines and innovative solar chimney concept
R. Harte1, G.P.A.G. Van Zijl2
ABSTRACT: The paper will present some structural aspects of classical wind energy turbines, like alterna-
tive tower constructions in steel or concrete, the high-cycle dynamic loading and reaction, and the fatigue be-
havior. Actual research results concerning pre-stressed concrete tower constructions for wind turbines will
be focused.
As an alternative solution to capture renewable energy the solar chimney concept will be presented. The
structural challenges concerning wind action, eigenfrequencies, stiffening and shape optimisation with spe-
cial focus on the inlet guide vanes will be discussed. The lecture will report on preliminary research results
on the overall structural integrity. As well it will sketch the possible contribution of both classical wind tur-
bines and innovative solar chimney concept to the energy supply in Southern Africa.
1 CLASSICAL WIND TURBINES blade excitation – a so-called “soft-stiff” construc-

In Africa the today’s installed wind energy capacity tion.
with 148 MW is prognosticated to increase to about The classical fatigue rules, postulating a linear
800 MW till 2007, less than 1% of the world-wide damage accumulation, are well established in the de-
capacity. So this big continent still offers a big sign of steel tube towers. On the other hand wind en-
chance to replace environment-polluting fossil and ergy turbines suffer much more from load-cycling
nuclear energy plants by renewable energy sources, then any other civil engineering structure. Cause of
from wind, water and sun. the continuous rotation of the rotor numerous load-
There exist different structural alternatives to cycles will occur over life-time. In case of a turbine
build the mast of a wind turbine, from steel lattice- with a nominal rotor-blade frequency f3p = 0,5 Hz we
towers over circular steel tube towers by prefabri- receive
cated tube segments, finally to pre-stressed concrete n ± 2 · 106 after 46 days under operation
towers. n ± 1 · 108 after 20 operating years with
Increasing turbine capacities demand for larger 2400 operating hours per year
rotor diameters and tower heights (Fig. 1). Civil en- Thus the so-called cut-off limit is reached already
gineering structures in general are designed with re- in the first months of the turbine’s lifetime. For steel,
spect to a defined safety margin against resonant ex- the residual fatigue strength is assumed to be unlim-
citation. For wind turbines the eigenfrequencies of ited beyond this cut-off limit. This problem increases
the overall structure with foundation, tower, machine for concrete towers, where the existence of a cut-off-
and rotor blades have to be evaluated and compared limit for concrete is denied among experts.
with the external excitations by
• the wind turbulence o 112 m
• the periodic excitation due to the turbine’s 4.5 MW
rotation: The turbine frequency f1p o 70 m

1.5 MW
• the periodic excitation due to the rotor o 46 m
600 kW
blades’ interaction with the tower axe: The o 37 m
500 kW
rotor blade frequency f3p (in case of a 3- o 30 m
rotor-blade-turbine). 300 kW
Then the design criterion is to keep the eigenfre- o 15 m

50 kW
quencies sufficiently far away from the periodic ex-
citation, considering a ± 10% tolerance. Today’s
tower heights merely allow to balance the eigenfre- 1985 1989 1992 1994 1998 2002
quencies between both frequency ranges of rotor and
Figure 1. Development of wind turbine size.
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing., Civil Engineering Department, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, Germany, harte@uni-wuppertal.de
2
Prof. Dr.-Ing., Division for Structural Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, gvanzijl@sun.ac.za
136
R. Harte, G.P.A.G. Van Zijl
The combination of non-linear damage analyses The size of the tower structure presents a chal-
with the classical damage accumulation rules in fa- lenge in the leap beyond current building heights. If
tigue is still an issue open for research. The new seismic regions are eliminated as potential sites for
German guideline for wind energy turbines, edition solar chimneys, wind remains the main action threat-
2004, provides a simplified method to prove the con- ening structural stability, together with the immense
crete fatigues resistance, which will be given in the weight.
paper. As a reference example, a pre-stressed con- A true vertical wind profile for the entire height
crete tower of a wind-turbine with a total height of of the chimney is sought in order to determine the
92 m and installed near Wilhelmshaven/Germany in forces that will be exerted on the chimney structure.
1992, will be analysed. Up till now, conservative extrapolated profiles have
been used, as true profiles do not exist for altitudes
2 THE INNOVATIVE SOLAR CHIMNEY CON- above 500 m. Also, the wind-structural interaction
CEPT must be studied to address potential aerodynamic in-
The Solar Chimney, illustrated schematically in Fig. stability of the tower. The paper will give some ideas
2, operates like a hydroelectric power plant, but in- for alternative wind profiles over height and around
stead of water, it uses hot air. This is particularly the circumference.
useful in arid areas, which are plentiful in Africa, Furthermore, the paper will focus the collector-to-
even south of the Sahara. chimney transition zone. The so-called inlet guide
It comprises a transparent roof collector, a central vanes (IGV’s) were used structurally for this pur-
chimney tower and one or more turbo generators at pose. They transfer the own weight, but also the top-
the base. Beneath the collector, proposed to be a pling, push-over effect of the wind to the founda-
large, circular glass roof, air is heated. Through the tions. Two different alternatives will be discussed,
coinciding change in air pressure, the air moves ra- the anvil type IGV support and the fin stiffener con-
dially towards the centre, where it enters the tower, cept. Nevertheless it will be shown that the low base
which creates an up-draught. By this suction effect, natural frequency remains a source of concern for
hot air is drawn in from the collector and as it rises this structure. To address this concern, alternative
up the chimney, it flows through either one large stiffening structures, as well as dampening systems
turbine, or numerous smaller turbines, the preferred are still to be studied, while the wind characteristics
option yet to be determined. These turbines are at this altitude have to be investigated to ascertain in-
linked to conventional generators, whereby electric- formation about the excitation frequencies.
ity is generated.
3 OUTLOOK: CONTRIBUTION TO ENERGY
SUPPLY IN AFRICA
Africa’s needs for energy are on the agenda of the
Tower
UN Environment Programme (UNEP), as being pre-
sented at the African energy ministers conference in
Nairobi in May 2004. The Sub-Saharan African
countries are at the starting point for electrical sup-
Solar radiation Turbine Collector ply for its people. Today, only 10 % have access to
grid electricity. Thus they have to decide which way
to go to develop their future energy supply. The tra-
Air inlet ditional way to use fossil and nuclear resources has
Generator the many well-known disadvantages, experienced by
the industrialized countries of the northern hemi-
sphere in the past and even today. Alternatively the
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the solar chimney princi- energy supply can as well be based from the begin-
ple: glass roof collector, chimney tube and turbine. ning on clean renewable energy from wind, water
and sun. The presented paper should offer some op-
The output of the solar chimney is proportional to tions in this direction.
its size. The scale of a 1000-1500 metre tall, 160 m
diameter chimney tower, and a glass roof collector of
diameter 4-7 kilometre is proposed to produce an
output of 200 – 400 MW. A study has recently been
performed to establish the total yearly output, con-
sidering day temperature cycle, cooler winter
months, collector roof shape and height.
137
A new approach to estimate the wind speed probability distribution along

a railway track based on international standards
J. Herb1, U. Hoppmann2, C. Heine3, T. Tielkes4
ABSTRACT: The plan to establish a fully-fledged European market for railway services and equipment re-
quires technical regulations for interoperability. One topic to be regulated is the safety of railway operation
under cross wind conditions. For this a method is necessary for categorising high speed tracks with respect to
their wind exposure. This method has to be simple, robust, and fair and has to be applicable all over Europe.
The method presented here is based on available and reviewed wind data (Eurocode 1 (DIN V ENV 1991 2-4),
European wind atlas) and on procedures described in the Eurocode and other standards.
The new approach is compared to the well established and authoritative German method which has been used
in the past for all high speed lines in Germany.
The European Commission mandated the Associa- method is – with some extensions – applicable to
tion Européenne pour l’Intéroperabilité Ferroviaire railway lines.
(AEIF) to work on the Technical Specifications for Up to now there exist different approaches in a
Interoperability (TSIs) for the trans-European high- few countries: The United Kingdom, Japan, France
speed railway traffic during the last years. These and Germany. In the DEUFRAKO project an out-
specifications set technical requirements for both line for common approach was set up.
rolling stock and infrastructure. As the behaviour Following the method described in the Eurocode
of trains under cross wind conditions is safety rele- the mean wind velocity is calculated. It is based on
vant, it is a topic of the overall railway system. a reference wind velocity given for the local wind
Therefore it is covered both in the rolling stock and zone by the national standards. Then it is multi-
in the infrastructure part of the TSIs. plied by different factors:
One of the objects to be regulated is how to The regional wind climate is considered by the
categorise a high speed track with respect to its direction factor, the altitude factor, and the rough-
wind exposure. ness coefficient. The topography coefficient con-
The method presented in this paper was devel- siders the increase of the mean wind velocity over
oped to fulfil the following requirements: isolated hills or escarpments in otherwise flat ter-
The method should be based on public available rain.
and proofed wind data. It should be based on ac- On bridges higher wind velocities are measured
cepted calculation procedures. It should need as than near the ground. This is an effect of the in-
little input parameters as possible. It should provide crease of wind velocity with height. Over em-
the same results, independent of the person in bankments higher wind velocities due to speed-up
charge of the case – i.e. the input parameters effects are observed. The topography correction
should be objectively determinable. presented in the Eurocode method is applicable to
The Eurocode 1 - Part 2-4 (“Actions on struc- calculate an embankment factor. The embankment
tures – Wind actions”, ENV 1991-2-4, 1996) is a factor is only valid for the wind component per-
European pre-standard in civil engineering. Herein pendicular to the direction of the railway line
the determination of wind loads on buildings is (Baker, 1991).
quantified and a method for determining extreme The Eurocode method results in the mean wind
wind velocities is included. The realisation of velocity. The highest measured wind velocity in-
Eurocode is planned by national standards. side the 10 minutes interval is the gust wind veloc-
In scope of a study for the Deutsche Bahn AG ity. The determination of the gust wind velocity is
(Hoppmann, 2004) it was found, that the Eurocode possible by an appropriate gust factor. Wieringa
1
Joachim Herb, Technik/Beschaffung, DB Systemtechnik, Deutsche Bahn AG, e-mail Joachim.A.Herb@bahn.de
2
Uwe Hoppmann, Datenverarbeitung, e-mail Hoppmann-DV@T-Online.de
3
Dr. Christoph Heine, Technik/Beschaffung, DB Systemtechnik, Deutsche Bahn AG, e-mail Christoph.Heine@bahn.de
4
Dr. Thorsten Tielkes, Technik/Beschaffung, DB Systemtechnik, Deutsche Bahn AG, e-mail Thorsten.Tielkes@bahn.de
138
J. Herb, U. Hoppmann, C. Heine, T. Tielkes
(1973) presented an equation to calculate the gust adopting it, it can be applied also to other countries
factor. The calculation of the gust wind velocity covered by the Eurocode.
from the 10 minutes mean is an extension of the It is simple, robust, fair, and it is mostly inde-
Eurocode method. pendent of expert judgement.
In the Eurocode the basic value of the reference Wind speed [m/s]
wind velocity is related to a return interval of 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
years. For the application of the Eurocode method 1.0E+02
Number of days with wind speed

on cross wind safety analysis a probability distribu-
1.0E+01
tion of the wind speeds is needed. An equation is
above threshold [pa]

1.0E+00
presented in the Eurocode for the conversion of the
reference wind velocity to another probability. 1.0E-01
It is a Gumbel distribution. To determine the 1.0E-02
daily exceedance probability a Weibull distribution 1.0E-03
was adapted. Eurocode+ left
1.0E-04
This distribution is valid for every wind velocity Eurocode+ right
1.0E-05 DWD left
at every site and in every height; only the velocity
1.0E-06 DWD right
axis is stretched or compressed.
For additional calculations the probability is
needed, that at any time of the day a given thresh- Figure 1 Comparison of the number of days with wind
speed above threshold [per year] for km 15 on the track Han-
old of a wind velocity is exceeded. Based on a fre- nover – Würzburg. The left direction is 80°, right is 260°.
quency table of the Deutscher Wetterdienst (2004)
the frequency distribution of wind velocities can be 7.0 7.0
Bridge over the
Number of days with wind speeds

estimated from the daily gust wind velocities.
Number of days with wind speeds
exceeding 25 m/s calculated by

6.0 6.0
exceeding 25 m/s calculated by
Fils valley Eurocode+ left

The results of the new Eurocode-based method
Eurocode+ method [pa]
Eurocode+ right
5.0 5.0
DWD method [pa]

DWD left
(call Eurocode+ method) are compared with the 4.0 DWD right 4.0
results of the method used in the past in Germany 3.0 3.0
at samples points of typical high-speed lines. Embankments
2.0 Embankments 2.0
It was found that for wind speeds below 25 m/s
1.0 1.0
the curves are nearly parallel. For high wind speeds
the Eurocode+ based curves decay strongly. The 0.0 0.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
values obtained by the DWD look like they are Line position [km]
saturating towards constant values.
Then the results along a whole high-speed line
should be examined. The main point which can be Figure 2 Comparison of the number of days with wind
speeds above 25 m/s [per year] for the high-speed line Stutt-
observed is that the points with the highest wind gart-Ulm.
speed levels are identified by both methods. The
ratio of the number of days on which a certain
threshold is exceeded is varying up to a factor of 10 REFERENCES
between the different local maxima. Nevertheless Baker, C.J. (1991) Ground vehicles in high cross winds, Part
they can clearly be identified. I-III, Journal of Fluids and Structures, 5, pp. 69-241.
A ready to use method has been developed to Deutscher Wetterdienst (2004) Amtliches Gutachten zum
Referenzrisiko von Schienenfahrzeugen bei Seitenwind
acquire the wind probability distribution along a (Datenaufbereitung), Offenbach am Main.
railway track. The input data needed for the analy- DIN V ENV 1991 2-4 (Vornorm) (1996) Eurocode 1,
sis are clearly defined and can be taken from maps, Grundlagen der Tragwerksplanung und Einwirkungen auf
construction plans and an examination of the track Tragwerke, Teil 2-4: Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke –
Windlasten, Ausgabe 1996-12, Normenausschuss
by an engineer. Changes in the track parameters,
Bauwesen im DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.
e.g. changes in the height of embankments, can be Hoppmann U. (2004) Bestimmung der Seitenwindhäufigkeit
considered very quickly in the calculations. an Bahnstrecken, Report for Deutsche Bahn AG
The method described here can be used immedi- Wieringa J. (1973) Gust factors over open water and built-up
ately in the countries in the middle of Europe. After country, Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 3, pp. 424-441.
139
Identification of wind pressures on the buildings of the Ciudad de la

Cultura in Santiago de Compostela (Spain)
S. Hernández1, J.A. Jurado2, J. Toimil3, J. Díaz4
ABSTRACT: Loads acting on buildings due to wind pressure are usually defined in code of practice only for
specific construction geometries and locations. Nevertheless when the shape of buildings is unusual or their
location is very windy is quite important to carry out specific studies aimed to identify the real wind pressures
over their walls and roof.
In this paper a precise investigation carried out for a set of six constructions composing the CITY OF
CULTURE, a cultural facility located in the outskirt of Santiago de Compostela and summing up a total of
71.000 m2 is presented along with the numerical values obtained.
1 THE CITY OF CULTURE As this set of consideration could be of application

The City of Culture is an initiative aimed to create a for the City of Culture site a specific research of the
vaste legacy of cultural facilities in Santiago de wind effects on the building was carried out by the
Compostela, capital of an autonomous region of authors.
Spain, Galicia. Such idea connects with other
3 WIND SPEED HISTORY AT THE CITY OF
realizations as the Cite des Sciences et de l’Industrie
CULTURE SITE
de la Villete, in Paris or the City of Arts in Valencia.
The city of Culture is located on a hill in the The City of Culture is placed in a very windy
outskirts of Santiago and consists on six buildings. location and historical records at a quite close airport
In overall the constructions sum up to 71.000 m2 of could be found for the purpose of the study.
built surface. They are surrounded by a forest of 70 Direction of the dominant winds are at 210º during
Ha., the buildings have been designed by the winter and at 30º in summer.
architect Peter Eisenman who won the international Therefore a study of wind speed at the City of
contest set up previously. Externally have very Culture location was carried out starting from the
singular shapes both in walls and cover. definition of extremal wind speed matching the
recorder data to a Frechet curve defined by
2 WIND PRESSURE THEORY IN THE F ( x) exp^ b /( x a ) C ` (2)
SPANISH CODE OF PRACTICE
The spanish code of practice, AE-88 [1], similarly to 4 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WIND
many other codes, defines wind effects on structures SPEED. INCLUDING TOPOGRAPHIC
through a distribution of pressures according with FEATRUES.
topographical altitude, angle orientation of the Vertical distribution of wind speed on an almost flat
construction and exposure level to the wind. surface is usually described by a logarithmic law
For each altitude and location a distributed pressure 1 z
U ( z) U* h (3)
p is defined multiplying the dynamic pressure w by k z0
an eolic coefficient c. Where
p = cw (1) z0 Roughness length.
Such coefficient depends of the orientation angle and k = 0,4 Von Karman constant.
geometrical shape of the construction. U* Shear velocity of wind flow.
It is worthly to note that the methodology presented To complete identify expression (3) a value of wind
does not consider the following circumstances: speed is measured with an anemometer at a given
a) Windy locations with very high wind speed. heigh za. Also the roughness length according with
b) Topographical effects as hills or scarpments. reference [2] is selected from terrain characteristics.
c) Amplification effects due to surrounding
buildings.
1
Prof., Civil Engineering, University of Coruña, e-mail: hernandez@udc.es
2
Associate Professor, University of Coruña, e-mail: jjurado@udc.es
3
Research Assistant, University of Coruña, e-mail: jtoimil@udc.es
4
Assistant Professor, University of Coruña, e-mail: jdiaz@udc.es
140
S. Hernández, J.A. Jurado, J. Toimil, J. Dı́az
Wind pressure distribution over hills can be studied 5 WIND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN WALLS
from references [3-7]. For a hill with maximum AND ROOFS OF THE CITY OF CULTURE
height h, a longitudinal scale L (L>>h) and a profile BUILDINGS.
hf(x/L), where f (x/L) 1 the following expression Using the previously methodology, roof and walls of
for wind speed U2 (z) can be used each building of the CITY OF CULTURE was
§ h V ln 2 ( L / z0 ) U 0 ·
U 2 U1 ¨¨1 ¸ (4) discretized into several subdivisions building.
¸
© L ln ( L / z0 ) ln z / z0 ¹ A computer code titled PREVICC was created out to
process the methodology described. The code
contains all the geometrical data of the buildings, the
wind speed records and the formulation of the
problem. By introducing only two parameters,
namely the return period T and the roughness length
z0 the complete set of wind pressures for each
Figure 1. Profile of a hill.
subdivision of any building along with a comparison
with values evaluated by the spanish code of practice
U2 is the wind speed at (x,z), U1, is the wind speed is presented.
distribution for flat terrain obtained in (3). X is the
longitudinal distance indicated in Figure 3, U0 is a 6 CONCLUSIONS
dimensionless parameter.
Some conclusions can be extracted from this
Also V is evaluated from the expression research.
1 D f ' x / L d x / L — Current code of practice can not fully produce
(5)
S³
V
D x/ L accurate results of wind pressures over singular
For the particular case buildings.
§ x· L — Specific studies carried out for unusual
f¨ ¸ (6)
© L¹ L2 x 2 constructions can identify more precise values of
becomes V = 1 wind loads on building having in account site
Finally l/z0 can be expressed as wind regime, location topographical features and
l 1 § 2 · 0,9 external shape.
¨ ¸ (7)
z0 8 ¨© z 0 ¸¹ — Computer codes with nice graphical interfaces
make easy for practitioners the use sophisticated
Using the indicated terminology the profile of site of
methodologies in day to day problems.
the City of Culture appears in Figure 2.
7 REFERENCES
1. NBE. AE-88. Acciones en la edificación. Ministerio de
Fomento.
2. SIMIU, E., & SCANLAN, R.H. Wind effects in structures,
John Wiley, 1996.
3. P. S. JACKSON & J. C. HUNT, Turbulent Flow over a
Low Hill, J. Royal Meteorol. Soc., 101 (1975), 929-955.
4. W. FROST, J. R. MAUS & G. H. FICHT, A Boundary-
Layer Analysis of Atmospheric Motion Over a Semi-
Elliptical Surface Obstruction, Bound. Layer Meteorol., 7
(1974), 165-184.
5. P. A. TAYLOS, Numerical Studies of Neutrally Stratified
Planetary Boundary Layer Flow Above Gentle
Topography, Bound Layer Meteorol., 12 (1997), 37-60.
6. H. NORSTRUD, Wind Flow over Low Arbitrary Hills,
Bound. Layer Meteorol., 23 (1982) 115-124.
7. P. J. MASON & R. I. SYKES, Flow over an Isolated Hill
Figure 2. Profile of the City of Culture location. of Moderate Slope, J. Royal Meteorol. Soc., 105 (1979,
383-395.
With such profile the numerical integration of (5)
gives a value V = 1,73 and substituting in expression
(4) the distribution of wind speed U2 can be
evaluated for different locations of buildings along
the hill.
141
Modelling of the wind speed profiles obtained by a sodar

in complex terrain
-+RãHN1
ABSTRACT: In order to deepen the knowledge about the real wind profile, our team has measured the wind
profiles with two Doppler sodars in wide range of synoptic situations in Ore mountains (Erzgebirge) and in
the region of Orlické hory (mountains), both in the Czech republic. Ore mountains represent the region most
suitable for construction of wind turbines in the Czech republic. Concerning the observed wind profiles, their
generalization may serve for improvement of precision of the simulated wind profile fields.
In the second part of the work, we performed the modelling of wind speed profiles in the complex terrain of
above-mentioned mountain ranges. We have applied the non-hydrostatic meso-scale models KAMM and
PIAP. The numerical simulations with the models were performed for different situations of the ambient flow,
described by geostrophic wind speed and direction, and temperature stratification.
1 INTRODUCTION The first synoptic situation of 28.6.2000 is

characterized by the NW geostrophic wind and only
Along with increasing interest in the wind energy in slightly stable temperature stratification. On
the Czech republic, more precise and more detailed 19.8.2003 the weather situation was similar except
wind resource assessment is required. The state-of- for the near neutral layer, which extended only to
the-art technology allows the construction of high cca 800 m a.s.l. Conversely, during the last situation
towers for wind turbines. Therefore, the vertical from 26.11.2003 a temperature inversion appeared
wind profiles must be determined up to the higher between cca 750 and 1200 m a.s.l., as the
levels above terrain (often as high as 150 meters), geostrophic wind flew from the south.
where the universal non-dimensional profiles lose
their applicability.
The following paper describes measured and 3 OBSERVED WIND PROFILES
modelled profiles in two regions in the northern and
the northwestern part of the Czech republic, where is The wind speed profiles were measured with the
now big demand for the wind resource assessment. sodar Remtech PA2 attached to a car trailer. The
basic averaging interval was set to three minutes.
For the weather situation from 28.6.2000 in Dlouhá
2 SITES AND WEATHER CONDITIONS Louka, the wind speed at 50 m ranges from 7.6 to
8.2 m/s, while at 110 m the interval is 10.2 - 11.3
The first site at Dlouhá Louka is a part of Ore m/s. In Nový Hrádek the wind speeds were lower, as
mountains (Erzgebirge), which extends from the corresponding intervals on 8.19.2003 covered
southwest to northeast with typical peak altitudes 5.5 – 6.2 m/s at 50 m and 7.4 – 8.2 m/s at 110 m, as
from 900 to 1200 m a.s.l. The elevation of the site is well as on 26.11.2003 5.5 – 6.6 m/s at 50 m and 8.2
880 m a.l.s. and the terrain opens to the south. The – 9.2 m/s at 110 m.
measurements presented here were performed at the
site on 28.6.2000.
Other two sites near Nový Hrádek belong to the 4 METHODOLOGY
northern part of Orlické hory (mountains), where the
altitudes are similar (ranging from 1000 to 1200 m The modelling was performed with two three-
a.s.l.), but the orientation of range is from northwest dimensional non-hydrostatic models KAMM and
to southeast. On 19.8.2003 we chose the site on the PIAP. The KAMM was developed in Institut fuer
edge with very steep slope to the south and Meteorologie und Klimaforschung in Karlsruhe.
southwest. At the second site the measurements Spatial derivatives are calculated by centred
were carried out on 26.11.2003. differences using a non-staggered grid. The
1
JiĜí Hošek, Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech republic, Prague,
e-mail hosek@ufa.cas.cz
142
J. Hošek
parametrisation of sub-grid scale fluxes is done by a m/s at 50 m above ground. For both situations, the
mixing-length model. The model includes a model KAMM computed well the shape of the
vegetation and soil sub-model to resolve radiation profile; the logarithmic profile and the model PIAP
effects. The detailed description gives Adrian & were not very successful.
Fiedler (1991). The PIAP model was developed in
Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Prague. It also
uses centred differences for calculation of 6 CONCLUSIONS
derivatives, however the grid is staggered. It didn’t
take into account the radiation processes. The model The wind speed profiles observed at three selected
is described in paper Svoboda & Štekl (1994) in sites under various synoptic situations showed the
detail. significant difference from the logarithmic profile,
The model domains had horizontal dimensions 80 especially concerning the shape.
by 80 points and 40 levels on the vertical axis. The The shape of the wind profiles simulated with
top of the domain was set to 3000 m above the see KAMM fitted very well to the measurements above
level. The horizontal resolution reached one 50 m, however the computed absolute values
kilometre, according to the finest suitable resolution underestimated the observed wind profile at Nový
for the model KAMM. The main source of the Hrádek. The reason may be the fact that
terrain data represented the digital elevation model initialization was very simple and the typical size of
DMR with horizontal grid step of 100 meters. The orographic features is under the resolution of the
other necessary physical inputs to the models were model domain. Conversely, the model PIAP
derived from a land-cover classification CORINE. simulated the absolute values well from 80 m above
The models were initialised from NCEP/NCAR surface, but was unable to treat well the shape of the
reanalysis data available on the web with the time wind speed profile.
step of 6 hours. The results of wind profile modelling are
applicable particularly in the wind turbine siting and
the development of micro-scale models of boundary
5 SIMULATED WIND PROFILES layer in complex terrain.
The model KAMM started at 11UTC and the first 7 REFERENCES

profiles were saved after one hour of spin-up time.
The lowermost layers of the model have only low Adrian G. & Fiedler F. (1991) Simulation of
reliability, so profiles from 50 m above surface and unstationary wind and temperature fields over
up were studied. complex terrain and comparison with observations,
During the weather situation on 28.6.2000, the Contrib. Atm. Phys., 64, p27-48.
biggest differences from 12UTC profile appeared at Svoboda J. & Štekl J. (1994) Mesoscale modelling
the lower levels – at 50 m above ground the results of a flow modification caused by orography,
of KAMM was 1.8 m/s higher than measured, but Meteorol. Zeitschrift, N.F.3,233-241.
the difference rapidly goes down and at 90 m falls to
0.3 m/s. In the higher levels the modelled profile
keeps approximately 0.3-0.6 m/s above the 12UTC
profile. The PIAP model simulated best the level at
30 m, but above that high the absolute differences
are high – 2.5 m/s at 100 m above ground.
Concerning the shape of wind profile, the model
KAMM was nearest to the measurements. However,
all the methods have significant differences.
On 19.8.2003, the difference of KAMM
simulation and the profile measured at 12UTC is
over 2 m/s. Conversely, the simulation with PIAP
give the smallest difference at levels between 80 and
200 m with errors under 0.6 m/s, that rapidly
increases to over 2.0 m/s at 20 m above ground. The
simulation on 26.11.2003 was similar to the last one.
However the KAMM results are not so much
underestimated – the difference is under 2 m/s. The
profile obtained from PIAP has the differences under
0.4 m/s between 80 m and 200 m, and it again
increase to more than 2.0 m/s at 20 m and about 1.2
143
Variations in static pressure – application to wind engineering
R. P. Hoxey1, A. D. Quinn2, Dr. P. Richards3
ABSTRACT: Within the boundary layer the vorticity leads to a depression in sensed ‘static’ pressure and
the fluctuations in vorticity produce variation in ‘static’ pressure. An initial attempt to quantify this variation
is described and the vortical structures in the boundary layer explored to account for the variations. The
measured variation in ‘static’ pressure has application to the assessment of wind loads and is discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION transducer which is measuring surface pressure on a

structure.
There is extensive evidence in the literature of the
existence of vortex structures in turbulent shear 2. Static pressure variation will influence the
flows, with references to flow features such as pressures measured on a structure; this is not
vortex loops, hairpin vortex structures, U-shaped insignificant and may contribute more than 15% to
vortices, etc., see for example work by the fluctuating load on a structure.
Christensen and Adrian (2001). These flow
structures have been observed, using PIV and 2 STATIC PRESSURE VARIATIONS
other techniques, in relatively low Reynolds Four ultrasonic anemometers (Solent anemometers
number flows in laboratory conditions. Interest from Gill Instruments, UK), which measure the three
has now extended to observation of such components of wind velocity, were mounted vertically
structures in the high Reynolds number flow of on a mast at heights of 1, 3, 6 and 10m. Additionally,
the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). Initial a static pressure probe was mounted 300 mm from the
exploration of this at SRI has been through the use measurement centre of each anemometer. The pressure
of traditional anemometry, augmented by measured at each location was of the static pressure
measurement of static pressure close to the from the probe compared with the low-pass filtered
anemometer. In the turbulence of the ABL, static static pressure from a tapping point in level ground.
pressure variation can be a more sensitive An example of part of a record of static pressure
indicator of a vortex than is the fluctuation in and of the velocity measured at a height of 10m is
velocity since the pressure is always depressed shown in Fig. 1 covering a 20s period between 550s
whereas the velocity components can increase or and 570s into the record.
30 600
decrease. static
An attempt has been made in the experiments u'
v'
described here to measure the instantaneous static 20
w' 400
pressure difference between ground level, time-

averaged static pressure, and the instantaneous 10 200
static pressure at heights of 1, 3, 6 and 10m, and

hence to derive the mean and statistical properties 0 0
of static pressure difference with height.
The variation in static pressure has
-10 -200
implications to wind engineering in two distinct
ways:-
-20 -400
1. Reference pressure, used as a backing pressure
for differential transducers, is a fluctuating
-30 -600
pressure with a non-zero mean and contributes 550 555 560 565 570
to the fluctuations sensed by the pressure time (s)
Figure 1 - Example of measured static pressure and fluctuatin
velocities at z=10m, and a mean stream speed of 7m/s.
1
Professor Roger Hoxey, Silsoe Research Institute, e-mail roger.hoxey@bbsrc.ac.uk
2
Dr Andrew Quinn, Silsoe Research Institute, e-mail andrew.quinn@bbsrc.ac.uk
3
Professor Peter Richards, University of Auckland, New Zealand, email pj.richards@auckland.ac.nz
144
R.P. Hoxey, A.D. Quinn, P.J. Richards
The spectral densities of the static pressure A typical spectrum of winter wind recorded at a
fluctuations at the four heights are shown in Fig. 2. height of 10 m in South-East England is shown in
The pressure system is fully responsive to over Fig. 3. This spectrum displays the distinct elements
50 Hz, and with no pneumatic or electrical of the low frequency ‘Atlantic depressions’ and the
filtering, aliasing is evident in the pressure spectra. higher frequency boundary layer generated
turbulence with a ‘spectral gap’ merging region.
10000 The objective in the paper is to explore the spectral
properties of vortex flow structures and show that
1000 they can be combined to produce the spectrum of
Fig 3.
S(n) (Pa^2/Hz)
100
-5/3slope 3. APPLICATION TO WIND ENGINEERING
10 3.1 Measurement of surface pressure
10m
6m The RMS of the fluctuations in the static pressure
1 3m may be of the order of 10% of wind dynamic
1m
pressure with a similar possible offset) which may
0.1 give an error in mean pressure coefficient, Cp, of
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.1 – the measured tapping point Cp should be
frequency (Hz) reduced by this value – and the RMS coefficient
Figure 2 - Spectral density of static pressure at four heights may contain additional fluctuations of 0.1 in
pRMS/dynamic pressure.
The spectral density pattern shown in Fig. 2
exhibits several characteristics. Firstly, the low 3.2 Design pressure coefficients.
frequency response of the static pressure is Part of the pressure on the surface of a building is
attenuated, as it is a pressure difference with generated from the vorticity in the approach flow;
respect to the filtered surface tapping pressure. the pressure is a combination of this and the
Secondly, at higher frequencies, there is a clear pressures generated by the flow distorted by the
indication of aliasing and hence no clear indication body. The pressures generated by flow distortion
of the decay rate. Elliott (1972) observed a –1.7 are much larger but in combination there may be
slope, which is indistinguishable from –5/3; cases where the two mechanisms are
however the spectra in Fig 6 indicate a higher complementary and give a short term peak
exponent of possibly -4/3 which is the value pressure. However, there is a relationship between
obtained for a modelled cascade of vorticity. The pressure and velocity in a vortical flow structure
repeat experiment with a higher sampling rate may and the extreme of pressure does not occur at the
resolve this. position of maximum velocity. The combination of
10000000 these two wind load generating mechanisms
1000000
(Suu(fl)+Svv(fl))/ U^2, 1/ 60 Hz
requires more detailed study.
Sww(fl)/ U^ 2, 1/ 60 Hz
100000 (Suu(fl)+Svv(fl))/ U^2, 5 Hz

4 REFERENCES
10000 Sww(fl)/ U^ 2, 5 Hz
1000
Christensen, K.T. and Adrian, R.J. (2001)
Saa (f l)/U^2
Statistical evidence of hairpin vortex packets in

wall turbulence. J. Fluid Mech., 431, 433-443.
100
10
Elliott, J. A. (1972) Microscale pressure
1
fluctuations measure within the lower
0.1 atmospheric boundary layer. J. Fluid Mech., 53,
0.01 351-383.
1E-08 0.0000001 0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Low Level Reduc ed Frequenc y fl = nz0/ u*
Figure 3 - Power spectral density of the streamwise and vertical

components
145
Numerical study of wind-induced ventilation with the local dynamic

similarity model
C. Hu1, T. Kurabuchi2M. Ohba3
ABSTRACT: The local dynamic similarity model is able to predict the discharge coefficient and the inflow
angle at the opening of a cross-ventilated building under various wind angles. This model requires dynamic
pressure component tangential to the opening in addition to wind pressure. Total pressure, wind pressure,
static pressure, room pressure and the inflow velocity components are needed for model validation. Under the
condition of cross-ventilation, it is rather difficult to measure those parameters directly, especially the total
pressure and the velocity components at the opening, as the inflow angle is not known a priori. Therefore, an
alternative was sought. This study applied a CFD method to determine the required parameters for the local
dynamic similarity model and the results were compared with the experimental data. Preliminary findings
concluded that using this numerical approach was satisfactory for the study of cross-ventilation.
from the envelope flow model, where only the wind

1 INTRODUCTION pressure and the room pressure are required.
Conventional method for design of openings uses the Dynamic Pressure in
Tangential Direction Stream
envelope flow model, which assumes a fixed Tube
∆P䰉PT䯹PW
discharge coefficient (Cd), which is a constant
regardless the approaching wind direction, as follows
Pt
PT
Q = Cd A
2
ρ
( Pw − PR ) (1) Ǫ PN
PR
where Q (m3/s) is the volumetric flow rate, A (m2)
the area of opening, ρ (kg/m3) the density of air, Pw
PT 䰆 Total Pressure , PW 䰆 Wind Pressure
and PR are the wind pressure and room pressure PR 䰆 Indoor Pressure , β䰆 Inflow Angle
(Pascal), respectively. It is simple and it is PN 䰆 Dynamic Pressure in Normal Direction
considered adequate if the main purpose is to design Pt 䰆 Dynamic Pressure in Tangential Direction
suitable openings for natural ventilation (Etheridge ∆P = PT – Pw (2)
2004). The simplified approach is unable to predict PR* = (PR – Pw) / ∆P (3)
or depict the variations of the flow rate if the wind PN* = PN / ∆P (4)
direction varies. In some regions where the wind Pt* = Pt / ∆P (5)
direction varies seasonally or more rapidly, higher Cd = √(PN* / |PR*|) (6)
β = tan-1(Pt* / PN*) (7)
accuracy of flow rate prediction is preferred, PR* Dimensionless room pressure
particularly if the aim is to maximize the potential of PN* Dimensionless PN
natural ventilation in building design. Therefore, a Pt* Dimensionless Pt
local dynamic similarity model has been proposed to Cd Discharge coefficient
improve the accuracy of flow rate prediction β Inflow angle
(Kurabuchi et al. 2004a). The model is established Figure 1 Formation of the local dynamic similarity model
on the foundation of Large Eddy Simulation (LES).
The structure of the approaching flow in the vicinity This model has been systematically validated by
of opening has been observed and analyzed through wind tunnel experiments (Kurabuchi et al 2004a, b).
LES (Kurabuchi et al. 2000), resulting in the concept However, it has also found that some parameters
of local dynamic similarity model. Figure 1 such as the total pressure and the wind pressure are
illustrates the formation of the local dynamic difficult to be obtained by direct measurements. A
similarity model in which the total pressure of the numerical method thus has been sought. The main
stream tube need be taken into account. This differs objective of this study is to examine a numerical
1
COE Researcher, Dept. Architecture, Tokyo Polytechnic University, email chenghu@arch.t-kougei.ac.jp
2
Professor, Dept. Architecture, Tokyo University of Science
3
Professor, Dept. Architecture, Tokyo Polytechnic University
146
C. Hu, T. Kurabuchi, M. Ohba
approach using a turbulence model based on investigated (figure 3). The required parameters
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS) shown in figure 1 for using the local dynamic
and to discuss its suitability for the study of cross- similarity model can be obtained from CFD data.
ventilation with the comparisons of experimental The comparison between the theoretical values of
data and the theoretical values obtained from the using local dynamic similarity model and the CFD
local dynamic similarity model. calculations (figure 4) shows good agreement
between both of them.
2 METHODS
In a previous study (Hu and Ohba 2004), several 25.00
RANS turbulence models (standard k-ε, RNG k-ε, 20.00
standard k-ω and SST k-ω) have been compared for 15.00
the simulation of flow field around and within a 10.00
Pressure (Pa)
cross-ventilated building. Results indicate that the 5.00
flow simulation made by the SST k-ω model is 0.00

-5.00 Total pressure
satisfactory in terms of flow features compared to
-10.00 Wind pressure
that of the wind tunnel experiment. The complete
-15.00 Room pressure
SST k-ω model is described by Menter (1994). In -20.00
this study, the SST k-ω model was used as the 0 15 30 45 60 75
turbulence closure of the RANS equations. The Wind angle (°)
numerical simulations were primarily done through a
CFD code “Fluent” (Fluent Inc. 2003). Additional Figure 3 Variations of pressures at the opening under
subroutines were created to define appropriate different wind directions
boundary conditions of the approaching flow. The
residuals and the mass flux across the specified 0.007
opening were monitored during the iteration in order 0.006
to secure the converged calculations. 0.005
Flow rate (m3/s)
Cross-ventilated building 0.004
0.003
o
Wind angle ( )
0.002 Local dynamic similarity model
0.001 Direct calculation (CFD)
0.000
0 15 30 45 60 75
Wind angle (°)
0.007
0.006 Figure 4 Comparison of flow rate obtained from the local

similarity model and CFD
Flow rate (m3/s)
0.005
0.004 4 CONCLUSIONS
0.003 CFD This paper has presented a numerical method for the
0.002 Experiment study of cross-ventilation with respect to the use of
0.001 local dynamic similarity model. Results indicate that
0 the flow features of cross-ventilation can be captured
0 20 40 60 80 satisfactorily by the numerical approach and the flow
Wind angle (°) rate either calculated directly by CFD or using the
local dynamic similarity model is acceptable. One
Figure 2 Variation of flow rate under different wind angles
advantage of using CFD is that the required data can
3 RESULTS be easily obtained. Although the numerical method
is based on a RANS model, it has shown practical
The flow rates were calculated by CFD under values for this type of study. CFD users may either
various wind angles (0o, 15o, 22.5o, 30o, 45o, 60o, apply this local dynamic similarity model or use
67,5o, 75o), as shown in figure 2. Variations of total CFD results directly for the design of openings in
pressure, wind pressure and room pressure were more practical engineering applications.
147
Measurement of the corner effects of a square prism on the near wake

using an on-line phase-locked PIV technique
J.C. Hu, Y. Zhou1 , J.F. Huang
ABSTRACT: The near wake flow structure of square cylinders with different corner radii was experimentally
studied based on an on-line phase-locked PIV technique. Four bluff bodies, i.e., r/d = 0 (square cylinder),
0.157, 0.236, 0.5 (circular cylinder), where r is corner radius and d is the characteristic dimension of the bluff
bodies, were examined. The results show that, as r/d increases from 0 to 0.5, the maximum strength of vortices
attenuates, the circulation associated with the vortices drops progressively by 50%, the vortex shedding
frequency, St, increases by about 60%, the convection velocity of the vortices increases along with the
widening of the wake width by about 25%. Meanwhile, both the vortex wavelength, λx, and the lateral spacing,
λy, decrease as r/d increases, but the ratio of λy to λx is approximately 0.29, irrespective of r/d, which is close
to the theoretical value of 0.281 for a stable Karman vortex street. The decrease in wavelength is probably
responsible for the change in the flow structure from the approximately circular-shaped vortex at r/d = 0 to
the laterally stretched vortex at r/d = 0.5.
unequivocally the signature of the large-scale
1 INTRODUCTION coherent structures. The original measured hotwire
Flow passing cylindrical body with a corner signal was zero-band-passed, that is, the low- and
modification has attracted a great deal of attention in high-pass frequencies were both specified at the
the literature. Previous investigations largely focused shedding frequency, f s. The trigger point was set
on the effect of corner radii on the aerodynamic or where the voltage of the filtered signal reached its
hydrodynamic characteristics, such as drag/lift forces time-averaged mean and dE/dt > 0, where E was
and shedding frequency, of bluff bodies. How the voltage. Once the filtered signal met the set criteria,
corner variation may alter the near wake, however, a pulse was generated to trigger the PIV system for
has yet to be sufficiently documented. Therefore, this illumination and simultaneously capturing images by
work is to characterize quantitatively the corner the CCD camera.
effects on the near-wake flow structure based on an
on- line phased- locked PIV measurement technique. 3 PHASE-AVERAGED RESULTS
Experiments were conducted in a closed-circuit The contours of instantaneous spanwise vorticity,
wind tunnel at Re ≡ U ∞ d /ν = 2600 and 6000. Four ω *z , derived from the phase- locked individual PIV
cylinders of the same characteristic dimension d = image, show many similarities for each r/d. The
12.7 mm but of different corner radius r, were vortices occur at approximately the same x/d, though
investigated, including square cylinder of r/d = 0, slightly different in the shape and lateral location. A
two rounded square cylinders of r/d = 0.157, 0.236, number of observations can be made based on
respectively, and a circular cylinder of r/d = 0.5. comparison between the instantaneous and phase-
averaged vorticity contours at Re = 2600. Firstly, the
2 ON-LINE PHASE-LOCKED PIV phase-averaged flow structure is largely
MEASUREMENT topologically similar to the instantaneous ones.
One important issue in the development of a Secondly, the maximum instantaneous vorticity is
technique to capture phase- locked PIV images is to larger than the corresponding phase-averaged
select a triggering or controlling signal. A single vorticity, ω~*z, max . Thirdly, the instantaneous vortices
tungsten wire of 5 µ m in diameter, operated at an are inclined to be more irregular in shape than the
overheat ratio of 1.8 on a constant temperature phase-averaged ones. Finally, vortices in the
circuit, was placed at x/d = 7 ~ 8 and y/d = 3 ~ 4 circular-cylinder wake tend to be laterally elongated
(cylinder center is defined as the coordinate origin) in both instantaneous and phase-averaged data,
to measure the longitudinal velocity fluctuation. For consistent with previous observations. The structure
each cylinder, the wire was longitudinally and variation might be linked with the difference in the
laterally adjusted, placed as far as possible from the vortex wavelength between the cases of r/d = 0 and
wake centerline, with its signal showing
1
Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong
Kong, e-mail: mmyzhou@polyu.edu.hk
148
J.C. Hu, Y. Zhou, J.F. Huang
0.5. From the phase-averaged results, it is clear that vortices and thus opposite-signature vorticity
the vortex wavelength, λ x , of r/d = 0 is larger than cancellation becomes intensified.
its counterpart of r/d = 0.5 by about 50% at the same
x/d, that is, vortices ‘squash’ each other more in the 4 CONER EFFECT ON VORTEX SHEDDING
streamwise direction at r/d = 0.5, leading to laterally FREQUENCY AND WAKE-WIDTH
elongated vortices. Meanwhile, the lateral vortex The Strouhal number, St, almost linearly increases
spacing, λ y , also dwindles as r/d increases. Although with r/d for cylinders of the four same corners. It is
worthwhile commenting that cylinders with all four
both λ y and λ x are corner radius dependent, their
corners rounded and those with only two leading
ratio λ y / λ x is roughly a constant 0.29 for x/d = 4 ~ corners rounded have almost identical St. On the
11, which approximates to the theoretical value of other hand, the cylinders of r/d = 0 for the leading
0.281 for the stable Karman vortex street in the near corners but r/d ≠ 0 for the trailing corners have
wake. As vortices develop downstream, both λ y and essentially the same St as the square cylinder. The
observations suggest that the leading corners are
λ x increase, conforming to the increased wake wid th aerodynamically more important than the trailing
and convection velocity of vortices. ones because they determine to a great extent the
The convection velocity Uc increases behaviour of streamlines, the separation angle and
downstream for all r/d, and the increment is more hence the base pressure.
evident for x/d < 6 and at a moderate rate further The mean velocity half width L0 , which was
downstream up to x/d ≈ 11. These observations estimated based on the LDA measured mean
agree quite well with previous hotwire streamwise velocity at x/d = 5 across the wake,
measurements. It is further noted that, as r/d decreases almost linearly with r/d increasing,
increases, U c* increases at the same x/d. For irrespective of Re. A higher Re results in a larger L0
instance, U c* at r/d = 0.5 is larger tha n that at r/d = 0. because of the enhanced turbulent diffusion.
This might be due to a lower base pressure behind
the square cylinder and hence a larger streamwise 5 CONCLUSIONS
mean velocity deficit U1 , as confirmed by the laser 1) The flow structure depends to a great extent
Doppler anemometry measurements. on the corner radius of the cylinder. As r/d
Cantwell and Coles’ (1983) data exhibit a faster increases from 0 to 0.5, the maximum
vorticity decay rate than present the streamwise vorticity of the vortex attenuates, the
decay of the normalized maximum vorticity, ω~z, max , circulation associated with vortices dropping
*
progressively by 50%; meanwhile, St climbs

of vortices. Although the effect of different Re
linearly by about 60%. The increase in St
should not be excluded, the difference in the ω~z, max
*
means a decrease in the vortex wavelength.
decay may be attributed to distinct phase-averaging As a result, the vortex changes from
processes. The streamwise decay of ω~*z, max displays a approximately circular shape at r/d = 0 to
similar trend for all r/d. laterally stretched shape at r/d = 0.5.
The ratio of the remaining circulation to the total 2) With r/d increasing, λ x and λ y decrease, but
shed circulation, Γ /Γ0 , is no more than 48%, like the ratio of λ y to λ x is approximately 0.29,
ω~*z, max , tends to decrease with increasing x/d, which irrespective of r/d, which is close to 0.281 as
is expected. The loss of more than half of the total predicted based on the stability analysis of
circulation shed is partly due to the vorticity the Karman vortex street. The convection
cancellation of the oppositely signed vortices in the velocity of vortices depends on r/d, larger r/d
wake. Another reason might be that downstream of correspond ing to a larger U c .
the cylinder the driving force maintaining the 3) The near wake flow structure is sensitive to
vortical motion weakens, thus the stretching of three- the change of the leading corner radii, not so
dimensional ribs attenuates, resulting in insufficient much to the trailing ones. The mean velocity
vorticity production to replenish the decay. As r/d half width measured at x/d = 5 across the
increases, the remaining circulation of the vortex wake drops linearly by 25% as r/d changes
diminishes at the same x/d. This might be due to the from 0 to 0.5. The wake becomes wider as
smaller streamwise spacing and lateral spacing of the Re increases.
149

P. Hémon1
ABSTRACT: We deal in this paper with the transient response of road vehicles when a sudden change arises
in the wind velocity, in terms of yawing angle and modulus. The objective is to demonstrate that the coupling
between lateral and yawing motion is of major importance in the transient response and hence cannot be
neglected. This is due to a mechanism called transient growth of energy which we have demonstrated recently
the existence. Starting from a simple linear quasi-steady model, we show that the yawing rate is responsible of
a transient growth of the energy, hence generating a transient amplification of the vehicle response before the
exponential decay. We compare different kinds of vehicles in regards to this phenomenon.
m &y& + 2mη y 2π f y y& + m (2π f y ) y = Fy

2
1 INTRODUCTION (1)
J β&& + 2 J η β 2π f β β& + J (2π f β ) β = N
2
The transient motion of passenger cars consecutive
to lateral aerodynamic loads, such as during
overtaking or because of a cross-wind gust, has where m is the vehicle mass, J the inertia
probably been experienced by every driver. momentum, η y and η β the damping ratios which are
Although this is the cause of a very small number of supposed to be small, f y and f β the two
accidents, perception of such transient phenomena is frequencies for each degree of freedom, Fy the
considered as an important point in the drivers’ aerodynamic side force and N the aerodynamic
opinion of a car performance (Bourdassol, 1996). yawing moment. The aerodynamic forces are
In this paper, we present an investigation focused expressed with the dimensionless coefficient of side
on the transient growth of the energy. Transient force Cy and yawing moment Cn. These coefficients
growth is an amplification of the energy of a stable depend on the relative yaw angle βa which is
system, before it ultimately decreases. Transient
growth can occur even for linear systems in the supposed here to be small. S is the reference surface,
subcritical range as a consequence of the interaction ℓ the reference length, ρ the air density. Va is the
of non orthogonal modes (Schmid & Henningson, relative velocity on the vehicle during its movement.
2001; Schmid & de Langre, 2003). The objective of ac is the distance between aerodynamic centre A and
the present paper is to show that such phenomenon gravity centre G. The relative velocity and relative
can occur for ground vehicles. yaw angle depend on y and β, see Figure 1, through
geometrical relations leading to the linearized forces:
βa y U
1 ⎛ y& a c β& ⎞ ∂C y
β+βa −y Fy = ρU 2 S ⎜ + + β ⎟⎟
⎜U
β A − ac β

2 ⎝ U ⎠ ∂β
G x . (2)
Va
U 1 ⎛ y& a c β& ⎞ ∂C
N = ρU 2 S l ⎜ + + β ⎟⎟ n
⎜U
Va 2 ⎝ U ⎠ ∂β
Figure 1. Definition of geometrical parameters and apparent Due to the specific configuration and aerodynamic
velocity at point A characteristics of a passenger car, as detailed later, it
can be shown here that the smallest critical velocity
2 THE DYNAMICAL SYSTEM Uc is due to the loss of the pure yawing stiffness. A
We consider a vehicle which travels on a straight normalized velocity U* is defined such that U* =
line at a constant velocity U. The equations of U/Uc. For the study of transient growth below the
motions in lateral displacement y and in yaw angle β critical velocity, U* < 1, temporal simulations of the
as shown in Figure 1, reads (Fung, 1993) governing equations (1) are performed.
1
Dr. Pascal Hémon, Department of Mechanics, LadHyX, Ecole Polytechnique - CNRS, F-91128 Palaiseau Cédex, France,
E-mail : pascal.hemon@ladhyx.polytechnique.fr
150
P. Hémon
To quantify transient growth, we use the mechanical characteristic time is exactly in the main receptivity
energy of the system, expressed as range of the human body.
E (t ) = m y& 2 + J β& 2 + m (2π f y ) y 2
1 1 1 2 By comparing the two kinds of vehicles, it is found
2 2 2 that for a given physical velocity U, the three bodies
. (7) vehicle is more sensitive to the transient growth than
+ J (2π f β ) β
1 2 2 the two bodies vehicle because its critical velocity is
2 lower. For a given reduced velocity U*, this is the
This energy is normalized hereafter by the initial inverse. It is explained because transient growth of
energy Eo associated with the initial conditions. energy is due to the aeroelastic coupling between the
This model is applied to two typical ground vehicles, two degrees of freedom.
a two bodies shape (2B) and a three bodies shape
(3B) as sketched in Figure 2. The structural
parameters are presented in Table 1. The reference 2 y0
length is 2.70 m and the air density is 1.2 kg/m3. The
y& 0
E(t) / Eo
two vehicles have their difference in their
aerodynamic characteristics as shown in Table 2. 1
The critical velocity is 55.2 m/s and 45.1 m/s for
vehicles 2B and 3B respectively.
2B 3B
2 β0
Figure 2. Sketch of the two typical vehicle shapes compared in E(t) / Eo β&0
this study
1
Table 1. Parameters of the vehicle
m J ηy ηβ fy fβ
(kg) (kg.m2) (%) (%) (Hz) (Hz) 0
0 1 2 3
1000. 100. 10 10 1.0 1.0 t (s)
Figure 3. Transient energy amplification for various initial
Table 2. Aerodynamic characteristics of the two vehicles conditions, U=40 m/s (U* =0.89), 3B vehicle.
S ∂C y ∂β S ∂C n ∂β ac 4 CONCLUSIONS
Vehicle
(m2/rad) (m2/rad) (m)
Transient growth of energy has been shown to be
2B -4.8 +0.8 -0.45 possible in realistic situation of passenger car
3B -3.8 +1.2 -0.85 response when submitted to lateral aerodynamic
loads. The energy amplification occurs when the
3 RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS vehicle is submitted to an initial yawing rate.
This can be the consequence of an overtaking or a
The influence of the initial conditions on energy
sharp turn on the wheel. It implies that the correct
growth is displayed in Figure 3 for a normalized
simulation of lateral stability of cars has to include a
velocity U* = 0.89 and the vehicle 3B. The main
study of the vehicle transient dynamics.
result is that transient amplification is obtained for
one case only, when an initial yawing rate β&0 is 5 REFERENCES
applied. All other possibilities lead to decreasing Bourdassol, C. (1996) Analyse de l’excitation aérodynamique
energies. This result is of major importance for the en lacet d’un véhicule soumis à une rafale de vent. Journées
lateral response of car submitted to cross-wind gust d’études de la Société des Ingénieurs de l’Automobile, SIA
because most of the wind tunnel studies are paper 96.09.01, Courbevoie, 5-6 novembre.
Fung, Y.C. (1993) An introduction to the theory of
performed without taking account the yawing rate. aeroelasticity. Dover, New York.
A significant feature lies in the duration of the Schmid, P. & Henningson, D.S. (2001) Instability and
phenomenon which is of the order of the eigenperiod transition in shear flows. Springer, New York.
of the individual degrees of freedom, i.e. one second. Schmid, P. J. & de Langre, E. (2003) Transient growth before
It means that a driver will be here very sensitive to coupled-mode flutter. ASME J. of Applied Mechanics, 70,
pp. 894-901.
the transient growth effects because such a
151
Z. JaĖour, K. Bezpalcová, H. ŠedČnková1
ABSTRACT: The following processes inside the inertial layer of the Urban Atmospheric Boundary Layer
(UABL) were undertaken: street-scale flow and dispersion from line source, small-scale flow dispersion from
point source and micro scale dispersion from line source through roughness sublayer. An appropriate
configuration of roughness elements and spires simulated a boundary layer corresponding with the neutrally
stratified UABL (z0=1.14 m, n=0.28 in full scale). Here measurements of instantaneous flow velocity in the
boundary layer yielded main turbulent characteristics. The model of continuous line source inside the
roughness elements simulated emissions from the vehicular traffic inside the roughness sublayer. The flow and
dispersion of passive contaminant was simulated inside and in the vicinity of the model street canyon to
investigate street-scale processes in this configuration. It has been demonstrated e. g. that Building Reynolds
Number independence is in the range ReB (7800;17500), that spots of high and low concentration dominate
the structure of the concentration fluctuations inside the street canyon and that the strong turbulent mixing
causes rapid homogenisation of the mean concentrations across the flow.
1 INTRODUCTION 3 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

Study of the dispersion of pollutants in the These methods have been adopted and a new
atmosphere forms a basis for implementation of environmental wind tunnel was designed at the
effective methods to prevent environmental damage. Institute of Thermomechanics Academy of Science
The dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere can Czech Republic. The tunnel is designed as an open-
be studied either directly (in situ) by monitoring circuit facility that is operated as a fan driven one. It
methods, which are often expensive and mostly has the cross section 1.5 m x 1. 5 m and the length to
provide only partial results, or by methods of the working section 25.5 m. The long test section
mathematical and physical modelling. For achieves sufficiently thick boundary layer on the
complicated cases it is useful to use the methods of wall of the working section (cca 0.3 m) with the
physical modelling - e. g. simulation of processes in necessary dependent variables profiles. A 30 kW
the atmosphere in wind tunnels. centrifugal blower drives the tunnel at the exit. The
velocity at the working section is within interval
2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES (0,1, 13) ms-1 and depends upon number of
The basic physical model is an analogy between the revolutions per second.
boundary layer flow over a wind tunnel working The turbulence characteristics of the flow field were
section and the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) measured by a 2D fibre-optic Laser Doppler
flow. Following general requirements for similarity Anemometer of the MI, University of Hamburg
of the boundary layer with the Atmospheric (DANTEC) with 500 mm focal distance.
Boundary Layer (ABL) have to be fulfilled in order Concentrations measurements were carrying out with
to transfer results from small-scale wind tunnel slow the Flame-Ionisation-Detector (Rosemount
experiment (model) to full scale (prototype): Analytical NGA 2000-TFID). The LDA probe head
and TFID sampling needle (1500 mm long, 0.3 mm
Undistorted scaling of geometry
of diameter) has been mounted on the computer-
Equal Reynolds number Re controlled 3D traversing system that enables
Equal Prandtl number Pr displacements all over the test section with precision
Equal Richardson number Ri of order 0.1 mm for each directions. The method of
Equal Eckert number Ec the simultaneous measurement of both instantaneous
Surface-boundary-conditions similarity, stream velocity and concentration by means of a
Similarity of the approach-flow characteristics. thermo-anemometer has been tested and verified too.
However, the requirements cannot be satisfied Emissions from linen source (vehicular traffic)
simultaneously in existing facilities and a partial or were modelled by a continuous line source
approximate simulation for particular application has consisting of 3750 parallel needles with an inner
been worked out. diameter of 0.1 mm, preventing the source from
1
doc. RNDr. ZbynČk JaĖour, DrSc, RNDr. Klára Bezpalcová, Mgr. Hana ŠedČnková, Institute of Thermomechanics AS CR
janour@it.cas.cz
152
Z. Jaňour, K. Bezpalcová, H. Šeděnková
generating a significant momentum. It has been type inflow simulation, small-scale flow simulation
assessed that the outlet velocity do not preceded 0.1 and dispersion simulation including a modelling with
m/s. The source flow of the ethane was controlled a line and point source models were developed in both
by the Mass Flow Controller Aalborg - DFC 2600- cases. The models of a street canyon with one line
09 having the accuracy +1% of full scale, including source as an example of the first type of the street
linearity for gas temperatures ranging from 15° C to scale problem and model of “Podbielski Strasse in
25° C and pressures of 0.7 to 4.1 bars. Hannover” with two parallel lines sources, an
example of the second type, were manufacture An
4 RESULTS appropriate configuration of roughness elements and
Different tasks in different scales have been spires made the approaching boundary layer flow,
investigated inside the UABL. which corresponds with the neutrally stratified urban
atmospheric boundary layer and is used as the UABL
1. Emissions from a line source simulating the model. The similarity criteria have been proved at
vehicular traffic were modelled by a continuous line first. It means that our experimental results can be
source and concentration spread has been assessed transferred to full scale. The concentration field of
inside the canopy layer. It has been demonstrated passive contaminant was measured inside the model
that: street canyon, inside of “Podbielski Strasse“and the
x the strong turbulent mixing causes rapid UABL and dimensionless field of concentrations were
homogenisation of the mean concentrations assessed. Comparison demonstrates differences in the
across the flow in contrast to the slow decay of concentration fields, e. g. the leeward side of the
the mean concentrations along the flow (except “Podbielski Strasse” is heavily polluted, etc. It has
near the source), been demonstrated that the strong turbulent mixing in
x Building Reynolds Number independence in the the UABL causes rapid homogenisation of the mean
range Re (7800;17500) concentrations across the flow in contrast to the slow
decay of the mean concentrations along the flow
2. Two main types of street scale air pollution (except near the source).
problems are investigated: The method of the simultaneous measurement of
x Simplified, generalised situations, e. g. street both instantaneous stream velocity and concentration
canyon to assess different parameters influence by means of a thermo-anemometer has been tested
by systematic parameter variation; and verified. The longitudinal component of the
x Direct solution of geometric complex situations velocity, corresponding to the turbulent advection
e. g. connected to new building/s design. can be measured now and the method development
Measurements of typical urban street situation, in is in progress.
our case the Podbielsky - Strasse at Hanover,
Germany have been carried out-see Fig. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by GA CR (205/04/0311), by the
3. Plume spreading inside the urban atmospheric
Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic (COST 723) and
surface layer characteristics has been investigated. by Research project AV0Z20760514.
The simultaneous measurement of both
instantaneous stream velocity and concentration of a
tracer gas from point source in the UABL developed
in the working section of the Environmental wind
tunnel has been used. The simultaneous
measurement of the above mentioned variables by
means of a thermo-anemometer caused data on
individual and mutual statistical characteristics of
these quantities, e.g. mean dimensionless
concentrations K and correlation coefficient r.
4 CONCLUSION
Wind tunnel simulation of the flow and dispersion in
the street scale become suitable tool for air pollution
task solution. Different types of tasks have been
investigated, e. g.: simplified, generalised situations
of the street canyon and direct solution of geometric
complex situations, diffusion from point and linen
source inside the UABL. The methods of the urban Fig. Dimensionless concentrations across the Podbielski Strasse
153
Flow Iield near a 2D Euilding and its Sressure Uesponse
M. Jirsák1, D. Zachoval1, J. MatČcha2, J. Novotný2
ABSTRACT: The boundary layer wind tunnel ARTI/CTU is exploited for long-term study of natural air
infiltration. Its façade boundary conditions were investigated firstly on 2D model of large estate building at
suburb wind structure. The paper is focused on flow field near the building and its surface pressure response.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
Requirement of proper air exchange in interiors
12-floor horizontally oriented, 230 m long housing
jointly with heating efficiency request belong to the
object was optioned as prototype for 2D study of
tasks of high complexity tending to find solution in
infiltration conditions, situated in plain terrain with
BLWT experiments, though also attempts of
standardized z0=0,3 m roughness length.
complex CFD solution exist in literature. Exact
The wind tunnel of VZLU/KU CVUT was used for
analysis of ventilation- and heating function turns
this modeling with section of working part 1.8 x1.5
first attention towards the interaction effects
m and with its length of 15.6 m. The boundary layer
between turbulent wind and building. Turbulent flow
simulation showed features of energy equilibrium
pattern and oscillating surface pressure represent
(see Fig.1) at scaling 1:350. It complied with the
important boundary conditions for the air
condition of fully rough turbulent flow with its
infiltration. As known, serious problems arise at
u*zo/Ȟ§16.3. 2D case is attributed with
scaled modeling of infiltration rate, i.e. gaps own
perpendicular main wind direction.
scaling and its inner flow similarity. However, study
The flow field was investigated firstly using hot wire
of single pressure drop and turbulent effects at
anemometer Dantec-Stremline, then partical image
different gap high level and wind expose, space
velocimetry set at flow seeding by Dantec-Safex fog
correlations of fluctuating pressure, if be focused on
generator.
realistic and frequent building shapes, should extend
existing data base.
U/U0 1
U= 0.117 ln((z-d)/0.65)
1 f S(f)u
2 Iu
2 Iu u2
0,8
0,1
0,6
0,4 -5/3 law

0,01
0,2
0
10 100 1000
z–d 0,001
0,1 1 10 100
f Lu,x /U
Figure 1 Mean velocity, turbulence intensity and power spectra in applied ABL simulation
Differential pressure sensors Honeywell 163 PC01 sensor-pipe linking was sooner optimized and result
D36 with 1 Ps response was installed inside the was corrected with respect of the system response to
model The frequency response of the system tap- delta function.
______________________
1
Ing. Milan Jirsák PhD, Mgr.David Zachoval, Aeronautical Research and Test Institute, Prague, CR, jirsak@vzlu.cz,
2
Ing. Jan Matecha, Ing. Jan Novotný, Faculty of Mechanical Eng.,Czech Technical University, Prague, CR jan.matecha@fs.cvut.cz
154
M. Jirsák, D. Zachoval, J. Matěcha, J. Novotný
Figure 2 Mean velocity images (PIV)
3 RESULTS Pressure measurements over central section

complied the similarity condition for overflow
The PIV flow images, Fig. 2 are averaged from 600 h.Uh/Ȟ >5.104 (h..model height, Uh..mean velocity on
frames. Double pitched roof modification slightly top level z=h) as authors established from limit of
differs in the wake (more stable and higher edge mean distribution change (it appeared be more
slope, higher shear and resulting exhaust effect). violent for flat roof case). Spectra for windward taps
Contra-rotating vortices adjoin building foots for are shown Fig.3 - the lowest 1, the highest 5 and
both modifications. Position of the stagnation point, leeward central 8, normalized according [1].
enclosing regions of opposite downwash corres- Volume of saples represents 150.103 each tap, at 5
ponds to pressure distribution. kHz sampling frequency) .
pi-pR/qR
0,5
SD/qR
0
0 50 100 150 200
sc [mm]
-0,5
MEAN flat roof
-1 MEAN double-pitched
SD flat
-1,5 SD double
-2
Figure 3 Mean pressure, standard deviations and spectra on pressure taps
4 CONLUSIONS 5 ACKNOLEDGEMENT
Rather different wake for both modifications causes The work has been promoted by the Czech Ministry
only slight differences in pressure distribution and of Education, Youth and Sport under project No.
spectra. Intended following measurements confine MSM 0001066901
two-point pressure correlations and equilibrium 6 REFERENCES
inner pressure that are supposed to be only weak
affected by gap mouth shape. /1/ Kumar K.S., Stathopoulos T. (1997) Power
spectra of wind pressures on low building roofs,
Proc.of 2 EACWE Eindhoven, Vol. 2, pp. 1069-
1076
155
T. Johnson1, T. Prevezer2
ABSTRACT: The safety of people in strong winds which occur naturally or are induced by passing road or
rail vehicles is of concern to building constructors and transport operators. There is a wide body of published
research into the effects of wind on people, primarily associated with wind speeds in the built environment.
However, there are very few models of human response to wind force. A simple mechanical model of this
response to train slipstream aerodynamic effects has been developed, which provides some useful insights.
The model is used to predict the air speeds at which a person begins to lose their balance, which are
compared with data for people’s wind safety from the built environment and from studies for trains.
1 INTRODUCTION acceleration of the person’s body to the angle of tilt,
There have been many estimates for a “safe” wind T(t) and an applied aerodynamic force, F(t),
speed over the years. A safe wind speed is generated by a wind:
considered to be one which does not cause a person d 2ș
to lose their balance. Durov (1967) defines losing ǿ F(t)bcosș 2asinș mg acosș bsinș
balance as when a person’s initial posture is dt 2
changed, e.g. by taking steps or moving the legs, so (1)
as not to fall. It is widely accepted that a gusty wind where: I is the body moment of inertia about the line
(i.e. one with a high level of turbulence) causes more of rotation, a is the body half-width, b is the body
human imbalance than a steady wind. half-height, m is the person’s mass, g is the
Fukuchi (1961) conjectured that after an initial acceleration due to gravity and t is time.
time delay, a response is initiated to a wind load and The aerodynamic force is related to the wind
the amount of reaction increases exponentially speed Vw(t) by:
thereafter. During the time before muscular response 1 2
F(t) ȡAC DVw (t) (2)
is activated, a person can be considered to be a 2
“physical object under the influence of an evenly where U is the density of air, A is the area of the
distributed force” (Durov (1967)). person’s body facing the wind and CD is the
There is a relatively wide spread of limit values, aerodynamic drag coefficient. Using values of a, b
even excluding the values proposed for train and CD appropriate for human beings, a solution to
operators, which almost certainly include safety
(1) can be obtained using a simple time-stepping
margins. The limits proposed by Bottema (1992) of
20 m/s for young people and 15 m/s for the elderly method, for a given wind speed Vw(t).
represent the lowest values for gusting winds. It is 2.1 Wind model
likely that the spread of limit values arises from
different wind averaging times and people’s A common description of the wind in the built
subjective response to wind. environment is that of the gust speed, û. This is
related to the wind turbulence intensity, V/ǋ, and the
2 A SIMPLE MODEL FOR LOSS OF BALANCE mean wind speed ǋ by:
V
From the literature review, a simple model for û U ( 1 k ( )) (3)
human loss of balance due to wind gusts has been U
developed. k takes values between 3-3.5 for infrequent, short
Following Fukuchi (1961), the model proposed gusts, which are more relevant for train slipstreams
assumes that in the period for about 0.375 s and the built environment. However, this description
following the application of a wind force, humans only relates the gust wind speed to the mean value,
respond mechanically ie like an object. without determining the gust duration.
By applying conservation of energy to a (rigid) It was therefore decided to use a gust shape based
person, it is possible to relate the angular on idealisations of gusts found in real train
1
Terry Johnson, M.Sc., C.Math, F.I.M.A.,AEA Technology Rail, e-mail terry.johnson@aeat.co.uk
2
Tanya Prevezer, Ph.D. AEA Technology Rail, e-mail tanya.prevezer@aeat.co.uk
156
T. Johnson, T. Prevezer
slipstreams. This gust model consists of a mean wind
speed with a pulse superimposed on it is shown in 29.0
Zero mean wind
Figure 1. The amplitude and frequency of this pulse 5m/s mean wind
27.0
can be varied easily and used as an input to the 10m/s mean wind
Wind Speed, m/s

model. 25.0
23.0
20
21.0
15
Wind speed, m/s
19.0
10 17.0
15.0
5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Gust Frequency, Hz
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Time, s Figure 2 Wind speeds necessary to cause loss of balance
for a man of weight 70 kg.
Figure 1 Idealised wind gust superimposed on a 5 m/s mean
wind speed. 4 DISCUSSION
It is conjectured that, individually, these gusts
will be have similar characteristics to those found in Only a qualitative comparison can be made between
the built environment. the model predictions and the critical wind speeds
suggested in the built environment studies.
3 CALCULATIONS The predicted steady wind speed to cause loss of
balance from the model agrees with the upper values
‘Loss of balance’ is defined as occurring when the of ranges suggested by Hunt et al (1976) and that of
body tilts to the angle at which the mass moment Soligo (1998).
acts to continue the rotation rather than resisting it, Additionally, the model trends agree with
within the time period 0.375 s. published work, showing that people can withstand
Calculations were made of the wind speeds to higher peak gust wind speeds than steady mean wind
cause loss of balance, varying gust amplitudes, gust speeds before losing their balance. Furthermore, the
frequencies and with three levels of mean wind model extends the understanding of the effects of the
speed, 0 m/s, 5 m/s and 10 m/s. An example is gust frequency and the gust wind speed to mean
shown in Figure 2 for a man of 70 kg weight. wind speed ratio.
These calculations show how the combined wind Based on the initial predictions, a conservative
speed needed to cause loss of balance increases as choice of gust wind speed which could lead to a
the gust frequency increases, as might be expected. person losing their balance, is about 16 m/s.
The effect of the mean wind is to reduce the total
wind speed needed to cause loss of balance, as it 5 REFERENCES
provides a pre-load to the body. However, the
Bottema, M. (1992) Wind Climate and Urban Geometry.
relative effect of the pre-load is not particularly Report No. 92.63k, Technical University of Eindhoven.
marked unless the gust frequency is high. Durov, (1967) Questions Relating to the Aerodynamics of
From Equation (3), it can be seen that (ûmax/ǋ–1) High-Speed Trains. Zheleznodorozhni Transport, Vol. 49,
is proportional to the turbulence intensity. From pp. 34-36.
Figure 8, it can be observed that loss of stability is Fukuchi, G. (1961) Field Measurement of Train Drafts.
Permanent Way No. 11, (Vol. 4, No. 2), Translated from
associated with: “Tetsudo Senro”, bulletin of Permanent Way Society of
- low turbulence intensities when the mean Japan, Vol. 9, No. 4, Permanent Way Society of Japan
wind speed is large, Hunt, J.C.R, Poulton, E.C., Mumford, J.C. (1976) The Effects
- high turbulence intensities when the mean of Wind on People; New Criteria Based on Wind Tunnel
wind speed is small. Experiments. Building and Environment. Vol, 11 pp 15-28,
Pergamon Press.
A further calculation was also made using a step Soligo, M.J., Irwin, P.A., Williams, C.J. and Schuyler, G.D.
wind gust model to determine the steady wind speed (1998) A comprehensive assessment of pedestrian comfort
required causing loss of balance, which was found to including thermal effects. Journal of Wind Engineering and
be 15 m/s. Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 77/78, pp. 753-766, Elsevier
157
Evaluating the response of an individual to a sudden change in wind

speed
S.C. Jordan1, M. Sterling2, C.J. Baker3
ABSTRACT: 7KLVSDSHUH[DPLQHVWKHUHVSRQVHRIDYDULHW\RILQGLYLGXDOVWRVXGGHQFKDQJHVLQZLQGVSHHG
7KHUHVXOWVLQGLFDWHWKHQHHGWRFRQVLGHUPDOHDQGIHPDOHUHVSRQVHVVHSDUDWHO\DQGLOOXVWUDWHWKDWWKHQRUPDOLVHG
ZLQGLQGXFHGIRUFHDQGQRUPDOLVHGGLVSODFHPHQWDUHUHPDUNDEO\ZHOOFRUUHODWHG
truck was adopted: the boards were attached to the

1 INTRODUCTION side of the truck which was located in the centre of
The mechanical response of an individual to sudden the tunnel, perpendicular to the oncoming flow.
changes in wind speed is a topic which has seen Thus a sheltered region immediately behind the
renewed interest in recent years. Early experiments forklift truck was created, in which a small selection
were undertaken by Penwarden (1974), Hunt et al. of the volunteers could congregate at any one time.
(1974) and Murakmi (1981), while more recent At an appropriate time the forklift truck was driven
studies have built on this work in order to derive a across the wind tunnel and in doing so exposed the
generalised set of comfort criteria which can be volunteers to the force of the oncoming wind.
applied to the built environment. The Figure 1 illustrates the velocity time histories
aforementioned work and its application have on the obtained for a typical set of experiments. Figure 1
whole been solely applied to problems associated clearly illustrates that a rapid change in velocity
with boundary layer winds. Little work has been occurs when the forklift truck is moved, e.g. when
undertaken to try and evaluate how an individual the approach flow velocity is 7m/s the average
responds to a sudden change in wind velocity, velocity prior to the removal of the truck is -1.5m/s,
induced for example by a passing train. Such whereas after removal the velocity increases to an
situations can result in a dramatic increase in average value of 7.4 m/s; this sudden change in
velocity from initially zero to a maximum value in a velocity occurs within 0.2s time period.
relatively short space of time, i.e. an individual 30
experiences almost a step change in velocity. This 25

paper describes a series of full scale experiments 20
Wind Speed (m/s)
undertaken in order to evaluate the response of an 15

individual to a sudden change in wind velocity. The 10
7m/s
20m/s
work was driven by a need to better understand the 5
effect of high speed trains on passengers and
0
trackside workers and to model their corresponding 0 10 20 30 40
-5
behaviour.
-10
2 EXPERIMENTAL DATA time (s)
In total, thirty one individuals volunteered to Figure 1. Velocity time series illustrating the gust velocities
generated within the wind tunnel.
participate in the experiments which were
undertaken in the environmental working section of 3 STABILITY ANALYSIS STATISTICS
the dynamic circuit of the Jules Verne Climatic
Wind Tunnel at CSTB in Nantes, France. In order to Figure 2 contains a series of photographs relating to
generate a wind velocity time history which one of the experiments undertaken. Figure 2a
approximates that required, a novel approach illustrates the behaviour of the individuals prior to
involving two large wooden boards and a forklift the removal of the screens, whereas Figure 2b
1
Research Student, School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT. e-mail
SCJ128@bham.ac.uk
2
Lecturer in Environmental Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, e-mail
m.sterling@bham.ac.uk
3
Professor in Environmental Fluid Mechanics, School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, C.J.Baker@bham.ac.uk
158
S.C. Jordan, M. Sterling, C.J. Baker
illustrates that after 1 second, the screen has been where Fi is the wind induced force, U is the
completely removed and the individuals are density of air, CD,i is the drag coefficient, V is the
subjected to the full force of the oncoming flow. wind speed and the subscript i refers to the
Figure 2c illustrates the displacement of the orientation, i.e. i = front or side. Figure 3 shows the
volunteers two seconds after the screen has been force normalised by weight against the displacement
removed and illustrates that they have all been distance normalised by an individual’s height. The
displaced a significant distance and have braced straight lines in Figure 5 represent the results of a
themselves to the oncoming flow. The squares on least squares analysis and indicate that there is a
the floor of the wind tunnel are approximately 2m in good linear relationship between these parameters.
length and thus, give an indication of the extent to The sample correlation coefficient for the least
which this particular group has been displaced. square analysis was 93.1% for males and 77.4% and
females.
0.25
0.20
Normalised force
0.15
Female
0.10 Male
0.05
0.00
2a. A group of individuals awaiting the start of the experiment 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Normalised displacement distance
Figure 5. Normalised displacement against normalised

displacement distance.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The stability of a person to a sudden change in
wind speed was found to be a function of gender,
orientation and weight. In general males were more
stable than females for a given orientation and wind
2b. A group of individuals mid experiment speed. The normalised wind induced force was
shown to correlate well with the normalised
displacement.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work undertaken in this paper was made
possible by an EU Access to Large Scale Facilities
grant under the ARI Programme HPRI-CT-2002-
001999. Thanks are extended to all of the staff at
CSTB, but in particular to Philippe Delpech and
Christian Sacré.
2c. The final, maximum displacement position experienced by
the above individuals. 7 REFERENCES
Figure 2. The effects of a gust of 15m/s on a group of Hunt, J.C.R., Poulton, E.C and Mumford, J.C. (1974) The
individuals in the 44-56 kg weight category effects of wind on people – new criteria based on wind
tunnel experiments, Building and Environment, Vol. 11.
4 WIND INDUCED FORCE Murakami, S and Deguchi, K.(1981) Measurement of drag
force on people walking in a wind tunnel, CSTB Colloque –
Using equation (1) and data from Murakami Designing with the wind, Nantes, France.
(1981) the wind induced force was calculated. Penwarden, A. D (1974) Acceptable wind speeds in towns,
BRE Current Paper CP1/74.
1
Fi UA i C D,i V 2 (1)
2
159
Wind Wunnel Fontrol Voftware for Ldentification

of Ilutter Gerivatives on Eridge Vectional Wests
J. Á. Jurado1, A. León2, S. Hernández3
ABSTRACT: The flutter condition on long-span bridges can be computationally evaluated but needs the
previous identification of 18 experimental functions called flutter derivatives. They are extracted by means of
a sectional test of the deck in an aerodynamic wind tunnel. The new software PCTUVI 2004 is presented and
explained in this paper. This computer program permits: 1) The control of the aerodynamic wind tunnel of the
School of Civil Engineering of the University of La Coruña and 2) To obtain simultaneously the completed set
flutter derivatives of a section bridge deck by means of the Modify Ibrahim Time Domain algorithm. Finally,
numerical results of one example of bridge sectional model are showed.
1 SECTIONAL TEST can be written as

The flutter condition on long-span bridges is ª * § v · * § BM x · § v ·º
« KP1 ¨ ¸ KP2 ¨ ¸ K 2 P3*M x K 2 P4* ¨ ¸»
critical during the design of these structures. The 1 © U ¹ © U ¹ © B ¹»
Fy UU 2 B «
selection of the deck cross section is vital. To avoid 2 « w
*§ · 2 *§ · w »
« KP5 ¨ ¸ K P6 ¨ ¸ »
experimental tests of completed bridge models in ¬ ©U ¹ ©B¹ ¼
large wind tunnels that are complicated and
ª *§ w · * § BM x · § w ·º
expensive, it is necessary to use an hybrid method « KH1 ¨ ¸ KH 2 ¨ ¸ K 2 H 3*M x K 2 H 4* ¨ ¸»
1 © U ¹ © U ¹ © B ¹» (1)
which is computational based but needs Fz UU 2 B «
2 « v
*§ · 2 *§ · v »
experimental parameters. Sectional models of the « KH 5 ¨ ¸ K H 6 ¨ ¸ »
¬ ©U ¹ ©B¹ ¼
deck are initially tested in an aerodynamic wind
tunnel of smaller dimensions (figure 1) to obtain ª * § w · * § BM x · 2 * 2 * § w ·º
« KA1 ¨ ¸ KA2 ¨ ¸ K A3M x K A4 ¨ ¸»
the flutter derivatives. These coefficients are then 1 © U ¹ © U ¹ © B ¹»
Mx UU 2 B 2 «
used in the computational analysis of the 2 « * § v · 2 *§ v ·
»
« KA5 ¨ ¸ K A6 ¨ ¸ »
aeroelastic behaviour of the completed bridge. ¬ ©U ¹ ©B¹ ¼
where B is the deck width, U is the air density, U is

the mean wind speed, K = BZ/U is the reduced
frequency with Z the frequency of the response,
p UU 2 2 is the wind dynamic pressure, and
H*i(K), P*i(K), A*i(K) i = 1...6 are the flutter
derivatives which are functions of K and their
experimental evaluation is the aim of this paper.
As it was explained in Jurado and Hernández
(2000), the flutter condition is obtained by the
computational solving of a non linear eigen-
problem which comes from the dynamic balance
Figure 1. Sectional test in the wind tunnel of the School of equation for the deck.
Civil Engineering of the University of La Coruña. Mu
Cu Ku f a K a u C a u (2)
There are three forces acting on a deck: lift, drag M, C and K are respectively the mass, damping
and moment. According to Simiu E. and Scanlan and stiffness structural matrices. fa is the
(1986) formulation, these actions are linealized as aeroelastic forces vector which can be written
functions of the displacements and velocities of the assembling the stiffness Ka and damping Ca
system for vertical w, lateral v and torsional aeroelastic matrices for the deck according to
rotation Mx GHJUHHVRIIUHHGRP7KHH[SUHVVLRQV expression (1).
1
Associate Professor. School of Civil Engineering of La Coruña, Campus de Elviña 15071 La Coruña, Spain. jjurado@ udc.es
2
Ph. D.- student. School of Civil Engineering of La Coruña, Campus de Elviña 15071 La Coruña, Spain. aleon@ udc.es
3
Professor. School of Civil Engineering of La Coruña, Campus de Elviña 15071 La Coruña, Spain. hernandez@ udc.es
160
J.A. Jurado, A. León, S. Hernández
2 SOFTWARE PCTUVI 2004
This computer program has been built with
Visual Basic compiler and permits:
x The control of the aerodynamic wind tunnel of
the School of Civil Engineering of La Coruña
x To obtain all flutter derivatives of one section
bridge deck simultaneously by means of the
Modify Ibrahim (1977) Time Domain algorithm
which is used to extract modal parameters.
The following figures are:
x Figure 2) The main window which has the Figure 3. Aeroelastic Data.
options: Calibration for training data acquisition,
Flow Generation for controlling the flow velocity
in the wind tunnel and Test for making
aerodynamic or aeroelastic experiments.
x Figure 3) The aeroelastic experiment window
where the user has to enter the flow data, the
model properties, the atmospheric conditions
parameters, and which are the degree of freedom
considered during the experiment.
x Figure 4) The window that shows the time
history displacements of the active degree of
freedom under a specific flow speed.
Figure 4. Measured Signal.
x Figure 5) Graphics of the approximate signals are
generated from the evaluated frequencies and
damping using the Modified Ibrahim Time
Domain as Sarkar, Jones and Scalan explained in
1992. The differences between the measured
displacements and the approximations are also
showed for the test validation. The calculated
modal parameters permit to build the aeroelastic
matrices and therefore the flutter derivatives
which are saved in files.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 5. Numerical approximations of signals.
This research has been funded by the Galician
Council of Innovation, Trade and Industry under
8. REFERENCES
project PGIDIT04CCP118002PR. Simiu E. y Scanlan R.H. (1986) Wind Effect on Structures.
Wiley N.Y..
Jurado J. A. and Hernández S. A (2000) Review of the
Theories of Aerodynamic Forces en Bridges. Journal of
Bridge Engineering, Vol 5, Nº1, pp 8-13, February.
Ibrahim S.R. y Mikulcik E. C. (1977) A Method for the Direct
Identification of Vibration Parameters from the Free
Response, The Shock and Vibration Bulletin, bulletin 47,
Part 4
Sarkar P. P., Jones N. P. y Scanlan R. H. (1992) System
identification for estimation of flutter derivatives, Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 41-44
1243-1254
Figure 2. Main Window.
161

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163

M. Kasperski1
ABSTRACT: A wind load code has to provide information on the appropriate design wind actions for differ-
ent purposes: the design of the cladding, the design of the support of the load bearing structure and the design
of the load bearing structure itself. Strictly speaking, for each task a different pressure coefficient is required.
The paper presents a concept that recently has been adopted in the draft of ISO 4354. Basic idea is to specify
non-simultaneous extremes for the local pressures in tables and give additionally figures for simultaneous
pressure distributions. All pressure coefficients are introduced as appropriate fractile values of the extremes.
The simultaneous distributions are identified with the LRC-method.
1 INTRODUCTION
The design pressure coefficients in the recent
The structural engineer has to consider the actions draft for ISO 4354 are specified as appropriate frac-
induced by wind for three different design tasks. For tile values of the respective extreme actions. The
the design of the cladding, information on the local question to the 'optimum' fractile value of the aero-
extreme wind actions is required; for the design of dynamic coefficient has been first discussed by Cook
the support of the load bearing structure, the global and Mayne (1980). They obtained the exceedance
wind actions in terms of resulting drag and lift forces probability of a specified design wind load in the
have to be estimated. Finally, the design of the load reference period of a single year by convolving the
bearing structure is based on an unfavorable load two contributing probability densities as follows:
distribution.
f f
A new concept has been proposed for the recent
draft of the ISO code on wind actions on the exam- p( w ! w des ) ³ f v ( v) ³ f c (c) dc dv (2)
ple of the wind loads on gable roofs. The basic idea v 0 c c lim
is to present non-simultaneous local actions in tables
and simultaneous actions in figures. The simultane- v des 2 c des
ous pressure distributions are obtained by applying with c lim
the LRC-method. v2
fv - probability density of the extreme wind speeds

2 BASIC CONCEPT OF ISO 4354 fc - probability density of the extreme aerodynamic
Basically, extreme wind loads are influenced by two coefficients
key random variables. The first variable is the inten-
sity of a storm. To estimate the exceedance probabil- The first basic step in codification is to specify the
ity of the design wind load information is required target exceedance probability of the design wind
on the exceedance probability of the wind speed in load, either for the reference period one year or more
the reference period of a single year. The second appropriate for the projected lifetime of the structure.
variable is the extreme induced action during the This target value is also applicable for the specifica-
duration of a single storm. The extreme value analy- tion of the design wind speed, i.e. a general solution
sis of this variable leads to the exceedance probabil- is obtained by demanding that:
ity of the extreme aerodynamic coefficient in the
reference period duration of a single storm. ! !
The design wind load wdes can be specified as: p( v ! v des ) p(w ! w des ) p target (3)
1 Assuming a Gumbel distribution for v and c and

w des U v des 2 c des (1)
2 introducing the specific characteristics of the strong
wind climate in Great Britain, Cook and Mayne rec-
ȡ - air density ommended as design value for the aerodynamic co-
vdes - design value of the wind speed efficient the 78%-fractile of the respective extremes.
cdes - design value of the aerodynamic coefficient A more general solution including also the type III
1
PD Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Kasperski, Ruhr-University Bochum, Department of Civil Engineering, michael.kasperski@rub.de
164
M. Kasperski
distribution for v and c with a wider range of pa- Table 1: Non-simultaneous design pressure coefficients
rameters has been presented by Kasperski (2003).
The 78%-fractile in the Mayne/Cook-approach is x/d max min
obtained from rounding the reduced variate to a 0 1.00 -0.10
value of 1.4, i.e. exp(-exp(-1.4)) = 0.78. The new upwind 0.33 0.75 -0.15
ISO 4354 recommends instead the 80%-fractile. As- 0.5 0.30 -0.35
suming a Gumbel distribution, this value is obtained 0.5 0 -0.60
from the mean and rms-value of the extremes as fol- downwind 0.75 0 -0.70
lows: 1 0 -0.85
c p, des : ĉ p, 80%
ĉ p, mean 1 0.7 cov(ĉ p ) (4)
ĉ p, rms
with cov(ĉ p )
ĉ p, mean
c p, des - design value of the pressure coefficient

ĉ p, 80% - 80%-fractile of the extreme pressure co-
efficients
ĉ p, mean - mean value of the extreme pressure coef-
ficients
ĉ p, rms - rms-value of the extreme pressure coeffi- Figure 1: Simultaneous pressure distribution for a gable roof
cients with 45° slope - drag - centre bay
From the almost infinite number of possible dis-

tributions of pressures on a structure, the LRC-
Method (Kasperski 1992) allows to identify the ef-
fective distribution that leads to the extreme com-
bined action (drag, lift) or action effect (internal
forces e.g. bending moment). The first step is to
specify for each contributing pressure pi a weighting
factor or influence factor ai, which is in case of a
global force like drag and lift simply the contributing
area of the pressure pi, or is in case of an internal
force the respective structural response to a unit load Figure 2: Simultaneous pressure distribution for a gable roof
at the position of pi. with 45° slope - lift - centre bay
3 LOCAL PRESSURES AND SIMULTANEOUS 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
The wind tunnel experiments have been prepared
Annex C of the ISO code presents non-simultaneous and performed with the assistance of Dipl.-Ing.
local pressure coefficients and simultaneous pressure Turan Cifci and Dipl.-Ing. Hassan Qrichate. Their
distributions for the example of flat and gable roofs support is highly appreciated.
with slope from 0° to 75°. The corresponding wind
tunnel experiments have been performed in Bochum. 5 REFERENCES
As reference pressure, the 3-s gust velocity pressure Cook, N.J. & Mayne, J.R. (1980) A refined working approach
at ridge's height is used. In table 1, the non- to the assessment of wind loads for equivalent static design
simultaneous local pressure coefficients are summa- Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
rized for the centre bay of a gable roof with 45° 6, pp 125-137
slope, where d is the span of the roof and x is the Kasperski, M. (1992) Extreme wind load distributions for linear
horizontal distance to the leading eave. For interme- and non-linear design Engineering Structures, 14, pp.27-34
diate position x/d linear interpolation may be ap- Kasperski, M. (2003) Specification of the design wind load
plied. In figure 1 and 2, the corresponding simulta- based on wind tunnel experiments Journal of Wind Engi-
neous distributions for drag and lift are shown. neering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 91, pp. 527-541
ISO 4354 (2005) Wind actions on Structures - Committee Draft
165
Design wind loads for a low-rise building taking into account directional
effects
M. Kasperski1
ABSTRACT: The basic idea of a directional design is to optimize the orientation of a building, e.g. to have
the strong axis in the strong wind direction and to have the weak axis in the direction of the weaker storms.
However, it has to be understood that the wind load depends on two key random variables: the extreme wind
speeds and the extremes of the wind induced actions or action effects. Generally, the complex interaction of
the corresponding directionalities does not allow separating the two variables. A consistent analysis is pre-
sented on the example of a low-rise building.
cdes - design aerodynamic coefficient

1 INTRODUCTION
The strong wind climate in Western and Central The exceedance probability of a specific wind
Europe is governed by frontal depressions. These load level then is obtained by a convolution of the
weather systems show a distinct dependency on the contributing probability densities as follows:
f f
direction. They develop over the Northern Atlantic
and travel in eastern directions. Clearly, a strong
storm of this type is not to be expected from easterly
p( w ! w des )
³ f (v) ³ f (c) dc dv
v 0
v
c c lim
c (2)
directions. However, extreme wind speeds occurring

in different sectors of wind directions are not physi-
cally independent phenomena. Therefore, the prob- w des v des 2 cdes
with clim
ability of having at a specific site a strong storm hour 1
U v2 v2
within a certain sector of wind directions is given 2
with the conditional probability. The overall ex-
ceedance probability of a certain wind speed level is Considering that a storm lasts for more than one
then obtained as the sum over all contributing sec- hour and supposing that the gust effects in the single
tors. storm hours are independent, the accumulation of the
The wind load depends on a second key random exceedance probability of the design wind load over
variable which is given with the extreme wind in- the duration of the storm is obtained as follows:
duced action or action effect in the duration of a sin-
gle storm. Generally, the extremes of the respective
aerodynamic coefficients will show a dependency on
p( w ! w des ) 1 - j p j (w d w des ) (3)
the angle of attack, with different characteristics in pj - probability in storm hour j

different directions. Thus, the two influences of di-
rectionality have to be analysed considering their The specification of the design wind load first re-
interaction. quires specifying an appropriate target exceedance
probability. A reasonable value for the target ex-
ceedance probability is ptarget = 1/1000 per year.
2 BASIC SPECIFICATION OF THE DESIGN For a specific wind climate and a specific aerody-
WIND LOAD namic coefficient the design value cdes is obtained as
the appropriate fractile value for c solving equation
The design wind load may be expressed as the
product of the design velocity pressure and the de- (3) for the specified target exceedance probability
sign aerodynamic coefficient as follows: (Kasperski, 2003). In case of a directional design, the
accumulation of the exceedance probability consid-
1 ering the orientation of the building and the direc-
w des ȡ v des 2 c des (1)
2 tionality of the wind climate and the aerodynamic
coefficient leads to:
ȡ - air density
vdes - design wind speed
1
PD Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Kasperski, Ruhr-University Bochum, Department of Civil Engineering, michael.kasperski@rub.de
166
M. Kasperski
f f
p target ¦ ³ f v (v | )) 1 Fc (clim , )) dv
) v 0
(4) p( v d v ref | year) ¦ p(N) p(v d v
N 0
ref )
N
(6)
fv(v| ĭ) - conditional probability density of the ex- p(N) - probability of N storms per year
treme wind speed p(vvref) - non-exceedance probability per event
ĭ - discrete sector for wind direction
Fc(c, ĭ) - cumulative probability of c for wind direc- Strong frontal depressions in Germany affect only
tion ĭ a limited number of sectors. For the remaining sec-
tors, a further ensemble of extreme wind conditions
Generally, the directionality of the two key vari- is given with thunderstorms. The exceedance prob-
ables in equation (4) can not be treated separately. ability of a specific wind speed level considering k
Cook (1983) therefore proposed an engineering ap- storm phenomena is finally obtained as:
proach where the non-exceedance probability of the
design wind speed per sector is obtained as ptarget / N
p( v ! v ref | year) 1 - p (v d v
k
k ref | year) (7)
where N is the number of sectors considered. It is
worth mentioning that this approach leads to direc- p k - non-exceedance probability per year for the
tional factors larger than unity for the strongest wind k-th storm phenomenon
direction.
3 DIRECTIONALITY OF THE EXTREME 4 DIRECTIONALITY OF THE EXTREME

WIND CLIMATE AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
The extreme value analysis of the strong wind cli- Object of the further study is a portal frame for a
mate has to be based on independent and mutually low-rise building with the following main dimen-
excluding storm phenomena. An arbitrary sorting of sions: height 11m, span 27.5m, length 44m, roof
observed extreme wind speeds for different sectors slope 5°. The directional effects are discussed for
into separate ensembles violates this demand. There local pressures and for structural responses. The re-
is no theory that allows re-combining the results of spective wind tunnel experiments are described in
such statistics. (Kasperski, 1996).
For a specific storm phenomenon, e.g. strong
frontal depressions, the exceedance probability of a 5 DESIGN PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AND
specific wind speed level in a specific sector can be DESIGN BENDING MOMENTS
expressed by the conditional probability as follows:
The design values of the aerodynamic coefficients
have to be obtained by iteration. The paper presents
p( v ! v ref | ) ) p(v ! v ref ) f rel () ) (5) the design pressure coefficients for the local pressure
at the leading edge for different orientation of the
building. Additionally, the design values for the
frel(ĭ) - relative frequency of the storm phenomenon
in sector ĭ bending moment in the corners of the frame are dis-
cussed. A recommendation is given on how to deal
Since storms tend to occur in clusters or families, with directionality in the design.
the extreme value analysis has to be based on all
6 REFERENCES
storm events. An analysis of only yearly extremes
may lead to a loss of important information if the Cook, N.J. (1983) Note on directional and seasonal assessment
of extreme wind speeds for design Journal of Wind Engi-
second and third strongest storm in one year is neering and Industrial Aerodynamics 12, pp 365-372
stronger than the yearly extreme of another year. Gomes, L. & Vickery, B.J. (1978)Extreme wind speeds in
Furthermore, the ensemble of yearly extremes con- mixed climates Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics, 2, pp
tains events that can hardly be described as 'extreme 331-344
Kasperski, M. (1996) Design wind loads for low-rise buildings:
storms'. A critical review of wind load specifications for industrial
A consistent model for the required non- buildings Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
exceedance probability per year is obtained as fol- Aerodynamics 61, pp 169-179
lows: Kasperski, M. (2003) Specification of the design wind load
based on wind tunnel experiments Journal of Wind Engi-
neering and Industrial Aerodynamics 91, pp 527-541
167
Universal wind load distribution simultaneously reproducing maximum

load effects in all subject members on large-span cantilevered roof
A. Katsumura1, Y. Tamura2, O. Nakamura3
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the equivalent static wind load that reproduces the maximum load effects
in structural member (hereafter referred to as the universal ESWL). In this study, the universal ESWL is
shown by a combination of eigen modes calculated by POD analysis of fluctuating wind pressure. Applying
singular value decomposition to a matrix of eigen modes by the influence function optimises the universal
ESWL combination. This method is applied to large cantilevered roof models. The maximum load effects for
bending moment and shear force are determined to estimate the universal ESWL. The maximum load effects
reproduced by the universal ESWL show good agreement with those directly estimated by time history
analysis.
discrete structural model. For a static load f i acting
1 INTRODUCTION at a point i , a specific load effect r can be derived
as shown by the following equation using the
Recently, many methods for estimating the ESWL
influence function I ri .
load have been developed. However, representative
methods for estimating the ESWL are basically r I ri fi (1)
aimed for a specific load effect on a structural
member or wind force. It is not certainly satisfied When the ESWL ^F̂ ` that reproduces maximum
adequate design wind load except for the aimed load effects r̂ is obtained, this relationship can be
maximum load effect. Accordingly, new concept for expressed by the following equation.
the ESWL is proposed in this study.
2 CONCEPT FOR UNIVERSAL ESWL

rˆ ¦ I ri fî Î r ` Fˆ
T
^` (2)
i
DISTRIBUTION
A new attempt is made to estimate the universal Basically, it is desirable that the ESWL
reproduces the maximum load effects ^R̂` of all
ESWL distribution that reproduces maximum load
subject members. This relationship is shown in the
effects for all structural members. following equation.
The universal ESWL distribution has the
following features:
(1) Maximum load effects for all members obtained
^`
Rˆ >I R @ Fˆ^` (3)
from time history analysis can be used. The universal Here, >I R @ is an influence function matrix. Now, we
ESWL reproduces these maximum load effects show the ESWL ^F̂ ` as a summation of the load
simultaneously. distributions ^ f ` in the following equation.
(2) The universal ESWL distribution is shown by
summation of several load distributions.
(3) The universal ESWL can simultaneously
^`
Fˆ c1^ f1` c2 ^ f 2 ` >F @^C` (4)
reproduce multiple load effects, i.e. bending moment
and shear force simultaneously. The vector ^C` in this equation shows the
contribution of the load distribution >F @ of the
In this study, the universal quasi-static ESWL
ESWL. An arbitrary load distribution can be adopted
distribution for a large cantilevered roof is adopted.
for the matrix >F @ . In this study, the eigen mode >) @
of norm 1 obtained from a POD (proper orthogonal
3 ANALYSIS METHODS FOR UNIVERSAL
decomposition) analysis of the fluctuating wind
ESWL pressure is employed.
The relationship between the universal ESWL and Substituting equation (4) for equation (3)
the maximum load effect is explained using a produces the following equation.
1
Senior Researcher, Wind Engineering Institute, e-mail katsumura@wei.co.jp
2
Professor, Dr., Tokyo Polytechnic University, e-mail yukio@arch.t-kougei.ac.jp
3
President, Dr., Wind Engineering Institute, e-mail nakamura@wei.co.jp
168
A. Katsumura, Y. Tamura, O. Nakamura
^Rˆ ` >I R @>) @^C` >R0 @^C` (5) load effects of the B.M. and S.F. of all structural
members were used in the analyses.
Here, the matrix >R0 @ is the product of the Fig.1 shows the universal ESWL distribution
influence function and the eigen mode. Accordingly, simultaneously reproducing both the maximum S.F.
by applying singular value decomposition to the and B.M. of all members. It shows a large absolute
matrix >R0 @ , it is decomposed to the normalized value at the end on the windward side and a
orthogonal matrices and singular values as in the comparatively uniform profile in the longitudinal
following equation. direction.
Fig.2 compares the actual maximum S.F.
>R0 ( M , N )@ >U ( M , N )@>S ( N , N )@>V ( N , N )@T (6) estimated by the time history analysis with that
estimated by the universal ESWL for example. The
The number M of the subjective load effects and the actual maximum S.F.s estimated by the time history
number N of the loading points are shown in analysis are ranked from minimum to maximum, as
parentheses as a row and a sequence respectively. shown by the black line. The maximum S.F.
The contribution factor ^C` can be derived as shown estimated by the universal ESWL coincides with the
in the following equation by substituting equation (6) actual maximum S.F.
for equation (5).
0 0
^C` >V @>S @ >U @ ^
1 T
`
Rˆ (7) -0.4 -0.4 -0.4
The maximum load effects ^R̂` for M can be -0.4

-0.4
explained by superposing the load distributions for
N . The contribution factor ^C` can be obtained as a -0.4
-0.8 -0.8
least square approximation solution for equation (5). -1.2
-1.6 -1.6
-2 -2 Wind
4. ESTIMATION OF MAXIMUM LOAD
EFFECTS OF A LARGE-SPAN CANTILEVERED Figure 1 Universal ESWL distribution reproducing both
maximum B.M. and S.F.
ROOF
4.1 Wind tunnel experiments 2
10 [kN]
0
The applicability of this method to large structures is -2
Time history analysis
Maximum load effect
ESWL
investigated. Fluctuating pressure acting on a large-
-4
span cantilever roof was measured in wind tunnel
experiments. The wind pressure model of the roof -6
used in the experiments had a width of 0.24m, a span -8
of 0.18m and a height of 0.18. The geometric scale
-10
was 1/400. The roof had a slope of 5 degrees.
Min. Max.
-12
4.2 Structural model 0 10 20 30 40 50
A roof structure model was established in order to Frame number
estimate the load effect of each of the members Figure 2 Comparison of maximum S.F.s obtained from time
constituting the roof caused by the fluctuating wind history analysis and ESWL
force acting on the roof. This model was made of 8
beams arranged at equal intervals. Each beam was 6 CONCLUSIONS
composed of 7 nodes and 6 line elements. Adjacent
beam was connected with pin-joints. The nodes were A new method for estimating the universal ESWL
set at the same points as the wind pressure that can simultaneously reproduce the maximum
measurement points. The design wind velocity was load effects in all structural members was proposed.
set at 50m/s at roof height. The maximum load effect caused by the universal
ESWL was able to accurately reproduce the
5. ANALYSES OF THE UNIVERSAL ESWL maximum load effect obtained from a time history
analysis and the validity of this method was
Time history analyses of quasi-static responses of all
confirmed.
members were carried out using the fluctuating wind
force obtained from wind tunnel experiments. The
169
Cross-wind vibrations of steel chimneys – a new case history
J. Kawecki1, J.A. ĩuraĔski2
ABSTRACT: Cross-wind vibrations of a new steel chimney 100 m high caused twice damage of bolts.
Measured damping properties of the chimney permitted to compare different approaches to the calculation of
maximum relative amplitude of vibration at small Scruton Number. Climatic conditions during vibrations gave
also information for some conclusions. Results of analysis may be instructive for National Annex to Eurocode.
1 INTRODUCTION vibration of the chimney and its damping was

Steel chimneys are characterized by low damping so measured on May 30, 2003, in two planes:
reaction of these structures to vortex excitation may perpendicular and parallel to the wall of the adjacent
be significant. Much attention is then given to this building. The frequencies of the first mode of natural
problem. Provisions concerning vortex excitation are vibrations were identical in both planes: n = 0.65 Hz.
given in each standard for designing of steel The logarithmic decrement of structural damping
chimneys as well as in standards for wind loading. was įs = 0.058 ÷ 0.06.
However, they still need full scale verification. One It was decided to install a mechanical, tuned mass
case of such verification is presented in the paper. damper (TMD). After the installation of a damper on
October 21 and 22, 2003, the dynamic measurements
2 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE CHIMNEY gave different natural frequencies in two planes: 0.56
A steel chimney under consideration is H = 100 m Hz in the plane parallel to the wall of adjacent
high. Its inner diameter of the shell Din = 2.50 m is building and 0.44 Hz in perpendicular one. It meant
constant and it has stepwise variable wall thickness that a new damage have had occurred between May
from 10 to 5 mm. The steel segments were joined 30 and October 21, 2003. During inspection 47 bolts
using flanged connections, initially with pre- were found loose at the same level + 47,37m, but
stressing bolts. Sealing welds from inside of the shell this time almost symmetrically distributed, 23 from
were made at each flanged connection. The structure one side and 24 from another side of the chimney
is fixed in the foundation and supported additionally shaft. Second damage occurred unnoticeably during
at a level + 50.35 m to the adjacent building. From several months of summer time. According to the
the outer side the chimney shall is wrapped up with distribution of loose bolts wind direction at the
thermal insulation and covered with corrugated second failure was the same as during the first one.
sheet. The external overall diameter is D = 2.86 m. Repair was carried out once more and a mechanical
vibration damper was tuned. Next, the same
3 EVENTS AND MEASUREMENTS frequencies of natural vibration were measured in
Soon after erection of the chimney its cross-wind both directions: n = 0.56 Hz. The logarithmic
vibrations of considerable amplitude were observed. decrement of damping of the chimney with TMD
They stopped when wind speed increased. was į = 0.40 at very small vibration amplitudes and
Two weeks later, on March 31, 2003, strong į = 0.25 at highest amplitudes reached during
cross-wind vibrations were observed again at the measurements.
same wind direction. The amplitude of a chimney
4 RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
top, estimated by eye, reached the value of 1 m. A
loud crash was suddenly heard and vibrations The designer of the chimney under consideration
stopped immediately. An inspection inside the calculated the effects of cross-wind vibrations of a
chimney shell detected a sealing weld cracked at a chimney using a computer program (WiĞniowski,
level + 47.37 m at the whole perimeter. From the 1990) based on the resonance model (Ruscheweyh &
total number of 64 bolts 32 of them were found loose Sedlacek, 1988) adopted by DIN (DIN 4133, 1991)
at the same level + 47. 37 m. They were on one side and next also by Polish Standard (PN-93/B-03201,
of the chimney shaft only. One extreme bolt was 1993). Calculated amplitude of a top of the chimney
broken. The damage was repaired using new bolts was about 0.05D that was approx. three times less
and all sealing welds were grinded off. Natural than the deflection under design along-wind load.
1
Professor Janusz Kawecki, Ph.D., Politechnika Krakowska, Instytut Mechaniki Budowli, ul. Warszawska 24; 31 – 155 Kraków,
e-mail jkawec@usk.pk.edu.pl
2
Jerzy Antoni ĩuraĔski, Ph.D., Instytut Techniki Budowlanej, ul. Filtrowa 1; 00 – 611 Warszawa, Poland, jzuranski@pro.onet.pl
170
J. Kawecki, J.A. Żurański
Above-mentioned model is also included into the 0.38 that gives amplitude 1.09m, almost as reported.
Eurocode (prEN 1991-1-4) as “Approach 1”, Resonance approach, for maximum correlation
formerly called as “a calculation procedure based on length as shown in Figure 1, gives amplitudes 3 to 4
the resonance approach”. times lower than observed.
Assuming that before the cracking of sealing weld It is stated in the Eurocode that due to different
the logarithmic decrement of structural damping was meteorological conditions different calculation
įs = 0.04 the Scruton Number during the first failure procedures may become relevant and that the
might be Sc = 5.3. On the base of the actual value of “Approach 2” would be suitable for cold climate
įs = 0.06 measured before the second failure Scruton “where it is likely that it may become very cold and
Number during the second failure was calculated as stratified flow conditions may occur (e.g. in coastal
Sc = 7.66. For Strouhal Number St = 0.18 the critical areas in Northern Europe)”.
wind speed was 10.3 m/s. For the chimney with However, this case history, presented here, may
TMD Scruton Number is as Sc = 39.9. not be attributed to the cold climatic conditions. The
Figure 1 presents maximum relative amplitude of first failure occurred at the ambient air temperature
the top of a chimney according to several methods. app 4 0C, the second one occurred in summer time,
First failure between the end of May and the end of October,
Second failure probably on June 13 when the air temperature was
0.4
0.38 app 18 0C.
1: DIN 4131 During the first occurrence of vibrations,
Maximum relative amplitude, y/D
2: ISO 4354:1997 observed and reported, wind flow was turbulent, not
0.3
3: CICIND smooth as it might be expected. Just before
3 observed vibrations a crane operator in the vicinity
of the chimney reported gusty wind of app 17 m/s at
log. decr. of damping 0.25
0.22 50 m above ground level.

0.2 It may also be interested to point out that due to
2
the corrugated external sheet covering the thermal
insulation of the chimney the roughness Reynolds
1 Number was high. The height of the corrugation as
0.1
roughness elements was 45 mm so the roughness
Reynolds Number during the failures was about
3104.
0.01
0.0 In February 2004, during the last campaign of
0 10 20 30 40 dynamic measurements, the maximum measured top
Scruton Number amplitude of cross-wind vibrations was 31.3 mm as
Figure 1. Relative amplitude of the chimney top versus Scruton compared with 32.9 mm calculated for Sc = 39.9.
Number according to different calculation approaches This case history gives new data about cross-wind
vibrations of steel chimneys due to vortex excitation
5 CONCLUSIONS and may be instructive for National Annexes to
This case history raised a question of a suitable Eurocode for wind actions on structures.
calculation method of cross-wind vibrations of steel
chimneys. 6 REFERENCES
The practical example presented here gives CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys, ( Revision 1 –
evidence that better description of cross-wind December 1999 ),
DIN 4133 Schornsteine aus Stahl, ( Nov. 1991 )
vibrations is the calculation procedure presented in ISO 4354:1997 Wind actions on structures
the Eurocode as “Approach 2”, based on the spectral PN-93/B-03201 Konstrukcje stalowe. Kominy. Obliczenia i
approach (CICIND method). For the Scruton projektowanie (Steel structures. Chimneys. Calculations and
Number Sc < 10 the calculation procedure based on design), Warszawa 1993
the resonance model significantly underestimates the prEN 1991-1-4 Eurocode 1; Actions on structures. General
actual relative amplitudes of cross-wind vibrations Actions – Part 1-4 Wind Actions, Final draft, Dec. 2003
Ruscheweyh, H., Sedlacek, G. (1988) Crosswind vibrations of
which grow rapidly at Sc < 8 (Fig. 1). ). ISO method steel stacks. Critical comparison between some recently
cannot be used at small values of Sc. For Sc > 10 proposed codes.- Journal of Wind Engineering and
differences in results of calculations obtained from Industrial Aerodynamics, 30, 173 – 183
all three methods are less significant. WiĞniowski, J. (1990): Opis programu KOSTAL Projektowanie
Though estimated by eye the actual amplitude of kominów stalowych. Instrukcja uĪytkowania programu.
Procedury programu. (Description of the computer
the top of the chimney during the first failure was programme KOSTAL Designing of steel chimneys. Manuel
very close to the calculated one using spectral for users. Procedures. Typescript in Polish)
approach. Calculated maximum relative amplitude is
171
A study on comparisons of design wind loads and responses

for tall buildings with actual wind load distributions and responses
Dae Young Kim1, Ji Young Kim2, Myung Ho Lee3, Sang Dae Kim4
ABSTRACT: Generally design wind load and responses are evaluated with the force balance test. Several
limitations, however, are included into the force balance test method. Profiles of mean and background wind
loads are assumed, and only peak values of wind loads and responses are evaluated by the force balance test.
Therefore, shapes of total wind loads and acceleration responses might be improperly evaluated for peculiar
types of buildings. In this study, expected problems in evaluating design wind loads and responses due to such
limitations in the force balance test method were investigated by comparing evaluation results of the force
balance test with actual wind loads and responses derived by advanced conditional sampling (ACS) method
for a slender structure and a shear wall type tall building.
1 ADVANCED CONDITIONAL SAMPLING of design wind loads derived by the FBT could show
By advanced conditional sampling (ACS) method discrepancy with actual distributions.
ACS method, mean, background, and resonant Fig. 4 shows that combination of design wind
components of wind load distributions are sampled loads derived by the FBT for structural design
corresponding to peak load effect1). The total design according to relation of lateral drift for all directions
wind load distributions for an arbitrary load effect, are in proper agreement with actual combination of
pTi , derived by the ACS method can be given by wind loads.
3 SHEAR WALL TYPE TALL BUILDING

pT i pi pBi (tk ) mi a i (tk ) / Ai
Above comparisons were also applied to an example
(k 1, 2, 3, , nk ) (1) of shear wall type tall building (SWB) shown in Fig.
5. Total number of floors was 35 and the height of
2 COMPARISONS FOR SLENDER STRUCTURE the building was 100.4 m. As described above, the
Wind-induced responses and design wind load shapes of mean and background wind load
distributions for a slender structure shown in Fig. 1 distributions derived by the FBT and the ACS
were evaluated using the force balance test (FBT) methods also show some discrepancy. In addition,
method and the ACS method. As depicted in Fig. 2 the results of combination of peak background and
(b), the shape of mean wind load distributions resonant wind loads derived by the FBT are
derived by the FBT and the ACS methods show clear observed to be a little different with those of actual
discrepancy. Consequently, the shape of background combination results derived by the ACS method. In
wind load is distorted by using the shape of mean Table 2 and Fig. 6, it can be observed that
acceleration could be over-estimated by the FBT
wind profile. The combination of peak background
method because of the SRSS combination of peak
and resonant wind loads is performed by the
acceleration for all directions.
weighting factors2), 3) as shown in Fig. 3. The
weighting factors are determined using background 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
and resonant load effects which are expected by the
FBT method. Results of the FBT method, however, The shape of mean and background distributions
show temporal average characteristics. Therefore couldn’t be assumed by a power-law for all cases,
intermittent actual combination of background and and actual combination of background and resonant
resonant wind loads couldn’t be exactly expected by wind loads can not be represented by weighting
the weighting factors as shown in Fig. 3. As a factors which show temporal average characteristics.
consequence, background and resonant components Also, acceleration responses could be overestimated
1
Researcher, PE Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail kimdy@dwconst.co.kr
2
Researcher, Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail kimjyoung@dwconst.co.kr
3
Researcher, Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail astropix@dwconst.co.kr
2
Professor, Architectural Engineering Department, Korea University, e-mail sdkim@Korea.ac.kr
172
Dae Young Kim, Ji Young Kim, Myung Ho Lee, Sang Dae Kim
y-dir Wind
(Across Wind)
X-dir
(along
Wind)
8.5 m
Top
100m
8.5 m
8.5 m
Perspective Bottom
Load (kN)
(a) Total (b) Mean (c) Background (d) Resonant
Figure 1. Slender structure Figure 2 Design wind load distribution for y direction of slender structure
Figure 3 Joint distributions of (a) x direction (b) y direction (c) z rotation

background and resonant wind loads Figure 4 Combination of design wind loads for peak load effect of x direction
Table 2 Peak lateral drift of the SWB
Peak lateral Peak acceleration

Test model drift (m) (m/s2)
Ax Ay Total Ax Ay
The ACS
0.20 0.27 0.13 0.06 0.12
method
wind The FBT
method 0.21 0.31 0.21 0.13 0.16
Figure 5 Shear wall type building Figure 6 Trajectory of acceleration
of Shear wall type building
by the FBT method because of the SRSS

combination of peak accelerations of all axes. 6 REFERENCES
1. D.Y. Kim et al. (2004), A study on the Evaluation Methods
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT of Equivalent Design Wind Loads for Tall Buildings,
Proceedings of the CTBUH 2004 Seoul Conference, Vol. II,
This research (03C103A1040001-03A0204-001 1080-1087
30) was made possible by the financial support of the 2. J.D. Holmes (2002), Effective Static Load Distributions in
Ministry of Construction and Transportation of Wind Engineering, Journal of Wind Engineering and
South Korea, and the Korea Institute of Construction Industrial Aerodynamics, 90, 91-109.
and Transportation Technology, Evaluation, and 3. A. Kareem, Yin Zhou (2003), Gust Loading Factor-past,
present and future, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Planning. The authors are deeply grateful for their Industrial Aerodynamics, 91 1901-1328
support.
173
A comparison of effective wind loads and wind-induced responses

according to pressure measuring locations on test models
Ji Young Kim1, Dae Young Kim2, Han Young Kim3, Sang Dae Kim4
ABSTRACT: Proper locations of pressure measuring points were investigated using a coefficient of
pressure attribution corresponding to load effect in this study. Wind forces, wind-induced responses, and
effective wind load distributions derived by pressure test of pressure model having optimized locations of
pressure measuring points were compared with results of force balance test and pressure test of pressure
model having more densely located pressure points. Based on the comparisons, it could be concluded that
structural design data can be properly evaluated using pressure models on which small numbers of pressure
measuring points are reasonably located.
1 PRESSURE ATTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT measuring points for a slender structure and a large
span roof of which pressure measuring points are
A pressure point location should be determined to
depicted in Fig. 4 and 5.
represent properly properties of pressures around it.
For derivation of effective wind load distributions
Therefore, a coefficient to represent attribution of
and wind-induced responses close to actual values,
pressures corresponding to load effect is suggested
advanced conditional sampling (ACS) method was
by
developed3). In the ACS method, mean, background,
ci
C Ai (1) and resonant components of wind loads are sampled
max ci corresponding to peak load effect which includes
where ci is covariance of fluctuating pressure pi ' resonant effect.
and load effect, r ' at pressure location, i . The distribution of the PAC which was derived
Magnitude and phase of pressures compared with based on lateral dirft and vertical displacement of the
those of load effect could be represented by the PAC. slender structure and the large span roof,
Thus, pressure locations corresponding to a load respectively, which are shown in Fig. 6 and 7.
effect could be determined by distribution of the According to the PAC distributions, the number of
PAC for a structure. pressure measuring points could be reduced by 45
and 55 percents for the slender structure and the
2 COMPARISON OF WIND FORCES large span roof, respectively. Comparisons of
Wind forces measured by high frequency force effective wind load distributions are depicted in Fig.
balance test and pressure test are compared using 8 and 9. Comparison results imply that effective
rectangular shape of building models. Pressure wind loads and responses could be properly
measuring locations are depicted in Fig. 1. The evaluated by test of models having optimized
number of pressure measuring points for the R4P02 pressure measuring points.
can be reduced to 80 % of those for the R4P01 based
on the PAC distributions shown in Fig. 2. 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
According to the comparison results in Fig 3, the It could be concluded that structural design data
shape of force power spectra of those models show a could be appropriately assessed by pressure tests of
good agreement with each other. pressure models on which pressure points are
reasonably located even if small numbers of
3 COMPARISON OF EFFECTIVE WIND LOAD pressures are installed compared with usual cases.
AND WIND-INDUCED RESPONSE Problems such as local behaviour of structures
Effective wind load distributions and responses were according to pressure measuring location should be
investigated according to reduction of pressure investigated in future studies.
1
Researcher, Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail kimjyoung@dwconst.co.kr
2
Researcher, PE, Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail kimdy@dwconst.co.kr
3
Researcher, Institute of Construction Technology, DAEWOO E&C, e-mail kimhyoun@dwconst.co.kr
2
Professor, Architectural Engineering Department, Korea University, e-mail sdkim@Korea.ac.kr
174
Ji Young Kim, Dae Young Kim, Han Young Kim, Sang Dae Kim
(a) R4P01 (b)R4P02: front (c) R4P02: back (d) R4P02: side (a) Front (b) Back (c) side
Figure 1 Pressure measuring locations of the models to measure wind forces Figure 2 Distribution of the PAC for R4P01
Y
Y
X X
(a) Along-wind direction (b) Across-wind direction (a)LSRP01 (b)LSRP02

Figure 3 Wind force power spectra Figure 5 Pressure measuring points for the large span roof
(a)R12P01 (b)R12P02: front, back, side faces (a) Front (b) Back (c) Side
Figure 4 Pressure points for the slender structure Figure 6 PAC for the slender structure Figure 7 PAC for the large span roof
(a) Along-wind direction (b) Across-wind direction (a) x-direction (b) y-direction
Figure 8 Effective wind loads for the slender structure Figure 9 Effective wind loads for the large span roof
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 6 REFERENCES
This research (03C103A1040001-03A0204-001 30) 1. D.Y. Kim et al., (2004), A study on the Evaluation Methods
was made possible by the financial support of the of Equivalent Design Wind Loads for Tall Buildings,
Proceedings of the CTBUH 2004 Seoul Conference, Vol. II,
Ministry of Construction and Transportation of 1080-1087
South Korea, and the Korea Institute of Construction 2. A. Kareem, (1988), Measurements and Analysis of Pressure
and Transportation Technology, Evaluation, and Fluctuation on Prismatic Structures in Turbulent Boundary
Planning. The authors are deeply grateful for their Layer Flows, Journal of Wind Engineering, No.37, 229-237.
support.
175
&RUUHODWLRQLQIOXHQFHEHWZHHQVQRZDQGZLQGORDGLQJRQWKHLU
FRPELQDWLRQIDFWRU
R.I. Kinash1
ABSTRACT: In this work method for determining the index of short-term-load combinations (snowDQG
ZLQGLsproposed, which allows defining index’s value. It is shown, that combination factor is sensible to
Forrelation between loadings and in the case of wind and snow loading can change according to the
Euilding’s location, kinds of load distribution and their correlation, which are special for this region.
1 INTRODUCTION number of loadings, special factors - factors of

combinations are introduced, they are not factors of
Rules of providing the reliability of building structures reliability. Naturally, the given scheme is ideal to
at the designing, accepted in the USSR, are submitted which creators of norms work for.
by system of appropriate chapters of Standard and has
in its basis a method of limiting conditions. This The problem of combinations is one of the most
method has two features. The first feature is, that from important problems in the field of loading research,
a plenty of possible forms of structure only extreme its solving promises the certain economic benefit. In
ones are chosen i.e. those at which the structure cease effective standards of loadings the value of
to answer the given constructional requirements. For combination factors are accepted based on the
these forms their fall short conditions are recorded. The engineering experience and, probably, in some cases
second feature - all initial values, casual on the nature, are set too high.
are submitted in norms by some determined normative
2 DEPENDENCE OF COMBINATION FACTORS
values, and influence of their variability on reliability
ON CORRELATION BETWEEN LOADINGS
of structure is taken into account by factors of
reliability. Each of factors takes into account variability During investigation of combinations of load over the
only of one initial size in the assumption, that in norms structures the great attention has been paid to
of designing the full system of factors consisting of 5 correlation functions, which allowed get over
groups should be used: operations at casual processes to casual values. Issuing
1) factors of reliability on loading; and accessible for the investigators data about
2) factors of reliability on a material; atmospheric loads by the moment of developing of
3) factors of accuracy of the geometrical sizes; “half-possible methods” were limited by published
4) factors of operating conditions; year-books of atmospheric loads and sometimes
5) factors of responsibility. monthly periodicals that caused the uneven
Using of these factors allows to investigate any development of theoretical base and experimental
factor regardless of researches of other factors material. As a result of this the wrong thought has
influencing reliability of structure. Research results appeared about the independency of loads particularly
are procedures of choosing the normative values of of wind and snow ones between each other. This led to
initial sizes and the values of reliability factors the obvious conclusion on decreasing the total load as
corresponding only to this factor. far as possibility of simultaneous appearing of wind
and snow maximum load at the condition of their
Normative values and individual factors should be independence is rather small. Really, if consider two
established from consideration of that initial value non-correlated casual sequences of X and Y, which has
which they represent so that their product (calculated the equal distribution in the limits [0,1], then maximum
value) was equal to fractile of the given probability. of their termwise sum is less than sum of sample
At the accepted method of normalization the efforts, maximums. According to the regularity of math
tensions, deformations etc. of structure elements are statistics
determined as function of calculated loading values. It
is known, that function several fractiles of the certain maxi(X)+maxi(Y)>max(Xi+Yi). (1)
probability will not be the fractile of the same
probability. To provide this equality regardless of
1
Prof. Eng. Roman Ivanovych Kinash D. Sc. Eng, Dep. Of Geomechanics, Civil Engineering and Geotechnics, AGH University of
Science and Technology, e-mail rkinash@agh.edu.pl
176
R.I. Kinash
It is obvious that for combination of two equally sepa- than in July. Such season changeability of monthly
rated casual values with equal maximum values (in this maximums of wind speed direct onto studying the
correlation between values of snow and wind loads,
case maxi(X)=maxi(Y)=1) combination factor is in limits
which was not taken into account before.
maxi(X+Y)/(maxi(X)+maxi(Y))=1.7/2=0.85 (2) For the investigations the weather stations of
Drogobych (Lvovskaya region) and Mogilyov-Podolsk
Below let’s consider the situation, when casual (Vinnitskaya region) were chosen in a random way.
samplings X and Y are correlated with different correla- On the base of samplings of monthly maximums
tion factors. For this sampling X would be simulated by of snow load and wind speed for each weather station
the generator of equally distributed numbers from the correlation factors between sampling were
MathCAD, and sampling Y would build as sampling X established. For Drogobych this factor is 0.838, and
“noised” by equally distributed noise, where the value of for Mogilyov-Podolsk it is 0.621. on the base of
noise grows in direct proportion to degradation the above obtained results and so high correlation factors
correlation factor established before, which is presented it is necessary to conclude that combination factor for
by formula (3) written in MathCAD form: these inhabited localities is about 1. Necessary to
1 korr 1 korr note that for each of inhabited localities of Ukraine it
y1 x runif n , , is possible to determine its correlation factor between
2 2 , (3) maximum wind speed and snow weight, and it means
where korr – correlation factor between two sampling. that unified norms for the whole territory with the
For normalization of sampling Y having been only combination factor could not be established.
obtained in a such way all values, which exceed the
4 CONCLUSIONS
bound of limits [0,1], are changed into any others.
This in the frames of statistical approach, taking into Because of limited access of building engineers to the
account the little number of those values, doesn’t generalized information about the regime of weather loads
influence the result. in Ukraine during the investigations the reductive
Diagram of combination factor of two correlated mathematical models were developed which did not take
samplings with normal distribution has some other into account the real specificity of this or those region.
character, particularly it grows sliding as against it is Generally accepted was the tendency of making norms
happening at equal distribution. It is obvious that “for all regions”: in the work it is confirmed that the
during combination of two samplings with the same difference between combination factors in various regions
amplitude and normal distribution the combination of Ukraine (mountainous as well) doesn’t exceed 10%. In
factor is 1 already with correlation about 0,3 while for fact it is not right. The characteristic feature of all papers,
equal distribution correlation is to be not less than 0.75. devoted to the problem ob load combination is the next:
It is obvious that except two considered cases there 1) autor’s tendency to achieve theoretically as
are plenty of other opportunities to combine than loads – little as possible the combination factor (according to
with two various distributions, which quantity is rather - "economy" of materials) due to introducing this or
big, with different amplitudes (difference between those calculation model;
maximum and minimum values) etc. All these 2) absence of any opportunity to check (test)
combinations at the condition of existing the correlation experimentally obtained results.
between samplings will have their diagrams of Considering the picture of changeability of
dependence of combination factor and correlation factor. weather conditions even within Ukraine borders one
can assert that using of foreign experience in
3 COMBINATION OF WIND AND SNOW LOADS regulation of combination factors by simply copying
of these factors is not correct. Besides, the existing rather
Considerable changeability resides to characteristics of high correlation between some activities (snow-wind)
registered maximums of wind and snow loads in deny the opportunity of introducing such factors for this
Ukraine’s regions. It appears as a result both of activities at all. It is clear, that obtained conclusion about
physical-geographical condition features and the the groundlessness of introducing the combination factor
features of measuring equipment and psychological for the pair “wind-snow” load denies the generally
features of the personnel of these or those weather accepted practice, that is supported by the “authority” of
stations. However, the general regularity for all Building Standards in force of many world countries and
Ukrainian weather stations is the dependence of wind international standards, but such conclusions were made
maximums on the season. So, the probability of wind on the base of real indexes of weather loads, which were
appearing with 30 m/sec in January is 160 times bigger not taken into account before.
177
Monitoring tall buildings under the action of wind: the role of GPS in
urban zones
M. Kochly1, T. Kijewski-Correa2
ABSTRACT: Global positioning systems (GPS) have emerged as a viable technology for structural health
monitoring (SHM), providing a means to quantify mean, background and resonant structural displacements in
real time — information that cannot be recovered from the double integration of accelerometer data. For this
reason, GPS has been applied successfully to a number of long-span bridges; however, in more hostile
sensing environments, such as dense urban zones, GPS can experience a number of interferences, causing
multipath errors. These and other challenges encountered in urban zones were highlighted recently through a
full-scale monitoring project in Chicago. This paper discusses removal strategies for multipath based on full-
scale observations and demonstrates the effectiveness of GPS sensing by comparing GPS-derived
accelerations to traditional accelerometer outputs in full-scale and comparing in-situ responses to wind
tunnel predictions to highlight the relative contributions of background and resonant responses.
1 INTRODUCTION response but also settlements, thermal expansions,

Tall buildings are one of the most complex and and permanent offsets indicative of more severe
expensive projects undertaken by society. Despite damage (Kijewski-Correa, 2005). Through the
years of experience and advancements in Chicago Full-Scale Monitoring Program and also in
computational modeling and wind tunnel testing, the work by Chen et al. (2001), some of the
there is still a great degree of uncertainty challenges of monitoring in urban zones have been
surrounding the prediction of wind-induced response underscored and have motivated the need for an
of dynamically flexible structures. In response to this improved understanding of various potential error
need, a full-scale monitoring program was initiated sources. The most pressing issue for GPS monitoring
in the City of Chicago with the objective of in dense urban areas remains the problem of
correlating the in-situ wind-induced response of multipath interference.
three tall buildings with predictions derived from
2 MUTLIPATH PHENOMENON
finite element models and wind tunnel testing
(Kilpatrick et al, 2003). This program represents a Multipath is a phenomenon that is introduced
collaboration between the University of Notre Dame, through the reflection of satellite signals off of
the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory at the surfaces nearby the GPS antenna. The bounced
University of Western Ontario and Skidmore signal arrives at a time delay and results in a long
Owings and Merrill LLP in Chicago. While previous period distortion in the displacement measurements.
full-scale programs have relied solely on Multipath has been shown to induce errors of up to
accelerometers to capture resonant response several meters (Chen et al, 2001) in position
characteristics, a comprehensive verification of estimates. By exploiting known features of multipath
predictive response tools requires the measurement effects, e.g., its appearance in both axial
of total structural response: in terms of mean, displacement components at the same frequency and
background and resonant contributions. This its reappearance every 24 hours in conjunction with
program has explored the use of Global Positioning established satellite orbits, it can be diagnosed and
Systems (GPS) in response to this need (Kijewski- removed. This study examines the effects of
Correa and Kareem, 2003). multipath and its removal from full-scale data sets
GPS sensors are increasingly becoming more collected in Chicago.
advanced, now offering sampling rates of up to 20
Hz. Originally used to monitor long-span bridges 3 FULL-SCALE DATA
and dams, GPS systems are now being integrated The predictions and observed data for the four
into structural health monitoring programs for wind events selected for this study were shown to
buildings to permit not only the measurement of the follow the same basic trends, though with scatter that
aforementioned components of wind-induced
1
Graduate Student, University of Notre Dame, e-mail mkochly@nd.edu
2
Rooney Family Asst. Prof., University of Notre Dame, e-mail tkijewsk@nd.edu
178
M. Kochly, T. Kijewski-Correa
presented in this study to demonstrate the efficacy of
EW accel [milli-g]
GPS for displacement monitoring at the sub-
centimeter level. As emphasized in this study, the
role of the background component in the overall
response is rarely observed in full-scale due to the
customary use of accelerometers. Yet a true
verification of current design practice against full-
scale data requires that both components be
recorded, making GPS a promising technology for
NS accel. [milli-g]
displacement monitoring. The current efforts in

Chicago also underscore the need to understand the
characteristics and removal strategies for multipath
errors, quite prevalent in urban areas. The full-scale
data presented herein demonstrates the significant
impacts of this error source and the potential uses of
Time [hrs]
a Fourier-based filtering scheme for its removal,
though acknowledging that such removal schemes
Figure 1 Zoom-in plot of accelerometer versus GPS may reduce the physical background response. As a
derived accelerations (accelerometer data plotted on
top of GPS)
result, a future calibration study is being conducted
at the University of Notre Dame to quantify
multipath effects from a known reflective source
had been similarly observed by other authors (Kochly et al, 2005). These results will hopefully
(Kilpatrick et al, 2003; Kochly et al, 2005). It should lead to new insights into the problem of multipath
be noted that the full-scale alongwind background and allow diagnostics and time-series detrending
response manifested a more pronounced approaches to be developed that will not remove
underestimate, possibly resulting from the filtering meaningful data along with the multipath
technique used. Still, the GPS sensor was able to interference. The findings from this effort and the
track displacements at the sub-centimeter level and continued analysis of full-scale response for other
with trends consistent with wind-tunnel predictions. wind events in the Chicago Full-Scale Monitoring
The GPS sensor was then compared to an Program will lead to an enhanced understanding of
accepted and common technology: accelerometers. the limitations and potentials of GPS in providing a
Full-scale accelerometer data was filtered to leave rare glimpse of background response in full-scale.
only the fundamental mode and compared to the
fundamental modal accelerations derived from 5 REFERENCES
double differencing of the GPS displacements. The
agreement of the two sensors is excellent, as shown Chen, Y., Huang, D. and Ding, X. (2001) Measurement of
in Figure 1 and confirmed by the calculated RMS vibrations of tall buildings with GPS: a case study, Health
Monitoring & Management of Civil Infrastructure Systems,
values for the alongwind and acrosswind motions, Chase and Aktan, Eds., 4337, 477-483
which are within about 10% of one another. Kijewski-Correa, T. (2005), GPS: A New Tool for Structural
Despite the challenges presented by multipath Displacement Measurements, APT bulletin in press.
effects, it should be emphasized that comprehensive Kijewski-Correa, T. and Kareem, A. (2003) The height of
verification of in-situ wind-induced response does precision, GPS World, September, 20-34
Kilpatrick, J., Kijewski, T., Williams, T., Kwon, D.K., Young,
require the ability to capture background and B., Abdelrazaq, A., Galsworthy, J., Morrish, D., Isyumov,
resonant response, so that the efficacy of equivalent N. and Kareem, A. (2003) Full scale validation of the
static wind load techniques can be completely predicted response of tall buildings: preliminary results of
validated. Though resonant response becomes the Chicago monitoring project, Proceedings of 11th
increasingly dominant with wind speed, this study International Conference on Wind Engineering, Lubbock,
TX, 2-5 June
re-emphasizes the relative importance of background Kochly, M., Kijewski-Correa, T., Stowell, J. (2005) GPS
response, particularly in the alongwind direction. monitoring in urban zones: calibration and quantification of
multipath effects, Proceedings of SPIE Conference on
4 CONCLUSIONS Smart Structures and Materials/NDE for Health Monitoring
and Diagnostics, 6-10 March, San Diego.
In closing, full-scale structural displacements of a
tall building in Chicago under the action of wind are
179
V. KoláĜ1, E. Savory2
ABSTRACT: A survey of the recent studies of “twin jets in crossflow” (TJICF) by the present authors is
carried out and extended in terms of results of the velocity-field analysis based on decomposition techniques.
The configuration of the TJICF consists of a pair of identical jet nozzles and jet-flow conditions at the nozzle
exits and the jets are issuing normally into a crossflow/crosswind. This represents just the problem of
interaction and mixing between two adjacent non-buoyant jets/plumes governed by large-scale vortical
structures and background turbulence. Similarities and differences between the dominant mean-flow vortical
features, vorticity and circulation associated with three basic ground arrangements (tandem, side-by-side and
oblique arrangements) are examined, and the comparison with the single jet case is carried out as well.
1 INTRODUCTION nozzle exits and the non-buoyant jets/plumes are

issuing normally into a crossflow. Two symmetric
Many engineering and environmental problems deal
ground arrangements, namely tandem and side-by-
with the basic jet-flow configuration of a single
side cases, and an oblique ground arrangement are
circular jet issuing normally into a crossflow,
treated in detail. The TJICF flow phenomenon is
frequently called “jet in crossflow” (JICF), see the
characterized by the interaction of two adjacent non-
extensive review of Margason (1993). Applications
buoyant jets/plumes governed by large-scale vortical
include typical environmental flows such as vehicle
structures and background turbulence. The literature
exhaust, chimney jet/plume dispersion and building
on similar problems is very scarce (Margason 1993).
ventilation which are closely associated with a
The dominant TJICF vortical mean-flow structure
crosswind effect upon the issuing jet/plume. The
remains rather similar to that of the well-known
crosswind effect is responsible for the jet/plume
secondary-flow contrarotating vortex pair (CVP) of
deflection, formation of a specific vortical structure
the single JICF (although asymmetric for an oblique
and the resulting atmospheric pollution dispersion.
TJICF ground arrangement) depicted in Figure 1.
The present contribution aims at summarizing and
extending the earlier studies of “twin jets in
UC
crossflow” (TJICF) by the present authors (e.g.
KoláĜ et al. 2003) where the mean-flow velocity
z
fields of the TJICF, at the cross sections x = Const.,
have been determined in a wind tunnel using the y
standard crossed HWA technique. The jet nozzles of x

diameter D = 13.5 mm were placed flush with the
Figure 1 Sketch of the CVP and coordinate system.
ground plane with a nozzle centre-to-centre
separation of approx. 5 D (66.3 mm). The jet outlet
Three basic ground arrangements (tandem, side
velocity was UJ = 25.0 m/s, resulting in ReJ |
by side and oblique) were examined, see Figure 2.
2.24x104. Only one jet-velocity/crossflow-velocity
ratio, R = UJ/UC, was studied, namely the ratio R = 8. UC z
The survey concentrates upon the vorticity and y
UJ
circulation aspects associated with the dominant
| 5D
vortical structure of the TJICF and new – closely Į
related – results of the velocity-field analysis based 0 x
on decomposition techniques are also presented.

The configuration of the TJICF consists of a pair Figure 2 TJICF ground arrangements (Į = 0º tandem,
of identical jet nozzles and jet-flow conditions at the Į = 90º side by side, Į = 45º oblique).
1
Dr. Václav KoláĜ, Inst. of Hydrodynamics, Acad. of Sci. of the Czech Rep., 166 12 Prague 6, Czech Rep., e-mail kolar@ih.cas.cz
2
Prof. Dr. Eric Savory, Dept. of Mechanical and Materials Eng., Faculty of Eng., Univ. of Western Ontario, London N6A 5B9,
Canada, e-mail esavory@eng.uwo.ca
180
V. Kolář, E. Savory
2 VORTICITY AND CIRCULATION 4 CONCLUSIONS
The vorticity component aligned with the crossflow By comparing the symmetric TJICF cases in terms
direction can be directly inferred from the measured of vorticity, the tandem arrangement exhibits much
projections of the velocity vectors on the planes x = higher transverse penetration ability (inferred from
Const. as ¢ Ȧ² ¢ w² y ¢ v² z . The obtained vorticity the trajectory of vorticity peaks) and much stronger
contours are shown in Figure 3 (note that residual circulation than the side-by-side case, although both
vorticity is discussed in the next section). ground arrangements rapidly form a “resulting” CVP
that is rather similar to that of a single jet.
20 20
0.
03
The oblique ground arrangement represents a
18 18 natural blend of vortical features of the tandem and
side-by-side arrangements. Its penetration ability is
0.12
3
16 16
12
0.0
closer to that of the tandem case, whilst the vortex

0.
0.2
1
0.3
3
0
14 14 0.0
0. 1
2
strength is closer to the side-by-side case, and the
0.
0.21
39
0.12
“resulting” CVP is slightly asymmetric.

z/D
12 12
0.3
The dominant flow features for different TJICF

0.39
0.2
12
0.
0.48
1
0.5
21
7
3
0.
arrangements appear significantly more universal in

0.0
10 10
0
0.3
0.03
terms of the residual vorticity (specified in the

0.1
8 8
2
previous section). The CVP vortex cores are nearly

3
0.12
0.0
6 6
circular for all three TJICF arrangements (for the
4 4 tandem arrangement see Fig. 3, right) including the
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
y/D y/D asymmetric oblique case and the single JICF.
Apparently, a “background shearing” strongly
Figure 3 Vorticity (left) & residual vorticity (right) affects the vorticity distributions in the centreline
for tandem arrangement, x/D = 12.5 (negative cont.). region. This shearing effect is the most pronounced
in the tandem arrangement (where the single vortices
The CVP strength given by the circulation * is of the “resulting” CVP are relatively close), whilst
calculated as a surface quadrature of ¢Ȧ² . Figure 4 much weaker for the side-by-side case. The portion
shows the results for TJICF cases and a single JICF. of circulation associated with shearing decays much
faster than that based on the residual vorticity which
Circulation based on residual vorticity
15 15
remains, on average, almost constant. In view of the
present results, the turbulent vorticity transport
SINGLE
12 12
TANDEM across the centreline (KoláĜ et al. 2003) deals
Circulation
9 9
OBLIQUE (AV.) predominantly with the shear vorticity rather than
SIDE-BY-SIDE
the residual vorticity within the measured x/D-range.
6 6
SINGLE
TANDEM 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3 3
OBLIQUE (AV.)
SIDE-BY-SIDE This work was financially supported by the Grant
0 0
10 12 14 16 18 20 10 12 14 16 18 20 Agency of the Acad. of Sci. of the Czech Rep.
x/D x/D through grant IAA2060302, and by the Acad. of Sci.
of the Czech Rep. through Inst. Res. Plan
Figure 4 Downstream change of circulation (left) and AV0Z20600510.
circulation based on residual vorticity (right).
6 REFERENCES
3 ADVANCED VELOCITY-FIELD ANALYSIS
KoláĜ, V. (2004) 2D velocity-field analysis using triple
Some preliminary results of a novel approach to decomposition of motion. in: Proc. of 15th Australasian
vortex core identification based on the triple Fluid Mechanics Conference (M. Behnia, W. Lin & G. D.
decomposition of the local relative motion near a McBain eds.), Sydney, Australia, CD-ROM, Paper
AFMC00017.
point (KoláĜ 2004) are presented in Figures 3 and 4. KoláĜ, V., Takao, H., Todoroki, T., Savory, E., Okamoto, S. &
In this regard, vorticity is decomposed into two Toy, N. (2003) Vorticity transport within twin jets in
parts, shear vorticity and residual vorticity. The crossflow. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 27, pp.
latter is associated with the local residual rigid-body 563-571.
rotation near a point obtained after the extraction of Margason, R.J. (1993) Fifty years of jet in cross flow research.
in: Proc. of NATO AGARD Conference, CP-534,
an effective pure shearing motion. Winchester, UK, pp. 1.1-1.41.
181
O. Kopylov 2 J. Wojciechowski 1
ABSTRACT: The experimental study of the flow through the set of 2, 3 and 4 circular cylinders is presented.
The cylinders were located in various geometric configurations. The velocity profiles in the wake of the
cylinder group were measured with the rake of Pitot tubes; then the coefficients of aerodynamic drag of
cylinder set were calculated using momentum theorem. Moreover, the surface visualization of the studied
configurations was carried out in the hydraulic channel.
1 INTRODUCTION 2.1 Hydraulic channel visualization
The constructions having the form of a set of circular The configurations showed in Fig. 1. were used. Fig.
cylinders, submitted to the flow of air, water or other 2 shows the photographs of visualization of two
fluid, are commonly meet in engineer’s practice. cylinders, respectively on line and side by side. The
There are mainly the multitube chimneys, pipelines, corresponding Reynolds number was equal to 1600.
heat exchangers, cooling systems for nuclear power 1 2 3
plants, off-shore petrol platform, bridge pillars and V a V V
power transmission lines. In many cases the
distances between such elements of a group are 4 a a
small; then the flow interaction occurring between V
them can have significant influence on the charge
magnitudes of particular elements of the group and a a
can induce the phenomena of aeroelastic instability. Figure 1 Examples of the configuration studied by
visualization: 1 - two cylinders side by side, 2 – two
2 WORK DESCRIPTION cylinders in line, 3 – three cylinders in triangle, 4 – three
cylinders in line.
The presented experimental work was carried out
in the Laboratory of Aerodynamics of Warsaw
University of Technology. Two main steps are
presented:
x visualisation in a hydraulic channel
x velocity and pressure measurements in a wind
tunnel.
The main object of the research was defined as the
estimation of the wind induced aerodynamic forces
actuating on the elements of the cylinders group, in
effect of the interference between the components of
the group. The group was composed by 2, 3, or 4
cylinders of the same diameter, collocated in
different positions. The distance between the
elements varied between 1 D (walls in contact) to 6
D.
Figure 2 Visualization of two cylinder model in two
configurations (Re = 1600)
1
Dr. Eng. Jan Wojciechowski, Warsaw University of Technology Department of Aerodynamics, e-mail jan@meil.pw.edu.pl
2
Master Eng. Oleksiy Kopylov, Warsaw University of Technology Department of Civil Engineering, e-mail kopyloff@list.ru
182
O. Kopylov, J. Wojciechowski
2.2 Group of cylinders in a wind tunnel 3 CONCLUSIONS
In the wind tunnel of section 1x1m and velocity 20 x The visualization of the flow through the
m/s (fig.3) the velocity profiles past the cylinder model of cylinder group was made. It shown
group were measured, then the coefficients of drag the form of the separation zones past the
were calculated using the momentum theorem. elements of the group and the process of
In two cylinders, near the mid-height, the electronic interference between them. In effect, the
pressure converters were installed at the wall. With posterior interpretation of the obtained
them, rotating the cylinders, it was possible to find velocity and pressure profiles was facilitated.
the time history and next the frequency spectra of x The velocity profiles in the wake past the 2, 3
pressure fluctuation at the wall. Moreover, and 4 cylinder groups, in different
correlating the pressure signals from two cylinders, configuration, were measured.
the time dependence in the interaction between two x The coefficients of drag corresponding to the
cylinders could be described. measured models were calculated using the
momentum theorem.
x In all investigated models the phenomena of
2 4 aerodynamic interference between the
3 cylinders were observed, influencing the
visualization frame and the calculated
magnitudes of drag coefficients.
1
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6 Author would express the thanks to the members of
the Rotary Club „Warsaw City” for material help.
Figure 3: general scheme of wind-tunnel stand: 1-wind tunnel,
2-flow direction; 3-model; 4-Pitot tubes rake; 5-multitube
REFERENCES
manometer, 6- computer.
Van Dyke, M. (1982) An album of fluid motion. The parabolic
Vy ıb press, Stanford, California.
2 Zdravkovich, M. M., Pridden, D. L. (1977): Interference
Vx between Two Identical Circular Cylinders; Series of
y Unexpected Discontinuities, Journal of Industrial
į Aerodynamics, 1977, pp.255-270.
1
Zdravkovich, M. M. (1987): Review of Interference - Induced
Oscillations in Flow Past Two Parallel Circular Cylinders
x in Various Arrangements, Seventh International
Conference on Wind Engineering, vol.2, Aachen 1987,
V2(y) pp.51-66.
Ĳ Zdravkovich, M. M., Medeiros. E. (1991): Effect of Damping
P1 P2 on Interference-Induced Oscillations of Two Identical
V1 V2 3 Circular Cylinders, Journal of Wind Engineering and
ı1 ı2 Industrial Aerodynamics, 1991, pp.197-211.
Zdravkovich, M.M., Medeiros. E. (1992): Interference Induced
Figure 4 Scheme of pressure distribution measurement in Oscillations of two unequal Cylinders, Journal of Wind
the model wake: 1- model; 2 – Pitot tubes rake; Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, vol.41-44, 1992,
3 - multitube manometer . pp.753-762.
The pressure distribution was measured using the

liquid manometer equipped with 120 tubes with
digital lecture of liquid level, allowing the stationary
multipoint measurement of pressure as high as 20
kPa with the precision not worse than 0.5 Pa. The
result of measurement, digitally scored, was
available in the computer memory.
183
H. H. Koss1, C. T. Georgakis2
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a description of the building aerodynamics studies for the new 4th extension of the
European Court of Justice is undertaken. The investigations of the effects of the wind can be classified in two
categories: those relating to the comfort of pedestrians in and around the complex and those relating to the
overall wind loading and occupancy comfort of the structures. Unique to this arrangement are the twin 103m
tall towers – slender and arranged in parallel with an aspect ratio of approximately 3.5:1. Pedestrian level
wind climate studies were performed by using physical and numerical investigative techniques. In the
assessment of human wind comfort conditions various approaches are discussed considering recent
comparative efforts on a European level. An examination of the twin tower dynamic response to wind using
Eurocode 1 showed tower accelerations to be below the chosen acceptable acceleration levels. Further
dynamic time-history analysis of the towers, though, revealed higher than acceptable tower accelerations for
specific wind directions. A response reduction system for the towers was developed in the form of Tuned
Liquid Dampers (TLD) – the first known planned application of this system at this scale within Europe.
1 INTRODUCTION other relating to discomfort arising from structural

Due to the significance of function and the vibrations induced by the wind.
prestigious nature of the European Court of Justice
2 WIND SIMULATION
(ECJ), a large level of care in the architectural design
and structural engineering was observed when The European Court of Justice is located on the
planning the new 4th extension of the courts. Kirchberg Plateau northeast from the historic centre
Designed by Dominique Perrault, the new ECJ of the city of Luxembourg. The orography of the city
features an extended judicial proceedings building area is dominated by the cliff-like formations created
and two twin 103m towers, housing offices of the by the valley of the river Alzette.
juridical administration. The local wind climate in terms of mean wind
Beyond the obvious necessity for a robust speed profiles for 50-year omnidirectional and
structural design, great effort was placed on ensuring directional mean wind speeds and annual occurrence
human comfort in and around the buildings, when probabilities for 10-minutes mean wind speeds for
under the influence of wind. Early in the design 12 direction sectors have been estimated by the
process, two possible wind-induced causes for Danish national research centre RISØ using the
human discomfort were identified; one relating to the WAsP Engineering program “Risø (2000)”
discomfort arising directly from the wind and the considering the specific terrain characteristics.
Since a main aspect of the study is the dynamic
response of the tower buildings a proper simulation
of the turbulent wind excitation is required. The ratio
of the integral length scale of the longitudinal flow
component at top of the towers leads to a geometric
flow scale of λ flow = 1:200, which matches the
model scale of the buildings.
3 STRUCTURAL RESPONSE
An estimation of the dynamic response of the twin
towers was made using Eurocode 1. Further to this,
Figure 1 Wind tunnel model of the European Court of Justice scaled wind-tunnel tests were performed to
twin towers and surrounding buildings determine the fluctuating surface pressure
1
H. H. Koss Ph.D., Force Technology - DMI, Dep. of Hydro and Aerodynamics, Lyngby, Denmark, e-mail: hko@force.dk
2
C. T. Georgakis Ph.D., Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, e-mail: cg@byg.dtu.dk
184
H.H. Koss, C.T. Georgakis
distributions of the towers for a 50-year return period tower top and upper office levels, whilst the west
wind of an approximate full-scale duration of 1 hour. tower accelerations did not exceed the acceptable
Using the fluctuating surface pressure distributions, a acceleration levels at office level for any wind
response analysis of the towers was undertaken in direction.
the time-domain by means of the finite element (FE) To improve the occupancy comfort in the towers
software SOLVIA. tune liquid dampers will be installed on top of the
The detailed procedure in EC1 defines δ s towers. The damper performance was tested
depending on structure type and the fundamental experimentally at reduced scale of 1:2 and
flexural frequency above a minimum threshold value implemented in the aforementioned FE model. Time-
δ min . A parametric study was undertaken in which history analyses of the East Tower showed large
the value δ s was varied between 0.5% and 1.59% reductions in overall structural response with the
damping, as a percentage of critical. inclusion of the TLD units. Overall structural
A time-domain analysis of the tower’s dynamic response reductions where in the order of 35%, with
response to the wind was performed using two the TLD units; reducing maximum East Tower
separate methods, namely a modal superposition response from 21 to 14 mille-g.
through Duhamel integration “Clough & Penzien Beside the investigation of the occupancy comfort
(1993)” and a full non-linear time-history analysis in inside the twin towers the comfort perception in the
SOLVIA. outside area around the building complex due to
ground-near wind flow needed to be examined.
The wind comfort is assessed by using two sets of
criteria. The first comfort criteria definition is given
in the Danish regulation paper “SBI 128 (1981)” as
terms of annual probabilities for exceeding a local
mean wind speed of U thresh = 5m/s. The second set of
comfort criteria are introduced by “Gandemer
(1978)”. Here, the threshold value of the wind speed
is 6m/s relating to a gust wind speed.
Figure 2 Horizontal peak accelerations for east tower
compared to EC1 result. The usage of two sets of comfort criteria allows
for result controlling and for fine adjustment of the
The analyses considered reduced surface assessment. Sensitive areas have been found to
pressures resulting from a reduction in wind exhibit good wind comfort conditions. Consequently,
velocities, considering 10-year, rather than 50-year, no remedial measures needed to be developed.
return-period winds. Maximum tower acceleration
response varied according to wind direction for both 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
towers, with the maximum response of 21.0 mille-g The authors greatly acknowledge Gehl Jacoby &
and occurring for a wind direction of 230 degrees Associes for allowing using the data measured in
relative to true north on the east tower, i.e. when frame of the wind-tunnel study on the European
downstream to the west tower. Court of Justice in Luxembourg.
Peak tower accelerations as calculated by
Eurocode 1 slightly exceed the weak-axis bending 6 REFERENCES
response obtained from the time-history analysis of Clough, R. W., Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, 2nd Edition,
the west tower, whilst underestimating the total McGraw Hill International Editions, 1993
tower peak response including torsion. Similarly, Eurocode 1 (EC1), Basis of design and actions on structures –
EC1 is unable to predict the total peak acceleration Part 2-4: Actions on structures – Wind actions. ENV 1991-
2-4, May 1995
response of the downstream east tower, producing a Gandemer, J. (1978) Aerodynamic Studies of Built-Up Areas
value 35% less than that obtained from the time- made by C.S.T.B. at Nantes, France, Journal of Industrial
history analyses. Aerodynamics, Vol.3, 1978, p.227-240.
SBI-Anvisning 128 (1981) Vindmiljø omkring bygninger (Wind
4 COMFORT ANALYSIS Environment around Buildings), Statens Byggeforsknings-
institut.
Comparisons between tower response and the SOLVIA 03, SOLVIA Engineering AB, Trefasgatan 3, SE-721
acceptable accelerations revealed that the east tower 30 Västerås, Sweden. www.solvia.se
accelerations would exceed the acceptable levels for WAsP Engineering, Wind Atlas Analysis and Application
Program, RISØ National Laboratory, Denmark, 2000
wind directions between 200 – 240 degrees, at both
185
J. Král1
ABSTRACT: Statistic estimates of the ten-minute wind velocity mean values and estimates of the gust wind
maxima throughout the Czech Republic are listed in this paper. Some of the gust estimates are significantly
higher than equivalent gusts determined by means of the peak velocity pressure model in ENV 1991-2-4 (or
in EN 1991-1-4) from the ten-minute mean velocity estimates. The objective was to inquire into the causes
behind this difference and to propose the way to be taken to settle the contradiction.
1 INTRODUCTION stationary neutral turbulence flow. In its design this

model is based on the surface roughness – or on
Pursuant to ýSN P ENV 1991-2-4 (hereinafter as
the size and density of the obstacles (buildings,
“ENV” only), the characteristic wind loads have to
trees, grass, etc.). This procedure, for example, is
be determined from the reference ten-minute wind
used in ENV. The neutral turbulent flow model
velocity at the level of 10 m above the open ground
based on the mean wind velocity tends to describe
free of all obstacles having an annual probability of
well this type of flow in the Czech Republic. The
exceedence of 0.02. At the issue of ENV no such
wind gust extremes tend to be closely related not
values were yet available in the Czech Republic.
only to this type of flow, but also to other
This is why ENV adopted the breakdown of the
meteorological phenomena. In its very nature the
Czech Republic into two regions and, using the
flow is different should it occur.
available information, the reference ten-minute
wind velocities (24 m.s-1, or 26 m.s-1) have been 3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
estimated for these regions.
Throughout the Czech Republic, the wind 3.1 Ten-minute mean velocities
velocity is being measured in about 197 stations Sets of the non-correlated ten-minute velocity
under the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute maxima ascribable to the individual storms, taken
(CHMI). CHMI is fostering directly the operation from the SYNOP database covering professional
of 15 professional meteorological stations, and two meteorological stations throughout the Czech
observatories. Furthermore, the airport stations, Republic during 1981 – 1999 were entered into the
observatories and a chain of climatological stations statistical processing. The estimates of the ten-
have their share in the measuring. The measuring minute velocities having an annual probability of
records have been archived flatly since 1961, but exceedence of 0.02 were based on the Gumbel
much longer chains of measurements are also method adapted for the independent storm maxima,
available to some of the stations. Cook-adapted method for the independent storm
maxima with the Lieblein BLUE method for M =
2 WIND GUSTS 10, Pareto Distribution for k = 0 and Generalized
As for the wind gust maxima ever determined Pareto Distribution for k z 0. For the estimation
throughout the Czech Republic at the elevations results according the Gumbel algorithm see the
below 1000 m (up to 48.9 m/s at the Kocelovice Figure 1. The other ten-minute mean velocity
station in 1994), it is obvious that such a wind gust estimates are shown in the full text paper.
can affect a considerable part of the surface of 3.2 Yearly Gust Maxima
most normal buildings. Response of the buildings
depends on their dynamic characteristics. In order to meet this purpose, EZÚ Brno provided
Alternatively, the peak velocity pressure can be these files. They consist of the velocity gust yearly
derived from the mean velocity measurements and maxima measured by CHMI, mainly covering the
from a suitable stochastic model reflecting the period of 1981-1999. The gust estimations having
an annual probability of exceedence of 0.02 were
1
Ing. Jaromír Král, CSc., Czech Technical University in Prague, Klokner Institute, e-mail jkral@klok.cvut.cz
186
J. Král
carried by the Gumbel method and with BLUE mainly relate to the local storm occurrence, and
method. Results of the analysis are given in the full that the occurrence of the ten-minute velocity
text paper. For the calculated estimates according maximum has to be ascribed to the low pressure
Gumbel method see the Figure 1. front that pass by. On the basis of the comparison
between the maximum wind gusts in 1961–1974
and 1981–1999, we believe that wind gust
extremes are coming to existence during the local
40.3/20.3
46.2/24.1 32.7/-
storms that tend to be strictly confined to a small
- /24.4
35.2/-
space and whose occurrence has a random nature
38.6/17.4 40.0/24.2
35.3/15.4
not only in time, but in space as well. Regarding
46.5/26.2 43.7/29.7 the knowledge from the to-date measurements the
- /26.3 44.9/21.5 43.0/ - 38.2/19.9 only point is whether a local storm of the relevant
47.7/23.1
36.5/ -
intensity has already occurred or will yet occur in
43.6/21.9
45.3/-
40.4/21.9
the vicinity of the meteorological station being
46.3/21.3 50.1/27.0
considered. In the former case, the maximum gusts
will reach the values between 45 m.s-1 and 49 m.s-1,
in the latter case they will range between 38 m.s-1
and 41,6 m.s-1, i.e. between the values that match
Figure 1 - Wind velocity estimates (gust / ten-minute mean approximately the estimates of the ten-minute
velocity in m.s-1) in the Czech Republic (Fischer-Tippett velocities and neutral turbulence flow model.
Type I distribution, Gumbel method, p = 0.02) Regarding the above facts, we are of the opinion
that the gusts of wind that occur during the local
storms in the Czech Republic have to be understood
3.3 Knowledge from the Velocity Statistical Analysis
as an extraordinary loads. Thereafter many of these
We were analyzing the records obtained from the gusts can be covered by the load factor.
Brno - TuĜany station in 1990 – 1999. It is clear
from the comparison that the yearly wind gust 4 CONCLUSIONS
maximum and the yearly maximum of the hourly The velocities listed in ENV are realistic
run of wind do not usually occur on the same day throughout the Czech Republic. The differences
or at the same meteorological situation. between the estimates for various regions are
Using the Wind Velocity Measurement Reports relatively significant. As a rule, the maximum gust
released on a regular basis by the Prague-Karlov of wind and the maximum ten-minute wind
station, we have analyzed the circumstances velocities do not arise upon the same time and at
around the occurrence of the wind gust maxima at the same meteorological conditions. It can be
the individual meteorological situations. Over 1986 inferred from the above that, given the maximum
to 1999, three utmost gusts of wind were detected gust of wind, there is a range of events when the
during the course of short storms. Concerning the model of the neutral turbulent flow, as stated in
separate estimation of the gust maximum having ENV, fails to reflect the actual mechanisms of the
an annual probability of exceedence of 0.02, it was flow in nature, leading to its rise. Such gusts have
45.8 m.s-1 for the short storms and 36.1 m.s-1 while to be understood as extraordinary loads. This is
the low-pressure fronts were passing by. The gust likely not applicable to the Czech Republic alone.
estimate regardless of this differentiation was 43.5
m.s-1. The maximum gust value measured so far 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
was 43.3 m.s-1.
It was similar with the files of the ten-minute This study has been carried out within work on the
velocity maxima gained by three stations Projects No. 103/00/0706 and No. 103/03/1395
Kocelovice, Prague - RuzynČ, and Brno - TuĜany) assigned by the Grant Agency of the Czech
during the individual storms. Some 10 % of the Republic. In this way the author would like to
values were determined during a local storm, express his gratitude to the staff of CHMI for their
others were ascribable to the low-pressure fronts data searching assistance, to ýEZ a.s., and to Ing.
just passing by. The estimated values are clearly J. Lehký from EZU Brno for their assistance in
higher for the transition of the fronts. It can be said acquiring the meteorological data.
that, like e.g. in Germany, the ten-minute velocity
maxima are ascribable to the low-pressure fronts 6 REFERENCES
passing by. This is in compliance with the model See the full text paper.
that reflects the neutral turbulent flow in ENV.
It can be deduced from the above knowledge
that the wind gust maxima in the Czech Republic
187
J. Král1
ABSTRACT: Listed in this contribution, there are the pressure coefficient measurement results gained on
a model high building, scaled 1:400 in lengths. Measuring was carried out in the wind tunnel with the model
atmospheric boundary layer of VZLÚ/KÚ ýVUT with both the standalone model and the model in a built-up
area. Using the measurements, the mean pressure coefficient values and the pseudo-steady coefficient values
were determined. Using the integration across a square area, the measurements were entered into the
calculation of their estimates for the entire walls and different wind directions. The contribution comprises
the comparison between both above-mentioned coefficients and assesses how the surrounding buildings can
influence their size.
1 INTRODUCTION 1:400. See Figure 1 for the model building amid of

a developed area. The total of 107 pressure sensing
Purpose of the model measuring was to assess the
points were available all around the model skin.
wind effects on one of the optional reconstructions of
We used the Prandtl Tube positioned at the height
the 110m-high building and to evaluate the influence
of 300 mm to measure the air flow velocity at the
ascribable to the surrounding buildings. Pressure
level of the building roof upstream the measured
values were measured on a standalone model
space and 32 differential pressure sensors with their
building and on a model amidst of a built-up area for
integrated electronics (Honeywell) to measure the
different directions of wind.
pressure values. The reference static pressure for all
Pressure-versus-time measurements were used to
the above sensors was taken on the tunnel walls in
compare the mean pressure coefficient values and the
the upper part of the measuring space. The pressure
pseudo-steady coefficient values determined by
responses in time were being digitised with the AD
a probabilistic algorithm taken over from the
converter (2,048 Hz sampling frequency) and
bibliography.
computer memorized for their next processing.
2 MODELLED ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY With the standalone building, we were measuring
LAYER the surface pressure values arranged along 36
directions, spaced 10° apart. When measuring the
The modelled atmospheric boundary layer Sa B120 building amid of the urban area, we were taking the
characteristics were optimised by the staff of VZLÚ measurements for ten angle of attack values mostly
(Jirsák, 2003). For its characteristics see the full text. spaced 45° apart. For better continuity of the
The length, velocity and time scale factors were KL = measurements, the reference dynamic pressure
1:400, KU,III = 0.377 and Kt,III = 0.00663 for the values of PT300 were recorded on the one hand side,
terrain category III. Providing the air flow around the as well as of the pressure value time responses in the
sharp-edged bodies, the ten-minute integration time middle of the large walls on the other hand, both in
is in fact equivalent to TIII = 3.98 s in reality for the all the measuring point set-ups. We based out
model measuring. Pressure maxima from the 4 s long statistics on the 100-second records made for a pre-
record sections were entered into the statistical selected set of the angles of incidence.
A computer-controlled turntable was used to
analysis used to determine the pressure maxima
move the standalone model building round against
according to Cook (1982). The mean pressure the flow. Measuring cycle was automatic in its runs.
coefficient values were moreover established in In the case of the model surrounded by other
a classical way. buildings, the angle of incidence was being set by
means of the marks on the turntable having 1.5 m in
3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP diameter.
The model tall building and model in the developed
surroundings were made in the length scale KL =
1)
Ing. Jaromír Král, CSc., Czech Technical University in Prague, Klokner Institute, e-mail jkral@klok.cvut.cz
188
J. Král
a shadowed location tend often to be accompanied by
an increase in the r.m.s. pressure coefficient value of
the fluctuation component.
The pseudo-steady pressure coefficient values for
the standalone building is range within the interval
Cp,k (-4.5, 2.3); with the building amid of the built-up
area the interval is Cp,k (-3.6, 2.1). For the standalone
model the pressure coefficient values in the middle
of the windward side are very close to the mean
coefficient values, while on the sidewalls and near
the edges of the model they much differ frequently.
Sometimes they are much higher, other times much
lower. It find its manifestations mainly when the air
flow passes parallel along longer walls at the angles
Figure 1 Model building amid of a developed area of attack between 90° or 270°, at the lower parts of
the model, around the air-flown edges and all
4 MEASUREMENT RESULTS protrusions on the walls.
As expected, the pseudo steady coefficients are
Furthermore, the mean and pseudo-steady pressure much higher where the flow turbulence effect due to
coefficients were determined for the standalone the body flown around finds its manifestation.
building and for the one in the build up area. The Increased values are also in the places where the air
pressure coefficient values are supposed not to flow turbulence effects ascribable to the surrounding
depend on the flow conditions. buildings find their manifestations.
For the standalone building the local mean
pressure coefficient values measured range within 7 CONCLUSIONS
the interval Cm,k (-3.0, 2,4), while for the model
amid of a built-up area within the interval Cm,k (-2.5, The pressure measurement results obtained from the
1.7). Figure 2 shows the example of the mean model building’s surface are expressed by means of
pressure coefficient values plotted against the height the mean pressure coefficient values and the pseudo-
for the windward and leeward sides of the steady pressure coefficients. The latter make it
standalone model building and the model building in possible to design the loads the building skin is to be
the built up area for the attack angle of 150°. exposed to for the same probability of their
occurrence. The equivalent static loads to the weight
2 bearing system are conservative when determined on
C p(z) ref. p PT300
E = 150° building
wall W
their basis. Comparing them to the mean pressure
1 coefficient values is a handy tool that can
building conveniently be used where its is necessary to
wall E
0
identify the points on the structure surfaces where
Urban area
not only the turbulence of the incoming air flow, but
wall W
also other physical phenomena have their share in
-1
the pressure fluctuations.
Urban area
wall E
-2 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
z/H This work has been prepared within the project of
Figure 2 Mean pressure coefficient values the walls the GA ýR 103/03/1395. The author would like to
W and E and angle of attack equal to 150° express his acknowledgement for all the support
provided. Additional acknowledgment belongs to Ing.
In most cases, the coefficient values were found M. Jirsák, CSc. for his optimisation and measuring
lower among the surrounding buildings than in the thoroughly the atmospheric boundary layer being
event of a standalone building. A frequent exception models in the wind tunnel and Spojprojekt a.s. for
is only in the pressure coefficient values in the allowing of the building design project documents.
lowest points measured. As for the other directions,
the pressure gradient resulted from the suction effect 9 REFERENCES - See full text.
behind a relatively low building is significant.
Nearer situated lower buildings can influence the
pressure coefficient values more than the farther
situated high buildings. It is necessary to notify here
that a drop in the pressure mean values as a result of
189
Measurement of extreme aerodynamic interference forces

acting on circular cylinders in turbulent boundary layers
I. Krönke1, H. Sockel 2
ABSTRACT: Extreme interference wind loads on circular cylinders are investigated in wind tunnel
simulations of atmospheric boundary layers with high turbulence levels. Since for circular cylinders
interference effects caused by vortex shedding are pronounced, the present work tries to clarify to which
extent turbulence effects are reducing the interference in this case. Aerodynamic forces and moments were
measured with a piezoelectric six-component wind tunnel balance. The balance is distinguished by a large
dynamic range, low interferences and a high natural frequency. The numerous results include comparisons of
mean values and extreme values of force coefficients with and without interference with reference to the
velocity profiles and the turbulence levels in two different boundary layer simulations. Conclusions are drawn
with regard to the application of the results in estimating wind loads on cylindrical structures.
1 INTRODUCTION exponents of the velocity profiles and the

Interference effects on circular cylinders have been longitudinal turbulence level at top height of the
investigated for a number of configurations but in models are shown.
most cases only mean values of force coefficients Table 1: Simulated boundary layers
were measured in uniform flows with low turbulence Boundary layer BL0 BL1
levels. Previous tests by the authors on square Exponent 0.02 0.09
section cylinders have shown a diminishing effect of Long.turb.int. 0.01 0.13
interference with increasing turbulence in simulated
boundary layers. In these cases high turbulence
causes strong load fluctuations which are The distances between two cylinders in flow
undistinguishable from interference effects even in direction were chosen with 1.5D, 2D, 3D and 5D for
configurations which show strong interference in achieving maximum interference. The angles of
smooth uniform flows. wind direction varied between -7.5 and 30 degrees.
Aerodynamic forces and moments were measured
2 BOUNDARY LAYER SIMULATION AND with a piezo-electric six-component wind-tunnel
MEASURING TECHNIQUES balance. The balance is distinguished by a large
The two models were identical circular cylinders dynamic range and a high natural frequency. The
with diameters d = 50 mm and a height of 400 mm, construction of the wind tunnel balance was based
which were mounted on the turntable in the test- on four 3-component piezo-electric force transducers
section floor of the boundary-layer wind tunnel at manufactured by Kistler.
the Institute for Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, The coefficients in many codes for wind loads are
T.U. Vienna. It is of the closed test section, open derived from wind tunnel experiments with low
return type. turbulence levels in uniform flow. Only in few codes
Two different flow fields were investigated. The results of more recent measurements in a simulated
first one is called boundary layer 0 (BL0) with a low boundary-layer are used. But normally in any case a
turbulence level and a nearly uniform velocity pressure averaged over a long time interval is used
distribution over the cross section with exception of for reference. This procedure implies that the flow
a natural developed boundary layer on the wind around a body is not significant altered in a wind
tunnel floor with a thickness of 0.05 m. The second gust in comparison with the time averaged mean
flow field is a boundary layer simulation ( BL1) flow, which is presumably only the case if the scale
achieved with a tripping fence with a high turbulence of the turbulence gust is significantly larger than the
intensity of about 12 % and a velocity profile which size of the body.
can described by an exponent of 0.12 . In table 1 the
1
Hon. Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. Ingo Krönke, Inst. f. Fluid Mech. and Heat Transfer, T.U. Vienna, e-mail ingo.kroenke@aon.at
2
Em. Univ. Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. Helmut Sockel, Inst. f. Fluid Mech. and Heat Transfer, T.U. Vienna,
e-mail helmut.sockel@tuwien.ac.at
190
I. Krönke, H. Sockel
For checking the assumption of unaltered flow in Interference effects can only be observed in BL0
wind gusts so-called extreme coefficients were (Fig. 1). For distances between cylinders of 1.5D and
calculated using for reference extreme dynamic 3D a maximum occurs at a flow angle of 12.5°. At a
pressures measured under conditions similar to distance of 5D the maximum is at an angle of 20°.
original conditions. The significant extreme values In BL1 (Fig. 2) the interference is reduced to
for the force- coefficients were found using sheltering effects. All values of CFex are lower than
statistical methods. The parent probability the values of the single cylinder.
distribution and the cumulative probability
distribution of the extremes were measured using 25
data sets of 6000 samples of each channel. With the
sampling rate of 1 kHz for each channel the resulting BL1: CFex
1,5
time span of 6 seconds for one data set was assumed
to be equivalent to ten minutes of original time 1
according to the time scale of 1:100.
0,5
The parent probability densities of the force and
CFex
pressure signal fluctuations are slightly asymmetrical 0
and can be approximated with extended Weibull -10 0 10 20 30
distributions. This type of probability distribution -0,5
has an extreme value distribution of the Fisher-
-1
Tippett type 1. The mode B as the value most likely
flow angle (°)
to appear was used as reference value for extreme
calculations. 1.5D 2D 3D 5D single
Figure 2: CFex in boundary layer1

3 RESULTS
Figures 1 and 2 show the profiles of the extreme 4 SUMMARY
total force coefficient CFex which of course is the In a flow with low turbulence level (BL0; 1 %) for
relevant factor for estimating the loads on such the investigated configurations there are strong
circular cylinders. The values for the single cylinder influences of distance between cylinders and of flow
are constant for all flow angles with 0.82 for BL0 angle on the measured mean and extreme forces on
and 0.83 for BL1 bearing in mind that the ratios of the downward cylinder. Obviously several fluid
extreme dynamic pressure to mean dynamic pressure phenomena are interacting to produce a wide range
are 1.04 for BL0 and 1.90 for BL1. of interference effects. The extreme coefficients
(referred to the extreme dynamic pressure at a
reference point in the flow) are in many cases higher
BL0: CFex than the mean coefficients normally used.
1,5
In a boundary layer simulating atmospheric flow
1 over flat country with corresponding turbulence
intensity (BL1; 13 %) interference influence is
0,5 strongly reduced; in the case of the extreme total
CFex
forces no increase of the load due to interference is

0 observed.
-10 0 10 20 30
-0,5
Since only a very limited set of arrangements
could be investigated, further experiments are
-1 certainly necessary to ensure that these results are
flow angle (°) valid more general. But it seems that even a
1.5D 2D 3D 5D single relatively low turbulence level is reducing the
interference effects in such a way that they are not
Figure 1: CFex in boundary layer 0 important when calculating extreme wind loads.
191
Improvement of aeroelastic instability of pylon of cable-stayed bridge

by means of separation interference method
Y. Kubo1, K. Tasaki2, H. Higashi3, K. Kimura4, K. Kato5
ABSTRACT: When a steel pylon of cable-stayed bridge is standing alone without stay-cables, the pylon is
susceptible to vibration under wind action. Especially the vibration in out-of-plane direction tends to occur in
even lower wind velocity. The pylon of a certain cable-stayed bridge with main span length of 190m was
designed as the modified A-shaped pylon with rectangular cross sections. The rectangular cross section is
well known as one of sections unfavorable from aeroelastic aspects. The rectangular cross section, depending
on side ratio, usually induces the vortex-excited vibration in lower wind velocity and galloping in higher wind
velocity. Unfortunately, at the time requiring the aeroelastic investigation of the pylonLW was not allowed for
us to change the shape of cross section of the pylon. The authors tried to improve the aeroelastic instability by
means of simple device of attaching the vertical plates on the surface of the pylon. On the basis of the concept
of separation interference, Kubo one of authors devised this installation. In the present case, the aeroelastic
instability occurs at only erection stage of the pylon standing alone. After stay cables are emanating to deck
from pylon, the device will be removed. In this situation, the device should be cheap and easy to be removed.
The effectiveness of the separation interference method is reported in the present paper.
1 INTRODUCTION The experiments for controlling aeroelastic vibration
The present paper deals with the method for were conducted by using rectangular section as
suppressing the aeroelastic vibration of a rectangular shown in Fig.1. (Kubo. 1994 ). The vertical plates at
prism by controlling separation flow from leading both ends on the prism control the separation flow
edges of the rectangular prism. And it is proved that from the leading edge.
the proposed method is useful for suppressing
1.2
aeroelastic vibrations of a tapered rectangular steel
pylon. T =30 deg.
1 without plate
P/H = 0.1
2 DEVELOPMENT OF SEPARATION P/H = 0.2
P/H = 0.3
INTERFERENCE METHOD 0.8 P/H = 0.4
The aeroelastic vibration of the rectangular prism is

caused by the separation from leading edge of the 0.6
rectangular prism. In order to suppress the
aeroelastic vibrations, it is required to control the 0.4
separation flow from the leading edge.
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Reduced wind speed (Vr)
Fig.2 Aeroelastic response of rectangular prism in
the case of H=50mm and T=30 degrees
Fig.2 is the aeroelastic response results, Referring to

the results, the aeroelastic response amplitude is
reduced and onset wind speed becomes higher in
Fig.1 Rectangular prism with vertical plates for relation with increment of the ratio p/H. Especially,
controlling the separation flow from leading edge in the condition of T=30 degrees and p/H from 0.3 to
1
Prof., 3 Student, 4Assoc. Prof., 5 Assist., Dep. of Civil Eng., Kyushu Institute of Technology, JAPAN,
e-mail kubo@civil.kyutech.ac.jp
2
Nippon Engineering Consultants Co., LTD. Fukuoka, JAPAN
192
Y. Kubo, K. Tasaki, H. Higashi, K. Kimura, K. Kato
0.4, the aeroelastic vibration is completely 2
suppressed.
1.5
Photo.1 shows the flow pattern around the
rectangular prism without vertical plates. In the 1
leeward region, the separated flow enrols and forms
vortex. Photo. 2 is the flow pattern of the case with 0.5
vertical plate in the condition of p/H=3.0 and

T=30degrees. Referring to the photographs, the 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Reduced wind speed Vr ( =V/fD)
separation flow from leading edges flows down
along the prism without inducing vortexes. It seems
that the flow pattern is like the pattern of flow Fig. 5 Aeroelastic response of top of the pylon in
around the streamlined body. The method is named case of left-to-right wind action
Second separation
as Separation Interference Method. First separation point
point
h=ptanT
p=0.28~0.42D
Wind
D
Photo.1 Flow Photo.2 Flow Fig.6 The vertical plate for the pylon
visualization visualization around
around rectangular rectangular prism with
2
prism vertical plates at
p/H=0.3. T=30 degrees
1.5
3 AEROELASTIC VIBRATION OF STEEL

PYLON 1
L ft Ri ht Fig. 4 shows the steel 0.5

pylon for cable-stayed
bridge that is planned to
0
build in the Inland Sea of 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Japan. The pylon is Reduced wind speed Vr ( =V/fD)
supposed to be standing Fig.7 Aeroelastic response of the pylon with
alone without stay-cable vertical plate on the whole columns
for a long period because
of erection condition. The aeroelastic performance of the pylon shown in
. The pylon was designed Fig.5 was improved by using Separation Interference
by using rectangular cross Method as shown in Fig.6. The result of the
section. aeroelastic response of the steel pylon is shown in
Fig. 7 that tells the method is remarkably effective
Fig. 4 The steel pylon for improving the aeroelastic performance. And
required aeroelastic aerodynamic damping is forced to be very small.
(U i vibration test
Fig.5 is the result of aeroelastic test of elastic model
under wind action in from left to right direction. Although the method was invented by using a two-
dimensional rigid model, it was proved that the
4 IMPROVEMENT OF AEROELASTIC method was useful to improve the aerodynamic
VIBRATION OF THE STEEL PYLON BY performance of even a tapered structure as the elastic
SEPARATION INTERFERENCE METHOD tapered pylon dealt in the present paper.
193
G.A.M. van Kuik1, W.A.A.M. Bierbooms1
ABSTRACT: Modern wind energy is about 30 years old, and has become the worldwide fastest growing
energy source. The size of the turbines increased up to 120 m diameter, and small wind farms evaluated to
wind power stations of some hundreds of megawatt installed power. The paper will present a survey of the
technology developments that have enabled the present state of the art.
1 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
The size of the turbines has increased more than
tenfold in twenty years. Fig. 1 shows the
development of the size. Modern wind turbines are
the largest rotating machines on earth: the rotor area
is larger than a soccer field. The development
towards ‘as large as possible’ is driven by several
aspects. Most of the installed wind power is in
Europe where good sites with a high wind speed
become scarce. The windy areas are either densely
populated (North-West Europe) or natural areas
(Spain). Large turbines are a solution as long as the
infrastructure (roads, cranes etceteras) is available.
Another solution is to go offshore. All countries with Figure 2: Representative ‘in the blind’ predictions of
Baltic- or North-Sea shores are developing offshore turbine power output as a function of wind speed
wind energy. The larger the better is certainly true compared to experimental measurements, Leishman 2002.
here, since many costs do not or very little depend on
size (e.g. project preparation, transport and research programs using prototypes up to the 1 MW
assembly, electrical infrastructure). size. Empirical factors and safety margins in
construction and material strength resulting from
126 m Ø
these validations are now used for multi-MW turbine
designs, so clearly outside the proven range of
validity. As long as the rotor concept is unchanged
and the increase in size is not too large, the
cumulative experience of the manufacturers
engineering staff is so far sufficient to control the
12 m Ø design process.
When a completely new wind turbine should be
’85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 04
designed, or its performance should be analyzed, the
.05 .3 .5 1.3 1.6 2 4.5 5 MW
weaknesses in the design knowledge become most
apparent. In 2002, a 10 m diameter scale model of a
Figure 1: the development of wind turbine size
turbine was tested in the 24.4m x 36.6m NASA-
2 ROTOR AERODYNAMICS Ames wind tunnel. The geometrical data of the
Validation of these codes by industry has been done model were made available for several
on the class of 500 kW turbines, about 10 years ago. aerodynamical research groups who were asked to
This class of turbines was the first mass-produced calculate the performance of the model in some
class, and stayed for several years. Research operating conditions, without knowing the
validation has been done in several European experimental results. The results of this ‘blind
1
DUWIND, Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute, g.a.m.vankuik@lr.tudelft.nl and w.bierbooms@lr.tudelft.nl
194
G.A.M. van Kuik, W.A.A.M. Bierbooms
comparison test’ are shown in the Fig. 2. It is clear which resembles turbulence. The applied stochastic
that no one can be satisfied with this result: the time series generators can be based on frequency or
deviations are far too large. Analysis afterwards wave number domain.
showed that input- and (geometrical) modelling A special kind of stochastic simulation can be
errors were present, which explained some of the performed in order to generate gusts. Maximum
deviations. Each research group has ‘its own’ amplitude gusts can be generated in order to assess
engineering model for phenomena like three- the ultimate loads of stall regulated wind turbines.
dimensional stall, deep stall, unsteady stall, For pitch regulated wind turbines it is assumed that
aerodynamic damping, rotor behaviour in yawed the extreme response is associated with gusts with an
flow conditions, dynamic inflow, heavy loading. The extreme rise time (Fig. 4).
conclusion was that all aerodynamical models were
not good enough to represent the experiments under
several operating conditions: the aerodynamics of
the rotor is still not understood sufficiently.
Wind tunnel experiments serve two purposes: to
Figure 4: An example of a gust with a velocity jump of 6 m/s at

t=100 s to 101 s.
In the eighties the ‘Wind Atlas Method’ has been

developed in order to assess the wind resource. It
accounts for the local orography, roughness and
obstacles. For mountainous terrain the method is no
longer applicable and instead more complete
physical models should be used, like mesoscale
Figure 3: Comparison between computed vortical wake
models. It is yet to be proven if CFD models can
position and measured tip vortex locations (the black dots). handle complex terrain.
The yaw angle is-30˚. Flow is from right to left. For European countries no long-term trend
regarding the wind potential is observed. The wind
improve the engineering models in BEM, and to conditions do show large variations with a
provide a validation for more sophisticated methods predominant period of about 35 years, but this
as Vortex Lattice or Navier Stokes calculations. Fig. periodicity is not consistent enough to be used for
3 shows some results of measurements of the tip predictions.
vortex location and the calculated shape of the A wind power forecast model is based on a
vortex sheet of the model rotor in yaw. physical model, a statistical model or a combination
of these two. The basis of a physical model is a
3 WIND DESCRIPTION numerical weather prediction, a micro model to
The research into wind is divided into: account for local and effects, the power curve of the
• Description of turbulence wind turbines plus farm efficiency model. The
• Assessment of extreme events statistical model can be an autoregressive model or
• Assessment of the average wind speed neural network relating a (historical) record of wind
• Short term forecast of local wind speed time series to the corresponding wind farm output.
For fatigue analysis it is nowadays common to The mean absolute error of prediction models vary
generate, for several mean wind speeds, a 3D between 10% and 20% of the installed capacity.
stochastic wind field, of all 3 velocity components,
195
The level-3 mesoscale turbulence model for wind climate

and pollutant dispersion in cites
A.F. Kurbatskiy1, L. I. Kurbatskaya2
ABSTRACT: A computational scheme for an improved Mellor-Yamada Level-3 model is proposed and its
performance is examined to simulate the wind field structure above the urbanized surface (city) in the atmos-
pheric boundary layer (ABL). In the present model, two new ingredients are employed: 1) an updated expres-
sion for the pressure-velocity correlation, 2) an updated expression for the pressure-temperature correlation.
The turbulent momentum and scalar fluxes are determined by the full explicit algebraic expressions which are
deduced from the closed transport equations for turbulent fluxes and simplified using the weak-equilibrium
assumption. Closure is achieved by solving the evolution equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, its dissi-
pation rate and scalar variance (the three-parametric turbulence model). This improved mesoscale model for
the turbulent ABL is capable to reproduce the most important features of a wind field above the city. Simula-
tion results show, that the thermal circulation caused by a longitudinal temperature gradient between heated
up air above city and less heated up air of its vicinities, increases speed of wind aloft on a leeside, and the
term of the longitudinal turbulent diffusion in the potential temperature equation act to reduce the daytime
boundary layer height.
1 INTRODUCTION Vt UVx WVz wv ! z fU , (3)

It is well-known that the elevated temperatures in 1
Wt UWx WWz Pz ¢ ww² z E4 g , (4)
cites arise due to anthropogenic heat generation and U
retardation of the nocturnal cooling of urban surfaces 4t U 4 x W 4 z uT ! x wT ! z . (5)
in contrast to rural surfaces cause higher tempera-
The dependent variables in (1)-(5) are the mean
tures over the city relative to its vicinity (the Urban
Heat Island effect; e. g., Bornstein and Oke, 1981). (time averaged) flow velocities U , V , and W , in x ,
The urban heat island effect may produce major y , and z directions, respectively, the mean pressure
temporal and spatial alterations to the circulation of P , and the mean departure 4 from a reference tem-
the urban ABL. This study attempts to formulate a perature T0 . The parametric quantities in (1)-(5) in-
numerical model for the simulation of the urban heat clude the acceleration of gravity g (9.8 ms-2), the
island effect and its influence on the modification of Coriolis parameter f (0.834 u 10-4 at latitude 350N),
background (synoptic and meso-scale) winds by
the volumetric expansion rate of air E (3.53 u 10-3 Ʉ-
cites. In this model, the transfer of momentum and 1
scalar (temperature, concentration) in the ABL is ), and mean air density U (1.25 kgm-3). The lower
computed by the improved Mellor-Yamada Level-3 case terms u , v , w , and T represent time dependent
model. deviations from their respective mean values, and
their products in (1)-(5) give the turbulent Reynolds
2 THE LEVEL-3 CLOSURE MODEL FOR TUR- stresses and heat fluxes. They are modeled by the
BULENT ABL full explicit anisotropic algebraic expressions which
are obtained from the differential closed transport
To model an ABL, we need both mean and turbulent
equations for turbulent fluxes by simplifications of
variables. The following system of partial differen-
the last up to the system of algebraic equations using
tial equations models the ABL flow over the urban
the weak-equilibrium assumption. The obtained sys-
heat island for a full 24 hour cycle. The Boussinesq
tem of the algebraic turbulent fluxes equations is
approximation for density changes is made to ac-
solved using symbolic algebra. For closure of ex-
count for buoyant effects:
pressions for the turbulent momentum and scalar
U x Wz 0, (1)
fluxes the three-parametric turbulence model is used
1 (Kurbatskii, 2001). The turbulent fluxes expressions
U t UU x WU z Px wu ! z fV , (2)
U here are not resulted because of their bulkiness.
1
Prof. DSc. Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB Russian Academy of Sciences, e-mail: kurbat@nsu.ru.
2
Head Scientific Researcher, Institute of Computational. Math. and Mathematical Geophysics, SB RAS.
196
A.F. Kurbatskiy, L.I. Kurbatskaya
3 NUMERICAL TEST (Fig. 3). Moreover, ABL height is lower at the given
wind speed, if in the equation (5) is included the
New mesoscale model ABL was tested in simple 2D
term of the longitudinal turbulent diffusion of heat,
case.
¢uT ² x .
3.1 Set-up of Simulations
The horizontal extension of the domain is 120 km 2
with a resolution 1 km. The vertical resolution is 10
m in the first 50 m above the ground. The topogra-
phy is flat with a 10-km wide city (10 ‘urban’ points)
1.5
surrounded by a rural area. The ground temperature
is the only unsteady boundary condition. This ther-
0.5
mal boundary condition simulates the 24 hour cycle
0.7
Z (km)
1
of heating by the sun on a land mass located from
-0
0.2
.1
1.0
-0.1
-0.2
x 0 km to x 120 km. In our study the urban heat
-0.2
island effect was specified by an urban-rural tem-
0.5
perature difference 'T . The influence of this effect
on an urban boundary layer structure is examined for
the urbanized surface at use of the conventional
roughness model. The meteorological initial condi- 0
40 50 60
tions are a geostrophic wind from the west of 1, 3 X (km)
and 5 m s-1, an atmospheric thermal stratification

equal to 3.5 K km-1 in potential temperature. Fig. 2. Velocity vectors and isotachs (m s-1) for vertical ve-
locity for 12:00 LST.
3.2 Results
For low synoptic speed of 1 m s-1, the horizontal 2.5
gradient of temperature between an above city and
air above the rural area generates a thermal circula-
2
tion, as clearly shown in Fig. 1.
1.5 1
Z (km)
2
2.5
1.0
1 3
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
2.02.5
1.0
2 1.0 0.5
-1. 0.0
0
0.0
-1.
5
0.0 -0.5
-0.5
3.0
1.0
1.5
0
1.0
1.5 20 40 60 80 100 120

1.0
-1.0
X (km)
1.0
Z, km
2.01.1.0
1.0
2.0
5
1 Fig. 3. The ABL height (fixed at the lowest level where the
1.0
0.0
turbulent kinetic energy is less than 0.01 m2 s-2) at the wind
1.0
-0.5
speed: 1 – 1, 2 – 3 and 3 – 5 m s-1.

1.5
1.0
0.5
-1.0
2.0
0.01.0
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
-1.5
0.0
2.5 -2
.5
-0.5
1.0
1.0
This investigation was supported by Russian Foun-
1.5
2.0
40 60 80
X, km dation for Basic Research (grant 03-05-64005) and
the Presidium SB RAS (Integration Project No. 130).
Fig. 1. Vertical section of horizontal wind speed for simula-
tion with 1 m s-1 at 12:00 LST. The thick line on the ab- 5 REFERENCES
scissa between 45 km and 55 km indicates the city location. Bornstein, R. D. & Oke T. R. (1981) Influence of pollution on
-1 urban climatology. Adv. Environ. Sci. Engrg., 2, pp. 171-
When the wind speed increases (3 m s ) the column 202.
of hot, unstable air above the city is still present, but Kurbatskii, A.F. (2001) Computational modelling of the pene-
it is advected downwind and thermal circulation it is trative convection above the urban heat island in a stably
displaced on the leeside of city (Fig. 2). With growth stratified environment. Journal of the Applied Meteorology,
of a wind speed the boundary layer height decreases 40, 10, pp.1748-1761.
197
Applicability of LES to turbulent wake of rectangular cylinder

- Comparison with PIV data -
M. Kuroda1, T. Tamura2, M. Suzuki3
ABSTRACT: We carry out both of LES and PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) measurement for turbulent flows
past rectangular cylinders with depth/breadth ratio ranging from D/B=2.00 to 3.00 at Re=2,000 and 20,000,
which sensitively change turbulence structures due to flow separation and reattachment. For LES, we use the
dynamic Smagorinsky-type SGS (sub-grid scale) model. Firstly, at Re=2,000 where the pure turbulent viscosity
without numerical viscosity is realized, the accuracy of the SGS modeling for prediction of not only aerodynamic
characteristics but also turbulence statistics in the wake of rectangular cylinders are examined in comparison
with PIV data. Furthermore, at Re=20,000 where the numerical dissipation must be incorporated, we clarify
unfavorable effects of the numerical dissipation on the turbulence structures in the wake.
1 INTRODUCTION The numerical algorithm is based on the splitting

method which was provided by Dukowicz & Dvinsky
Recently, applicability of LES (Large Eddy Simu- [3].For stable computation only near the front corners
lation) technique has been much enhanced from an en- of bluff cylinders at the high Reynolds numbers, the
gineering point of view and has reached the predictive numerical dissipation is added to the convective terms.
level to deal with wake flows past a bluff body. As a We use the dynamic SGS model for turbulence model.
current state of LES potential, at Re=O (104~105), it is
inevitable under current ability of computer power to
3 PIV SETUP
add the numerical dissipation by the upwinding of the
convective terms for obtaining the numerical stability.
We conducted the wind tunnel test using a PIV sys-
Unfortunately, the numerical dissipation for alomst
tem in an Effel-type wind tunnel of Kajima Technical
cases is not sufficiently small compared to the effect
Research Institute which working section is 2000* 1200
of turbulent viscosity. Some kind of shape of a bluff
mm2. Double pulsed Nd:YaG lasers was used to gen-
body introduces an inappropriate solution due to seri-
erate a laser sheet perpendicular to the axis of the cyl-
ous deformation to the separated shear layers. Accord-
inder, and CCD camera is used to record the images,
ingly, none of the numerical result is completely satis-
the sampling frequency of which is 0.6Hz.
factory at Tegernsee Conference (1995) [2]. Here, we
carry out both of LES and PIV (Particle Image
4 APPLICABILITY OF LES TO TURBULENT
Velocimetry) for turbulent flows past rectangular cyl-
WAKE AROUND RECTANGULAR CYLINDERS
inders with depth/breadth ratio ranging from D/B=2.00
(Re=2,000 and 20,000)
to 3.00 at Re=2,000 and 20,000.
4.1 The effects of numerical dissipation (Re=20,000,
2 PROBLEM FORMULATION D/B=2.00)
Table 1 summarizes various aerodynamic quanti-
The governing equations are given by the continu- ties. The experimental and computed values for all
ity and the Navier-Stokes equations in curvilinear co- cases show an approximate agreement. However, the
ordinates as follows: computed results of α=0.2 and 1.0 tend to produce
1 ∂ (JU ) somewhat too large value of CLrms, compared with the
=0
m
(1)
J ∂ξ m experimental data. Figure 1 shows the streamwise
∂u i 1 § ∂u i · Reynolds normal stresses <u’u’> along the centre-line
+ ¨ JU m ¸=
∂t J ¨© ∂ξ m ¸¹
for several magnitudes of numerical dissipation. As the
∂ξ ∂ p 1 ∂ ª § 1 ·° ∂u i § ∂ξ ∂ξ · ∂u j ½°º (2) numerical dissipation increases, the fluctuation com-
− m + « J ¨ +ν t ¸® g mn +¨ m n ¸ »
∂xi ∂ξ m J ∂ξ m « © Re ¹ °̄ ∂ξ n ¨ ∂x ∂x ¸ ∂ξ ¾°» ponents in the wake are suppressed. If looking into the
¬ © j i ¹ n ¿¼
1 Graduate Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology, M. Eng., e-mail:mkuroda@depe.titech.ac.jp
2 Prof., Tokyo Institute of Technology, Dr. Eng., e-mail:tamura@depe.titech.ac.jp
3 Supervisory research engineer, Kajima Technical Research Institute, Dr. Eng., e-mail:masayasu@kajima.com
198
M. Kuroda, T. Tamura, M. Suzuki
details, the case of numerical dissipation (α=0.5) with
dynamic SGS modeling is the closest to the experi-
mental data. Thereafter, we carry out LES for the wake Table 1 The effect of numerical dissipation
flow around cylinders with D/B=2.67 and 3.00 at (Re=20,000, D/B=2.00)
Re=20,000 by using α=0.5.
C Dave C Lrms St
Preset LES (Į=0.2) 1.5 1.1 0.085
4.2 Flow patterns as a function of D/B
Preset LES (Į=0.5) 1.5 0.65 0.090
In Figure 2, the turbulence statistics (<u’u’>) for Preset LES (Į=1.0) 1.6 0.99 0.083
cylinders with D/B=2.00~3.00 at both Re=2,000 and Comp. by Shimada 1.4 0.2 0.08
Re=20,000 are compared with PIV data. On the whole, Exp. by Ohtsuki 1.6 0.65 0.08
it can be recognized that the computed results show
qualitative agreement with PIV data. In comparison
with cases at Re=2,000, the results of both LES and PIV
PIV at Re=20,000 show that the location of vortex for- LES
mation moves to far wake field of each cylinder. To- D/B=2.00 Re=2,000 D/B=2.00 Re=20,000 α=0.5
tally, the present computed results are closer to PIV
than LES results of Tegernsee; for example, the recov- PIV
ery of the velocity in the near cylinder region (Figure LES

3). But as a small difference, computed contours of D/B=2.67 Re=2,000 D/B=2.67 Re=20,000 α=0.5
turbulence statistics show that that the separated shear PIV

layers more largely have curved into the region behind
the cylinders, in comparison with PIV data. LES
D/B=3.00 Re=2,000 D/B=3.00 Re=20,000 α=0.5
5. CONCLUSIONS
We carry out both of LES and PIV for turbulent
flows past the rectangular cylinders with D/ Figure 2 Streamwise Reynolds normal stress <u’u’>
PIV-D/B=2.00 PIV-D/B=2.67
B=2.00~3.00 at Re=2,000 and 20,000 and investigated LES-D/B=2.00 a=0.2 LES-D/B=2.67 a=0.5
the effect of the SGS modeling and numerical dissipa- LES-D/B=2.00 a=0.5 PIV-D/B=3.00
LES-D/B=2.00 a=1.0 LES-D/B=3.00 a=0.5
tion on the turbulent wake around rectangular cylin- u/U
1 0
ders. Concerning the wake flow at high-Reynolds num- 0.8
ber, the present computed results are closer to experi- 0.6
0.4
mental data than LES results of Tegernsee. However, 0.2
0
the fluctuation components show a little difference -0.2
-0.4 x/B
between the computed results and experimental results 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(Figure 4). The numerical dissipation, which can re-
duce the numerical oscillations near the frontal cor- Figure3 The mean velocity on the center plane of
ners of the rectangular cylinders, largely affects the the cylinders (Re=20,000)
0.2 <u'u'>
onset of the instability of the shear layers.
0.15
0.1
0.05
PIV 0 x/B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LES Figure4 The distribution of the total fluctuation components,

α=0.2 <u’u’> along the centre-line (Re=20,000)
REFERENCES [1] Tamura, T., Kitagishi, T.,(2001) Application of

LES the interpolation method in generalized coordinate system to wake
α=0.5 flows around a circular cylinder, J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ,
No.545, pp.27-34. [2] Rodi, W., Ferziger, J. H., Breuer, M.,
LES Pourquie, M. (1997). Status of large eddy simulation : results of a
α=1.0
workshop, J. Fluid Engrg., Trans. ASME, 119, 248-262. [3] J. K.
Dukowicz, A. S. Dvinsky: Approximate Factorization as a High
Figure 1 The effect of numerical dissipation on turbulent flow Order Splitting for the Implicit Incompressible Flow Equations,
of the cylinder with D/B=2,000 at Re=20,000 J. Comput. Phys., Vol.102, pp.336-347, 1992
199
Dynamic Uesponse of Wwo Kigh-rise Uesidential Euildings during

a Wyphoon
K.C.S. Kwok1, H.Y. Leung1, S. Campbell1 P.A. Hitchcock1
ABSTRACT: This paper describes full-scale measurements of dynamic response of two high-rise residential
buildings recorded during the passage of Typhoon Kompasu over Hong Kong. Typhoon Kompasu made
landfall on the eastern part of Hong Kong and continued to travel north-northwest. The characteristic winds
caused a corresponding variation in the acceleration response of Tower A and Tower B. The different
structural characteristics of the buildings significantly influenced the nature of the measured responses.
Upcrossing analyses performed on the acceleration data indicate the wind-induced response of the buildings
during Typhoon Kompasu essentially follow a Gaussian distribution.
1 INTRODUCTION speed and wind direction. The propeller anemometer

This paper presents full-scale measurements of supported on a 50m tall mast on Stonecutters Island,
the dynamic response of two residential buildings approximately 3 km from the subject buildings, was
during Typhoon Kompasu, which affected Hong used for determining reference wind characteristics
Kong on 14 to 16 July 2004. Two adjacent subject affecting Tower A and Tower B. The 10-minute
buildings, Tower A and Tower B shown in Figure 1, mean wind speeds at Stonecutters Island recorded
are 256 m and 236 m tall respectively. Each Tower during Typhoon Kompasu are presented in Figure 2.
was fitted with a 16-bit data acquisition system that The maximum hourly mean wind speed was 14.6
included two accelerometers and signal conditioners. m/s, the maximum 10-minute mean wind speed was
The sampling cycle was 10 minutes. The locations 16.0 m/s and the maximum 3-second gust wind
and alignment of the accelerometers near the speed was 21.2 m/s on 16 July.
building core are shown in Figure 1.
30
25
Wind Speed (m/s)
10-minute Mean
20
15
10
0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
Figure 1: Tower Planforms and Accelerometer Locations
Time (16 July 2004)
Figure 2: Typhoon Kompasu Wind Speed Time-History at

2 TYPHOON KOMPASU Stonecutters Island
Hong Kong came under the influence of Typhoon

Kompasu between 14 and 16 July 2004. The No. 8 3 WIND-INDUCED DYNAMIC RESPONSE
Northeast signal was issued at 11:45 on 16 July. OF TOWER A AND TOWER B
Typhoon Kompasu made landfall on the east side of
Hong Kong at around 15:00 on 16 July. The No. 8 The wind-induced peak and standard deviation
Northwest and No. 8 Southwest storm signal was (S.D.) accelerations in the X- and Y-directions of
issued at 14:45 and 16:45, respectively as Typhoon Towers A and Tower B are presented in Figures 3, 4,
Kompasu crossed the northern part of Hong Kong. 5 and 6. As Typhoon Kompasu approached Hong
With the passage of Typhoon Kompasu, all typhoon Kong, the wind speeds experienced at the site
warning signals were lowered by 20:20 on 16 July. increased, causing increased accelerations. A drop in
Onsite restrictions prevented the installation of an wind speed was experienced at the building site, as
anemometer on either building to measure wind suggested by reduced accelerations, when the eye of
Typhoon Kompasu travelled over Hong Kong. When
1
CLP Power Wind/Wave Tunnel Facility, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, S.A.R., P.R. China
200
K.C.S. Kwok, H.Y. Leung, S. Campbell, P.A. Hitchcock
the eye had completely passed over Hong Kong, the
buildings were buffeted by high wind speeds at the Table 1: Maximum Acceleration Responses of
trailing edge of the eyewall and exhibited increased Tower A and Tower B
accelerations. The accelerations gradually decreased Peak Resultant Peak Component S.D.
Tower
Axis
as Typhoon Kompasu weakened over land and
travelled away from Hong Kong. milli-g (rxy*) milli-g (rxy*) milli-g (rxy*)
1.5 (0.02) 0.4 (0.05) X
1.75 A 1.5 (0.02)
1.0 (-0.01) 0.3 (0.02) Y
Acceleration (milli-g)
1.50 Peak S.D. 1.4 (0.14) 0.4 (-0.07) X

B 1.4 (0.03)
1.25 1.2 (-0.07) 0.4 (0.01) Y
1.00 *Correlation coefficient between X and Y acceleration signals
0.75
0.50 The natural frequencies of vibration of Towers A
0.25 and B are summarized in Table 2. These natural
0.00 frequencies were determined from power spectral
7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/17/04 density functions of acceleration time-histories. The
6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
large difference in orthogonal natural frequencies for
Date/Time Tower A confirms that the Y-direction is
Figure 3: Tower A Acceleration Response: X-Direction
significantly stiffer than the X-direction.
1.75
1.50 Peak S.D. Table 2: Natural Frequencies of Tower A and Tower B

1.25 Natural Frequencies (Hz)
Tower
1.00 Axis Sway Torsion
0.75
X 0.24
A 0.45
Y 0.31
0.50
X 0.28
0.25 B 0.45
Y 0.29
0.00
7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/17/04
6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00 An upcrossing analysis was performed to
Date/Time determine the peak factors of 10-minute data records
Figure 4: Tower A Acceleration Response: Y-Direction from Tower A and Tower B that occur during the
peak of Typhoon Kompasu. The results in Table 3
1.75
suggest that peak factors for Tower A and Tower B
1.50 Peak S.D.

during Typhoon Kompasu are similar to that for a
1.25
Gaussian process.
1.00
0.75
Table 3: Peak Factors (gf) of 10-minute Acceleration Records
0.50
0.25 Measured: Kompasu
Predicted:
0.00
Tower
08:00 – 21:00
Axis
7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/17/04 16 July 2004

6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
Date/Time Mean Max Min
Figure 5: Tower B Acceleration Response: X-Direction X 3.3 3.4 5.0 2.1
A
1.75
Y 3.4 3.4 5.2 2.2
X 3.5 6.1 2.2
1.50 Peak S.D. B 3.4

Y 3.5 6.6 2.1
1.25
1.00
0.75 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
0.50
0.25 The authors acknowledge the assistance provided
0.00 by Kowloon Properties Co. Ltd., MTR Corporation
7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/16/04 7/17/04 Limited, Wong & Ouyang (Civil-Structural
6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
Engineering) Ltd., Hip Hing Construction Co. Ltd.
Date/Time
and the Highways Department of the Hong Kong,
Figure 6: Tower B Acceleration Response: Y-Direction
S.A.R. This research project is funded by the
Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (Project
The peak resultant, peak component and
HKUST6222/01E).
maximum S.D. acceleration for Tower A and Tower
B are given in Table 1.
201
C. Lemaitre1, P. Hémon1 E. de Langre1
ABSTRACT: Cables of cable-stayed bridges can experience rain-wind induced vibrations. When flowing along
a cable, the water gathers near the separation points to form one or two rivulets. In this paper, we address the
conditions for the rivulets to form. A two-dimensional model is developed within the lubrication theory. It
describes the evolution of a thin film submitted to gravity, surface tension, and wind. Numerical simulations
show the appearance of the rivulets.
1 INTRODUCTION sity ρ has a characteristic thickness ho and is assumed
to be matter constant and not to dewet. It is subject
Cables of cable-stayed bridges can undergo vibrations
to gravity g = −gey and to surface tension, γ. A
due to both rain and wind (rain-wind induced vibra-
horizontal wind blows vg∞ = vg∞ ex that produces
tions, RWIV), Hikami & Shiraishi (1988). During the
pressure and friction coefficients Cp (θ) and Cf (θ) on
instability, the water flows around the cable and one
the film. The cable undergoes a vertical motion with a
or two rivulets form near the separation points of the
displacement y = yo f (t/Ty )ey , where yo is a charac-
air-flow around the dry cylinder, Xu et al. (2002). The
teristic amplitude. Its evolution, along the character-
presence of the upper rivulet is required for the insta-
istic time Ty is described by the functional f . The ac-
bility to take place, Matsumoto et al. (1995).
celeration of the cable produces an added gravity that
Former models assume the existence of the upper
depends on time, ga = −ÿey = −yo /Ty2 f (t/Ty )ey
rivulet. In this article, the conditions for the formation
The Navier-Stokes equations are written in the
of the rivulets are addressed. A new model is pre-
water film in cylindrical coordinates. The associated
sented in section 2. Numerical results are discussed
boundary conditions are: (i) the water particles do not
in section 3.
slip on the cable; (ii) the water/air interface is a ma-
terial surface; (iii) the jump in the normal shear stress
2 MODEL is balanced by the surface tension.
ey The assumptions of lubrication are then made: (a)
g water film
gravity The Reynolds number based on the film thickness is
cable
ex close to one: Reh = ho v/ν ≈ 1; (b) The film is
ÿ
vg∞ , Cp , Cf θ cable
thin compared to the cable radius: ho R; (c) The
wind γ R
moving film thickness h evolves ’slowly’ with θ: ∂θ h R.
vertically
surface The variables describing water are put in a dimen-
tension
h(θ) sionless form with scales based on water viscosity.
Figure 1 Water film around a moving cable subject to grav- Dimensionless gas pressure and gas friction are de-
ity, surface tension and swept by wind. fined with the pressure and friction coefficients di-
vided by their maximum value, C p = Cp /Cpmax and
This section presents a new two-dimensional model C f = Cf /Cfmax .
based on lubrication theory. Reisfeld & Bankoff Only the terms of leading order in ε are kept and
(1992) investigated on a thin film surrounding a cylin- simplified equations are combined to finally obtain:
der, subject to gravity and surface tension. Following
a similar approach we modeled the action of wind and HT − [G + Af (Ωy T /2π)] H 3 cos θ θ

cable motion on the film as an external forcing. + S (Hθ + H3θ )H 3 θ (1)
A thin water film of thickness h(θ) is considered, 3
2

− P (C p )θ H θ + F C f H θ = 0
surrounding a cylinder of radius R, Figure 1. The
film, whose kinematic viscosity is denoted ν and den- where H is the reduced thickness, T is the reduced
1
Ph.D. Cécile Lemaitre, Dr. Pascal Hémon, Ass. Prof. Emmanuel de Langre,
Department of mechanics: LadHyX, CNRS-Ecole Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France,
e-mail cecile.lemaitre@ladhyx.polytechnique.fr
202
C. Lemaitre, P. Hémon, E. de Langre
time and subscripts T and θ indicate differentiation in that the air flow would present if it were flowing
time and space. The dimensionless numbers G, S, A, around the dry cylinder. Their size increases until the
P and F compare the actions of gravity, surface ten- lubrication assumptions get violated. Under the effect
sion, cable acceleration, air pressure and air friction of gravity the bottom protuberance grows faster than
respectively, to the action of water viscosity: the upper one.
gh3o γh4o yo h3o

G= S= A=
3ν 2 3ρν 2 R3 3ν 2 Ty2
2
(2)
2
ρg vg∞ h3o Cpmax ρg vg∞ h2o Cfmax
P= F =
6ρν 2 R 4ρν 2 Wind
Cable
The reduced pulsation Ωy compares the cable mo-
tion characteristic time to the viscous time: Ωy =
2πRho /(νTy ).
3 RESULTS
In this section, equation (1) is solved numerically in Figure 2 Numerical solution of equation (1) starting from
the RWIV parameter range. It is assumed that the a constant film, R = 0.08 m. The film thickness is repre-
wind load on the film is the same as the wind load sented one hundred times as large. (−−) Film at t = 0 s ;
that would apply around the dry cable. The measure- (−) Film at t = 1.1 × 10−2 s ; (o) Separation points of
ments of Achenbach (1968) are used for a Reynolds the air flow around the dry cable
number Reg ≈ 105 , typical of RWIV configurations.
The control parameters of equation (1) are com-
4 CONCLUSION
puted for experiments from the literature, Table 1, and
show that the action of air pressure and air friction We have presented a model that describes for the first
have the same order of magnitude. time the evolution of a water film around a cylinder
under the action of wind and a motion of the cylinder.
Table 1 Parameter values for literature experiments. [1]-
This model recovers well the appearance of the two
1: Hikami & Shiraishi (1988), full-scale observation; [1]-
water rivulets, in the region of the separation points,
2: Hikami & Shiraishi (1988), wind tunnel experiment;
that are said to be responsible for rain-wind induced
[2]: Flamand (1995); [3]: Matsumoto et al. (1995).
vibration of cables of cable-stayed bridges.
Authors [1]-1 [1]-2 [2] [3] 5 REFERENCES

ε 1.4 10−2 1.4 10−2 5.6 10−3 1.2 10−2
Achenbach (1968) Distribution of local pressure and skin
G 3.3 103 3.3 103 3.0 102 3.3 103 friction around a circular cylinder in a cross-flow up to
S 7.1 10−2 7.1 10−2 1.9 10−3 4.0 10−2 Re = 5 × 106 . Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 34, 4, pp.
A 2.1 102 3.7 101 5.5 1.8 101 625-639.
Ωy 8.8 102 4.4 102 2.3 102 3.0 102 Flamand (1995) Rain-wind induced vibration of cables.
P 3.5 102 3.5 102 2.8 101 2.4 102 Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerody-
F 6.4 102 6.4 102 1.3 102 5.3 102 namics, 57, pp. 353-362.
Hikami & Shiraishi (1988) Rain-wind induced vibrations
The computations are carried out with a pseudo- of cables in cable-stayed bridges. Journal of Wind Engi-
neering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 29, pp. 409-418.
spectral method: a Fourier spectral method in space
Matsumoto et al. (1995) Response characteristics of rain-
(128 points) and an Adams-Bashforth scheme of the
wind induced vibration of stay-cables of cable-stayed
fourth order in time (10−6 time step). Figure 2 shows
bridges. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
a resolution of equation (1) with a static cable, A = 0 Aerodynamics, 57, pp. 323-333.
and the other parameters computed from Flamand Reisfeld & Bankoff (1992) Non-isothermal flow of a liquid
(1995). At the initial time, the thickness of the film film on a horizontal cylinder. Journal of Fluid Mechan-
is constant in space, H(T = 0) = 1. ics, 236, pp. 167-196.
Two water bulges form at the top and at the bottom Xu et al. (2002) Rivulet formation on an inclined cylinder
of the cylinder, bidimensional traces of the rivulets. and its effects on the near-wake. Proc. of ASME-IMECE
They are located in the region of the separation points 2002, New Orleans, Louisiana, 32173.
203
C. Li1, M.H. de Wit2
ABSTRACT: Test panels are installed in situ in order to study the behaviour of a pressure equalized
rainscreen wall near the corner of a building. The pressure gradient at the windward and the lateral sides are
studied. The wind loads on the panels are investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION building—12-story office building (45m high, 20m

wide 169m long). The town at the west-side consists
A Pressure Equalization Rainscreen wall system
of low-rise buildings (about 10m high).
(PER) consists of a rainscreen (the external leaf of a
Four panels with 28 differential pressure sensors
cavity wall), an air cavity and an air barrier (the
were installed around the corner. The absolute
inner leaf). The openings in the rainscreen are meant
pressure in the building is used as reference pressure.
to equalize the cavity pressure with the external wind
The reference velocity is measured by a sonic (Sr) on
pressure in order to reduce the wind load on the
a mast as high as the main Building. Two
rainscreen and to avoid rain penetration.
anemometers (Sn1, Sn2) measure the wind speed
The most difficult regions for rain penetration and
near the corner on the north façade. All pressure
pressure equalization are near the corners and the
taps, Sn1 and Sn2 are connected with the Data
roof. Those locations experience the largest rain
Acquisition System with working frequency 20 Hz.
intensity. So rain might penetrate through the
openings of the PER wall at the windward side by 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
the high pressure. At the lateral side the system
undergoes rather high suction induced by wind. 4.1 Formation of peak suction
Usually the windward cavities and the lateral cavities A data interval about 20s (Umean=12.02m/s,
are connected around the corner and the risks of rain rms=1.89m/s) with a westerly wind direction is
penetration and of damage by wind load is higher. studied. A suction peak appears at the first pressure
The objective of the present full-scale experiment tap near the corner at the lateral side. Fig. 1 shows
at the main building of the Technische Universiteit the movement of this peak happening to the pressure
Eindhoven is a better understanding of the wind load taps successively.
near the edges of buildings, the performances of PER There is some vortex rolling up and pushing
regarding load and rain penetration. The research is a forward (same phenomenon can also be observed at
continuation of the researches carried out by Geurts the windward side). The whole process lasts very
(wind load) in 1997, Kumar (pressure equalisation) short. After the 5th tap peak becomes very small.
in 1998 and van Mook (driving rain) in 2003. The data from Sn1 and Sn2 shows the reason: after 8
-100
2 PAST RESEARCHES tap6
For modelling of PER systems it is rather important -150
to know about the exterior wind field leading to the
-200
spatial and temporal varying external pressures.
Although the literature provides information about -250 Main Building
the wind fields, the information of our interest is
missing. Detailed pressure measurements about wind -300 tap1
tap2 tap10
field around the corner are necessary.
-350 tap3
tap1
3 FULL-SCALE EXPERIMENT AT TU/E North West
-400 tap4 tap5
The experimental site is on the campus of
Technische University Eindhoven. The -450
vortex rolling up, pushing forward
measurements are performed at the north-west 9.8 9.9 Time (s) 10 10.1 10.2
corner of the 10th floor (39m) of the main Figure 1 Movement of the peak suction at the lateral side
1
PhD student, Department of Building and Architecture, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, e-mail: c.li@bwk.tue.nl
2
Professor, Department of Building and Architecture, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, e-mail: M.H.d.Wit@bwk.tue.nl
204
C. Li, M.H. de Wit
seconds the size of the separation bubble shrinks. In large. At the windward side this might be caused by
the first 8 seconds the two anemometers Sn1 and Sn2 the fluctuation of the wind direction and at the lateral
are in the separation bubble region. After 8 seconds side by the rolling up of the vortices.
Sn1 stays in the bubble Sn2 is out, so the peak
4.4 Average time length
suction happens within the separation bubble, which
changes its size rapidly. For every pressure-measuring position on the west
and north facades, mean pressures over different
4.2 Correlation periods of time have been calculated. In Fig. 3 the
The measured pressures at the windward side are difference of these maximum values subtracted the
closely correlated (spatial and temporal). However, 10minutes mean is shown. At both sides curves tend
the pressures at locations near the mullions are less to overlap, this shows that sensors at each sides
correlated with other sensors compared with other experience more or less a same fluctuating pressure.
positions. The spatial and temporal correlations are 300
decaying with increasing distance between two
pressure sensors. Pressures at the lateral side are well 200 PD
correlated and mullions don’t interrupt the relations.
4.3 Surface pressure profile ) 100
a
P(
West side
er 0 Westward sensors
u
ss
er -100
P
North side
-200 Lateral sensors
-300 0 1 2 3
10 10 Time (s) 10 10
Figure 3 Pressures regarding different mean time length

4.5 Pressure difference across the corner
As the negative peaks and positive peaks don’t
appear at the same time the value of pressure
difference across the corner can not be estimated by
Figure 2 Windward surface pressure profile the maximum peak pressure and peak suction when
less than 10 minutes average is used. The pressure
The pressure profiles (30minutes mean) at the
difference near the corner between the lateral side
windward and the lateral sides are plotted in Fig. 2.
and the windward side is very high.
Standard deviation of each sensor is indicated as
well. Mullions on the surface interrupt the decline 5 CONCLUSIONS
tendency of the pressure from mid-surface to the At the lateral side peak suctions last not long. After
edge of the surface. Recirculation regions are formed averaging over longer time period all lateral
before and after each mullion, some taps might be in pressures measured are not that different. The
the shade of the mullions up to the turbulent property reattachment point is changing its location
of the flow. The roughness of the surface is constantly, which contributes to the fact that the
increased due to those extruding elements. The gradients are small. At the windward side the
surface roughness introduced by mullions helps the pressure gradient is much higher. The peak pressure
energy dissipation. is smaller than the amplitude of the peak suction and
The 10 taps at both sides actually belong to 2 lasts shorter. The mullions do influence the pressure
panels. At the windward side the pressure gradient gradients. On both sides the fluctuations of pressure
difference across every individual panel is increased near the edge are very large caused by the fluctuation
by the mullions. At the lateral side all lateral of the wind direction and the movements of vortices.
pressure sensors experience a negative pressure by All amplitudes of wind pressures are decreasing with
flow separation. The pressure profile at the lateral the increasing of average time period. The pressure
side is rather flat—the pressure gradient is really difference near the corner between the lateral side
very small. The standard deviations on both sides are and the windward side is very high.
205
Assessment on the Lnstability of a Vuspension Eridge with a

Kexagonal Fross-section under Zind Dction
Yi-Chao Li1, Fuh-Min Fang2 and Tsung-Chi Liang3
ABSTRACT: A numerical method is developed to predict the dynamic responses of a suspension bridge in a
two-dimensional sense. In particular, the behaviour of a vibrating deck with a hexagonal cross-section is
examined. Moreover, the influence of the attack angle, mass eccentricity and the vertical-to-torsional
frequency ratio are discussed. Results show that at the largest attack angle (8q) and a leeward shift of the mass
center leads to the greatest fluctuating responses. Finally, as the frequency ratio changes from 1.2 to unity,
the critical velocity decreases about 14%.
equations in the vertical (across-wind) and torsional

1 INTRODUCTION directions are solved.
A numerical model is proposed to simulate the
dynamic response of a suspended bridge with a 4 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
hexagonal cross-section with mass eccentricity is A cross-sectional deck model is installed on a
investigated. In the computations, two sets of suspended rack mechanism in the test section of a
equations, one for the simulation of the unsteady wind tunnel. An additional energy absorber, filled
surrounding turbulent flow and the other for the with a viscous liquid, is set to reflect appropriate
calculation of the vibrating motions of the bridge damping in the vertical and torsional directions. Hot-
deck, are solved alternatively. The resulting time- film anemometry is used to measure the approaching
series responses of the structure as well as the wind flow speed. Four laser transducers are set on the rack
loads are analyzed to examine the dynamic to monitor the motions of the vibrating deck model.
behaviors of the two. To verify the accuracy of the
numerical results, wind tunnel experiments are also 5 RESULTS
conducted on a sectional deck model and the results Figure 2 shows the comparisons of the root-mean-
are used to confirm the numerical predictions. square values of the vertical and torsional deck
deflections at various approaching wind speeds in
2 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
the case ft/fv=1.01 and e/B=í0.1 (the most critical
Figure 1 depicts the schematic of the problem. The case among all) at five attack angles. It can be seen
width of the bridge (B) is eight times of the deck that a good agreement is obtained between the
thickness (D). The angle associated with the side measurement and numerical results. Generally, the
surfaces of the cross-section (ș) is selected as 120q. root-mean-square deflections in both directions
Two cases of mass eccentricity (e/B=0.1 and í0.1) increase as the approaching speed increases, except
are chosen to examine the eccentricity effect. With when a resonance occurs and lead to the presence of
five attack angles (ȕ=0q, r4q, r8q), the approaching a local peak value. The numerical results show that
flow speed varies from 2 to 34 m/s (2 to 18 m/s for the root-mean-square deflections increase
model experiments). Other related properties of the dramatically as the reduced velocity reaches about
bridge deck are described in Table 1. 5.35 . When Ur exceeds about 5.65, the fluctuating
responses in both the directions diverge, indicating
3 NUMERICAL METHOD the occurrence of flutter. Evidence in Figure 2 also
To predict the unsteady turbulent flow around the show that when the attack angle equals to 8q (or í8q),
deck, a weakly-compressible-flow method (Song & it produces the largest deflected responses.
Yuan, 1988) together with a dynamic subgrid-scale Figure 3 shows the corresponding variations of
turbulence model is used. In the computations of flutter derivatives in the torsional direction. It
deck motions, on the other hand, the dynamic appears that all derivatives are positive except A2*,
1, 3
Graduate Assistants, Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, e-mail
scott@windtunnel.dyndns.org
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, e-mail
fmfang@dragon.nchu.edu.tw
206
Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Tsung-Chi Liang
which is initially negative at lower wind speeds then detected as it exceeds the resonance wind speeds.
becomes positive as Ur exceeds about 4.7 . When the reduced velocity is about 4.7, the net
Figure 4 also shows typically the variations of the damping ratio becomes less than the material
net damping ratios at various reduced velocities. In damping (0.5%). Finally, they drop to zero values as
the across-wind direction, the general variation of Ur approaches to about 5.65 .
the net damping ratio starts from the value of the
material damping then increases with an increase of 6 REFERENCES
the wind speed. In the torsional direction), in Song, C.C.S. & Yuan, M. (1998), A weakly compressible flow
contrast, the variation pattern of the net damping model and rapid convergence methods. Journal of Fluids
ratios appears rather different. A maximum value is Engineering, 110, 4, pp. 441-455.
Table 1 Related properties of experiments
Frequency Ratio Mass Moment of inertia Fundamental Frequency (Hz) Damping ratio (%)
(ft/fv) (kg/m) (kg-m2/m) Vertical (fv) Torsional (ft) Vertical Vertical
1.01 2.02 9.8u10-3 8.58 8.68 0.6 0.5
1.21 2.02 9.8u10-3 8.58 10.41 0.6 0.5
2 o
ft/fv=1.01, e/B= -0.1, E=8
1.5 A 1*
A 2*
A 3*
1
A 4*
D 0.5
E ș
e
0
Flow
B
4.70
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ur
Figure 1 Schematic of the problem Figure 3 Calculated flutter derivatives
3 6
(a) Vertical (b) Torsional
o
2.5 o 5
Experimental(E=0 )
Experimental(E=0 ) o
Experimental(E=r4 )
o
Experimental(E=r4 ) o
Experimental(E=r8 )
2 o
Experimental(E=r8 ) 4 o
D' (degree)
o
Calculated(E=0 )
Calculated(E=0 ) Calculated(E=r4o)
yV' /D
1.5 o
Calculated(E=r4 ) 3 o
o
Calculated(E=r8 )
Calculated(E=r8 )
1 2
0.5 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ur Ur
Figure 2 Root-mean-square deflections (ft/fv=1.01, e/B=í0.1)
1 1
(a) Vertical (b) Torsional
0.8
0.8
0.6
([v)net
([t)net
0.4
0.6
0.2
4.70
0.4 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ur Ur
q
Figure10 Calculated net damping ratios (ft/fv=1.01, ȕ=8 , e/B=í0.1)
207
Numerical Vimulation of Derodynamic Iorces on a Vquare Fylinder

in Rscillating Ilows with Qon-zero Pean Yelocities
Tsung-Chi Liang1, Yi-Chao Li2, Fuh-Min Fang3Shuh-Fang Shih4
ABSTRACT: Unsteady forces on a square cylinder in an oscillating flow with a nonzero mean are
investigated numerically in a two-dimensional sense. In the study, the major parameters of interest are the
Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC) and the amplitude ratio of the approaching-flow speed (AR). The resulting
unsteady loads on the cylinder for various KC and AR values are analyzed systematically to examine the flow
effect on the cylinder. To predict the unsteady turbulent flow around the square cylinder, a weakly-
compressible-flow method together with a dynamic subgrid-scale turbulence model is adopted in the study.
Finally, the Morison’s equations are used to interpret the results.
case AR=0.1, CD remains roughly unchanged within
1 INTRODUCTION the KC range of interest. As AR=0.3, CD starts with a
The problem involving unsteady fluid forces on a small value then increases significantly as KC
bluff body in an oscillating flow is an interesting reaches 10. After a peak value at a KC=15, CD
subject in engineering. In terms of fluid dynamics of decreases mildly then tends to be constant as KC
bodies in oscillatory flows, there are fundamental increases further. As AR=0.5, a tendency similar to
differences between the vortex motions and induced the previous case (AR=0.3) is detected but with a
forces from steady uniform flow. larger peak value of CD.
Figure 4 also depicts the experimental results
2 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION from Bearman et al. (1985) and Okajima et al. (1988)
in cases of oscillating flows with zero means. At
As shown in Figure 1, the problem of a sinusoidal small KC values, the experimental CD results are
flow past a square cylinder with a zero attack angle much larger than the numerical ones. When KC is
at a high Reynold’s number ( Re U 0 D / Q =107, Q is large, however, a better agreement is found.
fluid viscosity) is investigated. By varying the KC Figure 5 illustrates the variations of the inertia
( U mT / D ) value and the ratio of the velocity ~
coefficients of unsteady drag ( C D ) with respect to
variation ( AR U m /U 0 ) of the approaching flow, ~
KC. As AR=0.1, C D increases with an increase of KC
the resulting unsteady forces on the cylinder are at the beginning then tends to a constant. In the other
analyzed to gain additional insight into the analysis two AR cases, peaks are detected as KC=15.
of related engineering problems. Figure 6 shows the variations of the normalized
The simulations adopt a weakly-compressible- lift fluctuations. In the case AR=0.1, the resulting CL’
flow method (Song & Yuan, 1988) together with a appears unaffected by the change of KC and is near
dynamic subgrid-scale turbulence model (Germano the steady value. In the other two cases (AR=0.3 and
et al., 1991). 0.5), CL’ increases as KC or AR increases.
3 RESULTS 4 CONCLUSION
At a zero attack angle, it is found that the Morison The unsteady forces on a square cylinder with a
relationships (Morison et al., 1950) well describe the zero attack angle in sinusoidal flows with non-zero
behaviour of the drag (Fig. 2) but fail to monitor the means are investigated numerically. The effect of the
history of lift (Fig. 3). This implies that the variation approaching-flow unsteadiness, determined by the
of the approaching flow has a much stronger effect KC and AR values, is discussed extensively.
on pressure at the windward and leeward surfaces
than that at the side surfaces of the cylinder. 5 REFERENCES
Figure 4 show the variations of the predicted Bearman, P.W., Downie, M.J., & Obasaju, E.D. (1985) Forces
mean drag coefficient at KC and AR values. In the on cylinders in viscous oscillating flow at low Keulegan-
1, 2, 4
Graduate Assistants, Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, e-mail
689330040@s89.tku.edu.tw
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, e-mail
fmfang@dragon.nchu.edu.tw
208
Tsung-Chi Liang, Yi-Chao Li, Fuh-Min Fang, Shuh-Fang Shih
Carpenter numbers. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 154, pp. Okajima, A., Matsumoto, T. & Kimura, S. (1998) Force
337-356. measurement and visualization of circular and square
Germano, U., Piomelli, P. & Cabot, W.H. (1991) A dynamic subgrid- cylinders in oscillating flow. The Japan Society Mechanical
scale eddy viscosity model. Physics of Fluids, A, 3, pp. 1760-1765. Engineers International Journal Series B, 41, 4, pp. 796-805.
Morison, J.R., O’Brien, M.P., Schaaf, S.A., Johnson, J.W. Song, C.C.S. & Yuan, M. (1988) A weakly compressible flow
(1950) The force exerted by surface waves on piles. model and rapid convergence methods. Journal of Fluids
Petroleum Transaction AIME, 189, pp. 149-157. Engineering, 110, 4, pp. 441-455.
2.5
U(t)=U0+Um sinZ t Calculated (AR=0.1)

2 Calculated (AR=0.3)
FL
Calculated (AR=0.5)
C 'L
D FD 12D 1.5
1.08
1
8D 25D
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
KC
Figure 1 Sketch of problem Figure 6 Rms lift coefficients at various KC values
3 1
Calculated
2.5
Theoretical 0.5
2
FL/0.5UUo
2
FD/0.5UUo
2 0
1.5 -0.5
1 -1
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
tD/U0 tD/U0
Figure 2 History of drag force Figure 3 History of the lift force

~ ~
(AR=0.1, KC=10, C D =1.85, C D =1.32) (AR=0.1, KC=10, C D =1.85, C D =1.32)
5 6
Calculated (AR=0.1)
Calculated (AR=0.1)
Calculated (AR=0.3)
Calculated (AR=0.5)
Experimental (Bearman et al., 1985)
Experimental (Bearman et al., 1985)
Experimental (Okajima et al., 1998) 4
Experimental (Okajima et al., 1998)
3
CD
CD
3
~
2 1.97
2
1
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
KC KC
Figure 4 Mean drag coefficients at various KC values Figure 5 Inertia coefficients of drag at various KC values
209
N. Lin 1, C.W. Letchford 2, T. Gunn3
ABSTRACT: Flight trajectories of 1D (rod-like) debris were analyzed in non-dimensional form. The
aerodynamics of this type of debris was investigated, and compared to the aerodynamics of 2D (plate-like)
debris. A method to approximate horizontal displacement and horizontal speed of flying rods in uniform flow
is presented.
1 INTRODUCTION resultant debris speeds ( U m U m U ) were also
Debris is possibly the major cause of building calculated. In these expressions, U a is air density,
damage and destruction in strong wind events. U m is debris density, U is wind speed, U m is
Knowledge of debris aerodynamics is necessary for
proper estimation of debris trajectory and flight resultant debris speed, u m is horizontal debris speed,
speed and for establishment of rational debris impact and vm is vertical debris speed.
criteria. Wills et al (2002) classified various generic
missile types as ‘compact,’ ‘sheets,’ and ‘rods.’ 4 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Experiments to determine the aerodynamic
Investigation of 2D and 3D debris (Lin et al., 2004)
characteristics of these types of debris have been
has shown that at given wind speeds debris trajectory
carried out in the Texas Tech University wind
and acceleration are greatly affected by debris
tunnel. Plate-like (2D) debris has been investigated
density Um, debris dimensions (h, D, B), and initial
and compared with compact-like (3D) debris in
previous papers Lin et al. (2004) and Holmes et al. angle of attack D0. Tachikawa’s K ( U aU 2 / 2hgU m )
(2004). The aerodynamics of rod-like (1D) debris (Tachikawa, 1983) represents the ratio of
has not been studied in any detail, partially due to its aerodynamic forces to gravity forces of debris,
complexity compared with the aerodynamics of 2D involving wind speed U , air and debris density ratio
and 3D debris. This paper presents the results of the Ua/Um, and debris dimension h. For given values of
wind tunnel study of rod-like (1D) debris and K, the variation of rod trajectories in relation to the
compares the flight characteristics of this type of other variable, the initial angle of attack D0 (150 and
debris with the flight characteristics of 2D plates. 450), were investigated. Unlike the apparent feature
observed for plate trajectory (Tachikawa, 1983; Lin
2 EXPERIMENTS AND DATA ANALYSIS et al., 2004), these test results for rods do not show a
Model tests were carried out in the closed circuit 1.8 large influence of D0 (150 and 450) on mode of
m wide by 1.2 m high wind tunnel at Texas Tech motion. However, further tests at other initial angles
University. Four ‘2x4’ rod models were tested. The of attack are necessary for confirmation. In addition,
rod materials included pine and balsa wood. Each rods have lower trajectories than plates with similar
model was tested at a lower wind speed (16 m/s) and K. As K increases, lift forces on rods increase,
a higher wind speed (25 m/s) and at the initial angles sustaining the flight of rods. However, these lift
of attack (D0) of 150 and 450. Three trials were forces are relatively small and unstable.
conducted for each case. The variation of rod trajectory with K, at given
Data analyses were undertaken, according to the angles of attack D0, are also investigated. A rod
non-dimensional scheme developed by Baker placed parallel to the wind direction tends to fall but
(2004), with the non-dimensional variables: has a relatively stable trajectory, rising as K
horizontal displacement ( x U a x / 2hU m ), horizontal increases. This is comparable with the variation of
plate trajectory. However, rods placed perpendicular
speed ( u u m / U ), vertical displacement to the wind direction may fly up, but the lift forces
( z U a z / 2hU m ), vertical speed ( v v m U ), and on these rods are more unstable and hence these rods
time ( t U a tU / 2hU m ). The non-dimensional do not necessarily fly higher as K increases.
1
Graduate student, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, email ning.lin@ttu.edu
2
Professor, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, email chris.letchford@coe.ttu.edu
3
Undergraduate, Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, email tgunn20@hotmail.com
210
N. Lin, C.W. Letchford, T. Gunn
Although rod trajectories showed unpredictable non-dimensional scheme (Baker,2004), the
variations in the vertical direction, the horizontal contribution of vertical speed to resultant speed is
components of the rod trajectories present certain very small, resulting in negligible difference between
characteristics comparable with those of plate-like horizontal and resultant rod speed. The estimation of
debris. The test results of plates in the paper Lin et horizontal rod speed is sufficient to predict rod
al. (2004) are presented together with the test results impact speed in uniform flow near the ground. This
of rods for comparison. Figure 1(a) shows non- is also the case for plates (Lin et al., 2004).
dimensional horizontal debris displacement as a These data for rods can be employed to establish
function of non-dimensional time. The empirical rational debris impact criteria. Further tests are
equation for plates is fitted as: necessary to study three-dimensional trajectory of
1D debris.
x 0.0201t 3 0.2264t 2 0.0827t (1)
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
with an R-squared value of 0.9832. Figure 6(b) This work was carried under the U.S. Department
compares non-dimensional horizontal debris speed of Commerce TTU/NIST Windstorm Mitigation
as a function of non-dimensional horizontal Initiative. The assistance of Mr. Lee Franks in
displacement. The empirical equation has been fitted carrying out the rod tests is gratefully acknowledged.
for plates (Lin et al., 2004) as:
6 REFERENCES
1.26 ( x 0.84 )
u 1 2.22e (2) Baker, C.J. (2004) Solutions of the debris equations, Proc. of
the 6th U.K. Conference on Wind Engineering, Cranfield,
September 15-17.
with standard deviation V of 0.0846. The apparent Holmes, J.D., Letchford, C.W. & Lin, N. (2004) Investigations
horizontal flight characteristics of rods are similar to of plate-type windborne debris, Part II Computed
those of plates, at small initial angles of attack (e.g. trajectories, submitted to J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
D0 < 300). ). Thus the empirical Eqs (1) and (2) fitted Lin, N., Letchford, C.W. & Holmes, J.D. (2004) Investigations
of plate-type windborne debris, Part I. Experiments in full
with the extensive plate data can be used to scale and wind tunnel, submitted to J. Wind Eng. Ind.
approximate horizontal rod displacement (given Aerodyn.
flight time) and horizontal rod speed (given flight Tachikawa, M. (1983) Trajectories of flat plates in uniform
distance), respectively. Although vertical rod flow with application to wind-generated missiles, J. Wind
behavior are greatly affected by the highly unstable Eng. Ind. Aerodyn, 14, 443-453.
Wills, J.A.B., Lee, B.E. & Wyatt, T.A. (2002) A model of
lift forces on rods and vertical speed can not be windborne debris, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn, 90,555-565
simply related to vertical displacement in Baker’s
5 1.2
1
4
0.8
3
x u
0.6
2
Plates #1-#22 -0deg 0.4 Plates #1-#22 -0deg
Pine rods -15deg Pine rods -15deg
1
Balsa rods -15deg 0.2 Balsa rods -15deg
Plate fitted Eq.(1) Plate fitted Eq.(2)

0 0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
t x
(a) Horizontal displacement vs. time (b) Horizontal velocity vs. horizontal displacement
Figure 1 Comparisons of horizontal rod trajectory with horizontal plate trajectory
211
V. G. i Llorens1, A. M. Sánchez2, V. Berbegall3, G. Verdú4
ABSTRACT: This work describes the initial development of a new model based on Monte Carlo Method
for simulating pollutants behaviour depending on statistical functions. The model simulates the trajectory
and calculates their concentration from the characteristic parameters of the scenarios using a meteorological
input file. The different statistical distributions and their characteristic parameters are obtained based both on
theoretical and experimental data available. These values are used to adjust the statistical distributions for the
different situations varying the main variables of the problem. An advantage of this code is that it can be used
for simulating situations where the calculations are made next to the source, with a low wind velocity and low
emission rate of particles.
1 INTRODUCTION We need to model the direction in which the pol-
lutant flows, to solve this problem, others probability
In the strictest way, atmospheric pollutant dispersion
density functions are used. Firstly we distinguish be-
used to be modeled by theoretical equations, although
tween two different situations, depending on the wind
this behaviour is not ruled exactly by these equations,
velocity. That is, if the wind velocity is lower than
rather also there is a random component in the dis-
some limit, we consider that the pollutant can flow to
persion that can not be modeled by equations. A new
any direction with the same probability. On the con-
3D atmospheric dispersion model is being developed,
trary, when the wind velocity is greater than the limit,
MCD (Monte Carlo Dispersion), and for considering
the direction flow of the pollutant will be regulated
this random component it is based on Monte Carlo
by a normal distribution, with the true wind direction
Method. This model tries to simulate the behaviour
as a mean, and a variable standard deviation. This
of pollutants and calculates their concentration based
standard deviation is function of the wind velocity, in
on statistical distributions.
such a way that the standard deviation is bigger when
2 MCD CODE the wind velocity is larger, since the Reynolds coeffi-
cient that controls the turbulence rises with the veloc-
We propose a model that collects random numbers ity. The equations are presented in (2) if v (t) ≤ 0.01
from different probability density functions that are and (3) if v (t) > 0.01.
adapted each time step as a function of some param-
eters, like the atmospheric situation or the density of ϕ ∼ U (0, 1) 360 (2)
the pollutant. The probability density functions that
we select preferably to model the behaviour of the ∆t (t) v (t)
ϕ ∼ N (0, 1) + dv (t) (3)
pollutants are the beta functions due to its great adapt- ∆x
ability in the range of 0 to 1. The advance of pollu- At last we introduce the variability that the pollutant
tants is modeled by the equation (1): dispersion presents in its movement in vertical direc-
tion, which is modeled by a beta probability density
1
r ∼ βe 1 + v (t) , 1 + v (t) ∆t (t) (1) function. This is the most difficult distribution to ad-
v (t)
just because is the distribution that presents more in-
where r is the movement distance that the pollutant fluential parameters. The vertical movement is func-
travels, v (t) is the wind velocity in that moment and tion of the pollutant density, the wind velocity and
∆t (t) is the time step modeled. So collecting random the atmospheric stability. To evaluate the atmospheric
values from this adaptable probability density func- stability we cosider the scale given by Pasquill - Gill-
tion we obtain the movement of the whole plume. ford estimation. Respect to the density, it affects to
1
Ph.D. Stundent, Dep. of Chemical and Nuclear Eng., Polytechnic University of Valencia, e-mail vigarllo@iqn.upv.es
2
Ph.D. Stundent, Dep. of Chemical and Nuclear Eng., Polytechnic University of Valencia, e-mail ansanher@iqn.upv.es
3
Ph.D. Stundent, Dep. of Chemical and Nuclear Eng., Polytechnic University of Valencia, e-mail vibergi@iqn.upv.es
4
Dr. in Nuclear Eng., Dep. of Chemical and Nuclear Eng., Polytechnic University of Valencia, e-mail gverdu@iqn.upv.es
212
V.G. i Llorens, A.M. Sánchez, V. Berbegall, G. Verdú
the distribution giving more probability to go down to 4 CONCLUSIONS
the pollutant as the density is bigger. Finally, the con-
tribution of the wind velocity is to do the distribution In this work we have presented the firsts steps of a
more or less flat. That is, the probability to remain at new dispersion model based on Monte Carlo method.
the same level is higher when wind velocity grows up. A tipycal scenario with an industrial park emiting pol-
Oppositely, when the wind velocity is low, the prob- lution near of a city is analized in order to test MCD
ability density function remains more homogeneous. behaviour. The results obtained from the test can be
The expression is shown in (4) considered highly satisfactories, since they are quali-
θ ∼ βe(1 + dens (T ) + v (t) + (6 − stab) , tatively good. As a future perspectives the model will
1 1 be checked against experimental data and other mod-
1+ + + stab) (4) els also, since better adjustements of probability den-
dens (T ) v (t)
sity functions and incorporation of other atmospheric
where dens (T ) is the pollutant density and stab is the parameters will be good goals to improve MCD be-
stability. havior.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Scenario description
5 REFERENCES
The scenario simulated is a pollutant source located in
an industrial park near to a city that has been modeled EPA (1995) User’s Guide for the ISC3 dispersion models.
with two different levels. The source is in a chim- Volume I- User instructions. EPA-454/B-95-003a.
ney with 15 meters in height. The wind parameters EPA (1995) User’s Guide for the ISC3 dispersion mod-
have been obtained from the RAMS code. The wind els. Volume II- Description of Model Algorithms. EPA-
direction is the most unfavourable for the city with 454/B-95-0036.
a mean initial value of 5 m/s. Trajectory simulations Jakeman, A.J. & Taylor, J.A. & Simpson, R.W. (1986)
are performed for 9600 particles per hour, which were Modeling distributions of air pollutant concentrations-
released with a temperature of 444 C and a relative II. Estimation of one and two parameter statistical dis-
density of 3.6. tribution. Atmospheric Environment, 20, 12, pp. 2435-
2447.
3.2 Results Jakeman, A.J. & Simpson, R.W. & Taylor, J.A. (1988)
The obtained results with MCD code are presented in Modeling distributions of air pollutant concentrations-
III. The hybrid deterministic-statistical distribution ap-
figure 1, where the pollutant dispersion in plane 4 is
proach. Atmospheric Environment, 22, 1, pp. 163-174.
shown. The values of particle concentration (Z axis)
Maurizi, A. & Tampieri, F. (1999) Velocity probability
are transformed into logairthmic values and a single density functions in Lagrangian dispersion models for
unit represents 0.1 grams of pollutant, so the concen- inhomogeneous turbulence. Atmospheric Environment,
tration is the total number of particles multiplied by 33, pp. 281-289.
0.1 g divided by the total volume of a single cell that Picard, R.R. & Fitzgerald, M. & Brown, M.J. (2001) Ac-
is 100x100x5 m3 . celerating convergence in stochastic particle dispersion
simulation codes. Journal of Computation Physics, 173,
70
60
pp. 231-255.
50 Raza, S.S. & Avila, R. & Cervantes, J. (2001) A 3-D
40
Langrangian stochastic model for the meso-scale at-
30
20
mospheric dispersion applications. Nuclear Engineering
10 and Design, 208, pp. 15-28.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Souto, M.J. & Souto, J.A. & Prez-Muuzuri, V. (2001)
A comparison of operational Lagrangian particle and
adaptative puff models for plume dispersion forecasting.
8
Atmospheric Environment, 35, pp. 2349-2360.
6
Taylor, J.A. & Jakeman, A.J. & Simpson, R.W. (1986)
4
Modeling distributions of air pollutant concentrations-
2 50
I. Identification of statistical models. Atmospheric Envi-
0
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 ronment, 20, 9, pp. 1789-1986.
Walko, R.L. & Tremback, C.J. (1995) RAMS. Regional
Figure 1 Pollutant dispersion in plane 4
Atmospheric modeling system.
213
Ambient vibration measurements and along-wind response of the

Brancusi Endless Column, Romania
D. Lungu1, G. Solari2, R. Vacareanu3, A. Aldea4, C. Arion5, S. Demetriu6
ABSTRACT: The Brancusi Endless Column in the sculptural ensemble of Targu Jiu is the most valuable work
of art in Romania, done in 1937 – 1938 by the famous Romanian sculptor Constantin Brancusi. Sixty years
after its erection, a group of UNESCO experts analyzed the monument and asserted that: "The column as a
whole is not only a masterpiece of modern art, but also an extraordinary feat of engineering. Its double
function and unique message make it imperative that all possible efforts be mustered to save it." Based on
such premise, an international cooperative research was organised, aiming at rehabilitation of the sculpture
and evaluating the structural response in wind of the Endless Column.
The Endless Column (Figure 1) is an exceptionally

valuable artistic and technical work, designed by the
greatest Romanian sculptor Constantin Brancusi in
1937 – 1938. The Endless Column belongs to the
sculptural ensemble of Targu-Jiu city (Gorj county)
in Brancusi`s native country, Romania. The technical
solution for the construction of the monument has
been developed by the Romanian engineer Stefan
Gorjanu.
The Endless Column consists of three
components:
i) a foundation made up of two concrete blocks
(4.50x4.50x2.00m and 3.50x3.50x5.00m) and a
metallic anchorage fixed with bolts; ii) a central steel
spine with a square cross-section made up of angle
irons and steel strips connected with rivets and
screws; it has 28.90 m high and approximately 5.50
m from the base are filled up with concrete; iii) 17
cover modules made of cast iron and shaped like
double pyramid with curved surface, measuring 180
cm in height and 45–90 cm in width.
Sixty years after its erection, a group of UNESCO
experts analyzed the monument and asserted that:
"The column as a whole is not only a masterpiece of
modern art, but also an extraordinary feat of
engineering. Its double function and unique message Figure 1. Brancusi Endless Column at
make it imperative that all possible efforts be Targu Jiu, Romania
mustered to save it."
During the last years, the Endless Column was the It is quite implicit that, due to its exceptional
object of many investigations, triggered by the will slenderness and lightness, the dynamic response of
of safeguarding this outstanding historical the Column under wind loading is the problem to be
monument. investigated.
1
Prof. dr-eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, e-mail lungud@mail.utcb.ro
2
Prof.dr.eng., University of Genoa
3
Assoc-prof. dr-eng., UTCB
4
Assoc-prof. dr-eng., UTCB
5
Dr-eng., UTCB
6
Prof. dr-eng., UTCB
214
D. Lungu, G. Solari, R. Vacareanu, A. Aldea, C. Arion, S. Demetriu
In order to increase the structural safety of the
Column, the following strengthening solution was
taken into account:
x a steel collar of 20 mm thickness newly applied at
the exterior of the Endless Column structure, from
elevation 0.56 m to elevation 1.21 m
x replacement of the lightly corroded 20 mm
external steel plates from elevation 1.21 m to
elevation 2.62 m; the grade of the new steel
(OL52, Rcaract=2900 daN/cm2) is higher than that
of the steel of the existing structure (OL37,
Rcaract=2100 daN/cm2. Figure 2. Wind tunnel test model for
x four additional steel plates of 18x80 mm, from Brancusi Endless Column
elevation 1.21 m to elevation 5.35m, incorporated
in-between existing pair of steel plates on each The probabilities of failure for the Endless Column
side of the Column. structure before and after strengthening of the
interior spine are computed.
On the occasion of the strengthening and
rehabilitation works for the Brancusi Endless ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Column, ambient vibrations of the Column were
measured by UTCB in order to identify its dynamic The authors express their deep and everlasting
characteristics. The first measurement was done on gratitude to Prof. Giovanni Solari from University of
December 3rd 2001 for the retrofitted column without Genoa for his devotion and exhaustive interest in
cover modules. The second measurement was done protecting the cultural heritage in Romania with
on December 14th 2001 for the retrofitted Endless special emphasis on Brancusi Endless Column. Prof.
Column with cover modules mounted. Japanese Solari launched in 2001 a cooperative research
International Cooperation Agency donated the project with UTCB on investigating the aerodynamic
ambient vibrations measurement system to UTCB. characteristics of the monument. In May 2002 he
The probability of failure of the structure Pf, due visited UTCB and Tg. Jiu where Brancusi Endless
to along-wind dynamic action is: Column is located. Prof. Solari performed wind
tunnel tests and in-depth scientific work for the wind
f induced response of the Column. The cooperation
Pf 1 ³ >F
f
R ( x)@ f S ( x)dx between University of Genoa and UTCB is reported
in two papers submitted to The Second International
Symposium on Advances in Wind and Structures
where FR(x) is the cumulative distribution function (AWAS'02) and to The 3rd East European Conference
for the largest dynamic along-wind response and on Wind Engineering
fS(x) is the probability distribution function for yield
steel strength.
It should be noted that both the structural
response and the steel strength are expressed in
normal unit stresses.
Second order moment format was adopted for the
analysis of the structural reliability.
The wind velocity, Vref, the wind velocity pressure
qref, the dynamic coefficient, Cd, and the yield
strength of steel were considered random variables
and their randomness is accounted for the analysis of
structural reliability.
Taking into account the results of the wind tunnel
test, Figure 2, provided by Prof. Giovanni Solari, the
aerodynamic coefficient for wind acting normally to
a Column face is cf = 1.1.
215
D. Lungu1, S. Demetriu2, C. Arion3, A. Aldea4
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the knowledge acquired in the preparation of wind zoning of Romania, in
the Carpathian Arc of Eastern Europe, following the lines of thinking of EC1 and ISO documents. The present
codes in Romania used 1 min averaged wind speed and the 10 yr mean recurrence interval (MRI). The new
code follows EUROCODE 1, Part 2-4 Wind actions and contains national 10 min-wind map having 50 yr
MRI. The meteorological database comprises the maximum annual wind velocity (at 10 m, averaged on 1 min)
at more than 120 National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology locations in Romania, at which wind speed
measurements are made. The period of records for these locations is between 20 to 60 years, up through the 1991.
The existing meteorological database in Romania The characteristic values of wind velocity
comprises the maximum annual wind velocity (at 10 pressure in the new Romanian wind hazard map are
m, averaged on 1 min) at more than 120 codified within the following set of values: 0.4; 0.5;
meteorological stations of National Institute of 0.7 kPa.
Meteorology and Hydrology (INMH) locations. The
duration of records for those locations is between 20 The wind hazard in Romania is softer in the intra-
to 60 years, up through 1991, when the Carpathians area, i.e. in Transylvania, and more
meteorological datasets were provided by INMH, severe in Moldavia and/or central Walachia.
Bucharest-Baneasa, to the civil engineers via The North-Eastern part of Moldova has the
National Institute for Building Research, INCERC, highest reference wind velocity pressure in Romania.
Bucharest. In the mountains of the South-Western part of the
country there also are local topographical conditions
The extreme value distribution used for the characterised by a very high wind velocity pressure.
estimation of the characteristic wind velocity is the
Gumbel distribution for maxima. This distribution is The present wind hazard map will be updated, as
recommended by American Standard for Minimum data after 1991 will be included in the analysis. The
Design Loads for Buildings, ASCE 7-98, 2000 and use of the Geographical Information System (GIS)
fits well the existing Romanian data. technology for mapping the characteristic wind
The coefficient of variation of the maximum hazard for Romania is in process.
annual wind velocity is in the range VU = 0.15y0.3
with mean 0.23 and standard deviation 0.06. The VU The results presented here were included in the 2004
values have the same order of magnitude like version of the Romanian Code for Wind Loads
American values quoted in LRFD studies (Ravindra prepared by UTCB, code that will be enforced in
et.al., 1978). 2005.
According to EC1 and ISO 4354 practice, the new ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Romanian 50yr wind hazard map uses the velocity The National Institute for Building Research -
pressure computed from 10 min-mean wind velocity. Bucharest provided the database for this study.
1
Prof. Dr-eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, e-mail lungud@mail.utcb.ro
2
Prof. Dr-eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
3
Dr-eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
4
Assoc.-prof. Dr-eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
216
D. Lungu, S. Demetriu, C. Arion, A. Aldea
Romania
Wind velocity pressure (kPa)
(from wind velocity
averaged on 10 min)
Mean recurrence interval
MRI=50 yr
Figure. Characteristic wind velocity pressure having 2% annual probability to be exceed (from wind velocity
averaged on 10 min)
217
Determination of Ilutter Gerivatives by Waut strip Podel

II: Application
R.J. Ma1, A.R. Chen2
ABSTRACT: Determination of flutter derivatives by taut strip model in smooth flow and turbulence flow can
verify the strip-theory for sectional models. In this paper experimental study of determination of flutter
derivatives by taut strip model is carried out based on the theory discussed in the former paper. A taut strip
model of a thin plate is designed, and it is used in smooth flow to determine flutter derivatives. Then a
turbulence flow is stimulated in TJ-2 Wind Tunnel of Tongji University. The thin-plate taut strip model is
employed to extract the flutter derivatives in stimulated turbulence flow. In the end, comparison with
theoretical flutter derivatives of a thin plate section are undertaken to validate the reliability of the theory.
TJ-2 Wind Tunnel of Tongji University, which has

1. INTRODUCTION the size of 2.5 m high, and 3 meters wide.
Taut strip model was born in 1960s, when there
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION IN
existed difference between the testing results of full
SMOOTH FLOW
aeroelastic model and sectional model. In order to
exclude the interference of pylon, cable or stayed In the test, the sampling frequency is 20Hz, and the
cables, taut strip model was proposed. The sampling length is 2048points. The corresponding
fabrication process of taut strip model will be fussier flutter derivatives are shown at Figure 2.
than the section model, but much easier than full
bridge model. In past practice, this kind of model 4. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION IN
was used to observe the response under turbulence TURBULENCE FLOW
flow (Iwrin,1998; Davenport,1972,1992), or extract According to the procedure discussed in the former
the aerodynamic admittance (Jiang,2000). The paper, identification of flutter derivatives of taut
author has introduced the basic theory of identifying strip model was performed in TJ-2 wind tunnel. The
flutter derivatives by a taut strip model. In this paper, sampling frequency is 20Hz, and the amount of
a thin-flat section taut strip model is designed and sampling points is 60000. The corresponding flutter
was tested to extract flutter derivatives in TJ-2 wind derivatives are shown at Figure 2.
tunnel of Tongji University. In the end, the extracted
flutter derivatives were compared with theoretical 5. CONCLUSION
flutter derivatives.
In this paper, a thin-flat section taut strip model was
2ˊDesign of taut strip model designed and tested to extract flutter derivatives both
in smooth flow and in turbulence flow by the method
In this paper, a thin-plate section taut strip model is discussed in former paper. The test results are also
designed. It is made of ABS material, with organic compared to the theoretical ones. The comparison in
glass as frame. The layout of the section will be seen smooth flow shows that the identification procedure
in Figure 1. Taut strip model testing is conducted in using taut strip model by ERA method is reasonable,
ABS coat A-alloy Cross-beam Splintage

1
1.5 12 1.5
15
Fig.1 Section layout of taut-strip model (units:cm˅

1
Airong Chen, Ph.D., Professor, Director of Department of Bridge Engineering,
1 Tongji University., Shanghai, P.R. China e-mail
a.chen@mail.tongji.edu.cn
2
Rujin Ma, Ph.D., Lecture, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, P.R. China, e-mail rjma@mail.tongji.edu.cn
218
R.J. Ma, A.R. Chen

1.5 8
1.0 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow 6
0.5 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow
4
Theoratical flutter derivatives
0.0 2
-0.5
0
H1*
A1*
-1.0
-2
-1.5
-4 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow
-2.0
Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow
-2.5 -6
-3.0 -8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
U/fB U/fB

0.1 8
0.0 7 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow
-0.1 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow
6
-0.2 Theoratical flutter derivatives
-0.3 5
-0.4 4
H2*
-0.5
A2*
3
-0.6
-0.7 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow 2
-0.8 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow 1
-0.9 Theoratical flutter derivatives
0
-1.0
-1.1 -1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
U/fB U/fB

3.5
14
Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow
3.0 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow 12 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow
2.5 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow Theoratical flutter derivatives
10
2.0 8
A3*
H3*
1.5 6
1.0 4
0.5 2
0
0.0
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
U/fB U/fB

8 10
6 8 Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow
Flutter derivatives in Turbulence Flow
Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow 6 Flutter derivatives in Smooth Flow
4 Theoratical flutter derivatives
Theoratical flutter derivatives 4
2
2
H4*
A4*
0 0
-2
-2
-4
-4
-6
-6 -8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
U/fB U/fB
Figure 2 Flutter derivatives of taut strip model in turbulence flow and in smooth flow vs. theoretical ones
and can be used in more complex structures for Irwin, P. A. (1998), The role of wind tunnel modeling in the
extracting flutter derivatives such as the full prediction of wind effects on bridges [C], Bridge
Aerodynamics, Larsen & Esdahl(eds) 1998 Balkema,
aeroelastic bridge model. The comparison in Rotterdam
turbulence flow also indicates that ERA combined Jiang Yonglin(2000), Analysis of Buffeting Response of cable-
with RDT method is suitable for identifying of stayed bridge, a PhD dissertation submitted to southwest
flutter derivatives by taut strip model testing under jiaotong university (in Chinese)
environmental excitation. Tanaka, H., Davenport, A. G. (1983), Wind-induced response
of Golden Gate Bridge[J]. Journal of engineering mechanics,
7 REFERENCES Vol. 109, No. 1, pp. 298-310
Davenport, A. G. (1972), the use of taut-strip models in the Theodorsen (1935), General Theory of Aerodynamic Instability
prediction of the response of long-span bridges to turbulent and the Mechanism of Flutter[R]. Report No. 496, Report
wind [C], Proc. Of the symp. On flow induced vibration, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Langley,
paper A2, Karlsruhe, Springer VA
Davenport, A. G., King, J.P.C., Larose, G.L., (1992), Taut-strip
model tests [C], Aerodynamics of Large Bridges, A.
Larsen(ed) 1992, Balkerna, Rotterdam, pp.113-124
219
Dry inclined cable galloping – Theoretical analysis and structural

damping required for its prevention
J.H.G. Macdonald1, G.L. Larose2
ABSTRACT: Dry inclined cable galloping can occur in the critical Reynolds number range due to rapid
changes in the static force coefficients. A complete model of the quasi-steady aerodynamic forces leading to
galloping has therefore been developed, for vibrations in two translatory degrees of freedom. It allows for
arbitrary orientations of the cylinder axis and the vibration plane axes relative to the wind velocity, and for
variation of the force coefficients with Reynolds number and the relative angles. Analytical treatment of the
eigenvalue problem has then led to an explicit expression for the minimum structural damping ratio required
to prevent galloping for a perfectly tuned two-degree-of-freedom system. The analysis predicts the galloping
instability observed in tests on a full-scale inclined dynamic cable model. An energy approach has then been
introduced to investigate the effects on the instability, of hysteresis of the flow transitions in the critical
Reynolds number range.
1 INTRODUCTION inclination and yaw angles, in wind velocities
spanning the critical Reynolds number range. Based
Dry inclined cable galloping has recently been
on these experimental observations and an analytical
identified as a potential problem for cable-stayed
model of galloping, this paper presents a method to
bridge cables. Several occurrences of large
predict the structural damping necessary to prevent
amplitude cable vibrations, in the absence of rain,
dry inclined cable galloping.
have not been fully explained, and dry inclined cable
galloping is one potential excitation mechanism. 2 STRUCTURAL DAMPING REQUIRED TO
Important factors in the behaviour are the three- PREVENT GALLOPING
dimensional geometry of the flow around inclined
cables, and critical Reynolds number range effects. A general quasi-steady aerodynamic damping matrix
Dry inclined cable galloping occurs within the has been derived for coupled cable vibrations in two
critical Reynolds number region. For typical smooth planes. The terms of the matrix are functions of the
bridge stay cables in smooth wind, this occurs at drag and lift coefficients and their derivatives with
wind speeds around 30m/s, but this is reduced in the respect to vertical angle of attack, cable-wind angle
presence of turbulence or for greater surface and Reynolds number. It hence covers conventional
roughness. The most viable solutions are to provide quasi-steady cases, but also three-dimensional and
sufficient structural damping to prevent galloping in Reynolds number effects.
the most adverse wind conditions, or, possibly, to For circular cylinders in the critical Reynolds
modify the cable aerodynamic profile to reduce the number range, the rapid drop in drag coefficient and
severity of the critical Reynolds number transitions. the occurrence of a non-zero lift coefficient can
Extensive wind tunnel tests on inclined and cause the effective aerodynamic damping to become
yawed circular cylinders have recently been negative. Galloping can however be prevented by
conducted at the National Research Council Canada. providing sufficient structural damping. For
Firstly a series of tests were conducted on a full- perfectly tuned natural frequencies in the two planes,
scale cable section, elastically supported to simulate the two-degree-of-freedom eigenvalue problem has
the dynamics of an inclined cable. One particular therefore been solved analytically to obtain an
configuration exhibited divergent amplitude explicit expression for the minimum structural
vibrations at a wind speed of 32m/s, corresponding damping required. This is a function of the force
to a Reynolds number of 3.4x105. Secondly, detailed coefficients, which in turn are functions of the
pressure measurements were taken on a smaller Reynolds number and the geometry. Hence using the
diameter static circular cylinder, varying both the measured force coefficients from the static cable
tests, the required structural damping has been
1
Dr. John H.G. Macdonald, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
e-mail: John.Macdonald@bristol.ac.uk
2
Dr. Guy L. Larose, Research Officer, Aerodynamics Laboratory, National Research Council, Canada
e-mail: Guy.Larose@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
220
J.H.G. Macdonald, G.L. Larose
found. This is shown in Figure 1, in terms of a non- from the wind loads over one vibration cycle, which
dimensional structural damping parameter defined as is equated to the energy dissipated by a viscously
ǽs = ȗsmfn/µ, where ȗs is the structural damping ratio, damped system. Thus the equivalent aerodynamic
m is the cable mass per unit length, fn is the natural damping is found. This can be applied to large
frequency and µ is the dynamic fluid viscosity. amplitude vibrations with non-linear variation of the
90
Max 40*103 drag coefficient over the range of relative velocities,
-1 0000 -
4
0
including hysteresis.
0
0
85 The results are shown in Figure 2 for uniform
10
-
1
0 00 mode shapes, in terms of the non-dimensional
80 0 0
)
- 00
9 0
aerodynamic damping parameter Zeq (equivalent to
q( 0
I, 75
0
0 - -ǽs), the Reynolds number based on the wind
el 3
0
g
n
a
0
0 velocity (Re) and the Reynolds number based on the
d
ni
w
70
0
0 1
0 maximum cable velocity (ǻRe = ȡD(AȦ)/µ). Distinct
- 0 0 0
0 0
el
b
a
8
- 0 0 0
0
zones are apparent in the figure, as labelled, for the
C 65 01
- 00 different flow regimes and hysteretic behaviour
20
4
0
60
0
0
0
between two or three flow regimes. The bold line
Max
34*103
indicates the stability boundary for no structural
55
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 damping. The vibrations are unstable starting from
Reynolds number 5
x 10 zero cable velocity, but the worst conditions occur
Figure 1 Minimum requirement for non-dimensional structural when the amplitude of vibration is just sufficient for
damping parameter, ǽs, for stability against 2DOF galloping for
the hysteresis to be overcome.
perfectly tuned system
The method has also been applied to vibrations in
It can be seen that positive structural damping is sinusoidal mode shapes, but the equivalent damping
required only within the critical Reynolds number results are similar, indicating that the behaviour is
region (approx. 2.9x105 < Re < 3.6x105). The dominated by the wind forces near the antinodes.
absolute maximum requirement is ǽs > 40x103,
which corresponds to a structural damping ratio of
0.86% for the typical cable modelled in the dynamic
cable tests, if perfectly tuned.
For detuned natural frequencies in the two planes,
the required structural damping can be calculated
numerically. For the dynamic cable model, in the
setup that actually experienced galloping, this
theoretical damping requirement was greater than the
measured structural damping. Thus the galloping
instability was predicted by the analysis.
The results from this analysis do seem to be rather
conservative, however, predicting instabilities more Figure 2 Equivalent aerodynamic damping parameter, Zeq, for
readily than they actually occurred for the dynamic along-wind vibrations, as a function of vibration amplitude
(ǻRe), considering hysteresis, for uniform mode shape
cable model. It therefore appears that other factors
also affect the behaviour, possibly including wind 4 CONCLUSIONS
turbulence, sensitivity of the results to the exact
parameter values, and hysteresis of flow transitions, The proposed quasi-steady analysis predicts dry
for which a certain minimum amplitude of vibrations inclined cable galloping in the critical Reynolds
may be required for the flow regime to jump number range, as observed in wind tunnel tests on a
between two (or more) states in each vibration cycle. full-scale dynamic cable model. The structural
damping required to prevent galloping has been
3 ANALYSIS INCLUDING HYSTERESIS OF estimated. However, additional factors are likely to
FLOW TRANSITIONS be significant, including wind turbulence and cable
An alternative approach has been developed to allow surface roughness. There is a need for further data of
for hysteresis of the flow transitions in the critical the hysteretic transitions, especially for
Reynolds number range, presently for along-wind inclined/yawed cylinders, and for further tests on
vibrations for wind normal to the cable. The moving cables to establish the extent to which the
approach is based on the total energy input or output quasi-steady approach can be applied.
221
Analysis of turbulence statistics above a Scots pine forest in a sub-artic

northern region
I.Mammarella1, B. Tammelin1
ABSTRACT: The aim of this work is to discuss some aspects of the problem of inhomogeneous turbulent
flows in the framework of surface layer Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, which is the paradigm most used
to interpret and model the observations, using turbulence data measured in a typical area for the subarctic
Northern Finland with sparse Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests. Vertical profiles of mean wind velocity
and turbulent statistics are here shown and discussed.
1 Experimental site description the sector A (bullet) characterised by an open area.
The Sodankylä Meteorological Observatory (67◦ 22’
N, 26◦ 38’ E, 180 m) is located at Tähtelä in Finnish wdc1
wdc2
Lapland, 100 km north of the polar circle. The height wdc3
wdc4
of the trees is about 15 m, and the distance beetwen wdc5
wdc6
them is irregular. A few meters west of the Obser-
vatory flows the river Kitinen. A 48 m micromete-
orological tower is located at some hundred meters
z/hc
south-east of the Observatory. The Scots pine stand

around the tower is homogeneous, about 200 m in all
directions. For longer fetch open areas of different
size with irregular distributed trees are also present.
The river flows at few hundred meters from the mast,
influencing the wind flow coming from north-west to
1
south direction range. Wind velocity components are 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1
measured by ultrasonic anemometers (22, 25 and 47 U/U47m

Figure 1 Mean wind profiles in near-neutral conditions for
m) and by cup anemometers (18, 30, 38, 48 m).
all direction classes.
2 Results Within the same sectors, the different directions

classes have the same behaviour. In the north-west
The experimental site is rather flat both at small and direction (sector A), the wind velocity is less influ-
large scale, so that in first approximation the effect enced by the roughness elements, showing a loga-
of topography on flow statistics can be neglected. rithmic profile. In the contrary, when the wind flow
Therefore the landscape is strongly heterogeneous, comes from other directions (sector C and sector B),
and the canopy density changes for different direc- the profiles show a little deceleration with respect to
tion ranges, relatively near to the micrometeorologi- the standard logarithmic profile in the lower part. As
cal tower. The maximum (≈ 1.5 m) and minimum a consequence the roughness change (smooth-rough)
(≈ 0.5 m) estimated values of roughness length z0 produces a deceleration of the mean flow confined to
occur for directions around to south and north-west a layer where it is important the canopy influence.
respectively, corresponding to two different kinds of Moreover above this layer the wind increase with a
inhomogeneity. The Fig. 1 shows the near-neutral strong vertical gradient.
wind velocity profiles for all direction classes as a Near-neutral flow turbulent statistics above the
function of z/hc , where hc is the canopy height. We canopy are presented in Fig. 2. To evaluate deviations
can to group these directions classes in three sec- from surface layer similarity theory predictions, the
tors: the sector C (full triangledown) characterised data are normalised by u∗ measured at z = 3.13hc ,
by dense canopy and a longer fetch, the sector B (tri- assuming that it represents surface layer conditions.
angleup) characterised by a smaller fetch and finally
1
I.Mammarella,B. Tammelin, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Energy and Environment, Helsinki FIN
222
I. Mammarella, B. Tammelin
4 4 eter ζ = (z − d)/L, for (a) L > 0 and (b) L < 0,
a wdc0 b
3.5 wdc1 3.5 where L is the Obukhov length. For near-neutral con-
wdc2
3 wdc3
wdc4
3 dition, the non-dimensional gradient is overestimated
z/hc
2.5 2.5
wdc5
wdc6 by the logarithmic surface-layer similarity prediction.
2 wdc7 2
1.5
In diabatic conditions the data scatter increased mak-
1.5
1 1
ing difficult a precise evaluation. We expect that as
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
σu/u* σv/u*
move outside the roughness sublayer, the measured
4 4 dimensionless wind shear will approach the values for
c d
3.5 3.5 a logarithmic surface layer.
3 3
z/hc
2.5 2.5
2
3 Conclusions
2
1.5
1.5 In near flat and homogeneous terrain, the structure of
1 1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 the ABL, in terms of the wind and temperature gra-
2
σw/u* -uw/u*
dients, the layer depth and the intensity of turbulence,
Figure 2 Profiles of turbulent statistics in near-neutral con-
can be described by the similarity theory as a function
ditions for all direction classes.
of the roughness properties and stability conditions.
All components of turbulent stress tensor are near In complex terrain (topography, surface heterogene-
indipendent of z/hc , except for the direction classes ity...) a more accurate analisys of the local effects it
wdc4 and wdc5 (sector B), showing an increment of needs to evaluate the important time and length scales
turbulent energy approaching the canopy top. Con- involved, and hence to extend the reliability of the
sidering the direction class wdc6 (sector A), the val- experimental observations over wider area. In this
ues are perfectly independent of z/hc , according to framework the Sodankyla mast data were differenti-
similarity predictions. ated according to 7 wind direction classes and studied
8 according to stability parameter z − d/L. Excluding
7
a
the wind coming from north-west sector (wdc6), the
6 influence of the surface heterogeneity on the aerody-
5 namical properties of the flow is evident within the
roughness sublayer (≈ 2hc ) for all wind directions.
φm
3 Vertical profiles of mean wind velocity and turbulent

2 statistics until the second order, calculated in the sec-
1 tor wdc6, follow the surface similarity scaling. There-
0 fore the observations at 47 m are outside of the rough-
1e-04 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
(z-d)/L
ness sublayer, but some local forcing due to rough-
4 ness change (smooth-rough) can be relevant for some
3.5 b direction classes (wdc4 and wdc5).
3
2.5 4 Acknowledgements
φm
2
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the
1.5
EC ”Wind Energy Assessment Studies and Wind En-
1
gineering” (WINDENG) Training Network (contract
0.5
n. HPRN-CT-2002-00215). We are also grateful to
0
1e-04 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 Sylvain Joffre and Reijo Hyvonen from Finnish Me-
-(z-d)/L
teorological Institute for each of valuable contribu-
Figure 3 The dimensionless wind shear φm as a function of tions.
stability measured at z = 1.66hc in (a) stable and (b) un-
stable stratification conditions. Reference curves are also 5 REFERENCES
plotted [Högström (1988)].
Högström U. (1988) Non-dimensional wind and tempera-
The dimensionless wind shear φm , measured at 25 ture profiles in the atmospheric surface layer: a reevalu-
m, is shown in Fig. 3 as a function of stability param- ation Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 42, pp. 55-78
223
In-field measurement and stochastic modeling

of tropical cyclone winds
F.J. Masters1, T.A. Reinhold2, K.R. Gurley3 L.D. Aponte-Bermúdez4
ABSTRACT: The Florida Coastal Monitoring Program (FCMP) is one of several research programs in the
United States that deploy portable instrumented towers in the path of landfalling hurricanes to collect high
resolution wind velocity data. The aim of the project is to characterize overland turbulent wind behavior by
quantifying the statistical descriptions of interest to structural designers. In particular, this data will provide
wind tunnel modelers with turbulence information to validate that the model flow field is similar to actual
conditions in a tropical cyclone. Knowledge of these descriptors has accumulated since the late 1800s,
although most were derived empirically from data sets collected from extratropical data. Whether the
turbulent behavior of tropical storms and hurricanes differ from these models remains an active subject of
debate. This paper presents analyses of tropical cyclone velocity data records collected by FCMP mobile
instrumented towers during the 1999-2004 Atlantic Hurricane Seasons. Turbulence intensities, gust factors,
and integral length scales are analyzed and compared against winter storm and thunderstorm data, when
available.
FCMP teams remain on standby throughout the
1 INTRODUCTION hurricane season to respond rapidly when the threat
The pressure loading on low-rise buildings—which of a tropical cyclone arises. When a hurricane
reside within the lowest 5% of the atmospheric approaches, FCMP teams leave their home
boundary layer—is deeply sensitive to the turbulence universities to meet the inbound hurricane with
characteristics of the wind field, which in turn, is four—soon to expand to six—portable tower
dependent on the roughness of the upwind terrain. systems. Based on advisories issued by the National
To better understand turbulent wind fields in situ, Hurricane Center, research personnel deploy the
engineering research has complemented the testing towers in the vicinity of anticipated landfall
laboratory with modern techniques to measure wind approximately 4-24 hours before impact.
fields from tropical cyclones (e.g., hurricanes, Three levels of sensors outfit the tower. The data
tropical storms) and thunderstorms. Since the late acquisition system measures three-dimensional wind
1990s, full-scale research—i.e., in-field speed and direction at the highest two levels and
measurement to capture real environmental loading collects temperature, rainfall, barometric pressure,
and actual structural response—has grown and relative humidity data at the tower’s base. Two
significantly, providing valuable insight into surface RM Young anemometry systems—a wind monitor
level winds and the resultant loads on residential and a custom array of three gill propellers—collect
structures during extreme wind events. The research data at 10 m, which the World Meteorological
presented herein is the result of one such program. Organization deems as the standard wind speed
This paper presents analysis of surface wind field observation height. A second array of gill propellers
data collected during the 1999-2004 Atlantic collects wind speed data at 5 m to measure winds at
Hurricane Seasons by the Florida Coastal approximately the height of a single-story home.
Monitoring Program (FCMP). The FCMP is a
2 FCMP DATABASE
unique joint venture—led by wind engineering
faculty at Florida International University, Clemson The FCMP has produced data sets from the portable
University and the University of Florida—that towers for Tropical Cyclones Georges (1998),
focuses on full-scale experimental methods to Dennis (1999), Floyd (1999), Irene (1999), Gordon
quantify near-surface hurricane wind behavior and (2000), Gabrielle (2001), Michelle (2001), Isidore
the resultant loads on residential structures. The aim (2002), Lili (2002), Isabel (2003), Bonnie (2004),
of the project is to provide the data necessary to Charley (2004), Frances (2004), Ivan (2004) and
identify methods to reduce hurricane wind damage to Jeanne (2004). For the study, ten-minute
residential structures. overlapping segments (assumed to be independent)
1
Asst. Prof. Forrest Masters PhD, Int’l Hurricane Research Center, Florida Int’l University, email mastersf@fiu.edu
2
Vice Pres. for Eng. Timothy Reinhold PhD, Institute for Business and Home Safety, email treinhold@ibhs.org
3
Assoc. Prof. Kurtis Gurley PhD, Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering, University of Florida, email kgurl@ce.ufl.edu
4
Grad. Asst. Luis Aponte-Bermúdez, Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering, University of Florida, email laponte@ufl.edu
224
F.J. Masters, T.A. Reinhold, K.R. Gurley, L.D. Aponte-Bermúdez
were subjected to a series of elimination tests to
identify segments for exclusion from the FCMP 2
15-25 m/s: 95% Quantile
storm database. As a result, 38% of the segments 1.9 15-25 m/s: Mean (N = 326)
were eliminated for candidacy. 1.8
1.7
3 RESULTS
1.6
This paper demonstrates that the magnitude and 1.5
variability of gust factors decrease as the mean wind 1.4
speed increases (as shown in Figures 1-3). The
1.3
mean gust factor observed in open exposure during
1.2
hurricane landfall is higher than the gust factors
observed during extratropical and winter storm 1.1
events (e.g., Durst, 1960) but not as high as the gusts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 25 30
Gust Duration (sec)
factors observed earlier tropical cyclone studies (e.g.,
Krayer and Marshall, 1992). It also notes that as Figure 2. GF curve based on 10-minute mean wind speed
surface roughness increases, the ratios of lateral and of 15-25 m/s in an open exposure at 10 m
vertical turbulence intensities to the longitudinal
turbulence intensity grow. Finally, analysis of 2
longitudinal integral length scales indicates that 1.9 25-35 m/s: Mean (N = 28)
lower wind speeds produce shorter estimates of 1.8
average gust lengths. While fewer records are
1.7
available for higher wind speeds, the data suggests a
1.6
convergence to a limiting length scale as the wind
speed increases. 1.5
1.4
2
05-15 m/s: 95% Quantile 1.3
1.9 05-15 m/s: Mean (N = 517) 1.2
1.8
1.1
1.7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 25 30
Gust Duration (sec)
1.6
1.5 Figure 3. GF curve based on 10-minute mean wind speed

1.4 of 25-35 m/s in an open exposure at 10 m
1.3
4 REFERENCES
1.2
1.1
Durst C.S. (1960) Wind speeds over short periods of time, The
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 25 30
Gust Duration (sec) Meteorological Magazine 89, pp. 181-186.
Krayer, W.R. & Marshall, R.D. (1992) Gust factors applied to
Figure 1. GF curve based on 10-minute mean wind speed hurricane winds, Bulletin of the American Meteorological
of 5-15 m/s in an open exposure at 10 m Society, 73, 5, pp. 613-617.
225

A.L. Materazzi1, I. Venanzi2
ABSTRACT: The standard approach for the equivalent static analysis of line-like structures, based on the
gust factor, is reviewed, with special reference to the case of structures with intermediate elastic supports, as
cable stayed masts. For this class of structures the first modal shape presents an inversion point and the effect
of the higher modes can not be neglected. A new analysis method, based on the definition of a gust function
variable along the height has been proposed and applied to a case study. The results are compared with those
obtained by a random dynamic and a non-linear step-by-step analysis.
The formulations of G commonly established in

1 INTRODUCTION
literature are calibrated, in most cases, to give the
The wind response of line-like structures is exact value of the top displacement. Thus, the
studied, in the common design practice, using proper displacements of a cantilever at all elevations, along
equivalent static loads, calibrated with reference to with the associated curvatures, cannot be estimated
the response of a cantilever beam. accurately.
When the static scheme is more complicated, as is Moreover, the gust factor G can be adjusted to
the case of cable-stayed structures, the shape of the estimate properly only one aspect of the structural
first mode departs significantly from that of a response: for instance the top displacement, or the
cantilever beam and the standard formulation of the maximum bending moment, or the maximum shear.
gust factor is no longer applicable. Moreover the A viable solution to overcome this problem is
effect of the upper modes may also be relevant. defining a “gust function” G(z), which depends on
As a consequence the response under dynamic the elevation above the ground.
loads carried out considering the actual first modal The equivalent static load per unit length can be
shape, along with the upper modes, results to be expressed as sum of the mean wind load and the
more severe than the static response computed using SRSS of the static forces which produce the
the equivalent static loads. maximum modal deflections:
Both problems were clearly addressed by
Davenport in 1992, who proposed to use a series of N
1
static load patterns, arranged following a patch load p equiv z C D z Bz UV z 2
2
¦ > pi z @2
scheme, instead of the gust factor technique. i 1
In the present paper the problem is revisited,
proposing a unified solution for evaluating the where:
equivalent static loads acting on any type of vertical
line-like structures. pi z Pi z xi ,max z P1 z 4S 2 ni2\ i z ;
2 THE EQUIVALENT STATIC APPROACH \ i z is the amplitude of the i-th mode
Following the standard practice, the total displacement, which depends on the intensity of the
structural response is evaluated by multiplying the dynamic load and on the elevation z;
static displacements by a suitable amplifying factor, ni is the i-th mode frequency;
the gust factor G. mi
The standard gust factor approach implicitly P i z is the effective mass density per unit
H
assumes that the dynamic response at every point is a
length in the i-th mode and mi is the i-th mode
simple multiple of the static response to the steady
wind. This hypothesis departs from the real effective mass, uniformly distributed over the height
behaviour not only for guyed towers but also for H of the structure.
cantilever beams. In fact, also in case of cantilever The effective modal masses, in case of wind
beam, it is evident the difference of curvature loads, can not be evaluated as is commonly done in
between the mean wind load and of the static load the field of earthquake engineering. In fact, in the
which gives the first mode response. case of earthquake and wind excitation the natural
1
Prof. Annibale Luigi Materazzi, DICA, University of Perugia, Italy, e-mail materazzi@unipg.it
2
Eng. Ilaria Venanzi, PhD Student, DICA, University of Perugia, Italy, e-mail ilaria.venanzi@strutture.unipg.it
226
A.L. Materazzi, I. Venanzi
160
modes of vibration of the structure are excited
differently, leading to different values of the 140
effective participating mass. Hence the need of
120
multiplying every modal mass M i by a suitable g1(z)
100
correction factor k i in order to obtain the proper
value of the force pi z defined as:
Z (m)
80
g2(z)
pi z ki Pi z 4S 2 ni2\ i z 60
40
The equivalent static force can thus be written as:
20
1
p equiv z G N ( z ) p stat G N ( z )C D z B z UV z 2
2 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Modal contributions to the gust function G(z)
where the gust function GN(z) is defined as: Figure 1. Guyed mast: 1st and 2nd mode contributions to G(z).
2 160
N
¦ >ki P i z 4S 2 ni2\ i z @ 140
i 1
GN ( z ) 1 120
Time domain analysis
1
C D z B z UV z 2 100 Static response using G2(z)
2
80 Frequency domain analysis
The subscript N in GN(z) points out that the first
Z (m)
60
N modes have been taken into account.
40
3 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES 20
Numerical applications of the gust function G(z) 0

approach have been performed with reference to a
-20
100 meters high welded steel stack, and to a 150 -0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6
meters high guyed tower. Displacement (m)
Several types of analysis have been carried out: Figure 2. Comparison between the displacements obtained
using the TD, the FD and the equivalent static analyses.
x a static analysis under the mean wind;
x a random dynamics analysis, carried out
considering only the first mode and another one 4 CONCLUSIONS
considering only the second mode.
The response of flexible structures to turbulent wind
In the case of the guyed tower a supplementary
is evaluated in most cases amplifying the static
time-domain analysis, considering the geometrical
response to the mean wind by a suitable constant, the
non-linearity, was performed.
gust factor G.
To evaluate the equivalent static load in both
In the case of cable stayed masts, whose first
cases of the stack and the guyed tower, the 1st and
modal shape departs significantly from that of a
2nd mode contribution to the gust function have been
cantilever, the method is not applicable and
used. Those related to the guyed mast are
alternative solutions, like the one that uses
represented in Figure 1.
“patchwork” loads, may be used.
For the cantilever, the first mode contribution to
In the present study the problem was reviewed
the gust function GN(z) departs significantly from a
and a unified formulation which leads to the use of a
constant value, while the second mode gives a
gust function G(z), variable with the elevation above
negligible contribution.
the ground, was proposed.
The deflections of the guyed tower obtained by
Some numerical examples showed that in the case
the time domain, the frequency domain and the
of cantilever structures, like stacks and chimneys,
equivalent static analyses are compared in Figure 2.
only the first mode contribution may be considered
The results of the time domain analysis, which takes
in the analysis. In the case of cable-stayed masts, at
into account the geometric non linear effects, are
least the second mode contribution to the dynamic
greater that the others. The results in the frequency
response must be considered and the gust function
domain and the equivalent static analysis turned out
G(z) may be evaluated accordingly.
to be very similar.
227
Effects of street orientation on dispersion at or near urban street

intersections
1 2
K.F. McNamara , X. Wang
ABSTRACT: An intersection with an oblique upwind street was used to investigate the effects of street
orientation on the flow and dispersion at or near an urban street intersection using wind-tunnel
experimentation and CFD simulations. It was observed that the flow exchange between the upwind and lateral
streets was significantly enhanced. The in-canyon spiraling flow in the oblique upwind street results in
ground-level emissions being effectively elevated to higher altitude at short distances.
1 INTRODUCTION steps: 1) A neutral wind-tunnel boundary layer was

At or near an urban intersection, flow and dispersion created in the wind tunnel at NUI, Galway. 2) Using
patterns may become complicated due to the the measured mean velocity and turbulence profiles
interaction between cross street canyons (Dabberdt in the simulated boundary layer as the inflow
et al, 1995, Pearce & Baker, 1996, Brown et al, condition, CFD simulations were conducted to
2004). The dispersion patterns are also sensitive to investigate flow patterns. 3) Detailed dispersion
complicated street configurations, e.g., an offset of patterns were measured in wind-tunnel dispersion
the street canyons (Robins et al, 2002) or variation in experiments. In both CFD and wind-tunnel
their relative heights (Scaperdas & Colvile, 1999). simulations, mean concentrations are given in
This paper describes CFD and wind tunnel normalized form:
investigations of the variation of flow and dispersion ȋ= CUHH2/Q (1)
patterns at or near an isolated street intersection where C is the computed/measured mean
when the angle between the upwind street and the concentration, UH is the reference wind velocity at
lateral street is subject to change. Two street model height H and Q is the emission rate of the
configurations were considered: a regular source.
intersection and an irregular intersection (see Figure Point sources were arranged at a height of 0.1H.
1). The effects of street orientation on dispersion at For the regular intersection two point sources, source
or near street intersections are given in the following 1 and source 2, were located at the centreline of the
sections. upwind street at x=-1.5H and x=-3.5H, respectively.
5H H H H For the irregular intersection, (see Figure 1), an extra
point source (source 3) was placed at the centreline
¦ý
of the upper lateral street at y=1.5H for investigating

5H
source 3 pollution entering the intersection.

Wind source 2
source 1 3 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
H
1.5H
CFD simulation showed that a corner vortex was

H
1.5H produced directly at the entrance to the crosswind

3.5H
street for the regular intersection case. Vortex
H
Regular case: ș= 0o structures near an intersection are very sensitive to a

Irregular case ș= 26.57o change in angle between the upwind street and the
crosswind streets. An oblique upwind street induces
5H
Canyon height: H=0.1 m

in-canyon spiralling flow and thus leads to
appreciably variation of flux exchange between
streets and between street canyons and the overlying
Figure 1 Geometry of street intersection and source locations
wind. It was observed, in CFD simulation, that a
2 CFD AND WIND TUNNEL SIMULATION corner vortex was observed at the downwind street
The CFD (standard k-İ model and transport equation) in the vicinity of the intersection (Figure 2). Two
and wind-tunnel simulations include the following counter-rotating vortices were created at the leeward
wall side in the vicinity of the entrance to the lower
1
Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, e-mail kevin.mcnamara@nuigalway.ie
2
Faculty of Construction, Guangdong University of Technology, China, e-mail sida_wang@hotmail.com
228
K.F. McNamara, X. Wang
crosswind street. Strong spiralling flow appears at corner (see Figure 4). At the end of the lower
the windward wall side (Figure 3). crosswind street two counter-rotating vortices
Measured mean concentration patterns at or near prohibit mass exchange between ground and roof
the intersections were generally in good agreement level. Thus inverse concentration variations with
with the flow patterns observed in the CFD height may appear on the leeward wall of the lower
simulation qualitatively. For the irregular crosswind street when pollutant materials come
intersection case, the spiralling flow in the upwind mainly from either ground level or roof level.
street causes ground-level emission to be effectively The standard k-İ model together with the
elevated to higher altitude even for short distances. transport equation performed poorly. The under-
This reduces the concentration at ground level and prediction of plume spread is very serious. In some
causes a concentration hotspot on the lower wall of receptors, the computed concentrations were 10
the upwind street in the vicinity of the lower left times less than the measured ones.
Figure 2 Mean velocity vectors on a horizontal plane at Figure 3 Mean velocity vectors on a vertical planes at y/H = -1
z/H=0.1 for the irregular intersection
h/ H h/ H
h/ H h/ H
1. 00 1. 0 1. 0 1
0. 9 0. 9 0. 9
0. 8 0. 8 0. 8
0. 75
0. 7 0. 7 0. 7
0. 6 0. 6 0. 6
0. 50 0. 5 0. 5 0. 5
0. 4 0. 4 0. 4
0. 3 0. 3
0. 3
0. 25
0. 2 0. 2
0. 2
0. 1 0. 1
0. 1
0. 00 0. 0 0
0. 0
0. 0 1. 0 2. 0 3. 0 0 0. 05 0. 1 0. 15 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2
0. 00 0. 20 0. 40 0. 60
2 2
CUH/ Q CUH2/ Q
CUH / Q CUH2/ Q
LW
U W
WU LW
L W
WL
UWU LWU UW
D LW
D
a) b) c) d) e)
Figure 4 Measured mean concentration at the irregular intersection for source 1: a) ground-level concentration, b) wall receptors at
upwind street, c) downwind street, d) upper lateral street and e) lower lateral street
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT intersections. The Science of the Total Environment, 169,

pp. 93-102.
The research was supported by the HEA, Ireland: Pearce, W. & Baker, C. (1996) Wind tunnel tests on the
grant No. ECI WA-3. dispersion of vehicle pollutants in an urban area. In: Proc.
of 3rd UK conference on wind engineering, Oxford, pp. 21-
5 REFERENCES 25.
Robins, A., Savory, E.. Scaperdas A. & Grigoriadis, D. (2002)
Brown, M.J., Khalsa, H., Nelson, M. & Boswell, D. (2004) Spatial variability and source-receptor relations at a street
Street canyon flow patterns in a horizontal plane intersection. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus, 2, pp.381-
measurements from the joint URBAN 2003 field 393.
experiments. In: AMS symposium on the urban Scaperdas, A. & Colvile, R.N. (1999) Assessing the
environment. Vancouver, B.C. representativeness of monitoring data from an urban
Dabberdt, W., Hoydysh, W., Schoring, M., Yang, F. & intersection site in central London, UK. Atmospheric
Holynskyi, O. (1995) Dispersion modelling at urban Environment, 33, pp. 661-674.
229
Comparison of analytically-numerically predicted value of maximum

height of tall square buildings subjected to peak wind loads
D. Mitra 1, A. Mazumdar 2
ABSTRACT: Effort has been made to solve the along wind oscillation problem of a tall square building from
first principles and across wind oscillation problem of the same from empirical relations. The criterion for
human comfort is being considered and a limiting value of height of a building for a given cross section is
predicted. A comparison between the limiting values of building height at different terrain conditions is
attempted. The results ascertain that comfort criterion is to be combined with across wind oscillation results
to determine the maximum allowable height of a building.
principles and across wind oscillation problem of the
1 INTRODUCTION same from empirical relations obtained by experiments by
eminent researchers (Vickery, 1970). The criterion for
The present generation structures, unlike in the past,
human comfort (Chang, 1975) at the worst condition at
are remarkably flexible, low in damping and light in
the top floor of the building is being considered and a
weight. These structures are results of the development of
limiting value of height of a building for a given cross
modern materials and construction techniques. Their
section is predicted. A comparison between the limiting
enhanced susceptibility to the action of overall and local
values of building height at different terrain conditions is
wind effects calls for development of newer methods of
attempted.
design. Such developments have augmented emergence
of wind engineering. Wind engineers’ task is to ensure
that the performance of structures subjected to the action 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
of wind will be adequate during their anticipated life from
the standpoint of both structural safety and serviceability. The results show severe ness of across wind
Prior information on the wind environment, the relation oscillations in comparison to along wind oscillation at
between the environment and the forces it induces on the every terrain, and the comfort criterion is to be combined
structure, and the behaviour of structure under the action with across wind oscillation results to determine the
of these forces are needed for the above-mentioned maximum allowable height of a building. The severe ness
purpose. Information on the wind environment can be had also varies with the type of terrain, being more severe for
from meteorology, micrometeorology and climatology. more open terrains. Table 1 and Table 2 depicts,
The aerodynamic forces like drag or along-wind force, lift respectively, the results obtained for along wind
or across-wind force and torsional moment, in most cases, oscillations and across wind oscillations.
may be fluctuating with time and cause vibrations in
earth-fixed structures, and structural response analysis
Table 1 Maximum building height taking into consideration
becomes essential. The random character of this time-
the human comfort factor (considering along wind oscillations).
dependence calls for the elements of the theory of random
vibrations be applied to the analysis. Thus, a study of the
Building Width (m) Maximum Building
interaction between the aerodynamic and the inertial,
Height (m)
damping and elastic forces is required with the purpose of
investigating the aerodynamic stability of the structure.
25 120
The present study devotes itself to estimate the
along-wind and across-wind response of tall buildings not
30 185
significantly affected by the presence of neighbouring tall
buildings. It is approximately assumed that the
interference effect is negligible if the distance between
the two tall buildings exceeds about six to eight times the 35 310
average of the horizontal dimensions of the buildings.
2 METHODOLOGY 40 and above 500 is safe
Effort has been made to solve the along wind

oscillation problem of a tall square building from first
1
Debojyoti Mitra, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India, email dmitra2k@yahoo.com
2
Asis Mazumdar, Ph.D., Reader, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India email asismazumdar@yahoo.com
230
D. Mitra, A. Mazumdar
Table 2 Maximum building height taking into consideration 4 CONCLUSIONS
the human comfort factor (considering across wind
oscillations). The present study shows an analytical prediction
method for ascertaining the maximum height of a tall
Building Maximum Aspect Acceptable square building when the base area is given at a certain
Width (m) Building Ratio or not terrain with certain meteorological conditions and various
Height (m) (B/H) (Y/N) parameters of the building structure. The present analysis
25 Less that 50 More than N was confined to determination of height of a building,
0.5 which was placed in a sparsely built area, i.e, a town. This
30 70 0.43 N analysis can easily be extended to cases at other terrains
and with some other parameter sets of buildings.
35 90 0.39 N However, the present study revealed the severe ness of
across wind oscillations compared to along wind
40 120 0.33 Y oscillations and the comfort criteria of humanity at the top
of the building played a major role in determining the
50 180 0.28 Y maximum height of a tall square building.
60 250 0.24 Y
5 REFERENCES
70 340 0.21 Y Chang F K. (1973) Human response to motions in tall buildings
J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 98 No ST6, pp 1259-1272.
80 440 0.18 Y Vickery B J, (1970) On the reliability of gust loading factors,
Proc. Technical Meeting Concerning Wind Loads on
100 and Much more Much less N Buildings and Structures, Building Science Series, National
Bureau of Standards, , Washington DC.
above than 500 than 0.2
231
Effects of roadside trees on thermal environment and

pollutant diffusion in street canyon
A MRFKLGD1, K SDVDNL 2, T IZDWD3, N HDWD\D4, H YRVKLQR5
ABSTRACT: The effects of roadside trees on outdoor thermal environment and air pollutant diffusion within
street canyons in the city centre of Sendai, Japan, are investigated using CFD analyses. The situation with no
planted trees was also simulated for comparison. In the results with no planted trees, a large recirculation
was found in the street canyon and the air heated by high temperature road surface and contaminated by
exhaust gas from automobiles was convected to the area above the sidewalk. Due to the windbreak effects of
trees, this large recirculation was not clearly observed in all cases with roadside trees and the regions with
high temperature and high concentration were formed only near the surface of the roads.
used for micro-scale climate analysis in Grids D-E.

1 INTRODUCTION In Grid E, the equation of heat energy balance at
In recent years, the increase of temperature due to urban surface was solved to predict the distribution
urbanization is getting very serious in Japan. City of surface temperature. Here, radiative heat transport
administrators and urban planners are now willing to was computed using the method based on the Monte-
adopt countermeasures that can mitigate this Carlo simulation [4]. Fig.2 illustrates an outline of
problem. Among the countermeasures, tree planting the computational approach for analysing the
in urbanized areas is the most popular approach, and outdoor climate adopted for Grid E. Five equations:
major cities of Japan have actually introduced (a) transport equation of momentum, (b) transport
programs to promote urban tree planting. Tree equation of heat, (c) transport equation of moisture,
planting can clearly decrease air temperatures, but an (d)transport equation of contaminant gas and (e) heat
increase in air humidity is subsequently occurred. transfer equation by radiation are solved with
Additionally, airflow and turbulent diffusion coupling manner [4]. The tree canopy model,
mechanism in urban area are changed by the effects proposed by Yoshida et al. [4] and optimised by
of trees. Thus, a comprehensive evaluation is Mochida et al. [5], was used to reproduce the
necessary to accurately predict the effects of urban following effects: (i) aerodynamic effects of planted
planting. trees, (ii) shading effects on shortwave and long
This study aims to clarify the effects of roadside wave radiations, (iii) production of sensible and
trees on outdoor thermal environment and air latent heat from plant canopy.
pollutant diffusion within street canyons in the
3 RESULTS
central part of Sendai city, Japan, based on the
results obtained by CFD analyses coupled with Table 2 lists the test cases. Fig.4 shows vertical
calculations of radiation and conduction. distributions of wind velocity vectors, air
temperature, and air pollutant concentration. In this
2 OUTLINE OF CFD ANALYSES study, the situation without trees was also simulated
Computational domains and grid arrangements used for comparison. In the case without trees (Case 1), a
in this study are given in Table 1. The nested grid large recirculation was formed in the street canyon
technique was used. The largest computational and the air heated by high temperature road surface
domain (Grid A), illustrated in Fig.1, was nested into and contaminated by exhaust gas from automobiles
five sub-domains (Grids A-E)[1]. Fig. 1(1) shows the was advected to the area above the sidewalk (cf.
computational domains for Grid A. The CFD Figs.4 (1) Ԙ~Ԛ). This large recirculation was not
methods for the analysis of mesoscale climate were found in the case with roadside trees planted (Case
implemented in Grids A-C. A turbulence closure 2) because of the windbreak effects of trees, and the
model of Mellor and Yamada level 2.5 was used for regions with high temperature and high
these grids [2][3]. On the other hand, a revised k-H concentration formed only near the surface of the
model (the modified Launder-Kato model [4]) was roads (cf. Figs.4 (2) Ԙ~Ԛ).
1
Associate Prof., Akashi Mochida Author, Dr. Eng., Graduate school of Engineering, Tohoku Univ., e-mail mochida@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
2
Kiyoshi Sasaki, SHIMIZU Corporation, Dr. Eng., e-mail k_sasaki@shimz.co.jp
3
Graduate Student, Tatsuaki Iwata, Graduate school of Engineering, Tohoku Univ., e-mail tatsu@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
4
Graduate Student, Naoko Hataya, Graduate school of Engineering, Tohoku Univ., e-mail hataya@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
5
Prof. Eng. , Hiroshi Yoshino, Dr. Eng., Graduate school of Engineering, Tohoku Univ., e-mail yoshino@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
232
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Iwata, N. Hataya, H. Yoshino
N
Grid A Grid C N
Grid D W E
W E
S
Sendai S
W E
S
Sendai
Grid C Grid D Grid E Station
Grid B
(1) Computational domains for (2) Computational domains for (3) Computational domains for
mesoscale analysis (Grid A-C) mesoscale analysis (Grid C-D) micro-scale analysis (Grid D-E)
Fig.1 Computational domains for meso-micro climates analysis
Sidewalk Median Strip Tree
Table 1 Computational domains and grid arrangements Building Roadway
Computational Domain
Mesh Number Turbulence Model Center
(x[km] u y[km] u z[km])
Grid A 400 u 360 u 9.6 50 u 45 u 49 Mellor and Yamada
Tree
Grid B 120 u 120 u 9.6 60 u 60 u 49 level 2.5
Grid C 30 u 30 u 9.6 60 u 60 u 49 (Mesoscale)
25m
Grid D 0.5 u 0.5 u 0.4 106 u 106 u 48 The modified k-Hmodel
10m
10m
Grid E 0.1 u 0.1 u 0.1 49 u 26 u 30 (micro-scale)
Hc 0.3m
25m 9m 15m Sidewalk Roadway

Evaluating the thermal 15m 9m 25m
Input Condition N
environment based on 2.5m
Input Data 1 Coupled simulation of prediction results
Meteorological data W E (1) plan (2) section
Date/ Solar radiation/ convection (CFD) and
Weather condition etc. radiation Output Data S Fig.2 Computational domain of micro-scale analysis (Grid E)
Wind velocity
Input Data 2 Air temperature
Radiation and conduction MRT
Location analysis
Latitude/Longitude/ Humidity Table 2 Test cases
Direction etc.
Surface temperature
Height of
Input Data 3 Clothing
Building form
Convective Heat
Metabolism Density and layout tree crown Shape of tree crown
Latent Heat
Height/ Opening position (Hc, cf. Fig. 2)
etc.
CFD simulation Thermal comfort Case 1 without trees - -
Input Data 4 index
Boundary conditions of
for convection
PMV, SET*
Case 2 present situation 1.7m ball type
ground surface, building Case 3 present situation 2.7m (present situation)
wall
Heat conductivity/Albedo/ Case 4 present situation 2.7m
Evaporative efficiency/ reverse-pyramid type
Density of leaf area etc. Case 5 densely planted trees 2.7m
Fig.3 Flowchart for assessing outdoor thermal comfort based on CFD
tree
(West) (East)

Ԙ wind velocity vectors (Case 1:without trees) Ԙ wind velocity vectors (Case 2:present situation)
30.0
30.0 30.0
39.0 37.0 34.0
ԙ air temperature [oC] (Case 1:without trees) ԙ air temperature[oC] (Case 2:present situation)

1.0 1.0
2.0
12.0
10.0
Ԛ normalized gas concentration(Case 1:without trees) Ԛ normalized gas concentration (Case 2:present situation)
(1) Case 1 (without trees) (2) Case 2 (present situation with trees)
Fig.4 Vertical distributions of wind velocity vectors, temperature, and concentration (Grid E, 1:00p.m. on August 4th)
4 REFERENCES [3] A. MOCHIDA, S. MURAKAMI, T. OJIMA, S.KIM, R.OOKA and H. SUGIYAMA,

CFD analysis of mesoscale climate in the greater Tokyo Area, Journal of Wind
[1] S. MURAKAMI, A. MOCHIDA, S. KIM, R. OOKA, S. YOSHIDA, H. KONDOH, Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67&68,pp.459-477, 1997.
Y. Genchi and A. SHIMADA, Software platform for the total analysis of wind climate [4] S. YOSHIDA, S. MURAKAMI, R. OOKA, A. MOCHIDA and Y. TOMINAGA,
and urban heat island - integration of CWE simulations from human scale to urban CFD Prediction of Thermal Comfort in Microscale Wind Climate, Computational
scale -, Computational Wind Engineering 2000, pp.23-26, 2000. Wind Engineering 2000, pp.27-30, 2000.
[2] Mellor, G. L. & T. Yamada, Development of a Turbulence Closure Model for [5] A. MOCHIDA, A. KIMURA, H. YOSHINO, S. MURAKAMI and T. IWATA,
Optimization of tree canopy model for CFD application to local area wind energy
Geophysical Fluid Problem, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., Vol.20, No.4, pp.851-875, prediction, NATO ADVANCED STUDY INSTITUTE ABSTRACTS, pp.139-140,
1982. 2004.
233
Numerical study on the regional characteristics of heat balance

inside a city located at coastal areas
A. Mochida 1, K. Sasaki 2, T. Yoshida 1, H. Yoshino1
ABSTRACT: This study aims to clarify the regional characteristics of heat balance in an urban space of a city.
Since most of major cities in Japan are located at coastal areas, special attention is paid to the contribution of sea
breeze to the heat balance in urban area in this study. The spatial distribution of heat budget inside Sendai is
drawn, as “heat balance map”. This map shows the area where the influence of sea breeze is larger than those of
heat generated from ground surface and artificial heat release. In this area, it is effective to introduce sea breeze
into urban areas for reducing the air temperature by matching the building arrangement with wind conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION city is located on about 300km North-East of Tokyo

and faces the Pacific Ocean. Computational domain
It has become clear that the urban heat island effect
and grid arrangement are shown in Fig.1 and Table.1
has caused various problems such as heat stroke,
respectively. Three-stage nested grid was adopted.
large electric power demand for cooling devices etc.
The Mellor and Yamada level 2.5 turbulence closure
Various countermeasures for reducing the urban heat
model was used in this study. Furthermore, the heat
island effects have been investigated in recent years
balance mechanism in urban space inside Sendai city
to minimize the impact of urbanization on urban
was quantitatively evaluated utilizing the numerical
climate, e.g. urban planting, high-albedo building
data given from the numerical analyses.
surfaces, introduction of sea breeze into urban areas.
Urban climate of each region is influenced by 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
regional characteristics, e.g. urban scale,
geographical features, land-use, sea breeze and Fig.2 illustrates the horizontal distributions of wind
artificial heat release, etc. Thus, the effective velocity vector and air temperature at a height of
countermeasures in each region are different 10m at 1:00 p.m. on August 4. In this simulation, the
according to the regional characteristics. flow pattern of sea breeze is well reproduced (cf.
It is essential not only to evaluate the regional Fig.2 (a)). It can be seen that the cool air blows from
characteristics of different cities as illustrated in the Pacific to inland and the air temperature
previous investigation [1], but also it is important to gradually increases as the sea breeze moves further
look into the detailing heat balance mechanism of inside(cf. Fig.2 (b)).
each region, e.g. central part of a city, coastal area
N Point-A(inland Point-B (central N
and inland area etc, inside a city. In order to take full Grid1
25.0
area) part of Sendai)
advantage of the countermeasures, it is necessary to Sendai

8km
The Japan Sea 23.0

evaluate the factor that largely influences the urban The Pacific
NW NE
26.0 12km Point-C
climate of each region inside a city. Grid3
Ocean
SW SE
(coastal area)
This study is an extended work from the previous

Grid2 Sendai bay
investigation [1], and the main aim of the current :25.0
24.0
Control Volume
(C.V., urbanized area)
work is to investigate the regional characteristics of
heat balance of each region inside a city in order to (a) Domains for 3 stage (b) Domains for Grid3 and
select the most suitable countermeasure for reducing nested grid system control volume (C.V.)
the heat island effects for each region inside a city. Fig.1 Entire Computational Domain
2 OUTLINE OF NUMERICAL ANLYSES OF Table.1 Computational Domains and Grid Arrangements

Computational Domain Horizontal Node
URBAN CLIMATE (x[km] u y[km] u z[km])
Mesh Number
Interval [km]
Grid 1 400 u 360 u 9.6 50 u 45 u 49 8
Numerical analyses of mesoscale climate in and Grid 2 120 u 120 u 9.6 60 u 60 u 49 2
around Sendai city of Japan were carried out. Sendai Grid 3 30 u 30 u 9.6 60 u 60 u 49 0.5
1
Assoc.Prof. Author Akashi Mochida Dr.Eng., Graduate School of Eng., Tohoku Univ., e-mail mochida@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp,
2
Kiyoshi Sasaki Dr.Eng, Shimizu Corp., e-mail k-sasaki@shimz.co.jp
1
Tomohiro Yoshida, Graduate School of Eng., Tohoku Univ., e-mail yoshida@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp,
1
Prof. Hiroshi Yoshino Dr.Eng, Graduate School of Eng., Tohoku Univ., e-mail yoshino@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp,
234
A. Mochida, K. Sasaki, T. Yoshida, H. Yoshino
4 ANALYSES OF HEAT BALANCE IN URBAN SPACE turbulent diffusion + artificial heat release, i.e. sum of
incoming and outgoing heat fluxes through all surfaces
4.1 Concept of heat balance model in urban space[2]
of the C.V. and heat generation inside the C.V.) is also
Fig.3 illustrates the heat balance in urban space [2]. shown. In this figure, the values by advection and
The total balance of heat in a control volume (C.V.) turbulent diffusion indicate the total heat fluxes
within an urban space was examined. The total heat through all surfaces of the C.V. by advection and
balance is composed of incoming and outgoing heat turbulent diffusion, respectively. The value of artificial
fluxes through the surfaces of the C.V., and heat heat release shown here is the total sensible heat
generation and heat storage in the C.V. The heat generated by artificial heat sources, i.e. air-conditioning
balance in the urban space was evaluated using the results system, cars, etc., in the C.V. The value of sensible
obtained from 0:00 a.m. on August 4 (18 hours after a heat balance by advection becomes negative in the
calculation started) to 0:00 a.m. on August 5 (42 hours period from 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. This reflects the fact
after a calculation started). The control volume (C.V.) for that sea breeze blows from the Pacific Ocean, and the
evaluating the urban heat balance is shown in Figs.1(b) contribution of sea breeze to reduce the air temperature
and 2. The domain of this C.V. was 8km u 12km u 80m in Sendai city is significant in this period.
in x-direction (East–West), y-direction (North–South) and
4.3 Evaluation of the regional characteristics of Heat
z-direction (Vertical) respectively.
balance in urban space inside a city
4.2 Heat balance in urban space inside urbanized area
Next, the spatial distribution of sensible heat budget
Fig.4 illustrates the diurnal variations of sensible heat inside Sendai city is discussed. For this purpose, the
balance (incoming fluxes - outgoing fluxes) in the C.V. urban space adjacent to the ground in the domain of
by advection, turbulent diffusion and artificial heat Grid3 was divided into 60(x)×60(y)×1(z) small domain.
release. The total sensible heat budget (advection + The size of a small domain is 0.5km (x)×0.5km (y)×
5m/s
[ ] 80m (z). The heat balance in each small domain was
Point-A evaluated. Fig.5 illustrates the distribution of total heat
budget in each small domain (advection + turbulent
diffusion + artificial heat release, i.e. sum of incoming
Point-B and outgoing heat fluxes through all surfaces of each
Point-C
small domain and heat generation inside each small
domain). at 1:00 p.m. The negative sign in this figure
indicates the area where the outgoing heat flow by
C.V.
(urbanized area) advection, mainly due to the effect of sea breeze, is
(a) Wind velocity (b) Air temperature larger than the total of incoming heat flow by turbulent
Fig.2 Horizontal Distributions of Wind Velocity Vectors and diffusion, mainly due to the heat fluxes from the
Air Temperature (1:00 p.m., August 4, at 10m height) ground surface, and heat generation by artificial heat
Control Volume
release. The temperature in this area is decreased by
(C.V.) turbulent diffusion to the sky the effect of sea breeze. Thus, it is expected that the air
temperature can be reduced by increasing wind
horizontal advection horizontal advection
velocity near ground level with an appropriate building
arrangements with wind conditions in this area.
turbulent diffusion from the ground
7 REFERENCES
Fig.3 Heat Balance Mechanism in Urban Space [1] [1] Tomohiro Yoshida, Kiyoshi Sasaki, Akashi
Mochida, Hiroshi Yoshino and Hironori
Point-A Watanabe: Study on Regional Characteristics of
1.2E+10
Heat Balance Mechanism in Atmosphere based on
8.0E+09 advection Numerical Analysis of Urban Climate –Part1)
Comparison between Three Pacific Cities, Tokyo,
4.0E+09 turblent Sendai, Haramachi-, SUMMARIES OF
Flux[W]
diffusion Point-B TECHNICAL PAPERS OF ANNUAL

0.0E+00
artificial MEETING ARCHITECTURAL INSTITUTE OF
-4.0E+09
heat release Point-C JAPAN, 2004, D-1, 677-678 (in Japanese)
total heat [2] Shuzo Murakami, Akashi Mochida, Ryozo
-8.0E+09 budget Ooka, Shinji Yoshida, Hiroshi Yoshino,
C.V. Kiyoshi Sasaki, Kazuya Harayama: Evaluation
-1.2E+10
(urbanized area) of the Impacts of Urban Tree Planting in Tokyo
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Based on Urban Heat Balance Model, 11th
Fig.4 The Diurnal Variations of Sensible Heat Balance Fig.5 The Spatial Distribution of International Conference on Wind Engineering,
of C.V. by Advection, Turbulent Diffusion, Total Sensible Heat Budget[W] Volume 2, pp.2641-2648, June 2-5, 2003
Artificial Heat Release and Total Heat Budget (“Heat Balance Map”,
[W] (+ means incoming heat for C.V.) 1:00 p.m, August 4.)
235
Assessment of the influence of geometrical details on wind-tunnel

measurement results by means of CFD
P. Moonen1, B. Blocken2, S. Roels3, J. Carmeliet4,5
ABSTRACT: Geometrical wind-tunnel details can have a significant influence on the results of building
aerodynamic studies that are conducted in closed-circuit wind tunnels. Investigating these effects by means of
wind-tunnel research would require a considerable amount of wind-tunnel tests and important geometrical
changes in the wind tunnel, which are time-consuming and expensive. In the present paper, a CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) study of the influence of various geometrical details will be performed. As
an example, the paper focuses on the Jules Verne wind-tunnel facility in Nantes (France), in which
experimental data have been obtained. The entire wind tunnel has been modelled in detail (numerical wind
tunnel), whereby the fan has been replaced by a fan boundary condition. The model has been validated for the
case of an empty wind tunnel and for the case in which a block-type building is placed in the test section. It
will be shown that the numerical wind tunnel can be used to assess the sensitivity of the flow conditions in the
test section to different wind tunnel features.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 WIND TUNNEL FACILITY, TEST SET-UP
Wind conditions in the test section of different AND RESULTS
wind tunnels are to a large extent dependent on a The thermal circuit of the Jules Verne climatic
number of geometrical wind-tunnel features. As a wind tunnel facility allows conducting full-scale
result, different results are obtained when the same experiments under a wide range of real-life climatic
wind tunnel experiment is executed in different wind conditions like rain, frost and snow (Gandemer
tunnels. Investigating these effects by means of 1992). The wind tunnel has a large test section of W
wind-tunnel research would require a considerable x H x L = 10 x 7 x 25 m³. At the test section inlet,
amount of wind-tunnel tests, with measurements at guide vanes, a roughness screen and a nozzle are
many positions in the test section. situated. These specific geometrical features
In the paper, the study of the influence of various generate a complex flow pattern in the test section.
geometrical features is performed by means of CFD Two sets of experiments were conducted. A first
(Computational Fluid Dynamics). As an example, series consists in measurements by means of an
the paper focuses on the Jules Verne wind-tunnel unidirectional hot wire anemometer at 48 points in
facility in Nantes (France), in which experimental the empty test section. The measurement data
data have been obtained. This is a closed-circuit revealed that the velocity profile was quite uniform
wind-tunnel with a very short fetch, for which the over the width of the test section. The corresponding
conventional CFD-approach is no longer applicable. turbulence profile deviates however strongly from
A new methodology is proposed. The entire wind the profiles usually found in the ABL. This is related
tunnel is modelled, whereby the fan is replaced by a to the nozzle geometry.
‘fan boundary condition’. Special attention is given The second set of experiments included wind
to the theoretical background and the practical use of velocity measurements around a block-type building
this type of boundary condition. The methodology is (WxDxH = 3x2x2 m³) positioned at 6 m from the
first validated and then applied to assess the nozzle exit. At 6 positions around the test building
sensitivity of the flow conditions in the test section ultrasonic anemometers were installed to monitor the
to different wind tunnel features. 3 components of the instantaneous velocity vector,
1
Ir. Peter Moonen, Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Belgium, e-mail
peter.moonen@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
2
Dr. Bert Blocken, Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Belgium, e-mail
bert.blocken@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
3
Prof. Dr. Staf Roels, Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Belgium, e-mail
staf.roels@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
4
Prof. Dr. Jan Carmeliet, Laboratory of Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Belgium, e-mail
jan.carmeliet@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
5
Prof. Dr. Jan Carmeliet, Building Physics Group, Faculty of Building and Architecture, T.U. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, e-mail
jan.carmeliet@bwk.kuleuven.ac.be
236
P. Moonen, B. Blocken, S. Roels, J. Carmeliet
yielding values of the mean velocity components and 5 APPLICATIONS
turbulence intensity. These measurements confirmed Two different sensitivity analyses are performed
the observations from the free-run experiments. for the case of the empty wind tunnel.
The first one focuses on the wind tunnel guide
3 NUMERICAL METHODOLOGY
vanes and their influence on the flow pattern. It can
Given the specific configuration of the Jules be expected that the angle at which the wind enters
Verne wind tunnel (ao. short fetch length) and the the test section is determined to a large extent by the
observed flow conditions (ao. deviating turbulence presence and orientation of the guide vanes.
profile), it is obvious that a conventional CFD Calculations show that for this particular wind
approach in which only the test section is modelled, tunnel, the vertical guide vanes are capable to change
is inadequate. An alternative approach is proposed. the angle of attack of the incident wind flow, but
The methodology is based on the conclusion that they are not able to make the velocity magnitude
the real operating point of a wind tunnel is uniform over the width of the test section.
determined by the intersection between the system The second analysis examines the impact of the
curve and the fan performance curve (Barlow 1999). roughness screen. It indicates that the blockage ratio
By modelling the wind tunnel geometry, we of the screen and the distribution of the bars over the
implicitly model the system curve, and we ensure height of the screen, determine the actual shape of
obtaining only physically possible results. The shape the velocity profiles found in the test section.
of the fan performance curve can be chosen
arbitrarily, without compromising the results. No 6 CONCLUSIONS
other boundary conditions have to be set. A new methodology to accurately model, simulate
and predict the flow conditions in the test section of
closed-circuit wind tunnels has been proposed. The
methodology was applied and validated for the
Thermal Circuit of the Jules Verne climatic wind
Maximal fan speed tunnel. It was shown that for the considered cases,
the simulation results generally reproduced the
Minimal fan speed measurements within 10% accuracy.
The methodology was successfully applied to
investigate the influence of the guiding vanes and the
Operating region roughness screen on the wind flow pattern in the test
section. As a result, it was shown that CFD can be
used as a wind-tunnel design tool, to improve the
configuration of the wind tunnel and to arrive at a
better control of the flow conditions in the test
section.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The financial support by IWT and FWO is
Figure 5: Graphical representation of the system curve, three
different fan performance curves and the corresponding gratefully acknowledged.
operating points. The authors want to express their gratitude to the
European Commission and to our partners in the
4 APPLICATION AND VALIDATION measurement project: Fabien van Mook (TU/e) and
Carl-Eric Hagentoft (Chalmers). Special appreciation
The proposed methodology was applied and
is also expressed to the CSTB.
validated for the Thermal Circuit of the Jules Verne
climatic wind tunnel, for the case of an empty test 8 REFERENCES
section and for the case of a block-type building
placed in the test section. The relative error between J. Gandemer, La soufflerie climatique “Jules
both datasets is generally less then 10%. This is Verne”, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
small compared to what one may expect from a k-İ Aerodynamics, 41-44 (1992) 43-54.
model, especially taking into account the multiple J.B. Barlow, W.H. Rae, A. Pope, Low-speed wind
flow separation in the wind tunnel and in particular tunnel testing. Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
at the nozzle entrance and exit. 1999.
237

H. Nakayama 1, T. Tamura2, Y.Okuda3
ABSTRACT : There is a possibility that the accidental spillage of hazardous materials and intentional release by
chemical and biological terrorism occur inside urban areas. Therefore, we previously performed LES(Large-
Eddy Simulation) for flow and plume dispersion in buildings-resolving urban model. However, the buildings-
resolving CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) model requires enormous computational time and memories.
Therefore, we apply a efficient numerical model to actual urban area where the effects of the unresolved build-
ings on flow and plume dispersion are treated as a drag force on a porous medium. That is generally called
‘canopy model’. Its applicability is investigated in comparison with the previous results for flow and dispersion in
actual urban area.
1 INTRODUCTION
There is a potential problem that the accidental spillage

for the transportation and storage of the materials and in- (3)
tentional release of toxic gas by biological and chemical
Fxi is modelled as follows:
terrorism occur in urban area. Therefore, we previously
1 2 2 2
performed LES for flow and plume dispersion in build- F xi = a C u u (u = u +v +w ) (4)
2 xi fi i
ings-resolving urban model and investigated the pattern of
the spatial distribution of concentration and occurrence of
Cfi and u are the drag coefficient and the absolute value
peak concentrations based on various kinds of surface
of instantaneous velocity, respectively. Here, Maruyama(1993)
roughness in urban canopy for safety analysis(Nakayama
reported the relationship between the effective roughness
and Tamura(2004)). However, the buildings-resolving CFD
volume(ρ:the ratio of the volume of an obstacle to volume)
model for the prediction of urban dispersion gives detailed and the drag coefficient by comparing computed results
results but the computational model requires enormous
with wind tunnel experimental results(Figure 1). Based on
computational time and memory. Therefore, we apply canopy
the relationship, we employ the value of the drag coeffi-
model(Hiraoka(1993), Maruyama(2004)) to buildings-re-
cient.
solving urban model and investigate the applicability of the
model, compared with the characteristics of flow and dis-
3 APPLICATION OF CANOPY MODEL TO ACTUAL
persion in the explicit urban model previously simulated
URBANAREA
where boundary conditions are imposed on the surfaces
of each building.
In the present study, we apply canopy model to only dense
built-up area and show two different methods for model-
2 COMPUTATIONAL MODEL FOR FLOW AND
ing urban surface roughness as follows;
PLUME DISPERSION IN URBAN CANOPY MODEL
Urban canopy model 1: Employ the values of the drag
The spatial average of the equations of continuity, the in-
coefficient and the frontal area density in the drag term
compressible Navier-Stokes and scalar conservation are
based on the estimation of each building lot area separated
presented as follows:
dense built-up area into two sites.
(1)
Urban canopy model 2: Employ the values of the drag
coefficient and the frontal area density in the drag term
based on the estimation of each local building lot area in a
(2) horizontal scale of 20m*20m.
1
Graduate Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology, e-mail: hiro_n@depe.titech.ac.jp
2
Prof. , Tokyo Institute of Technology, e-mail: tamura@depe.titech.ac.jp
3
Building Research Institute, e-mail: y_okuda@kenken.go.jp
238
H. Nakayama, T. Tamura, Y. Okuda
Fig.1 The drag coefficient as a

function of the effective rough-
ness volume (Maruyama,1993). (a)Buildings-resolving urban model (b)Urban canopy model 1 (c)Urban canopy model 2
Fig.2 Vertical profiles of mean velocity in urban models compared with the case
in buildings-resolving urban model.
-1.0
-5.0
H
F
Point G
source
(a)Buildings-resolving urban model (b)Urban canopy model 1 (c)Urban canopy model 2

Fig.3 The spatial distributions of mean concentration near the ground surface in urban models compared with the case in
buildings-resolving urban model.
4 COMPUTED FLOW AND DISPERSION FIELDS 5 CONCLUSION

IN URBAN CANOPY MODELS
We apply canopy model to buildings-resolving urban
Figure 2 shows vertical profiles of mean velocity in urban model and investigate the applicability of the model com-
canopy models compared with the case in buildings-re- pared with the characteristics of flow and dispersion in
solving urban model. Mean velocity profiles in urban canopy buildings-resolving urban model. As the results, it is clari-
model 1,2 show the distortion in the wake region of high- fied that we need to employ the values of the drag coeffi-
rise buildings(D,E) and good agreement with the power cient and the frontal area density in the drag term based on
law in a dense built-up area. These features are almost the estimation of the local arrangement of surface rough-
similar to those in buildings-resolving urban model. ness in actual urban area.
Figure 3 shows the spatial distributions of mean concen-
tration near the ground surface in urban canopy models, 6 REFERENCES
compared with the case in buildings-resolving urban model.
In urban canopy model 1, especially, the high concentra- Hiraoka,H.:Modelling of Turbulent Flows within Plant/Urban
tion region is not formed along street canyon and this dif- Canopies, J. Wind Eng. Ind.Aerodyn.,46&47,173-182(1993).
Maruyama,T:OptimizationofRoughnessParametersforStaggered
ference could be attributed to underestimation of the shel-
Arrayed Cubic Blocks Using Experimental Data, J.Wind.Eng.Ind.
tering effect of street canyon. On the other hand, in urban Aerodyn,46&47,165-171(1993).
canopy model 2, the magnitude of the lateral plume spread- Nakayama,H.and Tamura,T.: LES Analysis on Fluctuating Disper-
ing in dense built-up area and the spatial distribution pat- sion in Actual Urban Canopy, NATO Advanced Study Institute
tern of mean concentration in street canyon are almost PST.ASI.980064, 4-15 May,Kiev,Ukraine(2004).
corresponding to that of plume dispersion in buildings-re-
solving urban model.
239
M. Noda1, F. Nagao1, E. Arima2, T. Morita3, H. Utsunomiya1
ABSTRACT: A wind tunnel study has been carried out to investigate the effects of the slowly fluctuating wind
on the vortex-induced oscillation of a circular cylinder. Furthermore, the response in the slowly fluctuating
wind was estimated by the distribution of the logarithmic decrement according to the aerodynamic damping
force measured in uniform flow. As the result of this study, it was clarified that the effects of the velocity
fluctuation on the vortex-induced oscillation exists even if its period was much longer than the natural period
of the structure, especially, the slowly fluctuating wind changed a part of the damping forces into the exciting
force. Moreover, the results of the short-time Fourier transfer analysis of the fluctuating velocity in the wake
of the cylinder indicated that the causes of this phenomenon are the changing of the streaming speed of the
Kármán’s vortex and the intermittence of the lock-in state.
1 INTRODUCTION changed from 4.75 to 6.00, and the amplitude of wind
fluctuation, ∆V /∆V0 was changed from 0.1 to 0.4.
It is well known that the turbulence affects strongly
the aerodynamic stability of structures. Generally, 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
the turbulence flow in wind tunnel usually means the
wind velocity fluctuation with stationary central ve- The vortex-induced oscillation in the slowly fluctuat-
locity. However, the vortex-induced oscillation whose ing wind had a time-lag between the velocity and the
exciting force is very weak, needs a long time to be response amplitude as shown in Figure 2.
stationary response. It is uncommon that the wind 0.35
∆V0=1.75
speed in the natural wind keeps the constant value 0.30
for such long time. It had been imprecise whether 0.25

the slowly fluctuating wind affected the instability of 0.20
2η/D
structures even if its period was much longer than

0.15
the natural period of structures. In this study, the
0.10
effects of the slowly sinusoidal fluctuating wind on
the Kármán’s vortex-induced oscillation of a circular 0.05
cylinder was investigated by wind tunnel test. 0.00

3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
U/fD
2 EXPERIEMTAL SETUP Figure 1 Vortex-induced oscillation in uniform flow
The test model was a two-dimensional circular cylin-

der whose diameter, D was 60mm. This model
was supported by 8 coil springs as SDOF, with nat-
ural frequency, f =4.48Hz, mass, m=1.61kg, loga-
rithmic decrement, δ=0.0117, and Scruton number,
Sc = 2mδ/ρD2 =8.57. This model showed the vortex-
induced oscillation in the range of the reduced wind
speed U/f D from 4.5 to 6.25 as shown in Figure 1.
The velocity width of exciting region, ∆V0 , was 1.75.
The slowly sinusoidal fluctuating wind, whose pe-
riod, T was 40s, was generated by the active con- Figure 2 Example of the response in slowly fluctuating
trolled wind tunnel. The central velocity, Vc , was wind (Vc =5.0, ∆V /∆V0 =0.2)
1
Minoru Noda, Fumiaki Nagao, Hidehiko Utsunomiya, The University of Tokushima, e-mail tarda@ce.tokushima-u.ac.jp
2
Eichi Arima, Central Consultant Inc.
3
Tatsuya Morita, Wakayama Prefectural Office
240
M. Noda, F. Nagao, E. Arima, T. Morita, H. Utsunomiya
The relation between the velocity and the response this study, the changing of the streaming speed of
amplitude can be redrawn as the Lissajous curve as Kármán’s vortex plays an important role in slowly
shown in Figure 3. This figure indicates the results fluctuating wind. It is expected that the mechanism
when the central velocity changed with ∆V /∆V0 of the effects of the slowly fluctuating wind speed on
=0.2. It is found that the time-averaged amplitude cor- the motion-induced oscillation may not be equal to
responded to the amplitude for the same velocity in those for Kármán’s vortex induced oscillation. It is
uniform flow, but the Lissajous curve did not coincide necessary to investigate those for the motion-induced
with the V-A curve in uniform flow even if the period oscillations.
was much larger than the natural period of the model. 0.35
uniform flow
Its rotating direction changed from counter-clockwise 0.30 Vc=4.75
Vc=5.00
to clockwise according to the increase in Vc . When 0.25
Vc=5.25
Vc=5.50
Vc was smaller than the velocity with the maximum Vc=5.75
Vc=6.00
0.20
2η/D
amplitude in uniform flow, the rapid increase of the
0.15
amplitude could be seen immediately after entering
0.10
the damping region from the exciting region. In this
condition, the amplitude rapidly decreased when the 0.05
velocity approached minimum. On the other hand, the 0.00

3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Lissajous curves became flat according to the increase U/fD
in Vc .
Figure 3 Lissajous curves for ∆V /∆V0 = 0.2
The results when the ∆V /∆V0 changed with
Vc =5.0 is shown in Figure 4. This figure indicates 0.35
uniform flow
that the time-averaged amplitude decreased according 0.30 ∆V/∆V0=0.1
∆V/∆V0=0.2
to increase in ∆V /∆V0 and the rapid increase of the 0.25
∆V/∆V0=0.3
∆V/∆V0=0.4
amplitude existed in these curves immediately after 0.20
2η/D
the entering damping region from the exciting region.

0.15
The vertical component of fluctuating velocity,
w(t), in the wake of the cylinder was measured at the 0.10
point from 1.7D to clarify the flow condition around 0.05
the cylinder in slowly fluctuating wind. The records 0.00

3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
was analyzed by the Short Time Fourier Transfer U/fD
to calculate the power spectrum density, Sw (f ), and Figure 4 Lissajous curves for Vc /f D = 5.0
the phase difference, φw , between the motion of the
model and w(t), as shown in Figure 5. The dashed
line in the φw chart means the phase difference for the
same velocity in uniform flow.
It is obvious that the φw was larger than that in uni-
form flow when V (t) > Vc and φw was smaller than
that in uniform flow when V (t) < Vc . This behavior
of φw means that the streaming speed of Kármán vor-
tex was changing in sync with Vc . This figure shows
that the response amplitude rapidly increased when
Sw (f ) became weak and φw rapidly decreased imme-
diately after entering the damping region from the ex-
citing region. On the other hand, the frequency of the
maximum Sw (f ) was changing according to chang-
ing velocity while V (t) approached maximum veloc-
ity. This behavior of the frequency of the maximum
Sw means that the lock-in state was broken.
4 CONCLUSION
In this study, the effects of the slowly fluctuating wind
speed on Kármán’s vortex induced oscillation of the
circular cylinder was investigated. As the results of Figure 5 Sw (f ) and φw (Vc = 5.25, ∆V /∆V0 = 0.4)
241
K. Nozawa1, T. Tamura2
ABSTRACT: Large eddy simulations of spatially developing rough-wall turbulent boundary flows are per-
formed to study the effect of large-scale roughness elements (δ/h = 12 ∼ 14) on turbulence structure. From the
computed results, the turbulence structures such as turbulence intensity and integral scales of turbulence have
dependence on mean element separation distance in spite of same roughness density. This dependence extends
to the higher region (seven times higher than the roughness height), compared to the dependence, which can be
seen in boundary layers over relatively low roughness elements. The random roughness case clearly shows the
difference in the thickness of region where Reynolds stress is strong.
1 INTRODUCTION [Takiguchi et al (1998)] on local nearby region of the
roughness elements.
The effect of changing width and its mean separation
distance of roughness elements on the flow character-
3 COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
istics of turbulent boundary layers is studied numer-
ically using the method [Nozawa & Tamura (2001)] The computational domain for the simulations is
of simulating a spatially developing rough-wall turbu- 270h × 18h × 67h in streamwise, wall-normal and
lent boundary flow. It is still not clear how to predict spanwise directions, respectively, where h is the
the mean velocity profile and the turbulence structure height of the roughness element. Table 1 shows the
of an atmospheric boundary layer over an urban city roughness details of the computations. Equal-sized
from the geometric information of the buildings. In roughness elements are mounted on the surface in a
urban cities the size of buildings is too large and they regular array. The boundary layer thickness is about
distribute too random to assume to be a homogenous 10h ∼ 15h and which is relatively small comparing
texture rather than large roughness elements relative with past studies.
to the thickness of the boundary layer.
In this study mean and fluctuating velocities and Table 1 Details of roughness arrays
length scale of rough-wall turbulent boundary layers hx × hy × hz nx × ny λ D/h
were studied by changing the width and the mean sep- h × h × 0.57h 77×6 5.9% 3.1
aration distance of a uniformly distributed relative tall h × h × 1.0h 88×3 5.7% 4.1
roughness. h × h × 1.7h 51×3 5.7% 5.4
h × h × 2.3h 58×2 5.8% 6.2
2 SPATIALLY-DEVELOPING ROUGH-WALL
BOUNDARY LAYER SIMULATION 4 RESULTS
Large eddy simulation of zero-pressure-gradient spa- Mean streamwise velocity profiles normalized with
tially developing rough-wall turbulent boundary flows friction velocities and roughness lengths are com-
are computed using the technique of the quasi- pared between the computation cases. The roughness
periodic boundary condition [Lund et al. (1998)] length, z0 , is identified by fitting the profiles to the
which is extended to the rough-wall boundary flow logarithmic law. Early experimental studies showed
[Nozawa & Tamura (2001)]. In this technique the that at low roughness densities, z0 /h varies linearly
mid-section variables are rescaled according to the with λ and in the case cube roughness z0 /h almost
development ratio of the boundary layer thickness equal to λ. z0 /h are about 20% overestimated com-
along the streamwise direction and reintroduced paring with λ in all cases and the tendency that large
to the inflow. The roughness elements are real- D/h has large z0 /h, although the difference between
ized by several grid points using the CIP method the cases are small. The logarithmic layer of the mean
1
Kojiro Nozawa Dr. Eng., Shimizu Corporation., e-mail nozawa@shimz.co.jp
2
Prof. Tetsuro Tamura Ph.D., Tokyo Institute of Technology, e-mail tamura@depe.titech.ac.jp
242
K. Nozawa, T. Tamura
velocity profiles are almost lower than 4h in all four tion velocities against z/δ95 .
cases.
Figure 2 show the velocity fluctuation profiles be-
tween the computation cases. The streamwise veloc-
ity profiles only collapse at the region z > 0.6δ95 and

this is much higher than the upper limit of a logarith-
" $ &
mic layer determined by the mean streamwise veloc- ( $ &
ity profiles.

* $ (
- $ /
The production terms of turbulent kinetic energy

budget have strong relation with Reynolds stress. The
scatter of Reynolds stress profiles beyond upper limit

of a logarithmic layer cause the scatter of σu profiles
at the region (see figure 3). Figure 4 shows the peak
frequency of the spectra normalized by U (z) for fluc-

tuation streamwise velocities against z/h. The wide

spacing of roughness elements would generate large Figure 3 Reynolds stress u w profiles normalized with
scale turbulence motion in roughness sublayer. The friction velocities against z/δ95
difference between the cases extend far above the log-
arithmic layer as same as that we found in σu profiles.
2 4 6 8 : < >

2 4 6 8 ? < >

2 4 6 8 A < ?

2 4 6 8 C < E

! # % & (

! # * & (

! # , & *
! # / & 0
1 3 5 7 1 : ;

" # & ( * , . 0

Figure 4 Peak frequency of spectra for fluctuating stream-

Figure 1 Mean velocity profiles normalized with friction wise velocity against z/h
velocities and roughness length
5 REFERENCES
Lund, T. S., Wu, X. and Squires, K. D. (1998), Genera-

tion of Turbulent Inflow Data for Spatially-Developing

Boundary Layer Simulations, Journal of Computational

Physics 140, pp.233–258

Nozawa, K., and Tamura, T. (2001), Simulation of Rough-

#

$
"
wall Turbulent Boundary Layer for LES Inflow Data,
Proc. of Turbulent Shear Flow Phenomena ,
Raupach, M. R., Thom, A. S. and Edwards, I. (1980), A
Wind-Tunnel Study of Turbulent Flow Close to Regu-

larly Arrayed Rough Surface, Boundary-Layer Meteo-

rology 18, pp.373–397

Takiguchi, S., Kajishima, T. and Miyake, Y. (1998), Nu-
%

&
merical Scheme to Resolve the Interaction between
Solid-Particles and Fluid-Turbulence, Trans. of the
Figure 2 Velocity fluctuation profiles normalized with fric- Japan Society of Mech. Eng. 64, no.625, pp.2804–2810
243
J. Náprstek1, S. Pospı́šil1, S. Hračov1
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the aeroelastic instability and non-linear post-critical behaviour of a two
degree-of-freedom system. The main goal of the study is an introduction of a realistic non-linear theoreti-
cal model making possible a detection and detailed non-linear analysis of postcritical states of an aeroelastic
system. The two component self-induced vibration of the body is described by a system of two simultaneous non-
linear differential equations. The coupling of the resultant motion is due to linear and non-linear aeroelastic
effects only, while the elastic forces are taken independent. Differential system is autoparametric and represents
a combination of Rayleigh or Van der Pol with Duffing types of differential equations. The qualitative analysis is
based on uplift coefficients and torsional moments as functions of air flow velocity and structural response com-
ponents. The effects of nonlinearities are verified experimentally by the new generation experimental technique
allowing excessive structural response.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 ANALYTICAL MODEL
Structural aeroelasticity spans from simple low- The theoretical model of the system response with
dimensional models to very sophisticated compu- two degrees of freedom representing an interaction of
tational approximations using computational fluid- bending and torsion of a slender beam vibrating in a
dynamics [Scanlan (1992)]. More recent studies have cross flow in pre- and post-critical states is materi-
begun to focus on the nonlinear effects on dynamic alised by nonlinear differential system:
behaviour in order to fill the gap between theoret-
ical knowledge based on the linear models and ex- ü + 2ωbu u̇ + ωu2 u = F (u̇, u, ϕ̇, ϕ, t)
periments. It is more obvious that the problem must (1)
ϕ̈ + 2ωbϕ ϕ̇ + ωϕ2 ϕ = M (u̇, u, ϕ̇, ϕ, t)
be formulated in nonlinear state to examine also
the response characteristics in the post-critical state
where F (t) = F (u̇, u, ϕ̇, ϕ, t), M (t) = (u̇, u, ϕ̇, ϕ, t)
[Naprstek (2000)]. This applies primarily to the prob-
are aeroelastic forces being functions of the response
lem of the possible restabilisation of the movement
components and explicit time. In principal these func-
after the passage through bifurcation points.
tions can be written in a form of polynomials of re-
From the point of view of the analytical mechan- sponse components including the full linear part and
ics the mathematical models suffer mostly from their non-linear part approximated by complete forms of
obvious or hidden linear character. These popular ap- individual degrees. Basically only the third degree
proaches are able to give an answer to well known form is meaningful as higher degrees are hardly to be
engineering problems under severe assumptions con- identified experimentally and problematic from phys-
cerning the response time history, obvious geomet- ical point of view. Also even degree forms can be
rical configuration and small amplitudes of the re- avoided for physical reasons. Finally the following
sponse. Although a few of them are able to predict general form of aeroelastic forces can be adopted:
some lower limits of aeroelastic stability loss they
avoid any possibility to investigate the post-critical
2 2
behaviour which is of strongly non-linear charac- F =KF 1 − βuu u − βuϕ ϕ
ter. The detailed knowledge of the post-critical state,
however, is very important being decisive from the buu u̇ + buu ϕ̇ + cuu u + cuϕ ϕ (2)
viewpoint of a possible secondary restabilisation due
to non-linear effects. Consequently the conventional 2 2
linear model are hardly acceptable and true non-linear M =KM 1 − βϕu u − βϕϕ ϕ

approaches should be developed.
− bϕu u̇ + bϕϕ ϕ̇ − cϕu u + cϕϕ ϕ (3)
In the same time a new generation of an experi-
mental set-up allowing excessive structural response
has been developed and introduced. It should serve Coefficients K are quadratic functions of wind ve-
for a close feedback with theoretical investigation. locity KF = 1/2mρV 2 .2d and KM = 1/2JρV 2 .2d2 .
1
Ing. Jiřı́ Náprstek, Stanislav Pospı́šil, Stanislav Hračov, Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Academy of Sciences of
the Czech Republic, e-mail naprstek@itam.cas.cz, pospisil@itam.cas.cz, hracov@itam.cas.cz
244
J. Náprstek, S. Pospı́šil, S. Hračov
Together with coefficients bij , cij , βij they should be adopted in order to meet high level non-linearity re-
identified experimentally. quirements i.e. excessively high rotation (up to 90
The system (2), (3) represents a synthesis of gen- degrees) and heave (double-amplitude up to 20 times
eralised Van der Pol or Reyleigh and Duffing types larger than the key dimension of a model). The pa-
of non-linear equations in particular its deterministic rameters like mass, moment of inertia, stiffness and
version. From physical point of view the above model the frequencies can be set up deliberately with very
separates aeroelastic effects into two groups (i) lin- high precision.
ear being represented by non-conservative and gyro-
scopic forces producing non-symmetric character of
the operator and (ii) third degree being responsible for
the system behaviour in the post-critical state.
The model proposed provides many informa-
tion inaccessible when non-linear effects are disre-
garded. For instance see the Fig. 1 demonstrat-
ing bifurcation diagram of the displacement u as
the function of the mean velocity of air stream.
Figure 2 Experimental set-up used for the measurements of

aeroelastic behaviour of two degrees-of-freedom system.
The vertical motion is controlled by a kinemati-
cal mechanism hinged at the stiff clamped frame. The
heave motion of the model is kept vertical by means
Figure 1 Bifurcation diagram for the displacement. of specially designed gearing gadget. Rotation of the
model is controlled by another transmission system
Two pitchfork bifurcation points are encountered and it is independent because the model is posed on
when increasing the KF or the wind velocity. In in- the roller bearing. The heave frequencies are adjusted
(1)
terval KF ∈ (0; KF ) stable trivial solution implies by way of sliding clamps that set up the length of tor-
stable response of the structure. Increase of KF be- sional springs. it allows low mechanical damping in
yond the first bifurcation point leads to instable triv- both degrees of freedom, that can be adjusted by the
ial solution and a couple of stable non-trivial solution special small air damper.
representing a post-critical restabilisation due to non- Basically this stand has been made to be used for
(1)
linear effects in the damping KF and in the stiffness the bluff sectional model of a rectangular beam, how-
(2) ever a model of any shape can be fixed to the mech-
KF described by a formula:
anism very easily in the quickest way. Pressures and
1 response can be measured in usual way.
KF cuu − ωu2 2
v=0; u=± (4)
KF βuu cuu 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is evident that the stable solutions indicated have The support of the Grant Agency of the Czech Re-
a tendency to coincide and to approach to a horizon- public under grants No. 103/05/2396, A2071401 and
tal asymptote for KF → ∞ or wind speed increasing AV0720710524 research plan are gratefully acknowl-
beyond any limits. edged. The text has been typeset by LATEX processor.
3 EXPERIMENTAL MODEL 5 REFERENCES

Dealing with experiments in aeroelasticity has been Náprstek, J. 2000. Nonlinear stability of flutter-type vibra-
focused for the long time on gaining of the knowl- tion in wind. In: S. Ziada and T. Staubli (eds) Proc.
edge of so-called aeroelastic derivatives and on the 7th International Conference on Flow-Induced Vibra-
determining of critical state. From the point of view tion FIV2000, 19-22 June 2000: Lucerne, Switzerland:
of basic research as well as from the perspective of 445-454: Balkema, Rotterdam
Pospı́šil S., Náprstek, J., (2003). Aeroelastic stability of
the structural serviceability and lifetime, it is interest-
a beam with rectangular cross-section. In: C. Letch-
ing however to get information predominantly about ford and K.Mehta (eds) Proc. of 11th World Confer-
the behaviour of the system in postcritical state. ence on Wind Engineering, Lubbock, Texas, USA, vol.
For this purpose a new generation mechanical 2, pp. 501-2511
device which allows to mechanically decouple both Scanlan R. H., Problematics in formulation of wind-force
degrees of freedom has been proposed in previous models for bridge decks, J. Eng. Mechanics ASCE, 119
research [Pospisil (2003)]. Recently, it has been (1992), 1353-1375.
245
Development of typhoon simulation technique

- Toward estimation of typhoon risk in Japan
T. Okazaki1, H. Watabe2, T. Ishihara3
ABSTRACT: The purpose of developing a typhoon model for risk estimation is in order to predict the total
insured loss due for each typhoon. Therefore gate model is proposed, as it simulates the tracking of the
typhoon from the generation to its disappearance. However, this model requires a long-time simulation, the
accuracy cannot be maintained at a far point. In addition, it is necessary to improve a method that predicts a
surface wind speed. In this study, the typhoon model that improves the decay rate of central pressure
difference for a long-time simulation and introduce Ishihara model for evaluating the surface wind speed was
developed.
1 INTRODUCTION on the necessity to evaluate the insured loss for each
Approximately 2.5 typhoons land in Japan every typhoon, and this model is improved by the
year, and recently the insured loss is increasing. In calibration of the decay rate of central pressure
particular, Typhoon Mireille caused the domestic difference. Moreover, the technique of evaluating a
insurance companies to pay 567.9 billion yen surface wind speed of gate model is improved.
(approximately $5.67.9 billion); this was the highest It is the first time to introduce into the Ishihara
payment in the world at that time. model for gate model. The relational expression by
A movement to evaluate the typhoon risk by the Ishihara(1996) can evaluates the difference of the
typhoon simulation rose rapidly after Typhoon form of the land as a roughness parameter, and
Mireille, and now insurance companies frequently enables the evaluation of the surface wind speed
use simulation data in examination. which influences of the roughness. The roughness
The typhoon simulation model using Monte Carlo database is set from the land use data of
can be roughly categorized into three types, and we Geographical Survey Institute.
have termed these as site limited model, full track
model, and gate model(Figure 1) in this study
Figure 1 Gate model (typhoons generate on the coast line) Figure 2 The example of roughness length distribution
Gate model is the technique for simulating the 2 TYPHOON SIMULATION MODEL
typhoon from its generating using gates set along the
coastlines. Fujii and Mitsuta(1986) proposed to set The probability distribution of typhoon parameters
the gate along the coastlines of Japan and evaluate (translation velocity of typhoon, central pressure
the landing typhoon. However, the accuracy at the difference, approach angle, the position of typhoon,
points for a long-time simulation is not sufficiently the radial maximum wind) are defined by 181
advanced. In this study, we select gate model based typhoons that passed over the mainland coastline in
1
MSc, Research Engineer, Tokio Marine & Nichido Risk Consulting Co., Ltd., e-mail t.okazaki@tokiorisk.co.jp
2
Manager, Tokio Marine & Nichido Risk Consulting Co., Ltd., e-mail h.watabe@tokiorisk.co.jp
3
Associate Prof. Eng. Ph.D., University of Tokyo, e-mail ishihara@bridge.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
246
T. Okazaki, H. Watabe, T. Ishihara
1932-2003. Random numbers were generated to of Typhoon Bart, the locations of observation are
follow the probability distribution by the Monte Ooita and Miyakonojo, and the observation time is
Carlo simulation. 1-10 o'clock September 24, 1999.
The surface wind speed means 10-minute mean
3. VALIDATION OF THE MODEL wind speed to which a regional influence is
3.1 Validation of gradient-level wind speed smoothed.
The gradient wind speed obtain by the simulation
was compared with the gradient wind speed by the
past typhoons. The gradient wind speed of the past
typhoons was calculated by substituting the
parameters of past typhoons for the Georgiou's
expression.
The maximum gradient wind speed in every year
to the standard variable is shown in Figure 3-4.
About 25,000 typhoons have been generated, and
10,000-year simulation was performed. The standard
variable is equivalent to the return period of time, is
expressed by ln ln 1 Fv , where Fv is the
excess probability of year. Figure 5 The track of Bart and the locations of observation
As a result, the excess probability distributions of
simulation match well with that of observation. The comparison present in Table 1, the expression
KANAZAWA of the comparison is as follows.
1 n
60
Histrical Typhoon error ¦
nt1
Yt Yˆt
2

50
Simulated Typhoon
Wind speed (m/s)
40
Table 1 Comparison the maximum surface wind speed
Typhoon & Station Ishihara Model Error Gradient Model Error
30
TY9119(1991)
SASEBO 11.2 61.9
20
MAKURAZAKI 4.8 7.1
TY9918(1999)
10
OOITA 9.8 40.5
MIYAKONOZYOU 24.5 43.3
0
TY9807(1998)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 KYOTO 13.2 29.6
-ln(-ln(1-Fv)) HIMEJI 9.1 12.0
Figure 3 Comparison of the gradient wind speed in Kanazawa
SENDAI
60 4. CONCLUSIONS
Histrical Typhoon
50
Simulated Typhoon
The gate typhoon simulation model applied
Ishihara model was developed, and the surface wind
Wind speed (m/s)
40
speed can be evaluated for each site corresponding to
30 the roughness length.
20 Gate model needs a long-time simulation, and the
accuracy at the points for a long-time simulation is
10
not sufficiently advanced. Therefore, this model is
0 improved the attenuation rate of the central pressure
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-ln(-ln(1-Fv))
difference after typhoon landed by the calibration
with the observations.
Figure 4 Comparison of the gradient wind speed in Sendai
The past three typhoons were simulated, and it
3.2 Validation of maximum surface wind speed was confirmed that Ishihara model is more accuracy
The surface wind speed obtained by the simulation then Gradient model in all observations.
was verified by the observation of typical past
typhoons. Typhoons are chosen by the insured loss,
Mireille in 1991, Bart in 1999, Vicki in 1998. In case
247
A two-degree of freedom flexible support for wind tunnel modeling

of tall buildings
M. G. K. Oliveira¹, A. M. Loredo-Souza²
ABSTRACT: A flexible support to test scaled models of tall structures, aiming at the prediction of the r.m.s.
parcel of the wind induced response in two fundamental modes is proposed. This support can be used in tests
of models with different geometries, and allows the adjustment, with great simplicity, of structural damping,
stiffness and inertia, in each direction individually. The results obtained in wind tunnel tests of the CAARC
standard tall building are consistent with those reported by other researchers.
1 INTRODUCTION 3 RESULTS VERIFICATION

To verify if the equipment worked correctly and
The conventional “stick” model was one of the
if the results obtained with it were consistent, wind
first techniques employed in boundary layer tunnel
tunnel tests with a rigid scaled model of the CAARC
dynamic tests of tall buildings, using rigid timber
standard tall building were conduced. The results
models. It has been successfully used by many
achieved were compared with the ones published by
researchers, but it has the disadvantage of being
Melbourne (1984) and Thepmongkorn et al. (1999)
incapable to simulate the coupled translational-
after dynamic analysis of the same building.
torsional motion.
The tests were conduced over a range of reduced
More recent studies aim at the simulation of the
velocity (mean wind speed at top of the model
complex motion. This work is a first step to the
divided by the product of the natural frequency and
development of an alternative technique for
the largest horizontal dimension of the model) 1,5-
predictions of the complex motion induced by wind
17, simulating two natural winds. The first simulated
on tall buildings. At this phase, the objective is the
wind was characterized by power law-exponent of
prediction of the r.m.s. parcel of the wind induced
the mean wind speed profile D = 0,19 and turbulence
response in two fundamental modes.
intensity at top of model IU § 4,6%, whereas the
2 THE PROPOSED MECHANISM second wind had D = 0,23 and IU § 4,0%. During the
tests, the model was set in two different positions,
The two-degree of freedom flexible support for shown in figure 2:
wind tunnel modeling of tall buildings proposed in 75,00
112,50
50
00
this work has a stainless steel structure, and can be

,
75,
112
described like this: two orthogonal axles that turn

around the same point. It’s possible to adjust WIND WIND
structural damping, stiffness and inertia in each

direction individually.
Z Y X
X Y
SPRING WIND O° WIND 9O°
SPRING Figure 2 – Tests positions.

X Y
In figure 3 it’s shown the comparison between the
SPRING
DAMPERS
SPRING deflections obtained with the proposed mechanism
for wind 0° and the correspondent ones published by
Figure 1 – Perspective view of the two-degree of freedom
the other researchers. The displacements were
support for wind tunnel modeling of tall buildings. normalized by the corresponding building model
dimension, and presented as a function of the
reduced velocity. It should be noticed that the tests
conditions of these three works were not the same.
The wind simulated by Melbourne (1984) had power
1
Eng. Mario Gustavo Klaus Oliveira, M.Sc. a, mgklausoliveira@aol.com
2
Prof. Eng. Acir Mércio Loredo-Souza, Ph.D. a, acir@ufrgs.br
a
Laboratório de Aerodinâmica das Construções, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. – Av. Osvaldo Aranha nº 99/305
90035-190 – Porto Alegre – RS – Brasil – Fone: +55-51-3316-7145 – Fax: +55-51-3316-7146
248
M.G.K. Oliveira, A.M. Loredo-Souza
law-exponent of the mean wind speed profile D = occurred to wind 90°. An exception occurs in 3(b):
0,28, while Thepmongkorn et al. (1999) used 0,15, the peaks obtained in this figure are more
representing an open terrain. About the turbulence accentuated than the ones published by
intensity at top of model, both Melbourne (1984) Thepmongkorn et al. (1999), and that can be
and Thepmongkorn (1999) used 10%. explained due the fact that the bigger the
longitudinal turbulence intensity is, the smaller the
cross-wind displacement due to vortex shedding are.
Another exception can be noticed in figure 3(a): an
unexpected peak was observed in the 0,23 wind
curve near the reduced velocity 10. At the same
reduced velocity peaks can also be observed in the
0,19 wind curve and in Thepmongkorn et al. (1999)
responses, but they are smaller. This reduced
velocity is the critical value for the peak in the cross-
wind r.m.s. responses, shown in figure 3(b). So, like
Thepmongkorn et al. (1999) also observed, this
unexpected peak is probably the result of coupling
caused by energy being transferred from the cross-
wind direction to the along-wind direction, due to
the coincidence in the natural frequencies of the
building model in those two principal directions.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Tests of the CAARC standard tall building were
conduced, from which could be concluded that the
technique proposed is consistent, once the responses
obtained with it are similar to the results published
by others researchers. The frequencies of the models
can be easily regulated, each direction
independently, switching the stiffness of the springs.
Like the frequencies, the structural damping can also
be adjusted, each direction independently, by
changing the number of plates, their size, the depth
they go into the liquid, or the liquid viscosity.
5 REFERENCES
ASSOCIAÇÃO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TÉCNICAS
Norma Brasileira NBR-6123 (NB-599): Forças devidas ao
vento em edificações. Rio de Janeiro: 1988. 88p.
ISYUMOV, N. Wind Tunnel Modeling for Civil Engineering
Applications. In: INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON
WIND TUNNEL MODELING CRITERIA AND
TECHNIQUES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
APPLICATIONS, 1982, Gaithersburg – Maryland.
Proceedings… New York: Cambridge University Press,
1982. p. 373-407.
KWOK, K.C.S.; LAKSHMANAN, N.; DONOVAN, P.F.
Development of a special base hinge assembly for stick
models, Report PROJ. UNDP/IND/91/011, Structural
Engineering Research Centre, Madras, India, Dezembro,
1994.
MELBOURNE, W.H. Comparison of measurements on the
CAARC standard tall building model in simulated wind
flows. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, Amsterdam, v. 6, p. 73-88, 1980.
Figure 3 – Responses at top of the model as function of THEPMONGKORN, S.; KWOK, K.C.S.; LAKSHMANAN,
reduced velocity – wind 0°: (a) along-wind; (b) cross-wind. N. A two-degree-of-freedom base hinged aeroelastic (BHA)
It can be noticed that the responses obtained to model for response predictions. Journal of Wind
both simulated winds, in both directions, are similar Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Amsterdam, v.
83, p. 171-181, 1999.
to the records of the other authors. The same
249
Systemic analysis function of automation and regulation of a wind

turbine
A. Ouelbani1, Y. Abdellaoui, Y. Gritli , S. Ben Ezzine
ABSTRACT: In the framework of its national energy policy, Tunisia reserved a particular place to the
promotion of renewable energies and notably to wind power. A pilot station of 19,28 MW was installed in Sidi
Daoud at Northern East of Tunisia. Moreover, a Federate Research Program (PRF) on wind systems was
defined and the topic "Analyzes current technology in order to develop a local industry" was selected.
A participative methodology based on TQM approach was adopted to define the Project implying 5 Research
teams, 3 public structures (National Agency of Energies Control ANME, Tunisian Company of Electricity and
Gas STEG and the National Institute of Meteorology INM) and one private company.
We present in this paper the systemic methodology adopted to analysis the production chain of the Wind
turbine and function of automation and regulation to control and supervise the Power station operation.
The systemic methods used are SADT (Structured Analysis Design Technical) and PPO (Planning Projects by
Objectives).
1 CONTEXT In this framework, and to reply to its public

Tunisia, from its geographical situation, has an service mission, the STEG has realized in 2000 the
interesting wind potential particularly for the coastal 1st wind park pilot at Sidi Daoud. This park,
and central areas. connected to the MT electrical network, is
According to studies made with the INM [3], the constituted initially by 32 Wind turbine (typical AE-
wind resources vary from one area to another, they 32 of 330kW power). An implantation of 10
are approximately 900 kWh/m2 / year in the North. machines (AE-46, 660kW), a machine AE-52
The map of the wind layer (Fig.1) illustrates the (800kW) and an other of 1320 kW has been realized
most exposed areas with the wind, it concerns in 2003 ; the installed total power has then reached
regions of the Cap-Bon, Bizerte, Thala, Monastir and 19,28 MW. The table Tab1 indicates the distribution
Gabès. of the power of the park of this Central according to
the installed machine type as well as the contribution
of each type.
Table 1 Contribution of the Wind turbines of Sidi Daoud park

Type Nb Unit Power Total Power
(kW) (kW) %
AE-32 32 330 10560 54.77
AE-46 10 660 6600 34.24
AE-52 1 800 800 4.15
AE-61 1 1320 1320 6.84
Total 44 19280 100
The objective of the realization of this Power

station pilot is to acquire an experiment and
knowledge to make in the field of the wind power.
In order to achieve the political goal to cover 12%
of the national electricity production by renewable
energies in the year 2010, STEG has done a study
Figure 1 Tunisian wind Potential about the realization of two other wind parks (20
1
ESSTT, 5 Avenue Taha Hussein Montfleury 1008, Tunisia E-mail: mohamed.annabi@esstt.rnu.tn
250
A. Ouelbani, Y. Abdellaoui, Y. Gritli , S. Ben Ezzine
MW in Cap-Serrat - Bizerte and 40 MW in Sidi 6 CONCLUSION
Abderrahmen - Cap Bon). The use of method of hierarchical analysis SADT for
The aims of the Federate Research Program the decomposition of the various complex structures
(PRF) founded in 2002 by the Secretariat of State to
of the Wind turbine in simple elements has
Scientific Research and Technology is to develop facilitated the comprehension of the operating modes
renewable energies knowledge and a particular and allowed us to determine various constraints of
interest was accorded to wind energy. Two topics
exploitation.
was defined : the first is on the analysis of The treatment of the information matrix defined
technology in order to develop a local industry, the in analysis PPO allowed us to appreciate :
second is about the development of a dispatching
model integrating wind central. • The criticality of the parameters of the functions
of control and operation thus allowing to identify
2 ANALYSIS PROCESS OF THE the various charts necessary for the operation of
CONNECTION OF THE WIND TURBINE TO the Wind turbine (management of alarms, power
THE ELECTRICAL NETWORK supply, loading of the limit functioning,
The 32 aero generators AE-32 of the Power station acquisition and stocking of data, orders relays)
of Sidi Daoud are gathered in 8 units constituted • Relations between the activities or the structures,
each by 4 machines (Fig.2). and are connected to a • Sources of information (interns or externals),
transformer post assuring the connection with the • The way in which information is exploited to be
electrical network ; all others Wind turbines (AE-46, ensured of the Quality of the information system
AE-52 and AE-61) are provided individually with a
Finally, the goal of this study is to optimize the
transformer directly coupled with the network.
information system of the Wind turbine in order to
minimize the losses of production occurring after
each stop and this by implementing adequate
software of control and operation.
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] A. OUELBANI, "Analyse de l'exploitation énergétique de
la centrale éolienne de Sidi Daoud",DESS, Faculté des
Sciences de Tunis, juin 2003.
[2] M. ANNABI, "Approche systémique de l’entreprise",
Cours, INSAT, 2001
[ANN 03] M. ANNABI, " PIPO étendue : Méthode Intégrée de
Spécification, de Développement et d’Implémentation de
Projet MISDIP ", STA’2003 Sousse décembre 2003.
[3] Revue de l’Electricité et du Gaz N°8, "Les énergies
renouvelables et les techniques nouvelles, créneau
promoteurs pour la Tunisie", mai 2000.
[4] Administration Générale de la Coopération au
Développement, Manuel pour l’application de la
«Planification des Interventions Par Objectifs (PIPO)»,
2ème Edition, Bruxelles 1991.
[5] Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, ZOPP in
Brief, Eschborn, Germany, 1988.
[6] Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, Methods and
Instruments for Project Planning and Implementation,
Eschborn, Germany1991.
Figure 2 - Scheme of the wind Central of Sidi Daoud
251
R.N. Pavlovskiy1, P.N. Vinogradskiy2, S.G. Kuznetsov3, P.V. Artamonov4
ABSTRACT: In the present economic situation of Ukraine in the practice of town planning the projects con-
cerning the densification of the built-up area can be often found. As a rule these projects solve the tasks of
placing a new tall building among the existing low ones. The main part of the dwelling buildings under
exploitation have the natural ventilation system. In the Building Codes of Ukraine the factors of calculation
and planning of the natural ventilation systems are not taken into consideration. The experiments in the
boundary layer wind tunnel study the distributions of the wind pressures on the roof surfaces of low buildings
due to the effect of a tall building. The research concerned two variants of the built-up areas with a tall
building in the summer and winter seasons, the air flow direction changed in the range from 0q – 360q. The
results obtained allowed to make the conclusions concerning the regimes of natural ventilation in low
buildings and the possibility to place a tall building close to them.
1 INTRODUCTION 2.1 Wind tunnel

At present the research publications often touch the The open-circuit wind tunnel type TAD-2 of Na-
subject of wind loads which influence the building in tional Aviation University with octagonal cross-
the urban terrain (Plate & Kiefer, 2001; Plate & section 4 m u 2.5 m (the width u the height) and
Davenport, 1995; Khanduri et al., 1998; Stathopou- 5.5m long. The maximum air flow velocity in the
los, 1984; Yahyai et al., 1992; Chang & Meroney, working part is up to 42 m/s, total wind tunnel power
2001; Sagrado et al., 2002). The given problem is in is 660 kW. The air in the wind tunnel is set into mo-
the process of study today due to the great number of tion by 12 ventilators.
factors and conditions created by urban terrain. 2.2 The wind tunnel arrangement for wind engi-
The aim of the research is to determine the effi- neering
ciency of natural ventilation systems of low build-
ings under the influence of a closely located tall The wind tunnel TAD-2 was designed for the aero-
building. nautic purposes, that is why its working part is not
In the given investigation a new task is set, long enough.
whether it is possible to work for the natural ventila- For the experimental meteorological study, wind
tion systems in the regime of air removal in low tunnel TAD-2 was equipped with a ground plate,
buildings, placed in the close proximity of a tall part of which was moved ahead in the contraction of
building. This task is determined by the modern de- wind tunnel. In the contraction low flows shear off
velopment of Ukrainian building industry. during the streamlining round the front part of
ground plate, it is for this purpose placed lower that
the central axe of wind tunnel. It creates the initial
2 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
formation of boundary layer similar to a barrier in
The studies were carried with the help of model ex- common meteorological wind tunnel. The front part
periments in the wind tunnel. The experiments were of the ground plate was made in the form of wedges,
carried in the aerodynamic laboratory of National playing the part of vortex generators. For the varia-
Aviation University, the department of aerodynamics tion of turbulence intensity and boundary layer
(Kyiv, Ukraine). thickness the wedges may change their height due to
the turning around the axis perpendicular to the wind
flow direction. Farther after the quoins on the fixed
part of the ground plate there is a barrier and rough-
ness elements.
1
Ph.D., Department of Aerodynamics, Aerospace Institute, National Aviation University, e-mail aerodyn@nau.edu.ua
2
Ph.D., Department of Mechanics, Aerospace Institute, National Aviation University, e-mail aerodyn@nau.edu.ua
3
Ph.D., Civil Engineering Institute, Donbass National Academy Civil Engineering and Architecture, e-mail wind@dgasa.dn.ua
4
Ing., ANTONOV Aviation Science and Technical Complex, e-mail aerodyn@nau.edu.ua
252
R.N. Pavlovskiy, P.N. Vinogradskiy, S.G. Kuznetsov, P.V. Artamonov
2.3 Boundary layer Certain increase of pressure on the roofs of low
buildings correlate with the simultaneous increase of
The distribution of the air flow velocity in height is
wind pressure on the side walls, as the result the heat
presented by the power function.
loss is possible in some corresponding flats. The
The maximum value of the turbulence intensity
other examples of the wind pressure increase on the
reached 40%. The modelling boundary layer thick-
roofs of low buildings in winter conditions are com-
ness in the wind tunnel was G = 1.4 ɦ and Reb | 105.
pensated by the large differences in the density of
warm (flat) and cold (outside) air.
2.4 Models
The experiments were carried out on the basis of 5 CONCLUSIONS
three similar changing built-up areas in Donetsk
The experimental results confirmed once more the
(Ukraine). In the centre of each built-up area a single
importance of the interference studies in the urban
19, 22 and 25-storeyed building was placed (height
development, particularly the effect of a tall building
57, 63 and 75 m correspondingly) among approxi-
on wind loads and other factors connected with these
mately equal in height 5-storeyed (about 16 m) 7 – 9
phenomena.
existing buildings. The maximum height of a tall
The attention should be paid to the following fac-
building in the scale was 0.42 – 0.5 m.
tors:
The models of low buildings were equipped with
1) upstream the tall building the high pressure
the devices imitating ventilation systems, which
region appears which leads to the decrease of
came forward over the roof surface.
air flow velocity in ventilation canals of the
low buildings. This effect is especially evident
3 SPECIAL ASPECTS OF RESEARCH on the parts of low buildings which are the
The program of aerodynamic researches of built-up nearest to the tall building;
area scale models in the wind tunnel TAD-2 in- 2) if the wind is alongside the bigger side of a
cluded the measurement of wind pressure coeffi- the above-mentioned region of high pressure
cients Cp on the exits of ventilation canal and side becomes minimal, which gives the opportu-
walls of low buildings situated next to the tall build- nity of a tall building location in close prox-
ing. imity to the existing low buildings;
The process of wind pressure measurement, its 3) if the wind is perpendicular to the bigger side
turning into electric signal, processing and reflection of a tall building, the upstream high-pressure
of the obtained results were automatised with the region increases, which doesn’t allow the
help of “Drainage” system, designed by ANTONOV close location of a tall building;
Aviation Science and Technical Complex and 4) a certain amount of trees is higher than low
“Drainage-M” designed by National Aviation Uni- buildings, which leads to the decrease of effi-
versity. ciency of low buildings ventilation system;
5) on the surfaces and parts of surfaces of low
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION buildings in close proximity to a tall building
were noticed large changes of pressure coeffi-
The analysis of the obtained experimental results for
cients. These phenomena had local character
four configuration variants allows to come to the fol-
and they were considered separately and taken
lowing conclusions.
into account in design;
In the given location of low buildings in built-up
6) visualization of the flow around the buildings
areas in their central parts in the presence of trees
showed that around the buildings there are
(“summer”) and in the absence of trees (“winter”)
complex non-stable three-dimensional vortex
with and without a tall buildings on more than 80
flows and large regions of shear flows.
models of ventilation canals’ cross sections in each
The experimental researches confirmed the neces-
pressure tap the considerable changes of air pressure
sity of the detailed design when changing the exist-
coefficients were registered due to wind effect.
ing built-up areas.
A tall building partially changes the pressure dis-
tribution on the roofs of surrounding low buildings.
253
M. Pawlak1, A. MĊĪyk2
ABSTRACT: Blades from Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine are modelled as tapered beams. The aerodynamic,
gravity and shear centers are not lying on one line. In dynamics of blade the vibrations will be the
superposition of bending and torsion. Including aerodynamic damping phenomena cause blade to vibrate not
clearly flipwise or edgewise. Model of blade is created in MSC Nastran software as cbeam element. Values
of aerodynamic forces are calculated in Matlab, using algorithms based on Blade Element Momentum
method. The dynamic solution technique used in consideration starts from real eigenvalue analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 MODEL OF THE BLADE

The leading solution in wind industry are horizontal To design the 45 meters long blade for three bladed,
axis wind turbines. The amount of power increases upwind pitch regulated wind turbine will be used
due to enlarging the size of wind turbines. In modern various aerofoils, thick at the root and more narrow
wind turbines blades are longer than 30 meters. By at the tip. The aerodynamic profiles used to create
using the pitch regulation the dynamic stall effect the blade are FFA-W3-xxx and RIS series. They
is avoided and blades are more slender and flexible. have different thickness/chord ratios and
The interaction between aerodynamics and structural aerodynamic properties.
dynamics is becoming more important. In this article Changing of the pitch angle is used to control the
there will be presented the procedure of designing power received from wind in pitch regulated wind
the blade of 45 meters length for three bladed, turbines. Than we obtain a global pitch angle as
upwind pitch regulated wind turbine. Considerations a summary of two angles, twist and pitch angle:
about spars and influence on the dynamics of the
blade are presented. Geometric model of the blade T opt T glob | ~ twist pitch angle (1)
is done in Matlab and transferred to MSC Nastran. In pitch regulated wind turbines the twist at the end
MSC Patran is used as preprocessor and of the blade is equal to zero. The value of the pitch
postprocessor to review the model and the results angle will be decreased and presented as the twist
from finite element method analysis. The blade and distribution along the blade.
the rotor with marked shear, gravity and
aerodynamic are presented. As the rotor of wind
turbine there are modeled three blades with mass
of the hub. This rotor is connected by rigid body
element with the tower of the wind turbine. Two
mode shapes presented as the example results
of wind turbine modal analysis agree with literature
sources. The aerodynamic forces as the output from
modified Blade Element Momentum method are
presented. The structural model of the wind turbine
with marked tangential and normal forces visualize
the way of connection the aerodynamic forces to the Fig. 8. The model of the blade with two spars
structural dynamics of the wind turbine. The analysis
will be done with the help of MSC Nastran. The The aerodynamic profiles decide about the
results of the analysis for two load cases will aerodynamic characteristic of the blade. The position
be compared. and shape of spars have to be considered and
analysed. In the article One dimensional variations:
Blades is mentioned that the location of the main
spar together with the location of the webs will have
the biggest influence on the bending modes of the
1
Eng. Mariusz Pawlak Author, Silesian University of Technology, e-mail mpawlak@polsl.pl
2
Prof. Eng. Arkadiusz MĊĪyk, Silesian University of Technology, e-mail amezyk@polsl.pl
254
M. Pawlak, A. Mȩżyk
blade. When the composite structure is assumed, By using tangential and normal forces and having
shell elements are sufficient to structural analysis. adequate local coordinate systems the influence
The solid model of the blade is created to calculate of the structural dynamics on the aerodynamic model
needed properties. Below is presented output of data will be investigated. The influence of the
for profile nr 10: aerodynamic loads on the structure of the wind
turbine are investigated and compared with the
system where aerodynamic, gravity and centrifugal
forces are working.
Fig. 9. The output with shear and gravity centers
The data presented in Fig. 9 are calculated in MSC Fig. 19. The deflection of the wind turbine as a result of the
Patran for every section, from which the blade is aerodynamic loads (wind velocity v =12 m/s)
modelled.
According to Guidelines for Design of Wind
Turbines the blade is to be twisted around the elastic
axis. In aeroplanes the position and the order
of centers are different than in blades of wind
turbines. According to Aeroelasticity on the left there
are elastic centers, gravity centers and aerodynamic
centers. In modern wind turbines the elastic center Fig. 20. The deflection of the wind turbine as a result of the
is between gravity and aerodynamic center. The aerodynamic loads, gravity and centrifugal forces (wind
position of the spars decide about position of shear velocity v =12 m/s)
axis. In the finite element method analysis there are
used Timoshenko beam elements. In our research, According to the presented results if only
not presented here, the aerodynamic analysis is aerodynamic load are considered the deflection
based on modified BEM (Blade Element of blades are in direction to the tower. Collision and
Momentum) theory described in Wind Turbine in consequence damage of the Wind Turbine
Technology, Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine is possible. The rotor of the wind turbine rotates with
Engineering and Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines. constant angular velocity and the influence
To speed up calculation three dimensional model of of centrifugal forces is significant. When the gravity
the blade is reduced to beam elements with data and centrifugal forces are included the deflections
presented in fig. 9 as input. Beam elements are of the blades are in opposite direction.
modeled along the aerodynamic centers, including
5 CONCLUSION
shear and gravity centers as vector offsets. The
limitation of this method is the ability to use this In this article is presented the procedure of designing
model only in linear analysis, such as modal, static the blade, assembling the wind turbine’s rotor and
and linear transient analysis. attaching to the tower by using rigid body elements.
The procedure of implementing the aerodynamic
4 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE loads to the structural model of the wind turbine’s
AERODYNAMIC LOADS TO STRUCTURAL rotor was also described. As a result a deflection of
MODEL OF THE WIND TURBINE the wind turbine was received. The influence of
As it was mentioned earlier in our research, not centrifugal forces in aerodynamic model should be
presented here, the aerodynamic analysis is based considered. Aerodynamic loads must be recalculated
on modified BEM (Blade Element Momentum) with deflected geometry of wind turbine as initial
theory. The aerodynamic model implemented input to the moment of equilibrium. Implementation
by author is described in Aerodynamic forces and of centrifugal forces and aerodynamic damping in
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines. Connection modal analysis of blade and wind turbine would be
between aerodynamic model and structural model needed to describe behaviour of the wind turbine
is made in input file to MSC Nastran, aerodynamic more strictly.
forces are expressed as normal and tangential forces.
255

U. Peil1, C. Corte2
ABSTRACT: In recent years many offshore wind energy systems (offshore wind farms) have been erected. In
addition to fatigue driving wind load and mean sea state, offshore wind energy plants are subjected to extreme
wave events like breaking waves in case of rough sea conditions. To evaluate this kind of short-duration load,
a hybrid method is performed. Information on the location-dependent sea state statistics is used to derive an
extreme wave shape for conditions at the site being considered. The slamming process of the wave passing the
structure is evaluated. Thus the transient load on an offshore wind turbine due to an extreme wave is obtained
from numerical computation in time domain.
method in space and time domain. Computations are
1 INTRODUCTION carried out with the Boundary Element model until
the free surface has reached a steep wave front,
As extreme waves appear to subject offshore wind
which represents an unfavourable state in terms of
turbines to considerably higher load, their behaviour wave load on an offshore wind turbine structure. Up
in terms of tower loading has to be examined in- to this point it is assumed that the tower structure,
depth with respect to finding a realistic description which has a relatively small diameter compared to
of the slamming process to get maximum local and the geometric dimensions of an extreme wave, does
global loading. The numerical method that is used to not affect the shape of the wave in its temporal
model the loading on an offshore wind turbine due to evolution.
an extreme wave takes into account the simulation of
an extreme wave itself and the simulation of the
subsequent slamming process and will be outlined in
detail below.
To describe the process when an extreme wave
hits an offshore wind turbine, in a first step a method
has been applied which allows the shape and the
corresponding velocity and pressure field of an
extreme wave to be derived. In this step, gravity
waves are modelled as potential flow. In a second Figure 1: Computational domain for extreme wave simulation
step, the shape of the wave and its velocity field are
transferred to a three dimensional domain, in which 3 WAVE SLAMMING ON TOWER
the slamming process of the wave on the tower When the wave has reached an extreme shape, the
cylinder is simulated. Additionally, to analyse the shape and the appropriate velocity field in the wave
flow around the circular cross-section of the tower, a are transferred to a three-dimensional domain, where
quasi two-dimensional domain is used. the wave is located in front of a fixed cylindrical
Computational results are compared to an analytic structure, which represents the tower of the wind
model and to experiments. turbine. In this second domain, the wave flow is
assumed to be viscous and is modelled by the
2 EXTREME WAVE EVOLUTION Navier-Stokes equations. The flow is assumed to be
For a given location of an offshore wind turbine, sea a two-phase flow of air and water with a continuous
state statistics are given in the form of mean interface between both fluids. To discretize the
characteristic values. To yield the possible shape of domain, a Finite Volume method is applied. The
an extreme wave from the given statistic data, the phase-interface is modelled by a Volume of Fluid
evolution of a gravity wave is modelled as potential approach. The Volume of Fluid approach in the
flow with free surface evolution. The governing Finite Volume model takes into account a continuous
Laplace’s equation with its nonlinear kinematic and change of density at the phase-interface. So, when
dynamic free surface boundary conditions is the wave hits the structure, the model is able to
discretized by a higher-order Boundary Element characterize the mixture of air and water at the
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing. U. Peil, Institute for Steel Structures, University of Technology at Braunschweig, e-mail u.peil@tu-bs.de
2
Dipl.-Ing. C. Corte, Institute for Steel Structures, University of Technology at Braunschweig, e-mail c.corte@tu-bs.de
256
U. Peil, C. Corte
surface of the structure. Thus, numerical singularities forces at the fixed support can be computed. Results
in the pressure evolution at the beginning of the show that the global load on an offshore wind
slamming process can be avoided. turbine due to an extreme wave is by one order of
magnitude higher than due to wave load in case of
mean sea state.
Figure 2: Slamming process on cylinder
4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW ALONG

CIRCUMFERENCE OF CROSS-SECTION Figure 4: Bending moment for the tower structure at sea bottom
To study the local marching of the flow of a water over time
front around the cylindrical tower, computations
have been carried out for a circular cross-section in a 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
quasi two-dimensional domain. The temporal Results were achieved at the Institute for Steel
evolution of the water front on the circumference Structures at Technische Universität Braunschweig.
and the corresponding transient pressure evolution This work was funded by the Deutsche
have been evaluated and have been compared to an Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) within the Graduate
analytic model and to experiments. College “Interaction of Fluid and Structures” (GRK
432). The financial funding is gratefully
acknowledged.
7 REFERENCES
Gravert, P. 1987. Numerische Simulation extremer
Schwerewellen mit direkter Randelementemethode und
Zeitschrittverfahren. Dissertation thesis. Düsseldorf: VDI-
Verlag.
Grilli, S. T. & Svendsen, I. A. 1990. Corner Problems and
Global Accuracy in the Boundary Element Solution of
Nonlinear Wave Flows. Engineering Analysis with
Boundary Elements, 7 (4), 178-195.
Grilli, S. T. 1993. Modeling of Nonlinear Wave Motion in
Shallow Water. Chapter 3 in Computional Methods for Free
and Moving Boundary Problems in Heat and Fluid Flow
(eds. L. C. Wrobel and C. A. Brebbia), 37-65. London:
Computational Mechanics Publication, Elsevier Applied
Sciences.
Grilli, S. T. & Subramanya, R. 1996. Numerical modeling of
Figure 3: Normalized pressure distribution on circular cross-
wave breaking induced by fixed or moving boundaries.
section against angle and time Computational Mech. 17, 374-391.
Wagner, H. 1932. Über Stoß- und Gleitvorgänge an der
5 CONCLUSIONS Oberfläche von Flüssigkeiten. Zeitschrift für angewandte
Mathematik und Mechanik, 12, 4, 193-215. Berlin: VDI-
The evolution of an extreme wave and the Verlag.
subsequent slamming process have been modelled Wienke, J. 2001. Druckschlagbelastung auf schlanke
by the applied method. Resulting local forces on the zylindrische Bauwerke durch brechende Wellen.
shell structure of the tower and global load on the Dissertation thesis. TU Braunschweig.
offshore wind turbine as bending moments and shear
257
Time domain model for buffeting wind loads verified in full-scale

measurements
U. Peil1, M. Clobes2
ABSTRACT: Primarily stresses of slender structures occur as a result of excitation by the fluctuations of the
turbulent wind flow. These structures are often nonlinear in their dynamic behaviour and are vulnerable to
fatigue damages. Common frequency- or time-domain approaches either require a linearization of the
structural behaviour or are only valid at high wind velocities. When using the convolution technique, buffeting
wind forces can be described by means of a frequency-dependent time-domain approach. Based on full-scale
measurements on a 344 m high mast, the aerodynamic impulse response functions are calculated.
In 2001, 360 m² of this lattice steel mast were

1 INTRODUCTION covered with flat panels (Fig. 1). The covered
The prognosis of fatigue damages of guyed masts regions are 65 m and 104 m above the ground. Each
involves some difficulties caused by the calculation region consists of twelve (4x3) panels. The middle
of the dynamic mast responses due to the buffeting panel of each side of the mast is fixed on load cells.
wind loads. Wind velocity and direction at the level of the
Time-domain formulations for the buffeting wind covered regions are measured by four wind monitors
loads that are based on the quasi-steady theory are supported by cantilevers.
only valid at higher wind velocities depending on the
3 UNSTEADY APPROACH OF BUFFETING
body dimensions. But time-domain approaches
WIND LOADS
provide the possibility of taking aeroelastic effects
and structural nonlinearities directly into account. 3.1 Definition of aerodynamic transfer
As a result of nonlinearities of the prestressed Figure 2 shows the measuring system at the mast
guys, the dynamic behaviour of the guyed mast has Gartow II in a plan view.
to be linearized when calculating the mast responses
in the frequency domain; see Peil et al. (1994).
2 FULL-SCALE MEASUREMENTS
Full-scale measurements of wind structure and the
dynamic response of the 344 m high guyed mast
“Gartow II” in the north of Germany are performed.
Figure 2 Cross section of the measuring system at Gartow II.
The aerodynamic transfer of wind velocity

fluctuations is supposed to be a multi-input single-
output (MiSo) linear time invariant (LTI) system.
Figure 1 Guyed mast Gartow II, Germany. Figure 3 MiSo-LTI-System of aerodynamic transfer.
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Udo Peil, Institute for Steel Structures, Technical University Braunschweig, e-mail u.peil@tu-bs.de
2
Dipl.-Ing. Mathias Clobes, Institute for Steel Structures, Technical University Braunschweig, e-mail m.clobes@tu-bs.de
258
U. Peil, M. Clobes
3.2 Frequency domain description
The transfer functions H(f) were calculated from the
cross-spectral densities between the measured inputs
u, v and the measured output fL,D, and the auto-
spectral densities of the inputs u, v e.g. for the
buffeting lift forces to be:
Su , f L f Sv , f L f
H Lb ,u f H Lb ,v f (1)
Suu f Svv f
The system of aerodynamic transfer is a causal

physical system, as causal systems supply answers
only for past and not for future inputs.
In causal systems, real and complex parts of the
admittance functions are not independent; they are Figure 4 Identified impulse response functions for the buffeting
pairs of the Hilbert-Transform H {...}. lift forces.
4 RESULTS
1
f
Im H u f d f
Re H u f ³ H Îm H u f ` 4.1 Comparison in the frequency domain
S f
ff
The power spectral densities for the measured wind
1
f
Im H u f d f
Im H u f
S ³ ff
H -1
^Re H f `
u
forces fL and the calculated buffeting wind forces fL,b
using the equations (4) and a high-order quasi steady
f
(2) prediction are shown in Fig. 5.
With the Hilbert-Transform, the imaginary part of

H(f) may be calculated using the real part and vice
versa, cf. e.g. Rupprecht (1993).
3.3 Time domain description
The impulse responses h(t) according to Fig. 3 are
the inverse Fourier-Transform of the systems
admittance H(f).
The buffeting wind forces due to the wind
fluctuations can than be expressed in terms of
convolution integrals involving aerodynamic
impulse response functions and the fluctuating wind
velocities, see Chen et al. (2000).
U t
f Lb t U A ³ hLb,u t W u W ! Figure 5 Power spectral densities of the predicted lateral
2 0 (4) buffeting forces compared with measured data.
hLb,v t W v W dW 5 CONCLUSIONS
The prediction of frequency-dependent buffeting
In Fig. 4, calculated impulse response functions wind forces is made by means of impulse response
for the aerodynamic transfer of lift forces are shown. functions.
They are calculated using the identified aerodynamic The frequency content of predicted lift and drag
transfer functions directly as well as pairs of the forces matches well with the measured wind forces
Hilbert-Transform. up to a frequency of 0.3 Hz. In the time domain the
absolute error is by about 50% for the lift and 20%
for the drag smaller when compared with a quasi-
steady approach.
259
U. Peil1, M. Behrens2
ABSTRACT: For the determination of turbulence-induced wind loads a quasi-steady model of the aerody-
namic admittance is usually chosen. Such a model starts from the assumption that wind speed fluctuations of
all frequencies are equally effective in producing wind forces acting on a structure. However, the aerody-
namic transfer in fact depends to a fairly high degree on the frequency. The analysis starts from full-scale
measurements on a 344 m guyed mast, which is equipped with sensors to measure both the turbulence and the
resulting wind force. A nonlinear spectral approach is used to estimate wind force spectra induced by the
gusty wind acting on different sides of a covered mast shaft with a square cross section. This approach is con-
fined to the correlated parts of the wind turbulence and the associated wind forces, it relates cause and effect.
In addition, the influence of the turbulence intensity on the lift forces resulting from vortex shedding is analysed.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 ESTIMATED WIND FORCES
In a quasi-steady admittance model, wind speed fluc- Figure 1 shows both measured and estimated auto-
tuations of all frequencies are equally effective in spectra S L of the lift force L. For the considered
producing force fluctuations. However, in reality the flow situation (2° angle of mean wind attack), the
transfer function between the oncoming flow and the lateral wind force spectrum S L is decisively influ-
wind forces depend to a fairly high degree on the enced by the lateral turbulence. However, the lift
frequency. A multivariate aerodynamic model is force spectrum shows significant elevations near the
used to identify frequency-dependent admittance shedding frequency f S = 0.5 Hz corresponding to
functions for different flow conditions. By means of the Strouhal number St = 0.14. Obviously, vortex
the applied model it is possible to make a difference shedding in the wake of the covered mast section
between the effects due to longitudinal (u) and lat- creates significant lift forces. Beyond the frequency
eral (v) turbulence, in each case subdivided in ac- range influenced by vortex shedding, the non-
tions resulting from linear and nonlinear (quadratic) dimensioned autospectrum of the estimated lift
transfer mechanisms. The system identification dis-
tinguishes between force fluctuations caused by tur- S L ( f ) / s L2 in s
bulence and those caused by system interferences, 102
e.g. body-induced forces. acc. to Niemann et al. (1990)
The process of vortex shedding in a smooth or with measured Su and Sv
turbulent flow is not completely understood yet. In 101
this extended abstract the spectral bandwidth of the
across-wind (lift) forces created by the vortices shed-
ding in the wake of a covered mast shaft with square 100 measured
cross section are described in relation to the turbu-
lence intensity.
The analyses start from full-scale measurements theoret. spectrum due to
10-1
vortex shedding
using a 344 m high guyed mast in northern Ger- (Vickery & Basu, 1983)
many. At heights of 65 m and 104 m, two 9 m high St = 0.14
sections of the mast shaft are covered with light- 10-2
weight, but stiff, panels (Behrens, 2004). To be able 0.005 0.01 0.04 0.1 0.4 1
to measure the wind force directly, the central 3 x 5 m f in Hz
part of the three panels on each mast side is fixed on
high-precision load cells. At the level of both cov- 0.0015 0.004 0.01 0.04 0.1 0.2
ered sections, four 7.5 m long cantilevers are in- f d u [-]
stalled, each equipped with so-called wind monitors.
Figure 1 Autospectrum of lift wind forces
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing. U. Peil, Institute for Steel Structures, University of Braunschweig, e-mail u.peil@is.tu-braunschweig.de
2
Dr.-Ing. M. Behrens, Consulting Structural Engineers IPU, Braunschweig, Germany, e-mail m.behrens@ipu-wob.de
260
U. Peil, M. Behrens
forces according to Niemann et al. (1990) is in good UF2:u ,u2 [-]

i i
agreement with the measured spectrum. 100%
The measured lift forces will be described with UF2 :u
good accuracy, if the variance s L2 S of the fluctuating UF2 :v
80% UF2 :u,v
lift forces resulting from vortex shedding amounts to
nearly 26% of the variance s L2 of the total lift forces. UF2 :u,v,u2 ,v2
The bandwidth parameter is assumed to be 60%
B 4.1 I u . The vortex shedding process extends
over a by far broader frequency range than the
bandwidth parameter B proposed by Vickery & Basu 40%
(1983) implies. However, this proposal is based on
experimental data measured for a circular cylinder.
20%
3 FREQUENCY-DEPENDING AERODYNAMIC
ADMITTANCE MODEL FOR GUSTS 0%
0 60 120 180
M in q
What is of interest here are the fluctuating wind
forces F c (output) that result from the undisturbed Figure 3 Conditioned correlation coefficients
between the wind force and turbulence components
turbulent flow uic u c, v c (input). An analysing
methodology recommended by Bendat (2000) pro-
vides a cause-effect relationship between input and transfer mechanisms. Figure 3 presents the correla-
output. Admittance functions assessed on this basis tion coefficients U F2 :u i as a function of the mean an-
are shown in Figure 2. For example, the agreement gle of wind attack M related to the considered panel
of the admittance function between the wind forces element.
F c and the longitudinal component u c at a 2° angle
of wind attack with the comparable function given in
EC 1 can be described to be satisfactory. 4 CONCLUSIONS
The so-called conditioned multiple correlation co-
efficient U F2 :u , v, u 2 , v 2 is a measure to quantify the part x On the basis of our measurements for a square
of the fluctuating wind load caused by the undis- cross section we found that for the estimation of
turbed turbulence (Behrens, 2004). Because of the the lift forces resulting from vortex shedding a
statistical independence of the different transfer spectral bandwidth parameter B 3 ... 4 I u is a
terms, a distinction can be made between the effects good approximation; cf. the model proposed by
of the individual turbulent components, in each case Basu & Vickery (1983)
subdivided into actions due to linear and nonlinear x For all the wind situations investigated it can be
concluded that not the vortex shedding process,
2 but the lateral turbulence is the main excitation
FûF ( f ) [-] mechanism in the across-wind direction.
1.0
run x The applied multivariate admittance identification
1 M procedure distinguishes between wind force fluc-
2°
comparable
tuations caused by turbulence and those caused by
0.8
EC1-approach the body and other deviations.
0.6 2
16° 5 REFERENCES
Behrens, M. (2004) Aerodynamische Admittanzansätze zur
0.4 Böenwirkung auf hohe, schlanke Bauwerke. Dissertation,
Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany.
3
45° Bendat, J.S. & Piersol, A.G. (2000) Random Data - Analysis
and Measurement Procedure. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.
0.2 Niemann, H.J., Höffer, R., Hölscher, N. & Kasperski, M.
(1990) Dynamic actions. in: W.B. Krätzig and H.J. Nie-
mann (Eds.), Dynamics of Civil Engineering Structures,
Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 73-105.
0.0
Vickery, B.J. & Basu, R.I. (1983) Across-wind vibrations of
0.004 0.01 0.04 0.1 0.4
structures of circular cross-section. Part I. Development of a
f in Hz mathematical model for two-dimensional conditions.
J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 12, pp. 49-73.
Figure 2 Identified aerodynamic admittance functions
261
J.-P. Pinelli1 , K. Gurley2 ,C. Subramanian3 , S. Hamid 4
ABSTRACT: Affordable solutions to mitigate hurricane damage can only follow from a quantification of the
wind forces causing the destruction, models that relate wind speeds to forces and the capacity of man -made
structures to resist them, and engineering -based evaluations of the cost effectiveness of various vulnerability
reduction measures. The paper describes the development of a computational model to evaluate the existing
damage risk to coastal structures versus the cost of retrofitting to reduce this risk. The effectiveness of an
array of mitigation measures will be evaluated through the comparison of the statistics of predicted losses for
a broad population of buildings with and without the mitigation measures or retrofits. The quantified
reductions in risks will be contrasted with the added cost of the various mitigation measures to provide a cost-
benefit view of the various measures. The paper presents preliminary results of this mitigation study.
scientific community. This risk model is among a

1 INTRODUCTION new generation of risk models, using an engineering
It is inevitable that densely populated areas in approach rather than purely claim statistics. The
Florida will be impacted by hurricane winds. In mode l incorporates the latest state of the art
addition to the immediate public safety and property techniques in hurricane prediction, and vulnerability
loss issues, long-term economic recovery will also modeling based on engineering criteria. Although the
suffer without a concerted effort to prevent model was developed for Florida, it is applicable to
catastrophic damage to man-made structures. any hurricane prone region.
Affordable solutions to mitigate damage can only The paper describes the development of this
follow from a quantification of the wind forces computational model to evaluate the existing damage
causing this destruction, models that relate wind risk to coastal structures versus the cost of
speeds to forces and the capacity of man-made retrofitting to reduce this risk. Specifically, risk is
structures to resist them, and engineering-based evaluated in terms of probabilistically quantified
evaluations of the cost effectiveness of various damage to critical structural components as a
vulnerability reduction measures. function of peak wind speed. A distribution of likely
These circumstances have prompted the Florida damage to various components (roof, windows, etc.)
Department of Financial Services (FDFS) to request at peak wind speeds is evaluated for a series of
that a group of researchers develop the Florida structural models that represent the majority or
Public Hurricane Loss Prediction Model, a computer Florida coastal residential construction (masonry
model used to project annual expected insured losses wall, manufactured home, etc.).
to residential structures subject to hurricanes. The The effectiveness of an array of mitigation
team consists of engin eers, meteorologists, measures will be evaluated through the comparison
statisticians, computer and actuarial experts of the of the statistics of predicted losses for a broad
Florida Institute of Technology (FIT), University of population of buildings with and without the
Florida (UF), Florida International University (FIU), mitigation measures or retrofits. The quantified
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric reductions in risks will be contrasted with the added
Administration (NOAA), Florida State University cost of the various mitigation measures to provide a
(FSU) and the National Institute of Standards and cost-benefit view of the various measures. This
Technology (NIST), under the leadership of the paper presents the preliminary results of this
International Hurricane Research Center at FIU. mitigation study, for site built homes.
Although several loss prediction commercial
products exist in the market, the Florida Public 2 MITIGATED VULNERABILITIES
Hurricane Loss Projection Model is one of the first The procedure for the generation of the base case
public models entirely accessible for scrutiny to the and mitigated cases vulnerability matrices and curves
1
.Civil Engineering Department, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA, e-mail pinelli@fit.edu
2
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, Florida Tech, Melbourne, FL, USA , e-mail subraman@fit.edu
3
Civil and Coastal Engineering Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA, e-mail kgurl@ce.ufl.edu
4
Department of Finance, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA, e-mail hamids@fiu.edu
262
J.-P. Pinelli, K.R. Gurley,C.S. Subramanian, S. Hamid
is described in the paper. The resulting vulnerability 3 CONCLUSIONS
curves for the most significant cases are plotted in
Figures 1 and 2 for frame and masonry structures. This paper provides an overview of the vulnerability
model imbedded into the Florida Public Loss
For the case of frame structures, the most
Hurricane Projection Model, developed for the
effective individual mitigated measures are the roof Florida Department of Fin ancial Services. Physical
to wall straps and the stud to sill plate straps damage is calculated within a probabilistic
followed by the impact resistant glass and braced framework as function of a series of peak 3-s wind
gable. For the case of masonry structures, the most speeds, using engineering analysis of wind loads and
effective individual mitigated measures are the roof component capacities. The physical damage to
to wall straps and the wall reinforcing followed by exterior and structural components is compounded
the impact resistant glass and the roof to wall clips. by damage to non-structural systems, and translated
In all the cases, the effect of the mitigation measure s to repair cost ratios using expert opinion, engineering
is negligible for wind gusts lower than 90 mph, and judgment, and prescriptive provisions from the
the vulnerabilities tend to converge for higher wind Florida Building Code.
speeds. The plots suggest that large reduction in Work is now under way to evaluate with the help
damage ratio, for both masonry and frame, can by of the model the effectiveness and the cost benefits
achieved by combining different mitigation of several mitigation measures. The paper details
measures. These findings will be compared against how the structural characteristics of these mitigation
ongoing detailed statistical studies of the 2004 measures were incorporated into the model. The
hurricane damage in Florida to identify weaknesses effect of each individual measure on the
in model assumptions and possible corrective vulnerability of masonry and wood wall structures
measures. was presented. The preliminary results identified the
Frame Vulnerabilities
most effective individual measures. In a second
phase of this project, the effect of different
100%
Base Frame combinations of mitigation measures will be

90%
Hip Frame investigated, and a cost benefit analysis will be
80%
R2Wstraps
carried out.
70%
GableBraced
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Damage ratios
60%
ShuttersSteel
50%
ImpactResistantGlass This work was performed with the financial support
40%
S2Sstraps of the Florida Department of Financial Se rvices
30%
AllMitigated (FDFS) and the Florida Sea Grant Program (FSGP).
20%
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in
10% this paper are not necessarily those of the FDFS or
0%
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
the FSGP.
3 sec gust wind speeds
Figure 1 - Vulnerability curves for mitigated timber structures
Masonry Vulnerabilities
100%
Base Masonry
90%
Hip masonry
80%
reinforced
70%
R2Wclips
Damage Ratios
60%
R2Wstraps
50%
ShuttersSteel
40%
ImpactResistantGlass
30%
AllMitigated
20%
10%
0%
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
3 sec gust wind speeds
Figure 2 - Vulnerability curves for mitigated masonry structures
263
Development of a wireless pressure sensing system for coastal wind

monitoring
J. -P. Pinelli 1 , C. S. Subramanian2, C. Lapilli 3 , L. Buist 4
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the development of a remote sensing and wireless data acquisition system.
The system was developed as part of a research effort currently underway to instrument coastal homes in
Florida to monitor roof wind pressures during hurricanes. However, the design of the wireless data
acquisition is flexible enough to adapt to other multisensor, wind tunnel or field -testing applications. The
paper describes the details of the design, theory of operation, and the results of field performance tests of the
system. Results from the 2004 hurricane season deployment are also presented. The new system offers the
advantages of ease of installation, capability for more than 48 hours of continuous data acquisition from up to
60 sensors at variable sampling rate, and a relatively easy maintenance.
1 INTRODUCTION the home. Researchers have worked in the recent

years in reducing or eliminating the wiring in diverse
For a long time, researchers have investigated the sensing systems to simplify installation and provide
interaction between wind and structures to achieve portability. By exploiting some of these technologies
safer and more economical designs. An important a wireless data acquisition system was developed
part of this research effort is the capability of and tested at the Florida Institute of Technology for
measuring the fluctuating wind pressures on the future deployments. The system, described here,
surfaces of a structure. Most of the data has includes 23 wireless sensors that measure pressure
traditionally been obtained through wind tunnel and temperature. It also includes an anemome ter
testing until recently when technological advances in that measures wind speed magnitude and direction.
data acquisition and sensor systems has made Many other applications such as wind tunnel testing
possible the full scale testing and monitoring of wind can easily incorporate this wireless design into their
flows on real structures during actual events. data acquisition system. The paper describes the
Researchers now have hardware and software that details of the design, theory of operation, and the
can be successfully deployed during a storm to results of field performance tests.
monitor actual wind effects.
In particular, in the past several years, with
funding from the Florida Department of Community
Affairs (FDCA) and the Florida Sea Grant Program,
a team of researchers from the University of Florida,
Florida Institute of Technology, and Clemson
University (UF, FIT and CU) have been
instrumenting houses along the coast of Florida to
collect full-scale wind measurements of the turbulent
ground-level wind field and the resultant loads on
low-rise structures. However, the pressure sensor
system used for instrumenting the houses requires a Figure 1 - Deployment test on a house in Satellite
large amount of hardwired connections from the Beach
absolute pressure sensors to the data processing unit
that involve labor intensive wiring and preparation of
1
Prof. Jean-Paul Pinelli Ph.D., P.E., Civil Engineering Department, Florida Institute of Technology, e-mail pinelli@fit.edu
2
Prof. Chelakara S. Subramanian Ph.D., P.Eng(UK), Aerospace Engineering Department, Florida Institute of Technology, e-mail
subraman@fit.edu
3
Claudio Lapilli, M.S. Graduate Research Assistant, Civil Engineering Department, Florida Institute of Technology, e mail
clapilli@fit.edu
4
Larry Buist, Research Associate, College of Engi neering, Florida Institute of Technology, e-mail lbuist@fit.edu
264
J.-P. Pinelli, C.S. Subramanian, C. Lapilli, L. Buist
2 2004-HURRICANE MEASUREMENTS homes. With these additions, future FCMP data sets
will be even richer, enhancing their use
The wireless sensor system consisting of twenty-one The cost of the present sys tem is estimated to be
remote pressure sensors on the roof , and two inside, about $100 per sensor. This can be further reduced
and a cup anemometer at 2.13 m (7’) above the roof by reducing the size and weight of the system
ridge with its axis pointing along the ridge (due components like battery, sensor casing, etc. For
West), was deployed on a house located (28 010.549’ external installation, the base unit and the data
N latitude, 83 035.601’ W longitude) in Satellite manger will be enclosed in a metallic box with a
Beach, Florida (Figure 1). These sensors were set up bank of batteries.
for recording continuous data, at 20 samples per
second, for up to forty-eight hours starting at 11:40 4 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
am (EST) on August 13, 2004 for hurricane Charley, The work was carried out with the financial support
and at 3:15 pm (EST) on September 3, 2004 for of the Florida Sea Grant Program under the Grant
hurricane Frances, and starting at 2:28 pm (EST) on Number NA16RG-2195.
September 25,2004 for hurricane Jeanne
Peak average winds vs avg. time for hurricanes Charley and Frances
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
U( 1.8
t)/
U( 1.6 Frances
36 Simiu/Scanlan Fig 2.3.10
00 1.4 Charley
) 1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Averaging time (s)
Figure 2 Effect of averaging time on peak wind speed for

hurricanes Charley and Frances
For example, a plot (Figure 2) showing the effect of

averaging time on peak wind speeds for Frances and
Charley suggests that peak average wind speeds are
higher than previously quoted for averaging times
less than 10 seconds.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The new system offers the advantages of

relatively compact hardware, capacity for more than
48 hours of continuous data acquisition, variable
sampling rate between 0.125 Hz and 100 Hz, and
simultaneous recording of two different channels.
Results from the 2004 deployment have
demonstrated that efficient and cost effective
wireless instrumentation of low-rise structures is
possible on a large scale. To improve the efficiency
of deployment and data collection, the following
issues will be addressed: sensor miniaturization and
sensitivity improvement; range and signal
interference problems; power conservation; data
acquisition of more variables (e.g., multi-level
winds, rainfall, temperature); and instrumentation
and data collection of more number of coastal
265
Experimental study – Elimination of excessive vibration amplitudes by

liquid damper
M. Pirner1, S. Urushadze2
ABSTRACT: The new type of passive tuned liquid damper (TLD), which relies on the motion of liquid inside
a movable rectangular tank with two degrees of freedom (horizontal displacement and rotation) is
investigated, including the influence of vessel’s horizontal motion and rotation on the damping of the vertical
and horizontal vibrations of the footbridges. Experimental solution consists in the determination of the
magnitude of the excitation force of the shaking table required under resonance during the harmonic
excitation of the vessel.
rotation moment is converted by a lever system (see

1 INTRODUCTION Fig. 1) into the force couple according to (1)
The motion of liquids in containers has been studied R
M s FsI 3 R1 (1)
in the past few decades (Fujino at al., 1992). The R2
simplified analysis was made on rectangular and which is picked up by the sensor S3. The position
cylindrical tanks (Haroun, 1983; Modi at al., 1990). of the tank can be altered vertically within the length
The motion of liquids in tanks was studied by of the arms (R1, R2) so that it is possible to determine
numerous authors both theoretically and the influence of the position of the liquid centroid
experimentally. The studies are based on linear or with reference to the centre of rotation around the
nonlinear potential flow theory, the authors usually axis (o).
neglecting the influence of fluid viscosity (Kareem The mobile supports (b) can be turned together
& Sun, 1987). This paper expands the application of with the whole apparatus so that the translative
sloshing dampers, formerly used only for the motion of the tank in the required direction can be
damping of horizontal motions of structures, also to selected. The mass of the part of the apparatus which
the damping of rotary motion. The principal generates the forces of inertia during horizontal
objective of this research was the ascertainment of motion is 72 kg.
the effectiveness of slosher damper and the
verification of the application of the Abramson's
computing model (Abramson, 1966) as well as the
possibility of slosher damper application to the
damping of the motions of bridges and footbridges.
2 EXPERIMENTS
Our objective was to design and apparatus enabling
the study the translative and rotation motions. Fig. 1
shows the principal components of the apparatus
enabling the simultaneous excitation of the
translative and rotary motions of a 500 x 500 x 500
mm tank (t).
The tank is supported by two arms (R) connected
by means of axis (o) to a lattice structure. This
structure has four mobile supports (b) supported by
runners (f), fastened to a vibration table (tb) driven Figure1 Lateral view of arms R1,R2
by a MTS cylinder (concealed by the table in the
picture). The table motion is picked-up by the 3 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS
sensors, the force between the vibration table and the 3.1 Translative Motion of a Rectangular Tank
lattice structure is measured by the sensor S4. The
With locked rotation of the tank we verified first the
theoretical analysis of natural frequencies of the
1
Prof. Eng. dr.h. c. Miroš Pirner DrSc., Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, AS CR, e-mail: pirner@itam.cas.cz
2
Eng. Shota Urushadze Ph.D., Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, AS CR, e-mail: urushadze@itam.cas.cz
266
M. Pirner, S. Urushadze
translative movement of the liquid and ascertained We have tested effectiveness of different viscosities
an excellent agreement. of the liquid (methanol, water, glycerol), than
We obtained the dependence of the excitation effectiveness of the movement direction of the tank
force (RMS [N]) on the overall mass of the liquid, in and effect of obstacles in the tank.
the frequency range 0.5 to 3 Hz for three magnitudes
of the double amplitude of the excited motion. 5 CONCLUSIONS
3.2 Translative and Rotation Motion of the The paper has shown that the sloshing damper is a
Rectangular Tank device which will restrict effectively undesirable
horizontal vibrations and, in case of adequately
The experiments with the tank excited by a
selected conditions of tank support, also undesirable
horizontal force with the selected double amplitude
torsional vibrations.
of horizontal displacement (8 – 12 mm) and the
The authors of the paper are well aware that the
possibility of free (uncontrolled) rotation yielded the
generalization of the sloshing damper theory requires
dependence of excitation force on the mass of the
further analytical and experimental studies covering
liquid.
further so far uninvestigated parameters, and are
4 EFFECTIVENESS OF A LIQUID DAMPER continuing their research in this field.
The liquid vibration absorber is more
The effectiveness of the damper is expressed by the advantageous, because it can be tuned easily to the
relation actual frequency of the required vibration mode
RMS FH2O * which usually differs, for the most varied reasons,
H (2) from its theoretical value. The installation and
RMS F0
execution of a number of tanks e.g. in the extreme
where:
box beams is easier to design than the location of a
FH2O is the harmonic excitation force needed for
number of ball dampers.
the excitation of the required amplitude of the
horizontal motion of the appliance with water 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
F0 is the harmonic excitation force needed for
The authors acknowledges the co-operation of
the excitation of the required amplitude of horizontal
Messrs M. ýerný, O. Vála and L. Krbec. The
motion of the appliance without water
supports of grants GA AS CR B2071303 and GA
Fig. 2 shows summarily the ratio
CR 103/05/2066 are gratefully acknowledged.
RMS FH 2O RMS F0 plotted against water quantity Identification code of research project of the Institute
in the tank for a simple and composite motion with a of Theoretical and Applied mechanics is
horizontal amplitude of 12 mm and 8 mm AVOZ 20710524.
I I
respectively. The ratio of RMS FSH2O / RMS FS in
7 REFERENCES
the same figure represents the force in the sensor S3
– see Fig. 1. Abramson, H.N. (1966) The dynamic behaviour of liquid in
moving containers. NASA, SP106.
9
Fujino, A., Sun, L., Pacheco, B.M. (1992) Tuned liquid damper
1. Horizontal motion, 2Vo=12 mm,
- S4 ,D =0°. (TLD) for suppressing horizontal motion of structures.
8
2. Horizontal motion and rotation Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 118, No. 10.
RMS FH2O / RMS F (for curves 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8)
(gravity center upon the point of

7
rotation), 2Vo=12 mm, - S4 ,D =0° Haroun, M.A. (1983) Vibration studies and tests of liquid
RMS FsIH2O / RMS FsI (for curve 4)
3. Horizontal motion and rotation

(gravity center under the point of storage tanks. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
rotation), 2Vo=12 mm, - S4 ,D =0°
6
4. Horizontal motion and rotation Dynamics, Vol. 11, pp 179-206.
(gravity center under the point of
5
rotation), 2Vo=8 mm, - S3 ,D =0° Kareem, A., Sun, W.J. (1987) Stochastic response of structures
5. Horizontal motion, 2Vo=12 mm,
- S4 ,D =45° with fluid-containing appendages. Journal of Sound and
4
6. Horizontal motion, 2Vo=12 mm, Vibration, 119 (3), pp. 389-408.
- S ,D =22,5°
3
4
Modi, V.J., Welt, F., Irani, M.B. (1990) On the suppression of
7. Horizontal motion, hole 100%,
2Vo=12 mm, - S 4 , D =0° vibrations using nutation dampers. JWE and IA, 33.
2
8. Horizontal motion, hole 50%,
2Vo=12 mm, - S 4 , D =0°
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
l
Figure 2 Ratio RMS FH O / RMS F0 of a liquid damper 2
*
The effect of friction in runners (f) is not included. The
effectiveness is calculated from relation of exciting forces only.
267
Application of the Discrete Vortex Method to determining parameters

of fluid flow around bluff body
J. Podgórski1, E%áD]LN-Borowa2, T. Nowicki3
ABSTRACT: Paper contains analyses of flows around bluff bodies performed using a WIR computer
program, which was written at a Department of Structural Mechanics of Lublin University of Technology. The
obtained results was compared with results of the experiments (Texas Tech building) and other numerical
analyses such as RANS (the k-H method; calculation using Fluent software) and other DVM computer
programs (results of Turkiyyah, D. Reed, J. Yang).
DVM algorithm. The obtained results was compared

1 INTRODUCTION with results of other numerical analyses such as
The discrete vortex method (DVM) is a numerical RANS (the k-H method) and DVM (examples known
method used for solving the Navier ± Stokes from literature: Cottet and Koumoutsakos,
equation (N-S). It is based upon the Lagrangian Turkiyyah et al.).
method of particle tracing. The DVM method is
classified as a direct numerical simulation method 2 BASIC EQUATIONS
(DNS) because it solves the N-S equations in their The Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible
vortex forms employing the direct simulation fluids:
method instead of mesh methods like the finite wu 1 2
u u p u (1)
differential method, the finite elements method or wt Re
the control volume method. After decomposition and calculation of rotation of
For the last two decades the Lagrangian methods the vector u one obtains the vorticity transport
(particle movement tracing) have been developed equation:
mainly in problems of fluid mechanics (turbulent wZ 1 2
u Z Z (2)
flows), plasma physics, dynamics of particles and wt Re
liquid flows through porous media. w uy w ux
The creator of the DVM method was Alexandre where Z u u , u u x e x u y e y and Re is
wx w y
Chorin, who presented a solution of the problem of
the Reynolds number.
2D turbulent flow.
The solution of the equation (2) consist of two parts:
'XH WR WKH PHWKRG¶V DGDSWDELOLW\ DGGLWLRQDO
the advection part:
equations of turbulence models are not necessary.
wZ DZ
The lack of geometrical restrictions for a model and Z, j u j 0 (3)
wt Dt
numerical stability are another advantages of DVM
method. In comparison with Reynolds Average and diffusion part:
wZ 1
Navier-Stokes method (RANS) or Large Eddy Z , jj . (4)
wt Re
Simulation method (LES) the DVM method requires
fewer unknowns (parameters of traced participles). The equation (3) means dwindling of the material
The disadvantage of the method is its time- derivative of the vorticity field and is usually solved
consuming algorithm which reconstructs a using the increment method (the Euler method) in
continuous velocity field on the basis of discrete Lagrangian coordinates for single vortices. Using a
vortices. first-order forward difference scheme we obtain a
Our paper contains analyses of flows around bluff position of a middle the i-th vortex:
bodies performed using a WIR computer program,
written at a Department of Structural Mechanics of
n 1
xadv
xin u x xin , yin ' t , n 1
yadv
yin u y xin , yin ' t (5)
Technical University of Lublin, which implemented
1
Dr Eng. Jerzy Podgórski Ph.D., Lublin Univ. Technology, Dep.Struct.Mech. e-mail jpkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl
2
'U(QJ(ZD%áD]LN-Borowa Ph.D., Lublin Univ. Technology,Dep.Struct.Mech. e-mail ebkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl
3
Mgr Eng. Tomasz Nowicki M.Sc., Lublin Univ. Technology, Dep.Struct.Mech. e-mail tnkmb@akropolis.pol.lublin.pl
268
J. Podgórski, E. Bazik-Borowa, T. Nowicki
where 't is a time increment and upper indexes

mean a number of a time step.
The solution of the diffusion equation (4) can be
presented in the following form:
N § r 2 ·
*i
Z t ¦Z
0i r0i , t , Zi r0 , t exp¨ 0i ¸ (6)
4S / Re ¨ 4t / Re ¸
i 1 © ¹
in polar coordinates for the case when the middle of
the i-th vortex is in the origin of coordinates. The
vorticity field consisting of N discrete vortices (6)
after the 't time step can be approximated by a Fig. 2. Vx component of the velocity field for TexasTech
random vortices field with Gaussian distribution building (computer code Fluent and Poisson2D)
with its mean value equal zero and its variance equal
2't /Re (Chorin, Turkiyyah et al.).
The polar coordinates of i-vortex (r0i, -0i) can be
taken as:
4t 1
r0i ln , -0i 2S Qi (7)
Re Pi
where Pi and Qi are random numbers from the
interval of (0 ÷ 1).
In order to satisfy the no-slip condition at solid
boundaries it is necessary to release a vortex with a
circulation *i J si dsi in every time step on every Fig. 3. Vy component of the velocity field for TexasTech
building (computer code Fluent and Poisson2D)
dsi segment and force a tangential to the border
velocity of the vortex in the next time step. The 3
rotation of the surface layer Ji(si) is calculation form 2.5
the conservation of rotation condition (Cottet, 2
Koumoutsakos). 1.5
3 CALCULATION RESULTS
0.5
Pressure p / Uu2
The program WIR working accordance with the 0
presented algorithm was used to compute stream and -0.5
pressure lines in a 2D flow region over the known -1

from literature Texas Tech building. The results was
-1.5
compared with experimental data and the results TexasTech building
Fluent (k-H) - a
obtained by Turkiyyah et al. and calculated using k-H -2 Fluent - b

Fluent - c
Fluent - d
method ± Fig. 1. The pressure field was computed by -2.5 Fluent - e

Experimental data
DVM (Turkiyyah et al.)
solving the Poisson equation: -3
-1 0 1 2 3 4
Local co-ordinate x / h, y/ h
w Fig. 4. Comparison of the calculated and experimental results

2 p u u u (8) for velocity field over TexasTech building
wt
using a self-written computer program Poisson2D. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was sponsored by Polish State Committee
for Scientific Research, grant No. 7T07E 024 19.
5 REFERENCES
Chorin A. J., Numerical study of slightly viscous flow, J. Fluid
mech. 57 (1973), pp. 785-796.
Cottet G. H., Koumoutsakos P. D., Vortex Methods: Theory
Fig. 1. Streamlines of the flow over the Texas Tech building and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
calculated using k-H method (computer code Fluent) Turkiyyah G., Reed D., Yang J., Fast vortex methods for
predicting wind induced pressures on buildings, J. Wind
Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 58 (1995), pp. 51-79.
269
A Qumerical Lnvestigation of the Eifurcation Fharacteristics of a 2D Qonlinear

Dirfoil in Wurbulent Ilow
D. Poirel1
ABSTRACT: The dynamics of a structurally nonlinear airfoil in turbulent flow is investigated numerically using a
Monte Carlo approach. The properties are chosen such that the system exhibits binary flutter leading to a limit
cycle oscillation via a supercritical Hopf bifurcation. The results are examined in terms of the probability
structure of the response and the largest Lyapunov exponent. They are subsequently interpreted from the point of
view of the concepts of D- and P-bifurcation as defined in random bifurcation theory. It is found that the
bifurcation is characterized by a change in shape of the response probability structure, while no discontinuity in
the largest Lyapunov exponent is observed. In this sense the trivial bifurcation obtained for the deterministic
airfoil, where the D- and P-bifurcations coincide, appears only as a P-bifurcation for the random case.
Furthermore, the post-P-bifurcation behaviour depends on the turbulence level.
1 INTRODUCTION but unsteady (lag) effects are retained. The aeroelastic

equations are shown in condensed form in (1).
The supercritical Hopf bifurcation experienced by a
structurally nonlinear airfoil in turbulent flow is Mean position
investigated numerically. In steady free-stream the
Mid-chord
bifurcation problem is relatively well established. At h
the so-called coalescence flutter airspeed the w T(t )
Elastic axis
T
equilibrium point loses stability and bifurcates into a
limit cycle oscillation (LCO); both the flutter speed Um u T(t )
and LCO onset coincide. b ah
In turbulent flow, the picture is much less clear in bx T
Center of mass
the sense that the airfoil dynamics are behaving
b
randomly. Different concepts must be introduced, as
defined within the framework of random bifurcation
theory. The P-bifurcation (P for Phenomenological) is Figure 1 Schematic of airfoil model in turbulent flow
concerned with a qualitative change in the probability
structure of the dynamical behaviour as a control The turbulence excitation enters the problem via
parameter is varied. The D-bifurcation (D for the aerodynamic loads by two fundamentally different
Dynamical) is defined as a discontinuity, or a change routes. Its vertical component, wT(t), acts as additive
in sign for the linearized problem in the behaviour of noise via {WT(t)}. On the other hand, the longitudinal
the largest Lyapunov exponent, and is associated with component, uT(t), acts as multiplicative noise via the
a critical slowing down phenomenon. In the random damping and stiffness matrices.
case, these two bifurcation types do not coincide at one
unique value of the control parameter. In the noiseless
limit, the two elementary bifurcations merge into one
>M @^x` >D(t )@^x` >K (t )@^x` >K3 @^x 3 ` ^WT (t )` (1)
as a discontinuity in the largest Lyapunov exponent The aeroelastic system (1) is non-dimensionalized
also corresponds to a qualitative change in the and solved in the time domain using a 4th order Runge-
topological structure of the dynamic behaviour. Kutta scheme. At each time step of the computation,
the turbulent velocities, wT(t) and uT(t), obtained from
2 PROBLEM MODELLING AND SIMULATION the Gaussian based Dryden model, are fed into the
aeroelastic simulation.
The airfoil is modelled as a two-dimensional flat plate
with two degrees-of-freedom (DOF), in pitch and 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
heave (Figure 1). A nonlinear hardening cubic
torsional stiffness is introduced. The aerodynamics is The parameters are chosen such that the deterministic,
restricted to attached and incompressible conditions, non-excited airfoil experiences flutter at a non-
1
Dominique Poirel, PhD, PEng, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,
PO Box 17000, Stn Forces, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7K7B4, Tel: (613) 541-6000, ext. 6452, E-mail: poirel-d@rmc.ca
270
D. Poirel
dimensional airspeed, Uf = 4.31, whereby the turbulence level, the two-peaked and a saddle shape
equilibrium point loses stability in favour of a stable survives but is skewed counter-clockwise about the
LCO whose amplitude increases with further increase probability density axis.
in airspeed. Therefore, the flutter airspeed also defines Figure 3 shows the behaviour of the largest
a supercritical Hopf bifurcation as both flutter and LCO Lyapunov exponent, in non-dimensional form, for a
onset occur at the same airspeed. From the point of range of airspeeds that spans well across the pre- and
view of random bifurcation theory, flutter is thus a D- post-deterministic flutter speed regimes. The striking
bifurcation, and the LCO onset is a P-bifurcation. feature is that no discontinuity is observed, except for
Looking more closely at the deterministic LCO the non-excited case at the flutter speed, which also
topology, it is characterized by a crater-like shape with corresponds to the LCO onset.
four peaks in the bi-dimensional PDF representation mean airspeed, U m
(Figure 2) for the case labelled as V T2 0.0 for U = 5.0. 0.000

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Also shown is the fixed point characterized by Dirac’s
largest Lyapunov exponent x Um

-0.005 VT2 = 0.0
delta function (U = 2.5). U f = 4.31
-0.010
Pre-bifurcation (U m = 2.5) Post-bifurcation (U m = 5.0) VT2 = 0.001
-0.015 VT2 = 0.01
-0.020
2
V T = 0.0
-0.025 VT2 = 0.1
4.0 -0.030
1.0
0.0 2.0
0.0 0.3
pitch angle, 0.0 pitch -0.035 VT2 = 1.0
pitch rate, -1.0 -4.0 pitch rate, 0.0 angle, ș
T (deg)
dT/dW (deg) dT/dW (deg)
-2.0 (deg) Figure 3 Largest Lyapunov exponent
-0.3
for different turbulence levels
In terms of the D-bifurcation, it is therefore,

2
only displayed by the non-excited airfoil. There is no
V T = 0.01
D-bifurcation when turbulence is considered. We add
that, since the concept of the D-bifurcation is related to
3.0
3.0
the loss of stability of the equilibrium point, which for
0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 this application defines the flutter speed, the
pitch rate, 0.0
pitch
angle, pitch rate, 0.0
pitch angle, disappearance of the D-bifurcation due to turbulence
-3.0 -3.0 T (deg)
dT/dW (deg)
-0.5
T (deg) dT/dW (deg)
-0.5
indicates that the flutter speed no longer exists.
We have also investigated the relative impact of the
longitudinal component and found that for the
nonlinear airfoil, it is destabilizing but small. The
2
V T = 0.1
bifurcation is fundamentally dictated by vertical
turbulence. Furthermore, a very different bifurcation
1.0
4.0 5.0 scenario has been observed with pure longitudinal
0.0
turbulence, but it is not robust since in reality both
0.0 1.0 0.0
pitch angle,
pitch angle,
components are present.
T (deg)
pitch rate,
dT/dW (deg)
-1.0 -4.0
pitch rate,
0.0
-5.0
T (deg) In conclusion, the bifurcation scenario for the
dT/dW (deg)
-1.0 randomly excited airfoil (combined vertical and
Figure 2 Bi-dimensional PDFs in pitch-pitch rate longitudinal turbulence) is characterized by a
for pre- and post-bifurcation regimes qualitative change in the response PDF, whereas no
discontinuity in the largest Lyapunov exponent is
When turbulence is considered, the pre-bifurcation observed. In this sense the trivial bifurcation obtained
regime is characterized by a Gaussian-like bi- for the deterministic airfoil, where the D- and P-
dimensional PDF. On the other hand, the post- bifurcations coincide, is transformed into a pure P-
bifurcation behaviour depends on the turbulence level. bifurcation without a D-bifurcation. The PDF signature
For low levels, shown for a turbulence variance, ıT2 = depends on the turbulence level. At low turbulence
0.01, a crater shaped bi-dimensional PDF, intensity, the Gaussian-like bell-shaped bi-dimensional
representative of an LCO, is exhibited. For high levels, PDF bifurcates into a crater shape. This is interpreted
shown for ıT2 = 0.1, the crater is transformed into a as a random fixed point bifurcating into a random
two-peaked shape, with a saddle at the origin. The LCO. At high turbulence intensity, the post-bifurcation
turbulence has destroyed the underlying structure of PDF loses its underlying deterministic LCO structure
the deterministic LCO. For further increases in and is shown as a two-peaked shape, with a saddle at
the origin.
271
2
1$3RSRY9,7UDYRXVK
ABSTRACT: Main results presented in the paper are based on a statistical analysis of wind speeds measured
on different levels of Ostankino TV tower (Moscow, Russia). Data of other meteorological stations of this re-
gion are also considered for a comparison. In particular, a vertical profile of the wind speed and its direc-
tional properties are dealt in this study.
1. INTRODUCTION VN = S /6 ; EN = 0.5772 (3)

b. For CSE-Method the constants EN and VN were
540-meter height Ostankino TV tower was built in
corrected in a dependence on a series length in a cor-
Moscow in the end of 60th. Beginning with 1970
respondence of approach proposed by E. Gumbel
regular meteorological investigations are being car-
(1962).
ried out on special areas located on 8 tower altitudes.
A dependence of wind speeds with different
Duration of wind speed observations on 4 altitudes
return periods, on the calculated method is shown in
does not exceed 16 years and these data are not con-
Tbl.1.
sidered here. Table 1. 50 years return period wind speeds (in m/sec)
In addition, the data of meteorological stations of Method
Moscow State University (MSU) and Michelson hy- Data
MS SE CSE
drometeorological observatory were analyzed for a MSU 16.5 16.1 17.0
comparison and with a purpose to set, more exactly, Michelson 14.6 15.3 16.1
a local designing wind load. Ostankino-10 14.7 14.4 15.2
Ostankino-85 21.1 20.2 21.2
2. STATISICAL ANALYSIS Ostankino- 29.1 27.4 28.7
253
Sequences Sk (k is a station index) of annual wind Ostankino- 33.5 32.5 33.9
speed maximums Vmax, extracted from the regular re- 503
cords Vz,n were statistically analyzed using different
methods. It is interested to note the SE-Method that does
Probabilistic distributions of the annual maxi- not take a series length; always gives larger wind
mums are approximated by Gumbel's function (E. speeds in comparison CSE-Method. Following by E.
Gumbel, 1962; Simiu & Scanlan, 1978) Gumbel (1962) the CSE-Method was accepted as a
ª § V D ·º basic one at a further analysis.
Ɏ(V) { P(Vmax t V) = 1 - exp « exp¨¨ ¸» (1)
¬ © E ¸¹¼
3. A VERTICAL PROFILE
where P(Vmax t V) is a probability of an exceeding
by the velocity Vmax of some value V. A vertical profile of the wind speed was analyzed in
In Eq.1, the parameters D and E are determined by 2 stages. Firstly, for 4 levels of Ostankino TV tower
3 methods: a least-squares (MS) method, a statistical the wind speeds were calculated (see Fig.1) by
equivalence (SE) and correlated statistical equiva- methods described in Section 2.
lence (CSE) methods. In the last 2 approaches Then the data corresponding to different return
periods were approximated by a power function
D = Vm - EN E ; E = Vv /VN (2) (which is used in Russian wind load code, (Popov,
The constants EN and VN are defined by two ways: 2000)
a. SE-Method
1
Group Leader, Nikolai A. Popov, Ph.D., The state institute for building and structures, e-mail: vpopov@aha.ru
2
Duty Director, Vladimir I. Travoush, Prof., The research institute for advanced designing.
272
N.A. Popov, V.I. Travoush
V(z)/V(z1)=(z/z1)D (4) 26 meters level, were downed on standard 10-meters
height using wind profile described in the previous
V, m/s
40 Section. For a comparison, the wind speeds V5 =
z = 503 m 15.5 m/s corresponding to 5 years return period, and
35 V50 = 18.3 m/s corresponding to 50 years return pe-
z = 253 m riod and accepted in Russian wind code are set on
30
this figure.
Probably, there are a few reasons why these
25
z = 85 m speeds are noticeably differed. But, evidently, the
20
main reason is caused by difference of territories sur-
z = 12 m
rounding the places of an anemometer setting.
15
10 5. A CONSIDERATION OF WIND DIRECTIONS

Tr
5
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Fig.3 shows directional distributions of the calcu-
lated wind speeds for 3 return periods Tr = 5, 50 and
Figure 1. Calculated wind speeds on 4 levels of 150 years. The wind speeds Vm averaged on the di-
Ostankino TV. rections for the same Tr are set here for comparison.
The results received are shown in Tbl.2. They It can be seen Vm speeds exceed noticeably speeds in
point out the power D is slightly decreased if return any direction.
period Tr is increased. V, m/s
East South West North
Table 2. Parameter D in dependence on return period Tr. Tr = 150 (dir average)
Tr 5 10 25 50 100 150 18
Tr = 50 (dir average)
D 0.237 0.229 0.221 0.215 0.211 0.208
16
Tr = 150
Tr = 50
14
4. A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT
METEORLOGICAL DATA Tr = 5 (dir average)
12
V, m/s
20 10
Tr = 5
1
8
18 2
3 Dq
6
16 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 3. Directional distributions of the calculated

14
wind speeds; MSU wind data.
12
6. REFERENCES
10
Gumbel, E. (1962) Statistics of extremes, Columbia
Tr university press, New York,.
8 Popov, N.A. (2000) The Wind Load Codification in
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Russia and Some Estimates of a Gust Load Accu-
racy Provided by Different Codes, Journal of
Figure 2. The wind speeds corresponding to 3 meteoro- Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
logical data; 88, pp 171-181.
1 – MSU; 2 – Mikhelson station; 3 – Ostankino.
Simiu, E. & Scanlan, R.H. (1978) Wind effects on
The calculated wind speeds on 10 meters level for 3 structures, John Willey & Sons.
meteorological stations are shown on Fig.2. Doing
this analysis, the Mekhelson wind data measured on
273
S. Poulin1, A. Larsen2
ABSTRACT: The drag wind loading on the stay cables of long cable-stayed bridges is discussed based on
two recent long-span cable-stayed bridge designs. It is shown that for wind along the bridge, the available
design literature on cable drag coefficients either do not cover the actual cable configurations or are too
conservative. Therefore some simple design values had to be devised. These design values for the cable drag
coefficient are then compared with measured drag coefficients for various types of cable surface treatments
introduced to suppress rain-wind vibrations. A modified expression depending on cable diameter and
inclination is also proposed and the applicability of the expression is discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Design recommendations

Wind loading on the stay cables often governs the The Post-Tensioning Institute Recommendations,
wind design of long span cable-stayed bridges PTI (2001), conservatively suggests using CD = 1.2
affecting the choice of cable system and tower and (corresponding to the sub-critical range), and the
girder dimensions. Thus, minimisation of the wind SETRA Recommendations, SETRA (2002),
loading is an important design issue. The drag wind suggests using a value of CD = 0.7 for extreme
load on a stay cable is written winds, i.e. corresponding to the supercritical range.
Both of these references recognise the dependence
Fw ½ U U 2 CD d L (1) on Reynolds number, surface roughness and
turbulence. For the important case of wind along the
where ȡ is air density, U is mean wind speed, d is bridge where the cables are inclined in the wind
cable diameter, L is cable length and CD is the drag flow, ESDU (1971) proposes suitable
coefficient in the along-wind direction. recommendations, but only for larger inclinations
It is therefore seen to be important that the drag angles (> 40˚).
coefficient is chosen with reasonable accuracy. This 1.2 Application of recommendations on long-span
task is made difficult by the dependence of CD on cable-stayed bridges
Reynolds number Re = Uǜd/ȣ, especially since
For Stonecutters Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge in
typical Reynolds numbers for stay cables lie in the
Hong Kong spanning 1018 m, it turned out that of
critical range where CD shows the strongest
the 28 cables in each main span cable fan, only the 9
dependence on Re, Figure 1.
shortest cables were covered by the ESDU
recommendations, the remaining 19 cables had
inclinations Į smaller than 40˚.
CD0=1.2 Similar observations were made for SuTong
Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge connecting Nantong
with Suzhou spanning 1088 m. Of the 34 cables in
CD0=0.8 each main span cable fan, only 13 are covered by the
ESDU recommendations.
Therefore, simple design values for the cable drag
coefficient were adopted. They are given by CD0 =
Re=3ǜ105 Re=5ǜ105 0.8 for wind perpendicular to the bridge line and CD0
= 1.2 for wind along the bridge line. For wind along
the bridge, the drag coefficient in the direction of the
Figure 1 Variation of CD with Reynolds number Re, from mean wind, CD, was then found from CD =
ESDU (1971).
CD0ǜsin3Į.
Over the world several other long cable-stayed
bridges are being designed and built, so it becomes
1
Sanne Poulin, Ph.D., COWI A/S, Parallelvej 2, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark, e-mail sami@cowi.dk
2
Allan Larsen, Ph.D., COWI A/S, Parallelvej 2, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark, e-mail aln@cowi.dk
274
S. Poulin, A. Larsen
increasingly important to examine how well significantly to above 90% compared to the simple
commonly adopted design specifications compare design criterion using CD0 = 1.2.
with experiments, particularly with respect to
potential excess load capacity. SuTong Bridge, actual cables
2 EXPERIMENTAL VALUES 1.4
1.2
For both bridges, extensive wind tunnel testing was
carried out, including measurements of cable drag 1.0
coefficients for various cable surfaces (introduced to 0.8
CD
suppress rain-wind vibrations) in order to select an
0.6
effective cable surface that did not exceed the design
specifications for wind drag loading. 0.4
The tests showed that the simple design 0.2
specification given by CD0 = 1.2 is conservative
0.0
compared to the actual measured drag coefficients 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
for all the investigated cable surfaces, especially for cable inclination (deg)
the smooth cable, the 2mm helical fillets and the design criterion
dimpled designs. The area between the design curve smooth, depression
2mm, depression
and the experimental curve is a measure of excess dimpled (oval I), depression
load capacity, the magnitude of which depends on new design criterion, d=158mm
the actual cable configuration (number, diameter, Figure 2 SuTong Bridge, comparison of design criteria (using
lengths and inclinations of cables). d=158mm) with selected experimental results (d=109mm to
d=158mm), at the design wind speed U = 55 m/s.
3 MODIFIED DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR
LONGITUDINAL WIND
Table 1 SuTong Bridge, cable wind loads based on
In view of the above, it is relevant to investigate a experimental values. Fraction of design wind loads (modified
less conservative design specification for wind along design wind load is calculated based on largest cable diameter
the bridge line. Assuming a variation of CD with Re d=158mm). One main span cable fan.
Main span cable fan Wind load (kN) Fraction of design Fraction of design
between Re = 3ǜ105 and Re = 5ǜ105 as shown in U = 55 m/s wind load wind load (modified)
Figure 1 by the dashed line gives: Design specification

Modified design spec.
626
517
Smooth 434 -557 69% -89% 84% -108%
C D 0 Re, D 2mm 473 76% 92%
Dimpled (oval I) 482 77% 93%
1.2 for Re sin D 3 10 5
° 6 5 5
® 2 10 Re sin D 1.8 for 3 10 Re sin D 5 10
°0.8 for Re sin D ! 5 10 5 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
¯
(2) In practical applications, a representative value of
Reeff = ReǜsinĮ, e.g. corresponding to the largest or
perpendicular to the cable surface, corresponding to one of the largest cable diameters in the cable fan,
can be selected to apply for all cables. A rule of
thumb could be that the value of the along-wind
CD C D 0 (Re, D ) sin 3 D (3) cable drag coefficient CD shall be about 0.8 for Į =
90˚. It is recommended, however, to verify the
in the direction of the longitudinal wind (horizontal). applied values experimentally for the selected type
of cable surface.
4 EXAMPLE - LONGITUDINAL WIND LOAD
ON STAY CABLES 8 REFERENCES
PTI Guide Specification, Recommendations for Stay Cable
For SuTong Bridge, an optimum use of the modified Design, Testing and Installation. Post-Tensioning Institute,
expression (2) is obtained by using the largest cable Fourth Edition, 2001.
diameter in the cable fan in the calculation of SETRA. Cable Stays, Recommendations of French
CD0(Re,Į). This is illustrated in Figure 2. The Interministerial Commission on Prestressing, 2002.
corresponding drag wind loads are summarised in ESDU. Fluid forces on non-streamlined bodies - Background
notes and description of the flow phenomena, Item Number
Table 1. It is seen that the utilization ratios increase 71012, Engineering Sciences Data Unit, London, 1971.
275
Comparison of high resolution spectra to mean velocity approaches for

urban wind comfort simulations – A CFD study
Ch. Reichl1, M. Mann1, G. Haider1, H. Lang1
ABSTRACT: Wind comfort analysis is rapidly gaining significance in large scale urban building projects. To
attain a complete impression of local wind phenomena, calculations of a large number of wind directions have
to be performed. Due to computational constraints however, only a single representative wind speed is
commonly simulated for each of these wind directions.
The selection of the representative wind speed for each direction is based upon statistical meteorological data
- often presented in form of hourly mean and peak values - recorded over extended periods of time. Currently
a wind speed is chosen which exceeds the majority of measured occurring wind speeds. The idea is to cover
all wind events statistically significant for pedestrian comfort. This process is not entirely straightforward and
does not account for the actual time series of wind speed. Information on how often certain comfort thresholds
are exceeded during a given period can not be acquired.
The paper focuses on the study of these effects. Unsteady CFD calculations (using DES) for a range of
different wind speeds are performed for two selected wind directions. For this purpose a simplified urban
geometry is prepared utilizing an extended upstream stretch. Effects of cubic turbulence generators in the
upstream area are studied. The comfort parameters are extracted for the entire wind velocity range. This
extensive data, which is acquired investing significant computational resources, is then compared to the
single-velocity approach.
A procedure is developed, which allows deriving more accurate comfort data from single velocity calculations
by calibrating with the full velocity spectra. This allows increasing predictive quality of CFD simulations
without dramatically increasing computational effort.
Wind comfort simulation in building projects result

in a large amount of simulations for different wind
directions, if a classification based on statistical wind
data should be obtained. To reduce the amount of
computer power needed, it is the aim to simulate
only one boundary velocity profile setting
(characterized by a specific velocity at a given
height) per wind direction. This methodology avoids
spanning a whole matrix of simulation runs built up
by multiplying the number of wind directions with
the number of boundary profile settings. Figure 1: Isometric view on the simulated building complex
(green). Turbulence generating cubes (black) are placed in the
upstream stretch. The light ground part with the building can be
The paper describes the used geometry (see fig. 1) rotated with a step size of 2 degrees.
and characterizes the applied meshing strategies for
the pure hexagonal mesh. All parameters for the Turbulent time-dependent velocities are recorded for
steady and transient calculations including the 16 different boundary profile settings (defined by a
applied wind statistics are defined. After focussing probability distribution, which is characteristic for a
on the transient DES approach, the selection criteria given wind direction). These velocities are arranged
for a single velocity boundary profile to best in six bins connected to the different comfort classes.
approximate the average velocity field is defined. Figure 2 shows the probability, that a given point on
the post processing surface contributes to the
If only one calculation corresponding to one corresponding comfort class. The “floating” class is
boundary profile setting is available, meaningful derived by weighting the class number with the
comfort classification can nevertheless be extracted. probability.
1
arsenal research – Austrian Research Centers, Faradaygasse 3, A-1030 Vienna, Austria, christoph.reichl@arsenal.ac.at
276
Ch. Reichl, M. Mann, G. Haider, H. Lang
Class I weighted Class II

Class III “floating” class
Class III “floating” class
Figure 3: Probability for three of the six comfort classes at 1 m

above ground level using the projected probability
distributions. The “floating” class level is shown in the lower
right figure.
CONCLUSIONS
For comfort simulations with the aim of
Figure 2: Probability for three of the six comfort classes at 1 m classification with respect to statistical wind data,
above ground level using the statistical average over all computer power should be invested into geometry
boundary profile settings. The “floating” class level is shown resolution and the amount of computed directions.
in the lower right figure. Therefore it is of great importance to avoid the
calculation of different inlet velocities (wind speeds
Using only one single boundary profile setting corresponding to different boundary profile settings).
(characterized by a specific velocity vboundary) for a
given wind direction, it is nevertheless possible to If the boundary profile setting matches the median
achieve similar results as for the full spectra velocity of a given probability distribution
approach First the local velocity vlocal is divided by (depending on the wind direction), the resulting flow
vboundary leading to a normalized value vnormalized. field overestimates the average flow field (which
Second, the probability distribution is multiplied would be achieved by simulating a large amount of
with the normalized local velocity vnormalized. Thus, a boundary profile settings).
spectrum is produced locally, which can be used to
repeat the approaches shown above (see figure 3). To generate classification probabilities or “floating”
classification it is possible to project the probability
A reasonable good agreement can be found between distribution onto the local post processing surface
those two approaches comparing figure 2 and figure point. In that way, good accordance with the full
3. velocity spectra can be achieved, although variations
due to turbulence are neglected in that case.
Class I projected Class II
It is important to use mean values of transient
calculations for the application of the demonstrated
methodology, instead of steady k-e RNG runs. The
flow fields of these runs often can not fully converge
and show large variations.
If – due to a complicated building setting – special

vortex shedding effects at some characteristic
velocity is suspected, transient simulations, however,
at this special velocity can not be avoided and must
be carried out.
277
M.P. Repetto1, G. Solari2
ABSTRACT: The authors of this paper have carried out a wide research project aimed at determining the
wind-induced fatigue of structures, hypothesising the wind field as neutrally stratified, as it is typical of
evaluations addressed to ultimate loading conditions. As wind-induced fatigue is sensitive to moderate wind
speeds, for which stable or unstable atmospheric conditions can occur, this paper extends the procedures
previously established to non-neutral thermal stratifications. Preliminary results are discussed with reference
to an example concerning a steel chimney.
1 INTRODUCTION condition when a reference mean wind velocity u r

The authors of this paper have carried out a wide
belongs to the interval ' u i, the wind direction M
research project aimed at determining the wind- belongs to the interval 'Mj and the inverse of the
induced fatigue of structures. Closed form solutions Monin-Obukhov length (1/L) belongs to the interval
'(1/L)h. Since the ijh-th loading condition has an
of the cycles histogram, of the mean damage and of
the mean fatigue life have been proposed, which take
occurrence probability Pijh, the structure undergoes
into account the joint probability distribution of the
such a condition for an effective duration Tijh=TPijh.
mean wind velocity and direction at the site of the
Considering a linear structural behaviour, the stress
structure, the alongwind, crosswind and torsional
processes related to the ijh-th loading condition are
actions and the corresponding structural responses,
given by sijh= s ijh+ s’ijh, where s ijh and s’ijh are the
the possible occurrence of lock-in effects. Initially,
mean and the nil mean fluctuating stresses,
analyses have been carried out schematising the
respectively. The damage induced by all the wind
stress processes as narrow band (Repetto & Solari
loading conditions during the whole structure’s life
2001, 2002, 2004). Later, advanced models have
is evaluated collecting the wind loading cycles and
been proposed - namely the peak, the peak-valley
the related stresses into a discrete cycles histogram.
and the bi-modal counting methods - which provide,
The cycles histogram is defined as the mean
respectively, an upper bound, a lower bound and an
number of stress cycles n ijhk with amplitude 'k and
accurate estimate of the actual broad band stress
mean stress s ijh; so, it is a function of the mean wind
processes (Solari & Repetto 2004, Repetto 2005,
velocity (i), of the wind direction (j), and of the
Repetto & Solari 2005).
Monin-Obukhov length (h). It is worth noting that
All the above analyses have been carried out
n ijhk is proportional to the effective duration time
hypothesising the wind field as neutrally stratified,
Tijh of the ijh-th loading condition, and is obtained
as it is typical of evaluations addressed to ultimate
applying a bi-modal cycles counting method to the
loading conditions. However, results show that the
fluctuating stress process s’ijh.
wind-induced fatigue is sensitive to moderate wind
The mean damage induced by different cycles is
speeds for which stable or unstable atmospheric
evaluated by the Palmgren-Miner linear rule. Its use
conditions can occur; such occurrences may result
provides the fractions of the damage induced by the
very important especially with reference to critical
ijhk-th block of the cycles histogram by the formula:
vortex shedding effects.
This paper extends the procedures previously n ijhk T
dijhk T (1)
established to non-neutral thermal stratifications. N ijhk
Preliminary results are discussed with reference to an
example concerning a steel chimney. Nijhk being the mean number of the stress cycles with
amplitude 'k and mean stress s ijh that causes the
2 FATIGUE ANALYSIS collapse. The total mean damage is given by:
The wind loading effects induced in a structure
during the time interval T are treated as a series of D(T) ¦¦¦¦ d T ijhk (2)
loading conditions, each corresponding to a 'T step. i j h k
A structure is said to undergo the ijh-th loading

1
Maria Pia Repetto, Ph.D., University of Genoa, e-mail repetto@diseg.unige.it
2
Prof. G. Solari, University of Genoa, e-mail solari@diseg.unige.it
278
M.P. Repetto, G. Solari
Since the collapse occurs when D reaches the associated with low wind velocities, while decreases
unit, the mean fatigue life can be estimated as the the damage in the range of the first critical wind
inverse of the damage intensity D 1 , i.e. the mean velocity. However, the mean total damage intensity
damage per unit time. and the mean fatigue life show that, at least in this
case, the above two effects compensate each other,
3 EXAMPLE and the analysis based on non-neutral conditions
The proposed procedure has been applied to evaluate ( D 1 =0.193, T̂F =5.18 years) leads to a global result
the wind-induced fatigue of a steel chimney. The very close that provided by the classical study based
structure is 30 m high, with a constant diameter of 1 on the neutrality hypothesis ( D 1 =0.181, T̂F =5.52
m. The fundamental frequency is n1 = 1.27 Hz, the years).
Scruton number is Sc=8.6. The Strouhal number is 0.08
S=0.2. The chimney is placed in a flat terrain, with
roughness length z0 = 0.10 m.
Fig. 1 shows the joint probability, Pih, that the
mean wind velocity at 10 m height, u 10, belongs to 0.06
the i-th interval ' u i=(i-1,i]G u (G u =1m/s) and (1/L)

belongs to the h-th interval '(1/L)h=(h-1,h]G(1/L)
d
(G(1/L)=0.01 1/m). The wind direction is dealt with 0.04
as a constant.
0.02
0.03
0.025
0
0.02 0 10 20 30
Pih u10 > m @
0.015
0.01
Figure 2 Damage intensity
0.005
However, it is apparent that the obtained result
0 strictly depends on the considered test case and on
-0.5
the selected distributions of the mean wind velocity
-0.25
and of the Monin-Obukhov length. Many more cases
0
25
30 shall be analysed in order to draw some general
0.25 20
1/L 10
15 conclusions. Furthermore, much more data is needed
0.5 5
[1/m] 0 u10 [m/s] to elaborate sound statistical models of the joint
distribution of the mean wind velocity and of the
Monin-Obukhov length. These two points represent
Figure 1 Joint probability of the loading conditions
the key issues to study with the aim of improving
The structural response has been evaluated by a and further developing the present research activity.
computer program implemented by the authors; it
considers the thermal atmospheric stratification and 4 REFERENCES
calculates the alongwind and crosswind response of Repetto, M.P. (2005). Cycles counting methods for bi-modal
the structure taking into account any number of stationary Gaussian processes. Prob. Eng. Mech., in press.
vibration modes per each direction of the motion. Repetto, M.P & Solari, G. (2001). Dynamic alongwind fatigue
Buffeting actions due to longitudinal and lateral of slender structures. Engng. Struct., 23, pp. 1622-1633.
turbulence are expressed by the quasi-steady theory. Repetto, M.P & Solari, G. (2002). Dynamic crosswind fatigue
Vortex shedding actions and lock-in effects are of slender structures. Wind & Struct., 5, pp. 527-542.
modelled using the methods proposed by Vickery & Repetto, M.P & Solari, G. (2004). Directional wind-induced
Basu and by Simiu & Scanlan. fatigue of slender vertical structures. J. Struct. Eng., ASCE,
Fig. 2 summarises the main results, showing a 130, 7, pp. 1032-1040.
comparison between the damage intensity on varying Repetto, M.P & Solari, G. (2005). Broad-band alongwind
the mean wind velocity, evaluated under the fatigue of structures. J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, submitted.
hypothesis of neutral atmosphere (dashed line) and Solari, G. & Repetto, M.P. (2004). Wind-induced response and
taking into account stable and unstable atmospheric fatigue of structures. Proc., 1st Int. Symp. on Wind effects on
stratifications (continuous line). The effect of non- buildings and urban environment, Tokyo, 213-232.
neutral atmospheric conditions increases the damage
279

F. Ricciardelli1, E. T. de Grenet2
ABSTRACT: Even though the first application of POD to wind loads dates back 35 years, this technique has
been deeply investigated only in the last decade, and applications are available mainly aimed at (a) reducing
the computational burden and (b) better understanding the mechanisms of the wind loading. However, in spite
of the large number of papers appeared, there seems to be still some controversy concerning the actual limits
of POD. In this paper the capacity of POD of separating physical phenomena is investigated, together with
the question of why mathematical decoupling can bring physical decoupling. In addition, some issues
concerning the application of POD are addressed, such as the constrain of orthogonality of modes, the effects
of the mean value of the process, the application of POD to non-Gaussian processes, the relation between
time- and frequency-domain applications of POD.
to describe it in the simplest way which guarantees

1 INTRODUCTION the required accuracy. This separation is done based
The wind loading of structures is a complex process, on an aprioristic knowledge, rather than using
which was schematised by Davenport through the mathematical tools. Math comes then into play for
five-link Wind Loading Chain (Fig. 1a), and the the solution of the decoupled problems.
reliability of the design procedures is that of the Generally speaking, the wind loading process is
weakest link. One of the causes of complexity is that the result of the superposition of different physical
each link has to be dealt with on a probabilistic basis. phenomena, each contributing to the overall result in
Characterisation of the geostrophic wind statistics a smaller or larger measure, depending on the
allows determining the design speeds associated with particular situation. What remains unanswered is to
the different wind directions, which act as “scale what extent these phenomena can be separated.
factors” in the description of the oncoming wind When all this is translated into mathematics physics
field. The latter is determined by the characteristics goes lost, and the only form of independence that
of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer flow, which is can be sought is statistical independence. Now the
usually described as a three-dimensional, three- question arises of whether physical independence is
variate random field. Aerodynamics, then, described by statistical independence. If so,
transforms wind speeds into pressures and forces, operating tools are available to this aim from Proper
which are also described as random fields. For very Orthogonal Decomposition (POD).
rigid structures these are directly used for the design, POD is a technique allowing separation of a
while for moderately flexible structures dynamic multivariate correlated random process into the sum
analyses are in order to evaluate the response. Due to of a finite number of uncorrelated monovariate
the stochastic nature of the excitation, such analyses random processes (e.g. Loeve, 1963), a small
have to be based on tools of the random vibration number of which contains most of the energy of the
theory, and being the outcome expressed in original process. This makes it possible to provide an
probabilistic terms, safety and serviceability criteria accurate description of the original correlated
have also to be probabilistic. To that feed-forward process through only limited number of uncorrelated
process of Fig. 1a, a feed-back has to be added (Fig. processes. Once the link between the independence
1b) for very flexible structures, i.e. when of physical phenomena and the uncorrelation of their
aeroelasticity comes into play. This addition further mathematical description is ascertained, POD would
complicates things, due to its intrinsic non-linearity. become a powerful tool to investigate the structure
To overcame this complexity, simplified models of complex phenomena, when these are the
have been proposed in Wind Engineering, which superposition of simpler, uncorrelated phenomena.
retain only the relevant features of each link, to bring In this framework, in this paper some issues
design tools applicable to specific situations. concerning the applicability of POD to the analysis
Examples are the buffeting theories for slender of the wind loading of structures will be dealt with.
structures, the models for the evaluation of the
2 TIME- AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN POD
shedding induced response including lock-in, and so
on. The essence of such an approach is to isolate, POD is a family of optimisation techniques, aimed at
within a complex behaviour, a dominant feature and reducing an either infinite- or finite-dimensional
1
Francesco Ricciardelli, Department of Mechanics and Materials, University of Reggio Calabria, e-mail friccia@ing.unirc.it
2
Enrico T. de Grenet, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florence, e-mail degrenet@unina.it
280
F. Ricciardelli, E.T. de Grenet
METEOROLOGY METEOROLOGY
2.3 Non Gaussian processes
Decomposition of the Covariance matrix brings a
second-order decoupling, and we know that there are
ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY
LAYER
ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY
LAYER quantities, such as pressures, involved in Wind
Engineering which are non-Gaussian, and for which
higher-order moments play a relevant role. The
AERODYNAMICS AERODYNAMICS effect of higher-order moments on the decoupling of
the process will be explored.
AEROELASTICITY
STRUCTURAL STRUCTURAL
2.4 Full decupling of random processes
DYNAMICS DYNAMICS
CPT provides only a partial decoupling of a
multivariate random process. In a more general
DESIGN CRITERIA DESIGN CRITERIA
approach, full decoupling is achieved only if its
Correlation matrix, and therefore its Power Spectral
Density matrix, is diagonal. As an example, we may
Figure 1 Davenport’s wind loading chain (left,a), think of bivariate process made of two almost
modified wind loading chain (right,b) sinusoidal processes, having an average phase lag of
S/2. The Covariance matrix of such process is
random process into a finite-dimensional, prescribed
diagonal, therefore CPT would indicate that the two
lower-order random process, under the constrain that
components are independent. On the other hand there
the maximum energy of the original process is
are reasons to think that that the two components of
retained. POD can be applied in both time and
the process are well correlated, as they might derive
frequency domains, and a link exists between the
from the same cause, which manifests itself with
two applications. Historically time domain POD
some time lag, or that they are simply the in-phase
(Covariance Proper Transformation, CPT) stems
and out-of-phase components of one single process.
from the application of three different decomposition
POD applied to Power Spectral Density matrix is
techniques, namely Principal Component Analysis
often termed Spectral Proper Transformation (SPT),
(PCA), Karhunen-Loeve Decomposition (KLD) and
and has been already applied in many fields of
Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) (Liang et al,
Science and Engineering, even though only few
2002). Besides the complex mathematics, CPT
applications are available in Wind Engineering. POD
results in a change of the basis through which the
applications to the Correlation matrix, however, have
process is described, and the “optimal” basis to be
never been explored, probably due to the unfriendly
adopted turns out to be that made by the eigenvectors
mathematics involved, even though they seem to
of the Covariance matrix.
naturally stem from the correspondence between the
2.1 Orthogonality of the modes time/frequency domain descriptions of random
processes. The links between time- and frequency-
When applied in Wind Engineering to separate
domain decompositions will be explored.
physical phenomena, CPT has been objected to be
constrained by the fact that modes have to be
3 REFERENCES
orthogonal. An additional constrain would, in fact,
lead to a choice of modes which is not necessarily Davenport A.G., 1995 How can we simplify and generalize
that bringing the best separation of the physics. It wind loads?, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aero, 54-55, pp. 657-669
will be shown that this additional constrain is non- de Grenet E.T., Ricciardelli F. 2004, Analysis of wind loading
existent, as orthogonality of the modes is not a of square cylinders using Covariance Proper
requirement, but rather a necessary consequence. Transformation, Wind and Structures, 7, 2, pp. 71-88
Liang Y.C., Lee P. Lim S.P., Lin W.Z., Lee K., Wu C.G. 2002,
2.2 Effects of the mean value Proper Orthogonal Decomposition and its applications –
CPT choose as optimal basis that made by the Part I: Theory, J. Sound Vib. 252, 3, pp. 527-544
eigenvectors of the Covariance matrix, therefore it is Loeve M. 1963. Probability theory. Van Nostrand, Princeton,
independent of the mean of the process. As an NJ
alternative, some Authors apply the decomposition Solari G., Carassale L. 2000, Modal Transformation tools in
to the second-order moment matrix, which contains structural dynamics and wind engineering, Wind and
the mean process. The result is, of course, different, Structures, 3,4, pp. 221-241
and it will be shown that when used to investigate Tamura Y., Suganuma S., Kikuchi H., Hibi K. 1999, Proper
the physics underlying the process, it provides a Orthogonal Decomposition of random wind pressure field,
worst description J. of Fluids and Structures, 13, pp. 1069-1095
281
P.J. Richards1, R.P Hoxey2, B.D. Connell3, D.P. Lander3
ABSTRACT: 1:40 scale wind tunnel modelling of the Silsoe 6m Cube at the University of Auckland is
reported. In such situations it is very difficult to model the full turbulence spectra and so only the high
frequency end of each spectrum was matched, while the low frequencies were much smaller. The effect of
high frequency turbulence is illustrated by studying data from tests conducted in a range of European wind
tunnels. In spite of the turbulence intensity differences at Auckland similar pressure distributions are
obtained. Some differences are observed and these are partially attributed to the reduced standard deviation
of wind directions. The reduced turbulence intensities also affect the peak dynamic pressure. Fortunately,
since the missing turbulence is at low frequencies, the peak pressures appear to reduce in proportion.
1 INTRODUCTION (a) 0.016

3
0.014 4
In many wind tunnel modelling situations it is 0.012
5
10
impossible to match the complete turbulence
fSuu(f)/U(z)^2
11
0.01
14
spectrum. This can be particularly true when 0.008 Silsoe
modelling low-rise buildings, where a large scale 0.006

may be appropriate in order to reproduce the details 0.004
of the flow field. Tieleman (2003), for example, 0.002
recommends utilizing “models of low-rise buildings 0
than have a scale not smaller than 1:50”. This 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
inevitably means that the largest turbulence length f=nz/U(z)
scales in the wind tunnel are much smaller than the (b) 1
scaled full-scale equivalents. In such situations it 3 4
Mean Pressure Coefficient
may be appropriate to model only the medium to 0.5

5 10
11 14
small-scale turbulence in the tunnel and accept the Silsoe F-S
fact that the turbulence intensities will be lower. 0
0 1 2 3
In comparing wind-tunnel and full-scale 2
turbulence it is common practice to use the variance -0.5 1
and the integral length scale as normalising 0
-1
parameters. This practice often masks differences.
In contrast the form of Figure 1(a) clearly identifies -1.5
differences. The data in Figure 1 is drawn from the Distance Over Cube (Cube Heights)
German comparative study of wind tunnel modelling Figure 1. (a) Longitudinal spectra normalised by turbulence
of the pressures on a cubic building reported by independent parameters (European spectra at z/h =0.6, Silsoe
Hölscher and Niemann (1998) together with data spectrum at z/h=0.5). (b) Mean pressure coefficients on the
from the Silsoe 6m Cube. Figure 1(b) shows the vertical centreline of a cubic building,
corresponding changes to the vertical centreline (a) (b)
mean pressure distribution, which correlates quite
closely with the levels of high frequency turbulence.
The wind tunnel modelling reported in this paper
set out to reproduce the conditions experienced by
the Silsoe 6m Cube in the University of Auckland
boundary layer wind tunnel. Figure 2 shows the full-
scale and wind-tunnel cubes. Figure 2. (a) The Silsoe 6m cube and (b) the 1:40 scale model
1
Associate Professor Peter J. Richards, University of Auckland, New Zealand, email pj.richards@auckland.ac.nz
2
Dr Roger P. Hoxey, Silsoe Research Institute, Silsoe, UK, email roger.hoxey@bbsrc.ac.uk
3
Brenda D. Connell and Dane P. Lander, Students, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Auckland, NZ
282
P.J. Richards, R.P. Hoxey, B.D. Connell, D.P. Lander
2 THE AUCKLAND WIND-TUNNEL MODEL In general the Auckland wind-tunnel mean
pressures, such as those shown in Figure 3(b), are
The University of Auckland simulation of the similar to the full-scale values. However in a few
Silsoe situation sought to match the velocity profile situations there are noticeable differences. These
and the high frequency turbulence levels. However, tended to occur at locations and angles where the
as illustrated in Figure 3(a), since a moderately large pressure coefficient is changing rapidly with
scale, 1:40, was used the size of the wind-tunnel direction. The difference is partially caused by the
limits the largest turbulence that can exist. As a lower standard deviation of wind directions in the
result the low frequency end of the longitudinal and wind tunnel, which affects the range of instantaneous
transverse spectra are much smaller. This also coefficients contributing to the mean.
means that both the longitudinal and transverse The peak pressures are even more affected by the
turbulence intensities are smaller in the wind-tunnel, lower turbulence intensities since these occur as a
although the vertical turbulence is more comparable result of a peak gust coinciding with particular
since this component has a relatively small low- instantaneous wind directions. Fortunately, since the
frequency content even in the full-scale situation. missing turbulence is at low frequencies, it appears
that the peak surface pressures are proportional to
(a) 0.012 the peak dynamic pressure and so if the peak
Silsoe U
0.01 Silsoe V pressure coefficients are expressed as the ratio of the
Silsoe W
Wind-tunnel U
peaks then reasonable agreement is obtained, as
0.008
illustrated in Figure 3(c) for roof Tap 6.
fSaa(f)/U(z)^2
Wind-tunnel V
Wind-tunnel W
0.006
0.004
3 CONCLUSIONS
0.002
x Wind spectra should be normalised by using
0 turbulence independent parameters, such as
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
nS(n)/U(z)2 against reduced frequency f=nz/U(z).
Reduced Frequency f=nz/U(z)
This form clearly highlights differences.
x High frequency turbulence affects the pressure
(b) 1.0
Full-scale distributions on a cubic building by modifying
Test A
flow reattachment. It is therefore important to
Mean Pressure Coefficient
0.5 Test B
correctly model the high frequency turbulence
0.0 even if the turbulence intensities are incorrect.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
x The Auckland wind-tunnel model of the Silsoe
-0.5
1-2 Cube matched the velocity profile and the high
-1.0
2-3 frequency end of each spectrum. Even though the
0-1
Wind angle
turbulence intensities were much lower, the mean
-1.5 pressure distributions were similar to full-scale.
Distance Over Cube (Cube Heights) x Some differences were observed and these are
partially attributed to the reduced standard
(c) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 deviation of wind directions.
0
x The reduced turbulence intensities also affect the
-0.5
peak dynamic pressure. Fortunately, since the
Peak Pressure Coefficient
-1
missing turbulence is at low frequencies, the peak
-1.5
pressures appear to reduce in proportion.
-2
x Peak pressure coefficients should be the ratio of
-2.5 Tap 6
peak surface pressure to peak dynamic pressure.
-3 Min p/Max q Full-scale
-3.5 Wind angle Min p/Max q Wind-tunnel 4 REFERENCES

-4
Mean Wind Direction (Degree) Hölscher, N., & Niemann, H-J., (1998) Towards quality
assurance for wind tunnel tests: A comparative testing
Figure 3. Comparisons of Auckland wind-tunnel program of the Windtechnologische Gesellschaft, J. Wind.
and Silsoe full-scale data: (a) Spectra at half cube Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 74-76, 599-608.
Tieleman, H.W. (2003) Wind tunnel simulation of wind
height, (b) vertical centreline pressure profiles and loading on low-rise structures: a review, J. Wind Eng. Ind.
(c) Tap 6 peak pressures. Aerodyn. 91, 1626-1649
283
1 2 1 1 2
C. Sacré , J.M. Moisselin , M. Sabre , J.P. Flori , B. Dubuisson
ABSTRACT: The Ministry in charge of the ecology (MEDD) asked the CSTB and Météo-France to analyze
all wind data available in the French meteorological stations, to elaborate a new extreme wind speeds map.
The Climatology Department of Météo-France developed homogenization tools that allow the detection and
the correction of breaks due to wind sensor change, modification of measurement environment. This selection
method in homogenization has been proposed for daily maximal wind speed for about 150 wind speed
stations. The meteorological station environment influence is corrected with the help of the Danish software
WAsP that takes in account the relief, the roughness of the land within a radius of 5 km as well as the near
wakes in a radius of 500 m. The relief is described by the numeric model of terrain of IGN on a 50 m grid step
and the roughness of the land, by an interpretation of the CORINE land cover data base by the GIS software
MapInfo, coupled with a description of the environment of each station by Météo-France. The time series of
the maximal daily mean wind speed are analyzed by the IMIS method (Improved Method of Independent
Storms). This method will allow the estimation of the 50-yr return period of the mean wind speed irrespective
of wind direction.
1 INTRODUCTION can be a useful help to select relevant period. The
interesting period is the one that begins after last
The design of buildings and bridges in relation with
heavy break. Monthly mean of sustained wind speed
the wind effects requires an assessment of the mean
(10’ average) is homogenized. Several criteria have
wind speed that has a yearly probability of
been used such as nature of the sensors, data missing
exceedance of 0.02. A previous map had been
rate or the Radome criteria which is a classification
calculated with a reduced data set (time series of the
of weather measurement sites of Météo-France. Only
yearly maximal wind speed, description of sites from
series with at least ten years of data have been kept:
paper map and correction of the environment by
146 wind stations are selected at this point and 22
analytic and empiric formulations) that had
have been rejected.
conditioned the choice of the analysis method. The
The environment coefficients are calculated from
availability of a fine description of the roughness and
the relief until 5 km around every meteorological observed wind speed u ( x, z ) on each station with:
station and the availability of a new set of quality- u ( x, z ) u ref .C R ( x, z ,T ).CT ( x, z ,T ).C S ( x, z ,T )
checked time series of daily maximal wind speed where u ref is the reference wind speed, C R x, z ,T is
allows to develop a more refined method based on
the use of the software Wasp and the independent a roughness coefficient, CT x, z ,T a relief
storm method .. coefficient and C S x, z ,T a wake coefficient; these
This paper describes the selection of wind data, coefficients are describing each local effect of the
the different corrections of the surroundings of each surroundings on the site and are depending on the
meteorological stations and the statistical method wind direction - , the position x along wind
chosen to calculate the mean wind speed of 50-yr direction axis and the height z of measurements.
return period. Over a hill of gentle slope, the wind flow is
modified through pressure effects with over speed on
2 METHODS the top of the hill and lower speed and increased
Long-term climatological series of different turbulence under the wind of the hill. The
parameters have been homogenized by Météo- perturbation of the wind flow can be described with
France for Climate Change Studies. Homogenization the BZ model used in the software WAsP. Relief
coefficient can not be applied to daily data for information is given by the numerical terrain model
statistical reasons but information coming from BD-ALTI from the French Ordnance Survey IGN
homogenization break amount or cumulative one, that covers the whole territory by a step of 50 m.
1
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Nantes, France, e-mail sacre@cstb.fr
2
Météo France – Direction de la Climatologie, Toulouse, France, e-mail jean-marc.moisselin@meteo.fr
284
C. Sacré, J.M. Moisselin, M. Sabre, J.P. Flori, B. Dubuisson
Around each station a square of 10 by 10 km is adjusted by a generalized extreme value distribution
extracted from which is defined a topographical map (GEV).
needed by the software WAsP.
Obstacles will create a wake following the wind 3 RESULTS
direction with reduced wind speed and increased In France higher values of wind speed extremes are
turbulence. The coefficient is calculated with the recorded along coastal areas and in the northern part
software WAsP from the height, the width and the of territory. The highest value of 60 m/s has been
porosity of the obstacle, assuming that the point of recorded in semaphore sites of Sisco (Corsica) and
calculation is out of the recirculation zone behind the Plogoff (Brittany). Most of the records correspond to
obstacle. Obstacles are defined by the site both storms of December 1999 (48%), especially for
classification by Météo France, orientation, height inland weather stations. 4% of the values (most of
and pictures of meteorological park and mast plus them in Brittany) are associated with October 1987
ordnance survey maps at scale of 1/25000th. storm. To the exception of few stations located on
Using the software WAsP, the roughness special places, as semaphore on coastal cliffs, the
coefficient is the ratio between the wind atlases. For tendency to place as much as possible
the eighteen 20-degree sectors, one is calculated with meteorological masts in the open flat terrain of an
the reference aerodynamic roughness length (5cm) airfield or an airports makes that correction values
and the second is calculated with the aerodynamic are generally laying between 0.90 and 1.10. For the
roughness length of the station's environment. The same reasons as the relief coefficients, localisation of
CORINE Land Cover (CLC) database has been used measurements points is on open terrain. Only few
to evaluate the roughness coefficient for each station. stations are disturbed by obstacles and 4 of them are
It was performed in a 10-yr period from 1986 to presenting obstacles coefficients lower than 0.60,
1996. The number of class provided by the CLC indicating high influence of the obstacle. The
database is too large for this study and a reduction of roughness coefficient estimated for the stations is
the number of class from 44 to 8 is done. Using the calculated at the real anemometer level. The value of
GIS MapInfo, the 8 classes have been rebuilt over an the coefficients is usually less than 1, indicating that
area of 10 by 10 km centred on each meteorological the station environment is rougher than a station with
station. the reference roughness.
The statistical extreme value analysis of the mean
wind speed is based on the study of the time series of 4 CONCLUSIONS
peak maximal daily velocity with its associated
direction. The time series of the daily maximal mean This study already provides an essential data base for
speeds (calculated on 10') is also available, but on a studies in wind engineering: A new set off time
shorter time series. series of the daily maximal wind speed for 150
This second series allows to estimating the gust French stations with test of homogeneity breaks and
factor in taking in account the two values of a same special attention on metadata and a data set available
day when their associated directions are identical. for computer, of the environment characteristics of
After the transformation of the peak velocity time every station, giving the necessary corrections to
series in a mean velocity time series, by applying the obtain a normalization of observations.
environment coefficients, we obtain a reference The independent storm method and the analysis of
mean wind speed time series distributions by a GEV law bring a better extreme
The method of independent storms has been speed evaluation, privileging the tail of the
applied to the sample of the daily maximal reference distribution.
mean speeds. A storm is defined if the speed passed
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
over an upper threshold at least one day, and two
storms are considered as statistically independent, if This work was part of the study funded by the
there are at least one day between the both where the Ministry in charge of the ecology (MEDD) to
wind speed is lower to a given lower threshold. In establish a new extreme wind speeds map. Some
the case of several consecutive days over the upper methodological approaches have also been
threshold, alone the maximal value is kept, all developed in the framework of GICC/imfrex project
directions merged. of MEDD. The authors would like to thank all the
The cumulative distribution of the values French weather station engineers for making the full
corresponding at all the years of the series (about description of the station available; the IFEN for
from 20 to 50 years) for every station, has been supplying the CORINE Land cover data.
285
M.Sadaghashvili1
ABSTRACT: Till now for an estimation of joint influences of a rain and a wind the index of a driving rain
which is a conditional parameter is used and cannot be used for laboratory modeling and designing of protect-
ing designs. In the submitted work connection of an index of a driving rain with amount and intensity of a rain
falling out on vertical surfaces is investigated. It is shown, that generally to unit of an index of a driving rain
there will correspond various amount of a driving rain depending on intensity and to speed of vertical falling
of a rain. Dependence of speed of vertical falling of a rain on its intensity is investigated. Formulas for calcu-
lation of amount and intensity of the rain which is falling out on vertical surfaces are given. The resulted
method of calculation allows on the basis of standard meteorological supervision to calculate physical char-
acteristics of driving rains and to carry out their statistical processing with the purpose of reception of settle-
ment values with the set security.
1 PHYSICAL SENSE OF THE DRIVING RAIN From the received ratio follows, that to unit of an
INDEX index of a driving rain there can correspond the dif-
ferent amount of a rain which are falling out on a ver-
Necessity of an estimation of influence of driving tical surface, depending on speed of falling of a rain.
rains on variously oriented surfaces has arisen from Speed of vertical falling of water drops is well
practical tasks, for example, the rains falling on ver- enough investigated. However rains contain drops of
tical surfaces of buildings. the various size and, hence, have a different speed of
Stations of a hydrometeorological service do not con- vertical falling. For practical tasks, it is necessary to
duct measurements of the rains which are falling out know volume of the rain water which are falling out
on vertical surfaces. Experimental measurements of on a vertical surface in this connection, it is necessary
the rains which are falling out on vertical surfaces in to have data not about speed of falling of separate
field conditions with freely standing gauges and on drops, and the average speed of vertical falling of a
walls of buildings, have, as a rule, incidental charac- rain in view of all spectrum of the sizes of rain drops.
ter and appear not always sufficient for the statistical Hence, research of speed of vertical falling of a rain
analysis and the appropriate conclusions. In this con- is key in research of a driving rain.
nection, there is a necessity for maximal use of
results of usual meteorological supervision and
2 SPEED OF VERTICAL FALLING OF THE RAIN
development of a design procedure, with the purpose
of an estimation of various parameters of driving There is a small number of works in which speed of
rains. vertical falling of a rain is considered. In R.E.Lacy's
For the first time simple enough and readily work is given functional dependence of speed of
available concept of an index of a driving rain was falling of a rain on its intensity. Having used results
entered by Hoppestad (1955) in 1954 as product of of researches by Law and Parsons, and also Best's
average annual amount of a rain increased on average work, Lacy(1965) has received empirical depend-
annual speed of the wind. In this connection there is ence of a kind:
a necessity for consideration of analytical approaches
to an estimation of parameters of driving rains. The Vr = 4.505 . Ihor0.123, m.s-1
analytical way received expression, according to
which amount of a rain falling out on a vertical sur- where Vr – speed of vertical falling of a rain, m·sek-1;
face equally to the index of a driving rain divided for Ihor - intensity of a rain, mm.hour - 1.
speed of falling of a rain On the basis of the analysis of functional con-
nection of kinetic energy of a rain with its intensity,
1
H = Index ⋅ , m number of raindrops and its spectrum given in
Vr Kelkar's(1958) work we have received dependence
1 Cand.Techn.Sci., Marika Sadaghasvili ,Georgian Technical University,e-mail : mszgc@access. sanet.ge
286
M. Sadaghashvili
of speed of falling of a rain on its intensity which is falling out on vertical surfaces as in separate
intervals of one rain, and on the average for one rain,
Vr = 4.54 ⋅ I hor
0.08
, m·s-1 and also for longer periods, for example, for month,
year. Thus sufficient there are results of standard
where Ihor-intensity of a rain, mm · hour-1. meteorological supervision. With the help of the
On the basis of the analysis of the tabulared data given technique there is an opportunity of drawing up
given in work by Sobishek (1972), dependence was of statistical treatment by results of long-term super-
received: vision and by the appropriate calculations to receive
with a various degree of security and repeatability in
Vr = 4.30 ⋅ I hor
0.125
, m·s-1 years, settlement (including maximal) values of
parameters of the driving rains, necessary at labora-
By processing results of the direct measurements tory modeling driving rains and for elaboration of
executed by Izaksen (1974), on a wall of a laborato- envelope constraction.
ry building dependence of a kind was received
V r = 4.29 ⋅ I hor
0.100
, m·s-1 5 REFERENCES
As the above-stated dependences give close values, Best A.C. (1950) The size distribution of raindrops. Quart.
J.R.Met. Soc. 76.
average geometrical value of speed of falling of a rain Gunn R., Kinzer G.D. (1949) The terminal velocity of fall for
from its intensity was calculated. In result for practi- water droplets in stagnant air. J.Meteor. Vol.6. #2.
cal use in a final kind dependence of speed of falling Hoppestad S. (1955) Slagregn i Norge. Norwegian Building
of a rain on its intensity looks like: Research Institute Rep., #13
Humphreys W.I. (1929) Physics of the air. McCrew-Hill Book,
Vr = 4.41 ⋅ I hor
0.107
, m·s-1 Co, Une.
Isaksen T. (1974) Arrangement of the measurement and col-
lection of the observation. Norwegian Building Research
where, Ihor - intensity of a rain in mm·hour-1. The Institute. Tronheim.
received dependence is close to dependence given by Ishisaki H., Mitsuta V., Sano V. (1970) Rainfall deposit on a
Lacy. wace of a Building in a storm. "Bull. wisast. Prev. Pes.
Inst."., Vol.20.
Kelkar V.N. (1958) Size distribution of raindrops. Indian Met.
3 CALCULATION OF AMOUNT AND INTENSI- Geophys. Part I-IV, 10. pp.
TY OF THE DRIVING RAIN Korsgaard V. & Madsen T.L. (1962) Apparatus for measuring
and registering of driving rain. Technical University of
Denmark. The heat insulation laboratory. Copenhagen.
Finally the formula for calculation of amount of the Lacy R.E. (1965) Driving rain maps and the onslaught of rain
rain which is falling out on a vertical surface was on buildings. Build. Res. Stat. Garston. Res. 3, 291
received Ðåòòåð Ý.È. (1984) Àðõèòåêòóðíî-ñòðîèòåëüíàÿ àýðîäèíà-
ìèêà. Ì. Ñòðîéèçäàò.
Vw Ñàäàãàøâèëè Ã.Ð.,Ñóëàêâåëèäçå À. è äð. (1976) Ðàñ-
H vert = H hor ⋅ ⋅ cos(θ − θ 0 ) , mm ïðåäåëåíèå æèäêèõ îñàäêîâ íà ðàçëè÷íî îðèåíòèðîâàí-
4.41⋅ I hor
0.107
íûõ ïîâåðõíîñòÿõ. Ñá. íàó÷íûõ òðóäîâ Òáèë-ÇÍÈÈÝÏ,
¹ 13, âûï 2.
The formula for calculation of intensity of a driving Ñåðåáðîâñêèé Ô.À. (1971) Àýðàöèÿ æèëîé çàñòðîéêè. Ì.
rain is received also Ñòðîéèçäàò
Sobisek B. (1972) Priblizny vyposet mnozstve destove spadle
r r
⋅Vw , mm·hour-1,
pri vetru na verticaleni plochu. Meteorol zpr, vol. 25, #4-5,
I vert = 0.227 ⋅ I hor
0.107
p.125-126.
r r
where, Ivert and Vw, are considered as vectors to
focused on 4 or 8 points.
As an example it is resulted the map of a maximum
quantity of a driving rain developed for Georgia for
month and average amount of the driving rain which
is falling out on 8 orientations for year. The map is
included in building norms of Georgia "Building cli-
matology".
4 CONCLUSIONS
With the help of the above-stated formulas it is pos-

sible to calculate amount and intensity of the rain
287
M.Sadaghashvili1
ABSTRACT: With a view to describing the interaction of the wind driven rain with buildings, the work pro-
duces the results of tests of a building model in a wind tunnel. Through superposing the received results with
naturalness of free driving rain, there is shown the nature of distribution of rain upon variously oriented walls.
In the work is given the formulas for calculation the amount and intensity of rains falling on walls of buildings.
The work gives the schedules describing these interactions. It is shown that on edges and in the upper part of
the building, downfall of precipitation will be more intensive, rather than in the center and in the lower part of
the building. The made conclusions are perfectly agreeded with the results of direct measurements of driving
rains on walls of buildings, carried out by various authors.
1 REVIEW OF RESULTS OF MEASURING OF direction of an air flow was 900, 670, 450, 220, 00.
DRIVING RAINS ON WALLS OF BUILDINGS. Isolines and epures of aerodynamic factors distribu-
tions show, that at β =900 central part of a wall is sub-
For solving practical tasks it is necessary to know the ject to the greatest pressure of an air flow, and as
mechanism of interaction of driving rain with build- approaching edges pressure falls. In central part and
ings. Measurement of the rains which are falling out closer to the edges the aerodynamic factors distribu-
on walls of buildings, were carried out in the differ- tions curve are rather similar to the curves received
ent countries. However till now it is not received gen- by Zhukovski(1950) in experiments with square and
eralizing picture of interaction of rain flows with rectangular plates and a curve, received Milovich
buildings. In work are given results of test of models (1955) theoretically.
of a building in a wind tunnel and is shown character In the bottom part there is a deformation of iso-
of distribution of a rain using law of a free driving lines of aerodynamic factors distributions explained
rain on a wall of a building. Work also bases on the- by presence of under stretched surface which creates
oretical positions of dynamic interaction of bodies additional resistance to movement of an air flow.
and liquids. Concerning a vertical axis of symmetry at β =900 iso-
lines have symmetric character. It is evident that val-
ues of aerodynamic factors depend on coordinates of
2 RESEARCH OF RESULTS OF TESTS OF THE a point of measurement on a surface of a wall.
BUILDING MODEL IN THE WIND TUNNEL On diagrams it is visible, that with changes of an
angle the air flow there is a displacement of the cen-
Tests of building models were carried out in a wind tre of the maximal pressure to edge of the surface
tunnel with an open working part, with section 1.7 x which has been put forward to a direction of an air
1.7 m. Measurements of air speed in a wind tunnel flow. The values of aerodynamic factors decrease on
were carried out with the help of standard pipe Pito. the removed part. At the removed edge there is nega-
The model of a building was executed from 2-milli- tive pressure which area grows with reduction of an
metric organic glass. The sizes of model were angle. Displacement of the centre of pressure depend-
19x25x6.5 sm. For measurement of pressure at the ing on an angle between direction of air flow and
level on surfaces of walls vinylic tubes in diameter of plates is described theoretically and shown their con-
2 mm were laid down. Measurements were carried formity with results of experiment.
out in 200 points of model. On wind exposed surfaces At a turn, in the put forward half of surface aero-
A and B was located accordingly 66 and 44 points of dynamic factors change on a convex parabolic curve,
measurements. and in the removed part of a surface on concave.
On surfaces of model aerodynamic factors were Various character of distribution of aerodynamic fac-
determined at various orientations of a vertical sur- tors explained of different angles concerning a verti-
face of model in relation to a direction of an air flow. cal axis of symmetry. It is shown, that for different
The angle between winds exposes surface A and a angles of an air flow only in the central part of a wall
1 Cand.Techn.Sci., Marika Sadaghasvili ,Georgian Technical University,e-mail : mszgc@access. sanet.ge
288
M. Sadaghashvili
change of values of aerodynamic factors can be separate part of a wall, that it is even more obvious
described by Retter's (1984) formula. In all other for slanting flow. Thus, various parts of a wall are
cases, values of aerodynamic factors change on dif- exposed to various influences of driving rains that is
ferent and rather difficult laws. As well as an angle of connected to large number of influencing factors.
air flow, the values of aerodynamic factors depend on
sizes of a rectangular, coordinates of a researched
point on wall surface and also from under stretched 4 CONCLUSIONS
surface.
Having of the usual meteorological data - intensity of
a rain, speed and a direction of a wind, law of change
3 FORMULAS FOR CALCULATION THE of wind speed with height, and also the aerodynamic
AMOUNT AND INTENSITY OF THE RAIN factors received at test of models in a wind tunnel, it
FALLING ON BUILDINGS WALLS is possible to calculate amount and intensity of the
rain which is falling out on various parts of walls of
Meeting on the way an obstacle, energy of an air flow a building.
is decomposed to two components - on frontal resist- Complexity of processes it is possible to explain,
ance which is realized a kind of pressure upon a wall that direct experimental supervision in natural condi-
and, and for speed of a flow striking a building. tions have not resulted in clear functional depen-
Aerodynamic factors which characterize distribution dences. Complexity speaks also that amount of the
of pressure to surfaces of a wall, at the same time can driving rain which is falling out in vertical gauge,
be used for the characteristic of the speeds arising directly depends on coordinates of an arrangement
near to walls of buildings. In work is given function- gauge on a wall. Nevertheless it is obvious, that in
al connection of these speeds with aerodynamic fac- any case on the edges of a building drops out more
tors. rain, rather than in the bottom part of a building. This
Because the speed of a rain flow is added with conclusion will well be coordinated to results of
speed of an air flow, and entering factors on change direct measurements of driving rains on the multi-
the speed of air near to a wall and with height of storey buildings which have been carried out by Lacy
removal from a surface of the ground, was received (1965), Izaksen (1974) etc. Thus, the developed
the formula for calculation of amount of the rain method basing on test of models in wind tunnel
which is falling out on a wall of a building allows to calculate distribution of a driving rain for
V walls of buildings.
H vert = H hor ⋅ K y ⋅ ε ⋅ w ⋅ sin β
Vr
where Hvert is amount of the rain falling on the verti- 5 REFERENCES
cal surface, mm; Hhor - is amount of the rain falling
on the horizontal surface, mm; Ky - is the factor, Helbig A.(1969) Erste Ergebnisse von Schlagreyen messungen
on gebauden. "Jgojaras", #4.
reflecting the change of speed of the wind with Isaksen T. (1975) Driving rain in Bergen. Norwigian Building
height; ε - is the factor which taking into account the Research Institute.
change of the wind speed near to the researched part Ishisaki H., Mitsuta V., Sano V. (1970) Rainfall deposit on a
of the wall; Vw - is the speed of the free wind, m.s-1; wace of a Building in a storm. "Bull. wisast. Prev. Pes.
Vr - is the speed of vertical downfall of the rain, Inst."., Vol.20.
Künzel H., Frank W. & Schwarz B. (1971) Schagregen-
m.s-1; β - is an angle between the direction of air flow Wandfeuchtigkeit-Närmeverbranch. Bericht an das Bundes-
and the surface of the wall. ministerium für Städte bau und Wohnungswesen. B. #10/71
Accordingly for calculation the intensity of the Lacy R.E. (1965) Driving rain maps and the onslaught of rain on
driving rain which is falling out on a wall in equiva- buildings. Build. Res. Stat. Garston. Res. Ser. 3, 291.
lent dimension mm · hour-1, the formula looks like Lyberg M.D. (1979) Review of micro-and Building-physical
properties of driving rain. Swedish Institute for Building
I vert = 0.227 ⋅ I hor
0.893
⋅ K y ⋅ ε ⋅ Vw ⋅ sin β Research.
Meert E & Vanackere G.(1977) Dichtheid van Gevels en Daken.
Wetenschappelijk en Technish Centrum voor het Bouwbedrijf,
In work the example of calculation and an illustration eindverslag (Bruxelles).
of distribution of a rain on a wall of a building are Æóêîâñêèé Í.Å. (1950) Òåîðåòè÷åñêàÿ ìåõàíèêà. Ì.-Ë.
given at various angles of wind rain flow. From the Ìèëîâè÷ À.ß. (1955) Òåîðèÿ äèíàìè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñò-
âèÿ òåë è æèäêîñòè. Ì.-Ë.
given diagrams follows, that distribution of a rain on Ðåòòåð Ý.È. (1984) Àðõèòåêòóðíî-ñòðîèòåëüíàÿ àýðîäèíà-
surfaces of a wall has complex character and is ìèêà. Ì. Ñòðîéèçäàò.
described by the curves having not so obvious char- Õëóñîâ È. (1966) Çàùèòà çäàíèé ïîâûøåííîé ýòàæíîñòè îò
acteristic form as it takes place for aerodynamic fac- àòìîñôåðíûõ îñàäêîâ. “Àðõèòåêòóðà ÑÑÑÐ”, ¹8
tors that explained by addition of a vector of wind
speed with speed of falling of a rain. The amount of
a driving rain falling out on a wall differs for each
289
Three-dimensional simulations of suspension bridges under wind load:

Influence of mean steady configuration and effects of load nonlinearities
L. Salvatori1, P. Spinelli2
ABSTRACT: The paper outlines a framework for the analysis of bridges under wind excitation, based on
structural finite element modeling and on cross-sectional aerodynamic load models. After a brief review, a
time-domain load model for self-excited actions accounting for unsteadiness, mean angle of attack, along
wind forces and displacements, asymptotically converging to the steady model is proposed. Afterwards, by
means of a numerical example based on the quasi-steady load model, two facts are investigated: (1) the effects
on aerodynamic stability of the mean steady configuration under constant wind; and (2) the effects of load
nonlinearities on bridge response. The results point out that: (1) the modifications in structural stiffness and
aerodynamic properties due to steady deformation both affects the aerodynamic stability threshold, especially
in case of bluff aerodynamics; (2) nonlinear loads produces larger structural response than linear loads.
1 INTRODUCTION version of the indicial function load model, including

self-excited drag effects and ensuring convergence to
Bridges present a growing vulnerability to the wind quasi-steady load-model is proposed. Indicial
action, due to the increasing span lengths, and to the functions are analytically expressed as through
current trend towards increasingly light structures. exponential filters, whose coefficients are be
In order to evaluate wind loads, wind tunnel tests identified by means of a nonlinear least-square
are commonly carried out. As scaled-down models optimization procedure on aeroelastic derivatives
of complete bridges are expensive and present (Borri et al., 2005).
intrinsic scaling problem, the usual approach consists The experimental data necessary to validate the
then in the aerodynamic characterization of cross- proposed unsteady load model will be soon
sectional models based on aerodynamic coefficients available. In the paper, some results based on quasi-
and aeroelastic derivatives. steady approach are presented instead.
2 WIND LOAD MODELING 3 ANALYSIS MODELS
The quasi-steady load model extends the steady The structure is modeled by means of finite
model based on aerodynamic coefficients to dynamic elements, using an ‘ad hoc’ developed computer
conditions (i.e. motion of the cross-section and program (Salvatori & Spinelli, 2005). Beam and
fluctuating wind velocity), imagining the history of cable elements are formulated in co-rotational
motion as a series of steady configurations. formulation (Crisfield, 1991). Wind actions are
By the linearization of the quasi-steady model it assembled through special one-node ‘elements’,
is possible to distinguish three main contributions to characterized by orientation and along-span
wind excitation: a constant steady load, a buffeting influence length. Wind field time-histories are
load due to the wind velocity fluctuations, and a self- characterized by turbulence spectra and coherence
excited load due to the motion of the bridge-deck. functions (Simiu & Scanlan, 1996), and are
The unsteadiness of the fluid-structure generated by means of autoregressive filters
interactions is often accounted for by introducing (Facchini, 1996).
frequency dependent experimental coefficients for Some analytical methodologies are discussed
the self-excited forces (aeroelastic derivatives) (nonlinear static analysis under constant wind, modal
(Scanlan & Tomko, 1971). This originates a mixed analysis around the deformed configuration, and
frequency-time domain load model, that linear and nonlinear time-domain analyses). A
demonstrated quite effective in predicting the flutter procedure for the evaluation of aerodynamic stability
instability condition, but is quite unpractical for in a reduced modal space, based on quasi-steady
time-domain simulations. model, is presented. Increasing the mean wind
An alternative is offered by the load model via velocity step by step, the stability is checked through
indicial functions (a time-domain counterpart of an eigenvalue analysis.
aeroelastic derivatives) (Scanlan et al., 1974). A
1
Eng. Luca Salvatori, International Doctoral Course on Risk Management, Universities of Florence and Braunschweig, c/o
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florence, Italy, e-mail luca.salvatori@dicea.unifi.it
2
Prof. Eng. Paolo Spinelli, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florence, Italy, e-mail spinelli@dicea.unifi.it
290
L. Salvatori, P. Spinelli
4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES 0.8
x linear
x nonlinear
As sample structure, the Bosporus suspension bridge 0.7
z linear
(Turkey, main span 1074 m) is considered (Fig. 1). 0.6
z nonlinear
D linear
With respect to the aerodynamic properties, two D nonlinear
x [m], z [m], D [deg]

different cross-sections are considered: a streamlined 0.5
one (Severn suspension bridge, denoted as section 0.4

‘A’) and a bluffer one (Tacoma replacement bridge,
denoted as section ‘B’). 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
along-span coordinate Y [m]
Figure 2 Section ‘A’: along-span RMS of response (U=40m/s)
Figure 1 Structural model (11 modeled cross-sections)
It could be concluded that:
The critical wind velocity is determined in four 1) The modifications in structural stiffness and
cases, combining structural properties in the aerodynamic properties due to steady
undeformed configuration C0 or in the steady deformation both affects the aerodynamic
deformed configuration CU , with the aerodynamic stability threshold, especially in case of bluff
properties in C0 or CU . The results in terms of critical aerodynamics;
condition for section ‘B’ are reported in Table 1. A 2) Nonlinear loads produces larger structural
remarkable difference in the critical wind velocity is response than linear loads, both in case of
observed between the four cases. The examples streamlined and bluff cross-sections.
indicate that the mean steady configuration could be The ongoing research will include a compared
neglected only for some streamlined cross-sections, evaluation of the nonlinear effects due to structure
whereas, for bluff cross-sections, that can produce and/or load, based on the quasi-steady approach.
large (and possibly non-conservative) errors. Further work will consider also the proposed
Moreover, it seems that both the variation of unsteady formulation based on indicial functions.
structural stiffness and of aerodynamics are influent.
Table 1 Critical flutter conditions obtained through REFERENCES
Ucr fcr
Bluff cross-section (‘B’) [m/s] [Hz] Borri, C., Salvatori, L. & Zahlten, W. (2005). On the
Modes and aerodynamics in C0 26.4 0.330 Identification of Indicial Functions from measured
Modes in CU / Aerodynamics in C0 - - Aeroelastic Derivatives. Proc. of VI EuroDyn (in press),
Modes in C0 / Aerodynamics in CU 23.3 0.334 Paris.
Modes and aerodynamics in CU 22.8 0.336 Crisfield, M.A. (1991). Non-linear Finite Element Analysis of
Solids and Structures. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
In order to evaluate the effects of load Facchini, L. (1996). The Numerical Simulation of Gaussian
Cross-Correlated Wind Velocity Fluctuations by Means of a
nonlinearities, time-domain simulations are Hybrid Model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
performed using the nonlinear quasi-steady load Aerodynamics, 64:187-202.
model, and the results are compared to those Salvatori, L. & Spinelli, P. (2005). Effects of structural
obtained through the linearized quasi-steady model. nonlinearity and along-span wind coherence on suspension
The structure is always assumed to behave linearly. bridge aerodynamics: some numerical simulation results.
All the analyses performed evinced that the Submitted.
linearized model produces an underestimation of the Scanlan, R.H., Béliveau, J.-G. & Budlong, K. (1974). Indicial
aerodynamics functions for bridge decks. Journal of
response, in case of both streamlined and bluff cross-
Engineering Mechanics, 100:657-672.
sections, and even in the serviceability velocity Scanlan, R.H. & Tomko, A. (1971). Airfoil and Bridge Deck
range. As regard to critical flutter threshold, no Flutter Derivatives. Journal of Engineering Mechanic,
influence of load nonlinearities is observed. 97:1717-1737.
Simiu, E. & Scanlan, R. (1996). Wind effects on Structures.
New York.
291
Influence of the aerodynamic test conditions on the aerodynamic

efficiency of cowls
S.Sanquer1, B. Blanchard2, S. Deuchst2
ABSTRACT: The cowl is an air terminal device with or without moving component, fitted on top of an
exhaust duct, with aim, by creating negative pressure depending of the wind speed, to avoid reverse flow and
to increase the extracted flow rate in presence of wind. Test procedure shall be tested without ambiguity in
order to avoid discrepancies between tests installations. The paper details the influence of the aerodynamic
test conditions on the performance of cowls and roof outlet terminal devices. It shows the influence on their
efficiency of the characteristics of the side wind upstream the cowls (wind tunnel size, turbulence intensity)
and the influence of the experimental set-up characteristics (stands, duct cross section, location of pressure
probes, mock-up scale). Additional recommendations were proposed and completed the European standard
project in order to reduce the sources of discrepancies between the test facilities. In order to check the
equivalence of the test facilities, reference qualification are proposed with one reference cowl.
1 INTRODUCTION cowls (development works) and to the analysis of

standards (research works).
The cowl is an air terminal device with or without
moving component, fitted on top of an exhaust duct,
with aim, by creating negative pressure depending of
the wind speed, to avoid reverse flow and to increase
the extracted flow rate in presence of wind. The
pressure factor inside the duct upstream the terminal
(Cd) is the ratio of the difference of the total pressure
in the test duct approaching the cowl and the static
pressure in the wind tunnel to the dynamic pressure
of the wind at a given wind approach angle. The
combined test with various mass flow rates Qv
through the cowl qualify the ability of cowl to
generate under pressure with air extraction. Test 3 RESULTS
procedure shall be tested without ambiguity in order Influence of the blockage ratio
to avoid discrepancies between tests installations.
In that context, French laboratories (CSTB Nantes The blockage ratio BR is the ratio between the
and Aérodynamique EIFFEL) carried out various mock-up cross section area and the test section area
research experiments in order to highlight the (in projection along the axis of the wind tunnel).
discrepancies sources and wrote new Experiments for smoke ventilators show that the
recommendations in the EN 13141-5 standard for blockage effect appears when the blockage ratio BR
such aerodynamic tests. exceeds 5% (Sanquer, 2004). In this case, the
pressure field on the external and on the internal
2 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES surfaces of the terminal could not be well
The suction effect characteristics of the cowl can be reproduced. In open jet facilities too, the jet
tested in a test installation such as shown in figures dimensions have to be large enough according to the
above (Eiffel type test facilities). The full scale test mock-up size. In order to avoid bad reproduction of
facilities are commonly2 used
m to give agreement to the pressure field, the ratio BR for open jet shall be
terminal provided by customers. Their main less than 10% as shown by Meier et al. (1983) and
characteristics may be different: closed or open Krong and Parkinson (1997) for streamlined bodies.
flows, turbulence, static pressure field…. These Influence of the turbulence of the wind
various parameters are source of discrepancies and
shall be define enough. The model scale facilities are The pressure coefficient Cd inside the sealed duct
R&D plate-forms devoted to the development of (without air flow) depends on the turbulence rate as
shown on the figure above (model scale facility
1
Centre Scientifique et Technique du bâtiment, 11 rue Henri Picherit BP 82341 44323 Nantes.
2
Laboratoire Aérodynamique EIFFEL, 67 rue Boileau, 75016 Paris
292
S. Sanquer, B. Blanchard, S. Deuchst
(CSTB)). The pressure inside the duct depends on +45° when the flow around the cowl may be in the
the flow generated around the cowl and around the wake of the duct end. Roughness shall be fitted on
duct. In that context, it becomes essential to control the duct surface in the wind in order to control the
the flow regime around the duct in order to avoid flow around the circular duct. Squared ribs
discrepancies between the various test plate-forms. (e/D§0,01) can be used as a solution.
Turbulence should be into the range 1% to 5%.
Table 1 Influence of the duct shape
It<1%
It=2% Turbulence duct Pressure Wake pressure
0.0 It=5%
It=8%
coefficient (Cd) coefficient
-0.2 Class good 1% smooth -0.9 -0.42
Class medium 1% Rooghness -1.0 -0.44
Pressure coefficient
-0.4 e/D=0.02
-0.6 1% Squared duct -1.1 -0.45
Few % Squared duct -1.0 -0.42
-0.8
The static pressure probes position
-1.0
For closed wind tunnel and open jet facilities,
-1.2 reference pressure probes useful to measure the
-1.4 ambient pressure in the wind shall not be under
influence of the pressure field associated to the cowl
-1.6
blown. The best way is to use a couple of probes
-90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75
located the furthest from the cowl in the test section,
Incidence of the wind relative to the duct
symmetrically to the wind tunnel axis. For the Eiffel
Influence of the geometry of the duct type facility, the reference pressure probe is located
A strong influence of the duct shape was observed inside the chamber, out of the wind.
(see the following figure). The pressure inside the
duct depends on the duct wake characteristics. 3 REFERENCE CURVES
Roughnesses become significant for thickness In order to check the ability of the test facilities to
greater than 0.02D where D is the duct diameter. give the same results, a reference cowl was tested at
Tests carried out in the Eiffel facility with another CSTB and at Aérodynamique EIFFEL. Data ranges
cowl more efficient (see results collected in the table and limit curves were built by taking into account all
1) show that the pressure coefficient inside the duct the data collected.
is linked to the width expansion of the wake more x The pressure coefficient without mass flow in the
than to the pressure level in the wake which is duct is given with curves. The maximum and
roughly constant. More over, the increasing of the minimum curves are given in order to define a
wind turbulence leads to a decreasing of the shape admissible range of the discrepancies.
duct influence. 0.0
0.0 L=8D, circular, no roughness -0.1
-0.1 L=8D, circular, roughness e/D=0.005 -0.2

L=8D, circular, roughness e/D=0.01
pressure coefficient
-0.2 -0.3
L=8D, square
-0.3 -0.4
Pressure coefficient
-0.4 -0.5
-0.5 -0.6
-0.6 -0.7
-0.7 -0.8
-0.8 -0.9
-0.9
-1.0
-1.0 -90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
-1.1 Incidence of the wind relative to the duct
-1.2 x Critical minimum flow rate Qv through the cowl

-90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 for the total pressure difference 'Pt=3 Pa and
Incidence of the wind relative to the duct 'Pt=5 Pa was obtained with the curves 'Pt
Because of the interactions between the duct wake versus Qv for Uw=8 m/s for each wind
and the aerodynamic behaviours of the cowl, the incidence.
duct length blown by the wind shall be more than 5
times its diameter. Its influence is maximal for the 'Pt 3Pa Qv [125;140] m 3 / h
upward wind especially for incidence angles near 'Pt 5Pa Qv [160;180] m 3 / h
293
Aeroelastic Hffects on Hxternally Iorced Fircular Fylinders and their

Dnalytical Dcquisition by Foupled Rscillator-Podels
G. Sedlacek1 , C. Butz2 , C.-B. Gromke3
ABSTRACT: Experimental results of a rigid, smooth-surfaced circular cylinder forced to oscillate in

turbulent flow (I = 5%) are presented. The turbulence of the oncoming flow causes a shift of the characteristic
flow field corresponding to the critical Reynolds’ number range to smaller flow velocities. However,
aeroelastic effects are measured. Moreover, coupled oscillator models of vortex -induced vibrations of
elastically mounted cylinders (lift- resp. wake-oscillator models) are enlarged to externally forced cylinders
and discrepancies between these two kinds of vibrations are highlighted. Resulting from measurements an
approach to a more realistic acquisition of the flow field behavior for coupled oscillator models is suggested.
1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND

PERFORMANCE 2.1 Vortex-shedding frequencies and bandwidth
synchronization
The measurements are conducted at a rigid cylinder
with circular cross section which is forced to Although the theoretical upper limit of the subcritical
oscillate in different combinations of amplitude x̂ Reynolds’ number range for a cylinder with circular
and forcing frequency f f by vertical connecting rods cross section and even surface is absolutely not
mounted on excentric disks. The velocity of the exceeded no definite vortex-shedding frequency
oncoming flow varies in the range from 0 to 10 m/s according to the Strouhal relation is detectable in the
with special emphasis on the lock- in range around spectra for flow velocities above 5 m/s. Regarding
the critical flow velocity Ucrit according to the mean pressure distributions in the middle cross
Strouhal’s law. section reveals that only in the cases of U ≤ 5m / s a
On the even cylinder surface 48 simultaneously characteristic course corresponding to the subcritical
measured pressure measuring points are applied, flow behavior is present. The large turbulence of the
thereof 16 equally distributed in the middle cross oncoming flow causes, even in the case of low flow
section and the remaining 32 along a surface line. velocities, a turbulent boundary layer on the cylinder
The cylinder construction is pivotable along its surface, which can resist longer to the rise in
horizontal longitudinal axis and measurements for pressure, due to input of kinetic energy from the
different positions of the surface line are conducted. outside layers and thus the separation points are
In the connecting rods force transducers are displaced leeward corresponding to the critical
integrated. Reynolds’ number range.
Concerning the bandwidth of synchronization an
increase is detectable by increasing amplitude of
2 ANALSYS OF MEASURING DATA cylinder motion.
The measuring data is analysed and interpreted 2.2 Correlation lengths L*

concerning
The typical course of a correlation length L* shows a
• Vortex-shedding frequencies decay by increasing flow velocity U, interrupted by a
• Pressure distribution in the middle cross section hump in the lock- in region. In the case of an
• Bandwidth of synchronization externally forced motion the ‘overall’ pressure
• Correlation length distribution consists of two parts, one due to the
• Lift coefficients forced cylinder motion with theoretical no turbulence
• Reaction in the supports (connecting rods) and a second due to the oncoming flow with a certain
turbulence. The first part remains constant for a
certain combination of amplitude x̂ and forcing
1
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Gerhard Sedlack, Institute of Steel and Lightweight Construction, RWTH Aachen, sed@stb.rwth-aachen.de
2
Dipl.-Ing. Christiane Butz, Institute of Steel and Lightweight Construction, RWTH Aachen, butz@stb.rwth-aachen.de
3
Dipl.-Ing. Christof-Bernhard Gromke, Institute for Hydromechanics, University of Karlsruhe, gromke@ifh.uka.de
294
G. Sedlacek, C. Butz, C.-B. Gromke
frequency f f, whereas the second part depends on the Equation (1) represents a spring mounted rigid
velocity U of the oncoming flow and its share in the circular cylinder and equation (2) describes the fluid
‘overall’ pressure increases with increasing flow force acting on the cylinder in form of an oscillator.
velocity. This consideration explains the decay of An approach which allows applying these for
correlation length L*. The humps represent an spring mounted cylinders derived models to
aeroelastic effect within the synchronization range. externally forced cylinders is done by setting the
solution for x to
x ( t ) = xˆ sin ( 2π f f t )
2.3 Lift coefficients
(3)
The courses of the lift coefficients CL clearly exhibit where x̂ is the amplitude of driven way and f f the
humps in the region of synchronization. These frequency of forced motion, both are well known.
humps represent aeroelastic effects induced by the The lift- resp. wake-oscillator models are derived
amplitudes of the forced motions, i.e. without any including the assumption of a spanwise correlation of
aeroelastic effects the CL-courses would have a the fluctuating pressure along the cylinder
constant gradient in the region around the critical longitudinal axis. This assumption reduces the flow
flow velocity Ucrit. A detailed analysis of the CL- field to a two-dimensional phenomenon and is a
courses reveals inter alia that the maximum value of strong idealization, which can not be maintained in
CL is dependent on the amplitude of forced cylinder case of large turbulence in the oncoming flow. An
motion, but, and this is astonishing, independent of approach for an incorporation of the actually present
the forcing frequency f f. An increase of the correlation length is suggested. Assumptions about
bandwidth of synchronization with increasing the course of correlation length depending on flow
amplitude of motion is also cognizable and in and structure parameters are presented.
contrast to observations of spring mounted cylinder Discrepancies between externally forced and free
experiments a smaller lock- in range symmetrically vibrations are pointed out. One essential difference
distributed around Ucrit. exists in regard to the correlation length, which is, in
contrary to a free oscillating cylinder, build up of two
2.4 Forces in the connecting rods parts in the case of externally forced motions. A
further difference exists concerning the stability
Force transducers are applied at the connecting rods behavior of oscillations for the phase angle between
and allow the determination of the resulting dynamic lift force and cylinder motion. Moreover, the fluid
reaction of the cylinder oscillation. This dynamic structure interaction in the case of a free vibrating
reaction can also be regarded as the excitation force cylinder differs from the interaction problem of the
which is necessary in order to conduct externally externally forced one in a very descriptive way. In
forced cylinder motions in the presence of a flow the first case a real fluid structure interaction problem
with velocity U and an additional aeroelastic fluid is present, whereas in the second case this interaction
force. is interrupted. Here exists only a one-way relation,
The measurement data evaluation shows an namely the influence of cylinder motion to the flow
increase of the resulting force in the connecting rods field in its vicinity. The cylinder oscillation itself is
within the synchronization range. This result independent of the surrounding flow like in the case
confirms the aeroelastic effects observed regarding of the free oscillation.
the correlation length L* and the lift coefficients CL.
4 CONCLUSION
3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLS
The influence of the large turbulence in the
A special group of mathematical models describing oncoming flow and its consequence for the flow field
the fluid structure interaction induced by vortex around the cylinder are demonstrated. Aeroelastic
shedding are the so called lift- resp. wake-oscillator effects within the region of synchronization are
models. Their common basis is composed of two visible in all presented measurement data analysis.
coupled ordinary differential equations. An overall An assumption for improving the mathematical
example of the system of differential equations is models towards a more realistic acquisition of the
given by equations (1) and (2). surrounding flow field by incorporating the
&&
x + δ x& + x = a ω s2Cl (1) correlation length is proposed. This approach is still
not finished in detail. The exact quantitative
dependency on the influencing parameters has to be
⎛ m ⎞
C&&l + ⎜ ∑ α 2k C& l2 k ⎟ C& l + ω s2 Cl = bx& (2) investigated in future work.
⎝ k =0 ⎠
295
Wind tunnel experiments on the dispersion of continuous heavy gas spill

for different ground surface roughness lengths
Bao-Shi Shiau1, Yin-Chin Chen2, Meng-Xun Wu2
ABSTRACT: Wind tunnel experiments were conducted to study on the dispersion characteristic of continuous
spill of heavy gas of carbon dioxide (CO2). The effects of the heave gas spill angles, the spill densimetric
Froude numbers and the ground surface roughness lengths on the heavy gases diffusion are measured and
investigated. Cubic elements with h=2 cm, and 5 cm were arranged to simulate different roughness lengths, ks
of the ground surface. In the present experiment, the gas spill angles E s , are 0°,45°and 90°, and the
densimetric Froude numbers Frs, are 8,10,12 and 15. The rural type of neutral atmospheric turbulent
boundary layer was simulated as the approaching flow. Experimental results show that when the surface
roughness length becomes larger, the wind flow turbulence intensity is stronger. Consequently the heavy gas
clouds spread widely. As the gas spill angle is 0° (i.e. horizontal), the heavy gas spreads wider and its
concentration is higher than that of gas spill angles of 45°and 90°. When the densimetric Froude number
decreases, the heavy gas clouds reach the ground faster, and the gas cloud concentration decreases at the
same time.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
In the industrial park, there are many kinds of
chemical gases storage tanks. Most of the chemical The experiments were conducted in the wind tunnel.
gases are toxic and heavier than the air. Usually The wind tunnel has a cross section of 2 m wide and
these kinds of gas are called heavy gases or dense 1.4 m high, and test section of 12.5 m long. The
gases. Accidents of continuous spill of heavy gas tunnel is an open suction type and it contracts to the
form the storage tank will have strong impacts on the test section with an area ratio of 4:1.
industrial park environment. Donat and Schatzmann A thick turbulent boundary layer which is used as
(1999) had conducted experiments on the one single- the approaching flow. The X-type hot-wire
phase heavy gas jets released in the turbulent incorporating with the TSI IFA-300 constant
boundary layer. Nielsen et al. (1997) made the field temperature anemometer was applied to measure the
tests on the dispersion of pressure liquefied ammonia. turbulent flow signals.
Khan and Abbasi (2000) developed the numerical Dispersion experiments were undertaken by
model to simulate the heavy gas dispersion on the releasing heavy gas, carbon dioxide (CO2) at a
basis of modification in plume path theory. controlled flow rate from a point source. Cubic
In fact, as the heavy gas cloud moves along the elements with length of 2 cm, and 5 cm were
ground, the surface roughness will affect the adopted to simulate different surface roughness
dispersion of the heavy gas cloud, accordingly. lengths. Three gas spill angles E s = 0°, 45°and 90°,
Therefore, the objective of present study is to are performed in the experiments. Figure1 shows the
investigate the dispersion of continuous spill of schematic diagram of the experimental arrangements.
heavy gas cloud on different roughness surfaces.
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the experimental arrangements

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Prof. Dr. Department of Harbor and River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 202 Taiwan, and Joint
Appointment Research Fellow, Institute of Physics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 115 Taiwan e-mail: bsshiau@gate.sinica.edu.tw
2. MS of Department of Harbor and River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 202 Taiwan
296
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yin-Chin Chen, Meng-Xun Wu
ks=0cm(wu)
3 RESULTS 0 1 C/Cs (%)
50 ks=0.027cm
ks=0.27cm
Measurement results include the surface roughness 40
effects on the spread of heavy gas plume. The
dispersion characteristics of dense gas plume for 30
different densimetric Froude number and spill angles Z/DS
were also measured and presented. Figures 2, 3, and 20
4 are the dense plume concentration contours along

10
the centreline under different surface roughness
lengths. Figure 5 shows the dense plume vertical 0
concentration profiles for different surface roughness 40 80 120 160 200
X/DS
lengths. 50
40
0.75 0.55 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 30

C/Cs(%) Z/Ds
40 20
0.025
30
10
0.05
Z/Ds 20 0.1
0
10
0 220 230 330 340 440 450
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 X/Ds
X/Ds
Figure 5 Dense plume vertical concentration profiles for
Figure 2 Dense plume concentration contours along the plume various surface roughness lengths at different downstream
centerline for smooth surface; Frs = 12, Y/Ds=0, hs/Ds =13.3, stations; Es=45o, Y/Ds=0, hs/Ds=13.3, Frs=12, U s / U a 1.525 ,
hs/Ds=13.3, Es=90o, U s / U a 1.525 , U s' / U a ( hs ) 1.47 , U s' / U 0 ( hs ) 1.47 , n=0.154
n=0.154
0.7 0.55 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025

4 CONCLUSION
C/Cs(%)
40 Wind tunnel experiments were conducted to study
30
0.025
on the dispersion characteristic of continuous spill of
Z/Ds 20 0.05
heavy gas of carbon dioxide (CO2) under different
0.1
10 ground surface roughness.
0
400
Measurements of concentrations show that that
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
X/Ds the dense gas spreads to a far downstream distance
as the surface roughness length increases. As the gas
Figure 3 Dense plume concentration contours along the plume spill angle is 0° (i.e. horizontal), the heavy gas
centerline for rough surface of ks/Ds=0.06; Frs=12, Y/Ds=0, spreads wider and its concentration is higher than
hs/Ds=13.3, Es=90o, U s / U a 1.525 , U s' / U a (h s ) 1.47 , that of gas spill angles of 45°and 90°. When the
n=0.154 densimetric Froude number decreases, the heavy gas
clouds reach the ground faster, and the gas cloud
concentration decreases at the same time.
0.5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025
C/Cs(%)
40
30 0.025
5 REFERENCES
Z/Ds 20 0.05
0.1
10 Donat, J. and M. Schatzmann (1999) Wind Tunnel Experiments of
0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 Single-phase Heavy Gas Jets Released under Various Angles into
X/Ds
Turbulent Cross Flows. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Figure 4 Dense plume concentration contours along the plume Industrial Aerodynamics, 83, pp. 361-370.
centerline for rough surface of ks/Ds=0.6; Frs=12, Y/Ds=0, Khan, F. and S.A. Abbasi (2000) Modeling and Simulation of Heavy
hs/Ds=13.3, Es=90o, U s / U a 1.525 , U s' / U a (h s ) 1.47 , Gas Dispersion on the Basis of Modification in Plume Path Theory.
n=0.154 Journal of Hazardous Materials, 80, pp. 15-30
297
In-situ Peasurement of Zind Vtatistical Fharacteristics at the

Qortheastern Fostal Uegion of Taiwan
Bao-Shi Shiau1, Yuan-Bin Chen2
ABSTRACT: This paper reports the wind (1998/07~2001/12) statistical characteristics obtained from
analyzing in-situ observation by using the three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer in the northeastern
coastal region of Taiwan. The statistical characteristics include annual and seasonal standard deviation of
wind direction, mean wind velocity, wind turbulence intensity, gust factor, and velocity fluctuation spectra.
Analysis of the observational data reveal that wind turbulence intensity and gust factor of annual and four
seasons are shown to approach to constant values as the mean wind speed increases. The relations between
the standard deviation of horizontal wind direction and standard deviation of fluctuation of lateral wind
velocity component are found to close to the numerical result of isotropic Gaussian model (IGM) prediction.
The observed longitudinal turbulent velocity spectrum of four seasons presents in good fit of the Von Karman
spectrum equation form.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 OBSERVATION SITE AND SET-UP

DESCRIPTION
The northeastern coast of Taiwan is one of highly
populated region in the island. Keelung harbor (see The observation station was located in the coastal
Figure1) is located in the center of the region. It is rural terrain with grass and occasional large
the second largest commercial harbor in Taiwan. obstacles (like low-rise buildings). The roughness
Heavy commercial activities in this coastal region length, z0 is estimated as approximate 0.10 m in
make a need for in-situ measurements on the wind accordance with the roughness classification of
turbulence statistic characteristics to meet the terrain types proposed by Davenport (1960). Wind
requirements on wind load design of harbor related observation was conducted during the period from
structures and on the related air pollutants dispersion July 1, 1998, to December 31, 2001. An
problems in the city of coastal region. observational tower was erected on the roof of a
In order to meet the requirements of the above building and the tower top was with a distance of 26
mentioned purposes, we carried out in-situ m from the ground. The ultra-sonic anemometer with
observations by using the three-dimensional three sensors (Kaijo Model FA-600BT) was mounted
ultrasonic anemometer during the period of July, on the top of tower.
1998 to December, 2001 at the northeastern coast of
Taiwan.
3 RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA
ANALYSIS
3.1 Annual and seasonal variations of the relation

between the mean wind speed and turbulence
intensity
For three and a half years observational data (period

from July 1, 1998, to December 31, 2001), we try to
find the annual average of relations between the
Figure1 Map of Taiwan and Keelung harbor
mean wind speed and the turbulence intensities of
three velocity components.
___________________________________________________________________________________
1
Professor, Department of Harbor and River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 202 Taiwan
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, VanNung University, Chungli , 320 Taiwan
298
Bao-Shi Shiau, Yuan-Bin Chen
3.2 Analysis of standard deviation of lateral wind

speed component and wind direction 10
USu(n)

The observation wind data for four seasons are u'2Lux
used to fit the isotropic Gaussian Model (IGM) 1
model. Figure 2 is the fit result of spring season for
the standard deviation V v of the lateral wind 0.1
component and the standard deviation of horizontal
wind direction V T . The IGM model proposed by
Weber (1998) is 0.01
V v 0.9313U scalar tanh(0.7937V T0.8438 ) (1)

Spring
0.001 Summer
1.2 Autumn
Winter
IGM equation Regression
Observation 0.0001
nLux /U
1E-005
0.8
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Vv/Uscalar
Figure 3 Longitudinal turbulent wind velocity power spectrum

for four seasons
0.4
0
This paper reports the wind (1998/07~2001/12)
0 1 2 3
statistical characteristics obtained from analyzing
VT(rad) in-situ observation by using the three-dimensional
Figure 2 Standard deviation of lateral wind component scaled ultrasonic anemometer in the northeastern coastal
by scalar mean wind speed as a function of the standard region of Taiwan. The statistical characteristics
deviation of horizontal wind direction for the spring season include annual and seasonal standard deviation of
wind direction, mean wind velocity, wind turbulence
3.3 Gust wind characteristics for four seasons intensity, gust factor, and velocity fluctuation spectra.
Analysis of the observational data reveal that wind
Gust wind is an important factor for wind load turbulence intensity and gust factor of annual and
design, especially for problems of the building four seasons are shown to approach to constant
cladding design. The wind gust factor versus the values as the mean wind speed increases. The
mean wind speed for four seasons is plotted. Result relations between the standard deviation of
in these figures exhibits that the wind gust factor horizontal wind direction and standard deviation of
approaches a value of 2.0 as increasing the mean fluctuation of lateral wind velocity component are
wind speed. Kato et al. (1992) made full-scale found to close to the numerical result of isotropic
measurement in the coastal harbor city (similar the Gaussian model (IGM) prediction. The observed
Keelung harbor city in the present study) in Japan. longitudinal turbulent velocity spectrum of four
They obtained the gust factor within the range of seasons presents in good fit of the Von Karman
1.8~2.3 as increasing the mean wind speed. spectrum equation form.
3.4 Wind spectrum

5 REFERENCES
Figure 3 shows the averaged longitudinal turbulent
Davenport, A.G. (1960) Rationale for determining design wind
velocity spectrum for four seasons. Here U is
velocities, Journal of Civil Engineering. (Struct. Div.) 86, pp.
mean velocity; Su(n) is the power density; u ' 2 is
39-68
mean square of velocity fluctuation; Lux is the
Kato, N. and Ohkuma, T. (1992) Full scale measurements of
longitudinal integral length scale; n is the frequency.
wind velocity in two urban areas using an ultrasonic
The wind spectrum for each season is close to each
anemometer, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
other. The wind spectrum can be fitted as the
Aerodynamics, 41-44, pp. 67-78.
following form.
Weber, R.O. (1998) Estimators for the standard deviation of
U S u (n) 5.4 lateral, longitudinal and vertical wind components,
(2)
Lux u '2 [1 (7.7nLux / U )]1.76 Atmospheric Environment, 32, pp. 3639-3646.
299
Galloping simulation and observation of a 4-conductor bundle

transmission line
M. Shimizu1, J. Sato2
ABSTRACT: To clarify and avoid galloping phenomena of ice accreted transmission lines, the authors have
developed the finite element analysis code, "CAFSS", with considering geometrical nonlinearity of transmission
lines. To confirm usefulness of CAFSS, in this study, full scale galloping measurements as well as simulations
were performed on the artificial ice accreted 4 - conductor bundle transmission line. As a result, observed gallop
ing phenomena were simulated with high accurate and validity of the analytical method was shown. Further,
effectiveness of an anti-galloping device was investigated by means of CAFSS.
1 INTRODUCTION Aerodynamic characteristics of the target of this

study were collected through wind tunnel tests using
The aim of this study is to compare the results of simu- the section model of the 4-conductor bundle. Drag, lift
lation with actual observation data: the simulation tar- and aerodynamic moment coefficients of the each four
gets at one-phase, one-span of a real-size 4-conductor conductor were obtained by the tests (Fig. 3).
bundle transmission line with artificial accreted ice Further, simulation taking account of an anti-gal-
whose geometric shape and aerodynamic characteris- loping device, loose spacers was also conducted.
tics were defined. Condition setups for the simulation
including turbulent wind velocity based on actual data
obtained simultaneously when galloping occurred. 4 COMPARISON BETWEEN SIMULATION AND
OBSERVATION
2 OBSERVATION AND SIMULATION METHOD Results from simulation and observation are shown
alongside in Figure 4. Overall simulation results are in
The target 4-conductor bundle transmission line of this fairly good agreements with the data provided by ac-
study is real-size test line. Various sensors are installed tual observation. Possible cause of discrepancies be-
in the vicinity of the line for monitoring. The line was tween simulation and observation can be the fact that
modeled as shown in Figure 1. Support points at the the same upwash angle was assumed for the whole
end of insulators are used to define fixing point in space length of the span.
as the boundary conditions for horizontal, vertical and
torsional freedom of motion.
This simulation was carried out using a time-domain 5 CONCLUSIONS
finite element analysis program (called CAFSS) de-
veloped by the authors. Functional features of this pro- 1. Simulation results of conductor wobbling at 1/2 of
gram are summarized in Table 1. the span and tension at the support points showed fairly
good agreement with the observation data, confirming
that the method employed in this study will be valid
3 CONDITIONS FOR SIMULATION for simulating real-life galloping.
2. Simulation results of torsional angle showed a ten-
Inputting wind acting on the entire span of the trans- dency to fall short of actual observation data, suggest-
mission line was determined based on multidimen- ing the requirement for enhanced accuracy in aerody-
sional autoregressive processes, in which turbulent namic force evaluation, especially for quasi-steady ap-
wind velocity distribution along the span is generated proximation of aerodynamic moment.
using average wind velocity and turbulence strength 3. It was confirmed by simulation, that loose spacers
that are obtained by each case of observation. The tur- reduce the range of conductor wobbling with incre-
bulent wind velocity acting on the vicinity of 1/2 of ment of conductor torsional amplitude under the con-
the span are shown in Figure 2. ditions in which galloping occur .
1
Mikio Shimizu, Dr. Eng., Research Engineer, Civil Engineering Research Laboratory, Structural Engineering Sector,
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, e-mail shimizu@criepi.denken.or.jp
2
Jun'ichi Sato, Mr. Eng., Project Manager, Numerical Analysis Department, Ark Information System Inc.,
e-mail sato@ark-info-sys.co.jp
300
M. Shimizu, J. Sato
tower #2 side support point
insulator ↑
• span: 357m.
• interval distance between each four conductors: 0.4m.
• support point level gap: 9.5m.
tower #1 side support point

z
y
x
↓ line spacer (output point)
Figure 1 Structural model for simulation
Table 1 Functional features of CAFSS cross section of

a conductor
integration Newmark-β method 2.63cm
1 4
usable element truss (with torsion), beam
unknown variable displacement angle of
attack
coordinate system updated Lagrange artificial ice
nonlinearity geometrical nonlinearity (equilateral triangle) relative wind direction 2 3
increment analytical method Newton-Raphson method cross section of section model
of 4-conductor bundle
structural damping Rayleigh damping (The conductors are numbered 1 to 4)
2.0
1.5
aerodynamic coefficient
drag
25 1.0
wind velocity : ch5(m/s)
0.5
20
0.0
15
-0.5
10
-1.0
lift moment
5 -1.5
0 -2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 -180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
time (sec) angle of attack (deg)
Figure 2 Inputting wind velocity (acting on 1/2 of span) Figure 3 Aerodynamic coefficients of Conductor #1
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
vertical displacement(m)
vertical displacement(m)
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
-1.0 -1.0
-2.0 -2.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
horizontal displacement(m) horizontal displacement(m)
(a) Simulated displacement lissajou at 1/2 of span (b) Observed displacement lissajou at 1/2 of span
90 90
torsional angle(deg)
torsional angle(deg)
45 45
0 0
-45 -45
-90 -90
50 100 150 200 250 300 50 100 150 200 250 300
time(sec) time(sec)
(c) Simulated torsional angle at 1/2 of span (d) Observed torsional angle at 1/2 of span
Figure 4 Comparison between simulation and observation
301
J.Th. Snæbjörnsson1, C.J. Baker2, R. Sigbjörnsson1
ABSTRACT: Several wind and weather related accidents of road vehicles occur every year in Europe. These
accidents are most common at exposed locations where topographical features magnify the wind effects. The
most notable ones involve high-sided vehicles. The objective of the paper is to investigate, in general
probabilistic settings, parameters influencing wind related accidents of road vehicles.
1 INTRODUCTION ing the wind velocity as a locally stationary Gaus-

sian process. The aerodynamic coefficients used in
In the developed countries world wide, road acci-
the present study are based on formulas adopted
dents are causing more injuries and casualties than
from Baker (1994) but modified according to results
any other man-made or natural hazard. The natural
from wind tunnel experiments carried out by Cole-
wind does influence the road accident risk in various
man (Coleman and Baker, 1994).
ways. A recent study at a windy location in Iceland
The operational safety and controllability is se-
indicates that wind may be a causative factor in up-
cured by stable static frictional contact between tires
to 20% of road accidents at that location.
and road surface (Bradley et. al, 2004). The fric-
The main objective of this paper is to present a
tional forces have to resist lateral and longitudinal
comprehensive model, in general probabilistic set-
wind forces arising from the aerodynamic action,
tings, of road vehicle safety in windy environments.
traction forces, acceleration forces and deceleration
Special emphasise is put on cross wind conditions.
(braking) forces. The limit state of safe performance
is checked using the friction circle by requiring that
2 MODELLING the traction field is inside this circle.
The procedure adopted for the assessment of road 2.4 Basic variables
vehicle accidents consists of the following main
The quantities governing the motion of the vehicle
steps: (1) definition of basic variables that are mod-
are in most cases uncertain, that means they cannot
elled as independent stochastic variables; (2) aero-
be determined with finite certainty. Depending on
elastic model of the vehicle is obtained including
the degree of uncertainty, these quantities are in this
frictional contact between road surface and tires; (3)
study either modelled as stochastic variables or de-
definition of suitable performance criteria that en-
terministic parameters. The stochastic variables se-
sure stability and controllability of the vehicle; (4)
lected in this study are: Wind velocity and wind di-
assessment of stochastic wind-induced response fol-
rection, vehicle speed, frictional coefficient and
lowed by a quantification of probability of accident.
camber of the road. In all cases the basic variables
2.1 On the basic assumptions are taken as being normally distributed, except the
The equations of motion of road vehicle in windy friction coefficient, which is taken as being trun-
environments have been examined thoroughly by cated normally distributed. Quantities describing the
Baker and co-workers (see for instance Baker, mechanical properties of the vehicle are taken as de-
1994). The basic forces of mechanical origin ac- terministic parameters. Other variables used in the
counted for in these equations are the following: modelling process are treated as derivatives.
Gravity forces; Elastic and damping forces; Inertia
2.5 Limit states of safe performance and quantifica-
forces; Frictional forces and Aerodynamic actions.
Due to lack of information on the aerodynamic tion of accidents
action process a simplified model is adopted where The solution of equations of motion along with ap-
the force and moment coefficients are represented as propriate stability criteria defines the limit states of
deterministic functions depending only on the mean safe performance in terms of a response hyper-
wind direction. The stochastic nature of the aerody- surface in the space of basic variables. The limit
namic action process is then accounted for by treat- states of safe performance can be defined in terms of
1
Faculty of Engineering, University of Iceland, Hjardarhagi 2-6, IS-107 Reykjavík, Iceland
2
School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
302
J.Th. Snæbjörnsson, C.J. Baker, R. Sigbjörnsson
loss of controllability and stability. The following
stability criteria's are used: Side slip of all four
10
wheels; side slip of front wheels; side slip of rear
wheels; and rollover. The probability of accident is
assessed according to Sigbjörnsson & Snæbjörnsson
Accident index
5
(1998).
3 NUMERICAL STUDY 0
The theory presented, is applied to a multitude of

scenarios to explore the interrelation between the -5
various basic variables and how they affect the 0 0
probability of accident or the so-called accident in- 50 20
Mean driving speed (km/hour) 100 Mean w ind velocity (m/s)
dex. The study assumes that the basic mechanical 40
quantities of the road vehicle used are the same as Figure 2 The accident index as a function of driving speed and
for the lorry found in Coleman and Baker (1994). wind velocity. ( - = 60°, e = 0.035 and P = 0.5).
Figures 1 to 4 show the interrelation between the
various basic variables and how they affect the acci-
dent risk, measured via the so-called accident index 2
(see Sigbjörnsson & Snæbjörnsson, 1998). Each Fig-
ure shows a 3-D view of the accident index as a Accident index 0
function of two pre-chosen variables with the other

-2
three, fixed around certain mean value with a pre-
scribed standard deviation. -4
-6
10 0
0.6
50 0.4
Mean driving speed (km/hour) 0.2
Accident index
5 100 0 Mean friction coefficient

Figure 3 The accident index as a function of driving speed and
0 friction coefficient. (U = 25 m/s, - = 60° and e = 0.035).
-5
0 3
200
20 150
Accident index
100 2
Mean w ind velocity (m/s) 50 Mean w ind direction (°)
40 0
1
Figure 1 The accident index as a function of wind velocity and
wind direction (V=90 km/hour, - =60°, P=0.5 and e=0.035).
0
4 CONCLUSIONS 0 -0,045
The study suggests that available methods of prob- 50 0
abilistic mechanics can be of value for analysis of Mean road camber (°)
100 0.045
Mean driving speed (km/hour)
wind related traffic accidents. The analysis also
demonstrates that wind related accidents are the Figure 4 The accident index as a function of driving speed and
consequence of a combination of several basic vari- road camber. (U = 25 m/s, - = 60° and P = 0.5).
ables. Several potential applications of the presented
6 REFERENCES
methodology are conceivable, such as accident
Baker, C. J. (1994) The quantification of accident risk for road
analysis, identifying potential accident risk as well vehicles in cross wind, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 52.
as in devising preventive measures to improve traf- Colman, A. & Baker, C. J. (1994) An experimental study of
fic safety. the aerodynamic behaviour of high sided lorries in cross
winds, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 53 (3).
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sigbjörnsson R. and Snæbjörnsson J.Th. (1998) Probabilistic
assessment of wind related accidents of road vehicles: A re-
This work was in part supported by a research grant liability approach, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 74-76.
from RANNUM, which is gratefully acknowledged.
303
G. Solari1, F. Tubino2
ABSTRACT: The gust buffeting of long span bridges is analysed applying the Double Modal Transformation,
a method consisting in the joint transformation into principal coordinates of the structural displacements and
of the turbulent field exciting the bridge. Thanks to the orthogonality of structural and turbulence modes, a
satisfactory estimate of the structural response can be achieved representing the turbulence field through only
few modes. This fact allows to define an effective turbulent field whose spectral content is strongly reduced
and is concentrated in a restricted frequency band with respect to the actual turbulence harmonic content.
In this paper, the buffeting response of long span

1 INTRODUCTION bridges is evaluated through DMT. However, in
Wind loading on long-span bridges is commonly order to get the formulation easily interpretable,
schematised by means of mean static actions, preliminary analyses are developed under the
buffeting actions, due to atmospheric turbulence, and following simplifying hypotheses: 1) wind acts only
self-excited actions (Simiu & Scanlan 1996). Two on the deck, and the mean wind velocity is
main aspects are commonly dealt with: at first, the orthogonal to its axis, 2) the longitudinal and vertical
prevention of aeroelastic instability phenomena is turbulence components are uncorrelated, 3) the
investigated; then, the buffeting response of the buffeting forces are schematised by means of the
bridge (Scanlan 1978) is analysed. linearized quasi-steady theory, 4) the wind-induced
In order to study the buffeting response, the aeroelastic forces are neglected, 5) the bridge is
incoming wind field is described through the mean modelled as a classically damped linear system.
wind velocity and a spectral turbulence model, the
static aerodynamic coefficients, the aerodynamic 2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
admittance functions and the flutter derivatives of Let us consider a FE model of the bridge immersed
the bridge deck section are determined by wind in a turbulent wind field and assume that the gust
tunnel tests, and the bridge is commonly schematised buffeting of the bridge is mainly due to the wind
through a Finite Element (FE) model. action on its deck. Let x, y, z be a Cartesian reference
Modelling the bridge as a linear system, its system with the x and y axes belonging to a
buffeting response can be evaluated in the frequency horizontal plane, x being orthogonal to the bridge
domain (Scanlan 1978), in the time domain (Chen et deck axis and z being vertical directed upwards.
al 2000), or in the state-space (Chen & Kareem Assuming that the mean wind velocity is
2001). If geometrical nonlinearities have to be taken orthogonal to the deck axis, the discretized wind
into account, the buffeting analysis has to be carried field in correspondence of the N nodes of the bridge
out in the time domain (Diana et al 1995) or using a deck is the sum of the mean wind velocity vector U
state-space approach (Chen & Kareem 2001). and of the two N-variate random processes
The Double Modal Transformation (DMT) representing the longitudinal and the vertical
(Carassale et al. 2001) is a method by which the turbulence, u(t) and w(t), characterized by their
dynamic analysis of linear structures is carried out power spectral density matrixes Su(n) and Sw(n).
through the simultaneous transformation into Using a linearised quasi-steady approach, the
principal coordinates of the structural displacements vector F(t) of the buffeting actions on the bridge
(classical modal analysis) and of the loading process deck is given by (Tubino 2003):
(Proper Orthogonal Decomposition). It commonly
occurs that a modal truncation can be applied to the Fx t ½
series of the structural modes and of the loading ° ° 1 ª1 º
F t ® Fz t ¾ Ub « CuU Cu ut C w wt »
modes. A further truncation is due to the reciprocal °¯M T t °¿ 2 ¬ 2 ¼
orthogonality among the structural modes and the
loading modes. This set of conditions allows an ª 2cDU L º ªccD cL U L º
interpretation of the physical phenomenon and a Cu « 2cLU L »; C w «cLc cD U L »; U L diagÛ i Li`
«¬2bcM U L »¼ « bcc U »
relevant reduction of the computational burden. ¬ M L ¼
1
Prof. DISEG, University of Genoa, e-mail solari@diseg.unige.it
2
Dr. DISEG, University of Genoa, e-mail tubino@diseg.unige.it
304
G. Solari, F. Tubino
Fx(t), Fz(t) and MT(t) being the vectors of the 3 NUMERICAL APPLICATION
longitudinal forces, of the vertical forces and of the As an example, the buffeting response of the
torsional moments in correspondence of the N nodes Messina Straits Bridge is evaluated, taking into
of the FE model; U is the air density, b is a account the first 30 structural modes of vibration.
characteristic dimension of the deck, cD, cL, cM are The application of the Proper Orthogonal
the static coefficients of the deck, Li is the influence Decomposition to the incoming turbulence field
length of the i-th node of the deck. shows that many modes, in principle all, are
Let q(t)={qx(t)T qz(t)T qT(t)T}T be the vector of the necessary for a satisfactory representation of the
degrees of freedom of the bridge deck, qx(t), qz(t) and turbulent field along the bridge deck.
qT(t) being the vectors of the longitudinal The Double Modal Transformation demonstrates
displacements, of the vertical displacements and of that, since the higher turbulence modes are almost
the torsional rotations, respectively, of the deck orthogonal to the structural modes, the structure is
nodes. excited only by few lower turbulence modes. Thus,
Using the principal transformation rule, the vector an effective turbulence field can be defined,
q(t) can be expressed as: accounting for only the turbulence modes exciting
M the bridge; its harmonic content is greatly reduced
qt Ȍpt ¦ȥ k pk t with respect to the actual turbulence field, especially
k 1 in the high frequency range.
The prospects of the present research concern two
where < >\\M@ (M=3N) is the structural modal future major developments. First, a careful analysis
matrix and p(t) is the vector of the structural of the spectral content and of the coherence function
principal coordinates; M is the number of modes to of the effective turbulence along the bridge deck is
be retained using a modal truncation technique. an important step for improving time domain
Let us define *H(n) diag^JH( n)JH N(n)ànd simulations both with regard to time and to space
4H(n) >TH(n)THN(n)@ as the matrixes of the steps. Second, some simplifying hypotheses, such as
eigenvalues and of the eigenvectors of SH(n) (H=u,w). the omission of the self-excited forces and the quasi-
Using a Spectral Proper Transformation (SPT), steady hypothesis, have to be removed.
the generalized Fourier transform İ n of the
turbulence field H(t) can be expressed as: 4 REFERENCES
N Carassale, L., Piccardo, G. & Solari, G. (2001) Double Modal
İ n ĬH n x H n ¦șH j n xH j n H u, w Transformation and Wind Engineering Applications,
j 1 Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 127, 5, 432-439.
Chen, X., Matsumoto, M. & Kareem, A. (2000), Time domain
where x H (n) is the vector of the generalised Fourier flutter and buffeting response analysis of bridges, J. Engng
transforms of the principal components of H(t); N is Mech. ASCE, 126(1), 7-16.
the number of modes to be retained when applying a Chen, X. & Kareem, A. (2001) Aeroelastic analysis of bridges
SPT modal truncation technique. under multicorrelated winds: integrated state-space
The Double Modal Transformation is the joint approach, Journal of Engineering Mechanics ASCE, 127
application of the principal transformation and of the (11), 1123-1134.
SPT of the turbulence vectors. Considering Diana, G., Falco, M., Bruni, S., Cigada, A., Larose, G.L.,
classically damped linear systems, it provides the Damsgaard, A. & Collina, A. (1995) Comparisons between
following decoupled equations of motion: wind tunnel tests on a full aeroelastic model of the proposed
bridge over Stretto di Messina and numerical results, J.

p k n 2[ k Zk p k n Z2k p k n Wind Engng and Ind. Aerodynamics, 54/55, 101-113.
1 ªm º Scanlan, R.H. (1978) The action of flexible bridges under wind,
Ub «¦ Aukj n xu j n Awkj n xw j n»
2mk ¬ j 1 II: Buffeting theory, J. Sound and Vibration, 60(2), 201-
¼
211.
Aukj n ȥ kT Cu șu j n ; Awkj n ȥ kT C wșw j n
Simiu, E. & Scanlan, RH. (1996) Wind effects on structures,
John Wiley and Sons, USA.
where p k (n) is the generalized Fourier transform of Solari, G. & Carassale, L. (2000), Modal Transformation Tools
the k-th principal component pk(t), [k, Zk and mk are in Structural Dynamics and Wind Engineering, Wind &
the damping ratio, the natural circular frequency and Struct., 3(4), 221-241.
the modal mass of the k-th structural mode, Tubino, F. (2003) Wind actions on long-span bridges, PhD
respectively, Au(n) and Aw(n) are the matrixes of the Thesis, DISEG, University of Genoa.
cross-modal participation coefficients; their k,j-th
term quantifies the influence of the j-th turbulence
mode on the k-th structural mode.
305
Wind and agriculture; an essential subject of the African Participatory

Research Agenda
C.J. Stigter1, L.O.Z. Onyewotu2, N.K.N. Al-amin3
ABSTRACT: The Europe/Africa Initiative of IAWE wants to contribute to expansion of relevant wind
engineering work through a Workshop in Africa determining a Research Agenda and participatory follow-up
projects. It is essential that in this Participatory Research Agenda for rural Africa “rural and urban wind
energy” and “rural wind problems” get much more attention.
1 INTRODUCTION mitigation with the management of the source of

these disasters for economic purposes would
The subjects for a wind engineering Workshop in
therefore be an ideal approach.
Africa may be planned as in the fields of “wind and
One of such natural resources is wind. The
the built environment”, “wind climate and energy”,
relevance of Wind Engineering under African
“wind and agriculture” and “wind related disasters
conditions and the solutions to wind problems in
including environment and ecology”. In expanding
African agriculture have only received little
into Africa, the poorest continent of the world with a
attention. It has to be determined what the respective
predominantly rural population, “rural and urban
roles should be in the co-ordinated actions of African
wind energy” and “rural wind problems” deserve
and European Institutes that have components of the
much more attention in the Research Agenda. Wind
selected priorities in Wind Engineering, how they
protection of soils and crops from non-forest tree
should distribute the tasks that follow from the
configurations has in Africa hardly been studied
research agenda and how to collaborate in the most
quantitatively. Information on optimum tree and
efficient ways. In this context, research education
biomass density distributions for various protection
and other training needs involved will also be
purposes, soil and climate conditions and rural
defined. A Workshop in Africa on these priority
environments, including interaction with drifting
aspects of the use of wind and on solving wind
particles, is badly needed. The authors collaborated
disaster problems in agricultural production, working
since 1990 in the Traditional Techniques of
on problems in the daily life of mainly marginal
Microclimate Improvement Project. Very often very
farmers that otherwise are neglected, would be
local problems, experienced by specific target groups
extremely helpful in getting deliberate actions of
of farmers, limit or even prohibit agricultural
European and African Universities and Institutes co-
production and/or endanger infrastructure
ordinated and focused. How to continue from what
2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AFRICA we already learned? The aims of the Workshop
should be, for a joint European/African initiative, to
Africa is the most isolated continent where the first discuss pilot project proposals on the topics of
applications of science and technology are the meeting. These proposals for pilot projects
concerned. Even the ways in which science and should be improved to such a level that priority sub-
technology should be applied in that continent are projects can be defined that can be submitted for
open to much debate. The continent is most in need funding immediately after the Workshop.
of efficient management of its natural resources for This is one measurable and verifiable outcome of
the benefit of its population but is also extensively the Workshop.
suffering from a lot of environmental hazards and In the preparations for this Workshop, priority
natural disasters. Combining disaster prevention and needs for African applications and gaps in
1
Prof. Dr. Kees Stigter, "Agromet Vision" and INSAM (INternational Society for Agricultural Meteorology), Bruchem, the
Netherlands, e-mail cjstigter@usa.net
2
Dr. Lambert O.Z. Onyewotu, Shelterbelt Research Station, Forestry Research Inst. of Nigeria, Kano, e-mail
lozonye@yahoo.com
3
Dr. Nawal K. Nasr Al-amin, Sudan University of Science and Technology, College of Forestry and Range Science, Khartoum,
e-mail nawalkn@yahoo.com
306
C.J. Stigter, L.O.Z. Onyewotu, N.K.N. Al-amin
knowledge to address these needs should be variability and possible climate change, decreasing
identified. Based on these needs and gaps, to be soil fertility, large-scale erosion, encroaching
addressed in sub-projects of the improved pilot desertification and other more locally rapidly
project proposals, details of a research agenda for increasing environmental hazards, the agro-
wind engineering in Africa should be established. ecological setting is changing. Under African
This is a second measurable and verifiable output of conditions attention for wind protection is focused
the Workshop. on the influence of scattered trees on wind, in some
After definitions of the priority wind problems in cases assisted by bushes and grasses. Such scattered
Africa and the wind resources related subjects in trees in so called agroforestry parklands, woodlots or
Africa, the wind engineering components of these other tree densities/amounts lower than those of
problems and subjects have to be determined. actual forests, in addition to productive functions
Subsequently relief measures for the wind problems have protective functions by reducing and modifying
and plans of action for the development of wind as a air movement as windbreaks or shelterbelts. The
resource have to be drafted. This can preliminarily paper then discusses widely examples of wind
be done at the Workshop as a third measurable and related damages in which the necessary applied work
verifiable output. is illustrated. Scientifically there are in all the above
The next step is that research sub-projects are as always two approaches, (i) the supportive
defined, of which some were already present in a fundamental scientific approach, in quantifying for
preliminary form, in the analyses of the pilot project understanding processes, and (ii) the applied
proposals and were improved during the Workshop, scientific approach in quantifying for understanding
aiming at quantification of the engineering aspects of phenomena and consequences of these phenomena.
relief measures and other action plans. This has still In agricultural pilot projects these are the
to be done in Africa, as a follow up of the Workshop, consequences for yields and yield protection and
but has to be supported from within European therefore for the livelihood of farmers, leading to
Institutes. In the above proposed way, the knowledge agrometeorological services related to solving wind
developed in European Institutes of Wind problems. The ideal distribution of scientific work
Engineering that collaborate in organizing the we see in such pilot projects as the applied scientific
Workshop, and from some that will participate in the work being carried out in Africa and the supportive
Workshop, is co-ordinated. And it is subsequently fundamental scientific approach being carried out in
applied in Africa to design better relief measures for Europe. From the case studies that came mainly from
African priority wind problems and better action our own African experiences, we have derived in an
plans for the priority use of wind resources in Africa. Appendix five projects that could be part of the
There is a distribution of tasks in accordance with proposed research agenda under a draft pilot project
the possibilities in Africa and Europe. “wind and agriculture”:
During the Workshop a minimum capacity
(A): Protection of plantation and other economically
building in human resources and in infrastructure
useful trees;
and equipment should also be determined for
(B): Protection of soil and crops by economically
Institutes in Africa to be able to perform the kind of
useful non-forest trees and occasionally in and
research locally necessary in the fields of the topics
by forests;
we determined. The advantages are at both sides.
(C): Protection of soils from erosion and of crops
The European Institutes participate in new
from sand movement and provision of comfort
applications under other than European conditions.
from medium high wind speeds;
The African Institutes are supported in their attempts
(D): : Protection of protective economically useful
to use knowledge for problem solving and action
non-forest trees and forests from fire of which
plans with a necessary minimum of capacity. And
propagation is influenced by winds;
they take part in research education and other related
(E): Crop and arable soil protection from desiccating
training exercises, that improve the use of science
winds by economically useful non-forest trees
and technology in Africa and break the isolation, at
in windbreaks and shelterbelts.
least in the fields covered by the Workshop.
A most recent update on work going on in Africa
3 BACKGROUND OF AGRICULTURAL PILOT was very disappointing. From later work there are no
PROJECTS indications that this has changed over the last one
Under the present conditions of rapid population and a half decade. The preparation of the Workshop
growth, large-scale migration, increasing climate and the Workshop itself should change this situation.
307

M. Studniþková1
ABSTRACT: A couple of tapered steel flagpoles located on a hill above a valley showed persistent vibrations
even in a very low wind speeds. The biggest amplitudes of vibration were observed on the leeward pole in the
direction perpendicular to the wind. The above mentioned effect was experimentally tested in an aerodynamic
tunnel Ø1,8m in Research and Testing Aviation Institute in Prague. The goal of the investigation was looking
into the behaviour of leeward conical pole in the wind flow depending on the poles distance and on the angle
of attack. Aerodynamic response of the leeward pole was measured using strain gauges glued in the bottom of
the pole. The obtained data were processed and analysed.
This paper analyzes the dynamic behaviour of a

1 INTRODUCTION pair of conical cylinders in air flow. Conical cylinders
If two or several nearby structures are exposed to have not been afforded practically any attention so
wind, the aerodynamic force originating in the far, although they too occur relatively often. The
structures may be entirely different from the forces research programme included the manufacture of an
originating in the individual bypassed structure. This aeroelastic model and model measurements in a dia.
phenomenon is due to the mutual influence of the 1.8 m wind tunnel.
structures – interference.
2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
The purpose of the research was the examination
of the behaviour of a leeward pole of a couple of
poles in air flow-see Figure 2 in dependence of the
mutual distance of pole axes and the angle of wind
incidence with reference to the vertical plane defined
by the pole centrelines. The pole surface was smooth
in the first series of measurements and provided with
a turbulizer along the whole pole height in the second
series.
The models are based on a couple of conical steel
poles 25 m high installed above a valley with almost
permanent wind. The wind velocity fluctuates, the
prevailing wind direction is parallel with the plane
defined by the pole centrelines. In this way one pole
is in the lee of the other and the leeward pole vibrates
almost continuously perpendicularly to wind
direction. Pole vibrations are accompanied by sound
effects produced by the flag string which attract
attention of passers-by.
3 FLAGPOLE ARRANGEMENT
The poles are arranged as shown in Figure 1.
Along the whole height both poles are provided with
a Tee welded to their shafts.
4 MODEL MEASUREMENT
4.1 Model design

Figure 1 Pole arrangement The aeroelastic model of the poles had to be
designed on the basis of the scales defined.
1
Ing. Marie Studniþková CSc., Klokner Institute, Czech Technical University in Prague, e-mail studnic@klok.cvut.cz
308
M. Studničková
The pole model was 1 m high, its shaft was made to 6D or any change of the angle of incidence Į due
of a dia. 8 mm circular steel bar; the conical shape to Strouhal phenomenon were observed, either.
was formed with polystyrene. Mutual influence is due to shading and increased
The model was provided with 4 x 2 strain gauges turbulence. The dominant vibration amplitudes are in
connected into a half-bridge. Two pairs were installed wind direction, those in perpendicular direction are of
at the bottom of the pole, the remaining two pairs 350 a lower order. The general level of vibration
mm above the foot. amplitudes is significantly lower than in the case of
poles with turbulizers.
5 WIND TUNNEL MEASUREMENTS
6.2 Poles with turbulizers
5.1 Arrangement of measurements In case of poles with turbulizers interference
On top of the base plate fastened to wind tunnel galloping appeared at the distance of a = 2D. For
structure a dia. 500 mm circular rotating plate was other distance variants this phenomenon did not
mounted in the centre of which the pole model with appear. Generally speaking the response of both poles
strain gauges was fastened. in both longitudinal and transverse directions was
The rotation of the circual plate changed the angle greater than in the case of smooth poles.
of wind incidence in steps of 3º within the range of It follows from the experiment that even a
+/- 15º. The distance of both poles was changed relatively small change of the cross section of a body
within the range of 2D to 6D. bypassed by air flow may cause a significant change
of its aerodynamic behaviour.
7 CONCLUSION
Smooth conical poles are not subject to
aerodynamic instability of interference galloping type
in any axial distance of elements.
A small change of cross section, made by the
fastening of a turbulizer to the model, however,
resulted in a highly significant increase of response in
Figure 2 Model cross section all measured pole configurations. In case of the
distance a = 2D interference galloping occured.
5.2 Measurements The vibrations of the leeward poles of the couple
of actual poles should be attributed partly to air flow
The every variant of pole arrangement was
deformation beyond the winward pole, partly to air
exposed to wind at the velocity of vm = 0 to 14 ms-1,
flow turbulence and partly to an increase of the
possibly 0 to 20 ms-1. With reference to velocity scale
effects of air flow separation beyond the winward and
kv = 0.2 it represented a sufficient range
leeward pole.
corresponding with actual velocity range of vk = 0 –
70 ms-1. The maximum actual wind velocities may 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
attain 45 ms-1 (according to measurements made in
October 2002). This research has been supported by the grant
The wind velocity was increased slowly to assure No.103/03/1395 "Reliability of Local Pressure
the possibility of determining the critical velocity of Measurements on Models in Boundary Layer Wind
interference. Tunnel" of the Czech Grants Agency
One series of wind tunnel measurements of
leeward cylinder response with various distances of 9 REFERENCES
both poles, various angles of incidence and various Studniþková, M. (1991) Galloping of the leeward cylinder in
stationary wind velocities was made for both cross tandem - application to bundled cables. In Czech.
section variants. Stavebnicky þasopis, 39, No 9-10, pp. 543 – 556, Veda
Bratislava.
Studniþková, M. (1996) Induced vibrations of leeward ropes. A
6 ASSESSMENT OF POLES BEHAVIOUR practical example. Journal of Wind Eng. and Ind.
Aerodynamics, 65, pp.179-188, Elsevier
6.1 Smooth poles
In case of smooth conical poles no interference
galloping was observed for any distance from a = 2D
309
D. Sun1, N.G. Wright2, J.S. Owen3, K. Liaw4
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a fluid-structure interaction approach for flutter derivative identification of
bridge decks. A similar application has been pioneered by Larsen and Walther [1998]. The objective of the
current work is to combine with turbulence modelling in CFD with an effective coupling method to explore a
numerical approach for general engineering applications. Some important issues for this objective are
discussed. Case studies are presented to demonstrate the implementation, in which all 18 flutter derivatives of
B/D=4 a rectangular cylinder have been accurately identified.
1 INTRODUCTION important issues particular for bridge aeroelasticity study

are discussed here and the methodology is presented.
Flutter derivative identification (FDI) is an important Firstly, the existing solvers need to be re-adapted. FSI
aspect of wind tunnel testing of bridge decks. As there is involves moving boundary conditions. The Arbitrary-
no analytical method to calculate them directly, the
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) formulated Navier-Stokes
experimental approach has been the major source to
equations form a base for FSI study. Some of
extract such information. Both forced and free vibrations
commercial packages have already incorporated this
can be used for this purpose. The former has the
functionality. Implementation of ALE is equivalent to
advantage of clear signals and better identification quality adding a convection flux term to the original fixed
but it needs specially devised actuation system and Eulerian formulation (see Donea [1980]) to account for
separation of aerodynamic forces from the inertia and
the moving frame effect.
damping forces. The latter is easy to implement and
Secondly, for solvers using grid-based methods, such
widely employed but sometimes has identification quality
as the finite difference (FD), finite volume (FV) and the
problems due to its susceptibility to disturbance. finite element (FE) methods, the mesh control issue
Numerical fluid-structure interaction (FSI) approach should be resolved. Dealt with properly, mesh control
provides an opportunity to overcome these limitations,
adds little overhead to the total calculation. Dealt with
conducting FDI with good quality.
inappropriately, mesh control can be expensive and
FSI for Prismatic structures has been investigated by
render the calculation less robust.
in Namura [1993], Tamura [1999] and Frandsen [2004]:
Thirdly, the coupling algorithm should be selected
all using laminar flow modelling. These studies focus on correctly. Between direct coupling and sequential
vortex-induced vibration, torsional instability and bridge coupling for FSI study, the latter is preferred, which
flutter. At high Reynolds numbers, laminar flow
allows reuse and small modification to existing software,
modelling is not physically valid and will inevitably
giving the identical solution to the one obtained from
encounter numerical difficulties. Its application can be
direct coupling.
limited. Walther and Larsen [1997], and Taylor and
Vezza [1999] make use of the discrete vortex method
2 TURBULENCE MODELLING
(DVM), a classical grid-free method for viscous flow, to
tackle the FSI problem of bridge decks. Walther and The choice of turbulence modelling is crucial. Over the
Larsen [1998] also propose the DVM-based FDI last three decades significant progress has been seen in
approach. Their numerical results are satisfactory and the DNS, LES and RANS turbulence modelling thanks to
approach has been verified. In order to serve the wider rapidly advancing computing techniques. Turbulence
engineering community and have a tool for general modelling needs to address the issue of time and length
engineering applications, FSI techniques need to develop scales. In DNS both of the scales are resolved using
by incorporating the widely used CFD techniques. But to refined meshes. In LES the length scales below the filter
do this certainly is not without difficulties. Nevertheless, size are modelled. In RANS models both the scales are
new algorithms, turbulence modelling and advances in modelled by closure equations based on the ensemble
computing hardware are making this feasible. Some averaging concept. For this reason, solutions from RANS
1
Postdoctoral Researcher, The Dalian University of Technology, China, currently visiting at The University of Nottingham, UK, e-
mail dongke.sun@nottingham.ac.uk
2
Reader in Environmental Fluids, The University of Nottingham, UK, e-mail nigel.wright@nottingham.ac.uk
3
Senior Lecturer, The University of Nottingham, UK, e-mail john.owen@nottingham.ac.uk
4
PhD candidate, The University of Nottingham, UK, e-mail evxkfl@nottingham.ac.uk
310
D. Sun, N.G. Wright, J.S. Owen, K. Liaw
models are much removed from high frequency methodology is neutral of platform and can be readily
fluctuations. Among many RANS models, the two- extended to other implementations.
equation ones like k-İ and k-Ȧ gained popularity due to The objective of the current work is to develop a
their simplicity and self-completeness. But for bridge viable method for FDI as a complimentary tool for the
decks, the k-Ȧ is preferred because of the known problem conventional wind tunnel approach using CFD turbulence
of k-İ, which over-produces the turbulence kinetic energy modelling and the methods in Sun, Owen, Wright and
near the wall and may radically change the flow patterns. Liaw [2005]. Section II briefly reviews the coupling
Contrasting with this, k-Ȧ allows direct integration algorithm; section III summarises the mesh control;
through turbulent boundary layers. Benchmark testing section IV includes the FSI-based FDI steps; section V is
shows the k-Ȧ is particularly superior for wall flow a numerical example.
simulation. There are also improved models based on the
standard k-Ȧ. Due to the isotropic assumption of the REFERENCES
eddy viscosity in the two-equation RANS models,
Donea, J. (1980) Finite element analysis of transient dynamic
simulation of 2D bluff bodies will invariantly lose the 3D fluid-structure interaction. in: Advanced Structural
vortical structures in the uniform direction. LES and Dynamics (J. Donea, ed.), Applied Science Publishers,
DNS can simulate the oblique nature and variation of pp.255-290.
flow. Frandsen, J.B. (2004) Numerical bridge deck studies using
The answer to which turbulence model is appropriate finite elements. Part I: flutter, Journal of Fluids and
for bridge aeroelasticity actually depends on the problem Structures, 19, pp.171-191
being considered. Wind-induced vibration of bridge can Huston, D.R. (1987) Flutter derivatives from 14 generic deck
be classified into vortex-induced vibration (VIV), sections, bridge and transmission line structures, Proceeds
buffeting and flutter. VIV is a strong nonlinear fluid- of the 1987 ASCE Structures Congress, Orlando, USA,
pp281-291
structure interaction. So far only a few empirical
Larsen, A., and Walther, J.H. (1998) Discrete vortex simulation
relations exist for it. Buffeting is amplitude-driven of flow around five generic bridge deck sections, Journal of
because it is caused by the flow variation and fluctuation Wind Engineering& Industrial Aerodynamics, 77-78,
along the span. Most of the cascade of the energy- pp.591-602
containing eddies contributes to the response level. Matsumoto M., Daito, Y., Yoshizumi, F., Ichikawa, Y. and
Flutter is damping driven, during which the aerodynamic Yahutani, T. (1997) Torsional flutter of bluff bodies,
damping renders the net system damping negative, Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics,
leading to a diverging vibration. As aerodynamic 69-71, pp871-882
damping is a continuous function of the characterising Nakmura, Y. (1979) On the aerodynamic mechanism of
frequency, flutter only occurs with a narrow range of torsional flutter of bluff structures, Journal of Sound and
Vibration 67, 22, pp. 163-177.
frequency and wind speed. Buffeting depends on the
Namura, T. (1995) A numerical stud on vortex-excited
variation of wind field along the span while a portion of oscillations of bluff cylinders, Journal of Wind
bridge deck incurring sustained negative aerodynamic Engineering& Industrial Aerodynamics, 50, pp.75-84
damping may be enough to initiate a flutter. This is why Singh, L., Jones, N.P., Scanlan, R.H. and Lorendeaux, O.
short sectional models can be used to predict flutter speed (1995), Simultaneous identification of 3-D aeroelastic
whereas the whole terrain type and a full elastic model parameters, Proc., 9th Int. Conf. on Wind Engrg., Wiley,
need be reproduced in the tunnel to estimate the buffeting New Delhi, India.
under certain conditions. Reflected in the choice of Sun, D., Owen, J.S., Wright, N.G., and Liaw, K. (2005)
turbulence modelling for flutter analysis, the basic submitted to Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial
requirement is to simulate the average shear layer Aerodynamic
Tamura, T. and Itoh, Y. (1999) Unstable oscillation of
dynamics which is pertinent to the motion-induced
rectangular cylinder at various mass ratios, Journal of
aerodynamics forces. The 3D vortical structure in the Aerospace Engineering, 12, 4, pp. 136-144
wake in flutter analysis is not as important as in the Taylor, I., Vezza, M. (1999) Calculation of the flow field
buffeting analysis. This allows the use of RANS models around a square cylinder undergoing forced transverse
in flutter analysis. The same rationale applies to the oscillations using a discrete vortex method, Journal of Wind
flutter derivative identification. Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamic, 82, pp.271-291.
In Sun, Owen, Wright and Liaw [2005] a block Gauss- Walther, J.H. and Larsen, A. (1997) 2D discrete vortex method
Seidel iterative coupling is proposed, together with a for application to bluff body aerodynamics, Journal of Wind
mesh control suitable for deck FSI studies. Modal Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamic. 67&68, pp.183-193
analysis is used to simulate the structural response. VIV Washizu, K., Ohya A.,Otsuki, U. and Fujii, K. (1982)
Aeroelastic instability of rectangular cylinders in a torsional
of circular cylinder and torsional instability of B/D=4
mode due to a transverse wind, Journal of Sound and
rectangular section are simulated using 3D LES. The Vibration, 72, pp. 507-521.
311
A. Szucs1, S. Moreau2, F. Allard3
ABSTRACT: The most characteristic structural elements of stadia are the canopies. Besides the structural
and aesthetic aspects, canopies considerably influence the wind-generated airflow patterns on both the spec-
tators' terrace and the playfield - and consequently the thermal and wind comfort of visitors. Several particu-
lar stadia have already been investigated through wind tunnel tests all over the world. However no general-
ized information on the relation of canopies and airflow patterns has been obtained so far because the results
of these tests apply to specific cases in given locations taking into account the prevailing wind conditions.
To bridge this gap a series of systematic wind tunnel tests have been carried out in one of the boundary layer
wind tunnels of the CSTB Nantes. A variable model has been developed in order to allow the modification of
the geometrical parameters. Patterns like airflow trajectories, turbulence rates, spatial gradients or three-
dimensional effects have been observed and analysed. Based on the output, correlation between airflow pat-
terns and geometry has been established: the effect of canopy geometry has been analysed in order to formu-
late easy-to-survey data and rules of thumb to support the designers in the early phase of their work.
Modern stadia show tendency towards covering

the majority of the spectators' terrace by canopies.
The latter influences to a great extent the airflow
pattern inside the stadium - and in this way the spec-
tators' thermal and wind comfort as well - by its po-
sition, size and material.
Through a series of wind tunnel tests the airflow
characteristics have been investigated using a scale
model of variable geometry. The intensively venti- Figure 1 Stadium model of variable geometry
lated, the turbulent and the calm zones have been
been built and tested in one of the boundary layer
charted and studied for each configuration by hot
wind tunnels of the CSTB Nantes.
wire anemometry and smoke visualisation. The re-
Some architectural parameters supposed to influ-
sults show a strong correlation between canopy ge-
encing the airflow in the bowl have also been se-
ometry, position and airflow.
lected to be investigated in wind tunnel. Among
The aim of this research is to develop a design
them the following ones are related to canopies:
methodology to be applied in the early phase of the
- inclination,
conceptual design. The methodology that is being
- overhang,
prepared, takes into account the effect of canopy
- dimension of the central opening (occulus).
geometry on the airflow patterns in order to provide
The aerodynamic features of stadia have been stud-
thermally comfortable conditions for the spectators
ied for seven different canopy configurations during
by an appropriate architectural solution. The task is
parametric wind tunnel tests for three wind direc-
challenging, although conventional threshold of air
tions:
velocity from its mechanical effect point of view is
- longitudinal, parallel to the longitudinal axis
known, no universal thermal comfort criteria can be
of the model;
defined – the thermal comfort requirements change
- transversal, perpendicular to the longitudinal
in function of the climate. In addition, they are influ-
axis of the model;
enced besides the environmental factors also by per-
- diagonal, forming an angle of 30° by the lon-
sonal (e.g. clothing, metabolism) and contributing
gitudinal axis.
(e.g. age, body shape, acclimatization etc.) ones.
For each configuration of the model wind speed
A scale model of compact geometry with both the
and turbulence have been measured at several pre-
bowl and the roof symmetric and continuous has
1
Agota Szucs, MSc in Architectural Engineering, CSTB – Universite de La Rochelle, email: szucs@cstb.fr
2
Sophie Moreau, PhD, CSTB, e-mail: moreau@cstb.fr
3
Francis Allard, Professor, LEPTAB Universite de La Rochelle, e-mail: fallard@univ-lr.fr
312
A. Szucs, S. Moreau, F. Allard
selected points of the spectators' terrace using hot A rising canopy by +15° results globally the same
wire anemometer. The measured data have been ex- kind of flow paths as a horizontal one. Nevertheless
pressed in form of a dimensionless parameter signed the protecting capacity of this configuration on the
by ȥ, integrating both the turbulence effect and the windward side of the stadium is more accentuated.
average wind speed. The ȥ expresses the turbulence The further increase of the slope (inclination:
and the wind speed at a given point of the bowl re- +30°) has a flow intensifying effect. The global ven-
lated to those of the reference wind. tilation of the stadium bowl can be intensified by
The measurement points are placed in a rectangu- altering the canopy position. A rising canopy to-
lar mesh providing a relatively dense grid that facili- wards the pitch has less accentuated air flow intensi-
tates creating iso-ȥ lines. The latter are the elements fying effect than a sloping one. Comparing the aver-
of the iso ȥ charts representing the airflow in the age ȥ values, for all three directions the horizontal
bowl at the height of the spectators for the three canopy seems to provide the most effective protec-
wind direction. The dark zones mark more intensive tion for the bowl. At the same time except for diago-
flow while the light ones show the calm areas. This nal wind, the rising canopy protects globally also as
graphic method is informative and facilitates the effectively as a horizontal one. For diagonal wind
representation of the air velocity fields indicating both a rise of 15° and 30° results in high ȥ values.
their location and size. The differences between the Besides the protecting character, the flow homoge-
isoplates of the investigated architectural configura- nizing character of the stadium has to be taken into
tions are easily perceptible. However they do not account when assessing its aerodynamic quality.
allow a simple, unambiguous and fast comparison of Air flow homogeneity of in function of
the canopy inclination
the different design options. That is why numeral
2.5
values should be introduced to characterise the oc-
curring global and extreme aerodynamic conditions diagonal
Indice of homogen
2.0
in the stadium bowl. transversal
The aerodynamic environment on the spectators 1.5 I 90%
longitudinal
terrace is featured by the mean, the extreme ȥ values
and by their ratios. Under the term extreme the first 1.0
transversal
(ȥ10%) and the last deciles (ȥ90%) have to be un- longitudinal diagonal
0.5
derstood. The ȥ10% represents the calm areas: in I 10%
other words, the lower 10% of the data population
0.0
aligned in a growing order. In this manner the ȥ90% -20 0 20 40
is related to the intensively ventilated areas, as it Canopy inclination (°)
represents the higher 10% of the data population. Figure 13 Influence of canopy inclination on homogeneity
The ratios of the ȥ10% and the ȥ90% to the mean
The flow is the most homogeneous in case of a
value describe the homogeneity of the flow. The
sloping roof towards the pitch. The horizontal roof
closer this ratio to 1, the more homogeneous the air-
and the rising roof by 30° do not show great differ-
flow in the bowl. In general, the aerodynamic quality
ences from homogeneity point of view. Their indices
of the stadia from spectators' thermal comfort point
are almost insensitive to the wind direction.
of view is assumed to be favourable if:
The overhang of the canopy acts as a deflector
- the ȥ is lower (so the mean velocity and the tur-
that channels the flow through the gap between the
bulence in the bowl are lower) and
roof and the bowl. Its effect is remarkable, as the
- the flow is homogeneous (so the ratio of the
average ȥ values are very high - that of diagonal
extreme ȥ-s and the average ȥ is closer to 1).
wind is even the highest among the measured con-
The effect of inclined and overhanged canopy and
figurations. However the flow is quite heterogene-
the reduced oculus has been studied. The air flow
ous, similarly to the rising roof by 30°.
has been illustrated on iso ȥ charts.
A reduced oculus results in globally less intensive
Phenomena like recirculation and eddies have
air movement.. The isoplates have very similar char-
been revealed in the bowl, even at spectators' height
acters to the stadium with a horizontal canopy. When
by smoke visualisation using a vertical laser plane
adapting the results to a real situation, taking into
that lights the smoke. The results of wind tunnel ex-
account the meteorological characteristics and the
periments show that the sloping canopy towards the
roughness of the site, the wind speed and turbulence
pitch has an air movement intensifying effect in the
in the chosen design options should be calculated
entire bowl. The average ȥ values are higher by
from the wind tunnel data and associated to the wind
25%-30% than in case of a horizontal canopy.
and thermal comfort requirements.
313
LES Dnalysis of Wurbulent Eoundary Oayer Rver 3D Vteep Kill Fovered

with Yegetation
T.Tamura1, A.Okuno2, Y.Sugio2
ABSTRACT : Large eddy simulation (LES) is carried out to investigate the turbulent boundary-layerW\SHRI
flows over a hill-shaped model with a steep slope. Also, we focus on the surface condition of aKLOOVXFKDV
vegetation effects as well as curvature effects. In order to model the vegetation effectVIRU/(6ZHHPSOR\WKH
feedback forcing method proposed by Goldstein et al. (1993). Both the comSXWHGUHVXOWVRYHUWKHKLOOZLWKDQG
without vegetation are in good agreement with Meng and Hibi’VH[SHULPHQWDOGDWDIRUDURXJKDQG
a smooth hill. Also, the effects of vegetation on turbulencHVWDWLVWLFVLQFOXGLQJWKHFRKHUHQWVWUXFWXUHVDERYH
the vegetation, are clarified.
1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays it becomes to be very important to esti- Secondly, the feedback forcing is applied to fluctua-
mate the CO 2 amount that vegetation absorbs, con- tion component. The following forcing term (Eqn.2)
cerning to the global warming. The wind flow in the is added to governing equation. The coupling of this
vicinity of the surface depends on the topography term and the time derivative acceleration term cor-
including smooth or rough and undulation very much, responds to the equation for a kind of oscillation
as a result, local reversed flow and strong wind of- system (Eqn.4).
ten occur. It is important to evaluate turbulent char- t
acteristics in order to solve the problems concerning f i = α ∫ {ui′}dt + β {ui′} (2)
0
wind-resistant design of structures, diffusion of pol-
u&&i′ − βu& i′ − αu i′ = G (3)
lutant and the efficient acquisition of wind power
energy. The present paper focuses on the effect of where α and β are negative constants. By using
surface condition on a hill. Large eddy simulation this method, it is assumed that we can express the
(LES) is carried out to investigate the turbulent air parcel moved by vegetation swinging as vibra-
boundary-layer type of flows over a 3D hill-shaped tion body. To generate inflow turbulence over veg-
model with smooth or vegetated surface. This pa- etation surface model, we employ the quasi-periodic
per discusses unsteady phenomena of the wake flows boundary condition in the streamwise direction which
affected by the surface vegetation and aims at clari- is introduced by the modification of Lund’s (1998)
fying the turbulence structures distorted by a smooth method (Nozawa and Tamura, 2002). In this
or a vegetated hill. method, we actually array rectangular blocks in a
staggered pattern on the ground surface. At the back
2 MODELING FOR BOUNDARY SURFACE of roughness blocks, we connect vegetation model
WITH VEGETATION as shown in Figure1.
Vegetation model
To represent a vegetation surface, the feedback forc- Rescale
ing method is used. It was originally proposed to
express a solid object like roughness block by
Goldstein et al.(1993).
First, for mean component, we employ exponential
profile equation suggested by Inoue(1963). y
x
U i ( y ) = U i (h0 ) exp[− n(1 − y )]
Roughness 3D hill
(1) Inflow
z blocks
where h0 is vegetation height, n is a constant desided Driver domain Main domain
by vegetation. Figure 1 Computational model with vegetation
1
Prof. , Tokyo Institute of Technology, e-mail tamura@depe.titech.ac.jp
2
Graduate Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology , aokuno@depe.titech.ac.jp , ysugio@depe.titech.ac.jp
314
T. Tamura, A. Okuno, Y. Sugio
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
5H Present comp.(smooth)
Vertical profile of streamwise mean velocity in the Meng's exp.(smooth)
Present comp.(rough)
center section of a 3D hill is shown in Figure 2. LES 4H Meng's exp.(rough)
results of smooth and rough surface are in good
agreement with experimental results. Acceleration on 3H
the crest of 3D hill or deceleration by vegetation is 2H

well reproduced.
Figure 3 gives streamwise turbulence intensity. The H
peak of vertical profile generated by flow separa-
0
tion is well reproduced and good result is obtained. -2.5H -1.25H 0 1.25H 2.5H 3.75H 5H 6.25H
In the case of rough surface, peak position tends to u/U 0 1.0
8
Figure 2 Streamwise mean velocity
be higher than in the case of smooth surface.
Figure 4 shows spanwise turbulence intensity. Meng's exp.(smooth)
There is a peak near the wall in front of the crest. 4H Meng's exp.(rough)
That is to say, three dimensional turbulent structure
is clearly observed. We can see that turbulence in- 3H
tensity in front and on a 3D hill crest of rough sur- 2H

face is larger than that of smooth surface. But
spanwise turbulence intensity of rough case becomes H
smaller than that of smooth case. 0
Vertical turbulence intensity is shown in Figure 5. -2.5H -1.25H 0 1.25H 2.5H 3.75H 5H 6.25H
σu/U 0
In the case of rough surface, peak position is higher 0.2
8
than in smooth case and turbulence is reduced be- Figure 3 Streamwise turbulence intensity
hind a 3D hill. These results are in good agreement 5H Present comp.(smooth)
Meng's exp.(smooth)
with experimental data. Present comp.(rough)
4H Meng's exp.(rough)
Time averaged streamlines in the center section
around a smooth and a rough 3D hill are shown in 3H
Figure6. The streamlines around 3D hill are opened
because spanwise flow exists. The recirculation area 2H
of the rough-hill wake becomes larger and longer H

than the smooth hill wake. And in the case of rough
surface, the center of recirculation is shifted to back- 0
-2.5H -1.25H 0 1.25H 2.5H 5H 6.25H
3.75H
ward of the 3D hill compared to smooth surface. σw/U 0 0.2
8
Figure4 Spanwise turbulence intensity

4 CONCLUSIONS
LES analysis has been carried out to investigate the Meng's exp.(smooth)
turbulent boundary layer type of flows over a 3D 4H Meng's exp.(rough)
steep hill. Also, we have discussed the surface con-
dition of a hill, such as vegetation effects. The LES 3H
results show sufficiently good agreement with mean 2H
velocity and turbulence intensity obtained by Meng’s
experiment for smooth and rough surfaces. After all, H
we can obtain the important conclusion that the veg-
0
etation model of this paper reasonably operates for -2.5H -1.25H 0 1.25H 2.5H 3.75H 5H 6.25H
LES of hill flows. σv/U 0 0.2
8
Figure5 Vertical turbulence intensity

5 REFERENCES
Goldstein D., Handler R. and Sirovich L.(1993).J.
Comput. Phys., 105,pp.354-366.
(a)smooth surface
Inoue E.(1963).J. Met. Soc.,Vol.41, No.6, pp.317-
325.
Meng Y. and Hibi K.(1998).Proc. of 15th National
Sym.on Wind Eng., pp.61-66.
Nozawa K. and Tamura T. (2002). J. Wind Engrg. (b)rough surface
Ind. Aero., 90, pp.1151-1162. Figure6 Time-averaged streamlines around a 3D steep hill
315
A study into the performance of wind shields on both streamlined and

bluff bridge deck sections
I.J. Taylor1, M. Vezza2, I. Salisbury3
ABSTRACT: Due to their exposed nature, there is an increasing use of wind shielding on bridges to ensure
that the crossing remains open to traffic as much as possible. Although a number of wind shield
configurations have been used widely, information on their aerodynamic performance is still limited. An
experimental and numerical investigation into the performance of a number of basic "generic" wind shields,
on various deck sections has been carried out at the Universities of Strathclyde and Glasgow. The
experimental results have been compared with various numerical predictions to assess the performance of the
numerical methods in assessing the effects of wind shields. Numerical results from a study on an actual bridge
design are also presented to highlight the influence on the bridge deck geometry on the performance of
particular wind shield configurations.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF

PROPOSED BRIDGE DESIGN.
By their very nature, bridges are often situated in
exposed locations, with traffic crossing the bridge Two main bridge deck and barrier options were
potentially experiencing severe or even dangerous considered, along with two different wind shielding
wind speeds. Increasingly, wind shielding is used on options as indicated below.
bridge decks to protect traffic from strong cross x Deck 1 – Bluff box girder section.
winds, allowing the crossing to remain open for a x Deck 2 – Slender truss girder section.
much wider range of wind speeds. Previous studies x Shield 1 – Horizontal slats, up to 3m above
indicate that the shape of the shield is of secondary deck, with 50% porosity.
importance when compared to its porosity with x Shield 2 – Curved perforated panel with 50%
regards to the screen effectiveness. A porosity of porosity, up to 1.8m above deck.
around 40-50% is a suitable compromise between The perforated panel was approximated as a series
the reduction in wind speed and the overall drag of small cylinders, providing the correct profile for
loading on the bridge. (Ostenfeld & Larsen, 1992). the barrier, arranged to give the correct porosity.
This study was instigated by Halcrow Group Ltd., This overcomes modelling limitations, and as the
to investigate the performance of wind shields on a flow “mixes-out” across the deck, the overall effect
proposed new bridge in the Shetland Islands, of these approximations will diminish. The mean
Scotland. A numerical study was performed using velocity profiles at mid-deck for each deck section
the discrete vortex method, DIVEX, developed at the and barrier configuration are shown in Figure 1.
Universities of Strathclyde and Glasgow (Taylor & 5
Vezza 2001, 2002, Taylor, Vezza et al 2002), to Slender truss - No Barriers

4.5 Bluff deck - No Barriers
assess the effects of different types of wind shield on 4
Slender truss - Horizontal Barriers
Bluff deck - Horizontal Barriers
a number of bridge deck design options. A separate k
c 3.5
Slender truss - Perforated Barriers
e Bluff deck - Perforated Barriers
series of wind tunnel investigations were performed, D
e
g 3
to provide validation data for wind shields on a di

B
r 2.5
simple bridge deck. This paper presents a summary e

v
o 2
b
of the barrier assessment of the proposed Shetland a
h
t 1.5
gi
bridge, indicating the effects of different wind shield e
H 1
and bridge deck options. Also, the comparison of 0.5
numerical and experimental results are presented to 0

-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
assess the accuracy of the predictions. Mean Velocity
Figure 1 Mean velocity profiles above the deck section at 50%

deck width – Comparison of Wind Shields.
1
Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XJ, Scotland.
2
Senior Lecturer, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland.
3
Associate Director, Halcrow Group Ltd., The Octagon, 35 Baird Street, Glasgow, G4 0EE, Scotland.
316
I.J. Taylor, M. Vezza, I. Salisbury
The results summarise the main conclusions of diffusion becomes more important and the FLUENT
the analysis. The velocity on the slender truss deck is calculations show best agreement with experiment.
Experimental
generally higher, close to the deck compared with Fluent
90 90
the bluff section. On the bluff section there is a large DIVEX 90
separated region with reversed flow, causing a much 80 80 80
Height above deck (mm)

less uniform velocity profile in the flow than the 70 70 70
slender deck. It could be argued that this velocity 60 60 60
variation would not be favourable for high sided 50 50 50
vehicles, although from these results, the magnitude 40 40 40
of the velocity is less than that seen on the truss 30 30 30
deck, up to 1.5-2m above the deck. The reduction in 20 20 20
flow speed provided by both barriers on each deck is 10 10 10

significant, with the mean velocity generally reduced
0 0 0
to less than 50% of the onset flow speed up to a -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Mean non-dimensionalised velocity
height of 2m for the rectangular barriers and 1.5m 5% deck width 50% deck width 87.5% deck width
for the perforated barriers. For the truss deck, the Figure 2 Comparison of predicted velocity profiles with
mean flow speed is generally at a maximum of 50% experiment for the deck with 3 horizontal barriers.
of freestream over the whole barrier height.
4 CONCLUSIONS
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The main conclusions can of the research are:
As there is limited experimental data available in the x The barriers on the bluff deck provide a larger
open literature on wind shielding, a brief reduction in wind speed near the deck surface,
experimental study has been undertaken at the although a greater velocity gradient is evident.
University of Strathclyde, using typical “generic” x The bluff deck section produces a large separated
deck geometry. The velocity field was measured region of reversed flow above the deck surface,
downstream of barrier configurations: firstly, three which produces a large gradient in the mean
horizontal slats, and secondly six horizontal slats, velocity profile.
both with 50% porosity. The experimental results x Wind tunnel tests have been performed to obtain
were compared with both numerical predictions from mean wind speeds for various barrier
DIVEX, as well as predictions from the configurations over a slender deck.
commercially available CFD code, FLUENT. x In general, numerical predictions from two codes
A comparison of the experimental results and the tend to over predict the mean velocities
two numerical methods is shown in Figures 2 for the downstream of the barriers.
case with 3 horizontal barriers. In each case, the x DIVEX, shows best agreement with the
velocity magnitude above the deck is compared at experimental data close to the barriers.
three locations on the deck: just downstream of the x Further downstream, where turbulent diffusion is
barriers, mid-deck and at the rear of the section. The more important, FLUENT tends to show more
velocity is non-dimensionalised in each case with agreement with the data, as DIVEX does not yet
respect to the freestream velocity and is plotted incorporate any turbulence modelling.
against the vertical height above the deck.
Close to the barriers, DIVEX captures the flow 8 REFERENCES
features extremely well. In particular the areas of
Ostenfeld, K.H. & Larsen, A. (1992) Bridge engineering and
reversed flow immediately downstream of the aerodynamics. Aerodynamics of Large Bridges, Proc. 1st
horizontal slats, and the accelerated flow through the International Symposium (A. Larsen ed.), Copenhagen,
gaps in the barrier. This flow region is very unsteady Denmark, 19-21 February 1992, pp. 3-22.
and so the unsteady analysis from DIVEX tends to Taylor, I.J., & Vezza, M. (2001) Application of a discrete
show better agreement with experiment. vortex method for the analysis of suspension bridge deck
section. Wind and Structures, 4, 4, pp. 333-352.
Moving downstream on the deck, as the flow Taylor, I.J. & Vezza, M. (2002) Aeroelastic stability analysis of
mixes out, the FLUENT predictions tend to show a bridge deck with added vanes using a discrete vortex
better agreement with experiment than the DIVEX method. Wind and Structures, 5, 2-4, pp. 277-290.
results. However, both numerical approaches tend to Taylor, I.J., Vezza, M. & Withycombe, S.I., (2002)
over predict the experimental results, thus providing Commercial computational wind engineering :
Contributions of DIVEX to recent design projects. Proc. of
quite conservative predictions of the wind shielding 5th UK Conference on Wind Engineering, Nottingham,
effects. Towards the rear of the deck turbulent U.K., 4-6 September 2002, pp. 91-94.
317

A. Tesar1
ABSTRACT: Numerical and experimental assessment of ultimate aeroelastic response of modern slender
shell bridges. The wave propagation approach is used for the modeling of aeroelastic forcing. The analysis of
structural time response is based on the transient dynamics. Some numerical and experimental results are
submitted in order to verify the procedures suggested.
1 INTRODUCTION For loads changing arbitrarily in time the first appro-

ach leds to the solution of convolution type time in-
The development of new types of light-weight slen- tegrals, while the second one involves the Fourier
der shell bridges based on the the classical steel or transformed equations of motion, with the frequency
made on the basis of combination of laminated wood as fundamental parameter. The choice of the method
vs glass fiber materials is the focus of intense efforts is complementary, considering the flutter derivatives
in present bridge engineering. The model of such and the indicial aerodynamic functions.
bridge, studied in this paper, is shown in Fig. 1. The By means of spectral analysis adopting the random
current state of art of the solution of ultimate aeroe- vibration theory, the frequency domain method can
lastic response of such structures was until now not be conveniently applied to the problem studied. The
treated in sufficiently sophisticated approach. statistical properties of the turbulence are given by
In this paper above wind induced structural pheno- frequency dependent spectral densities and coheren-
mena are treated by transient dynamics. The aeroe- ce functions. The advantages of frequency domain
lastic forcing is studied adopting the wave propaga- method for modeling of combined dynamic and
tion approach. The goal of this paper is the develop- aeroelastic actions of the shell bridges are obvious.
ment of sophisticated approach based on combined The flutter derivatives are the functions of frequency
transient dynamics versus wave propagation, adop- of vibration and can be directly applied to the Fou-
ted for numerical treatment of ultimate aeroelastic rier transformed equations of motion. The adoption
response of slender shell bridges, with following of flutter derivatives in the time domain is restricted
experimental verifications. Some numerical and ex- to harmonic motion only, while in the frequency
perimental results are submitted. domain they hold for the analysis of an arbitrary mo-
tion. The Fourier transformed equations of motion
for a linear vibration system are given by
(-Z2M iZC K) X(Z) = >iZCAe(Z) KAe(Z)@

X(Z) Fb(Z) , (1)
where Z is the circular frequency, X and Fb are the

vectors of the Fourier transform of nodal degrees of
freedom and of nodal loads, respectively, and i is
Figure 1 Wind tunnel model of new arch bridge crossing Da- the imaginary unit. Here, M, C and K are the mass,
nube in Bratislava, Slovakia damping and stiffness matrices, respectively, related
to the mechanical properties of the vibration system,
Time and frequency domain are two frequently used CAe(Z) is the aerodynamic damping matrix and
basic approaches for the analysis of above problems. KAe(Z) is the aeroelastic stiffness matrix.
_______________________________________________________
1
Alexander Tesar, Civ.Eng., PhD, DrSc, visiting professor, Institute of Construction and Architecture, Slovak
Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, e-mail usarate@savba.sk
318
A. Tesár
2 WAVE PROPAGATION
A governing wave equation for the treatment of abo-

ve forcing term Rt+'t in the ultimate aeroelastic be-
haviour of studied shell bridges subjected to air flow
is given by the wave distribution, with interactions
and reflexions considered in theoretical, numerical
and experimental assessments of the problem (Tesar
& Svolik, 1993).
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Figure 3 Model in the wind tunnel
Table 1 Assessment theory vs experiment
Above theoretical analysis was adopted for the nu-

merical treatment of the problem. The evaluation of
numerical and experimental results obtained is sub-
mitted in Table 1, with satisfying coincidency of
both approaches studied.
Figure 2 Two model configurations of the shell bridge studied 4 CONCLUSIONS
For experimental assessment two configurations of
Theoretical, numerical as well as experimental veri-
the model made of wood and plastic components
fication results sampled up in present paper submit
glued together, are shown in Fig. 2. The bottom part
some image on aeroelastic response of slender
of the model cross-section was made of spruce wo-
shell bridges, with some new approaches for solution
od. The top shell part was of half-circular plastic
of the problem. The further development of the ap-
tube. The top of the model was provided with flat
proach submitted appears to be reasonable and pro-
plywood disc. The massive model wood base plate
mising.
was connected with a dynamic flexure transducer
being the main source of flexibility of the model set-
up. The model in wind tunnel is shown in Fig. 3. 5 REFERENCES
For the first model configuration the first cross-wind
deflection peak was initiated at the air flow velocity >1@ Tesar, A.: Aeroelastic Response of Transporter
3.05 m/sec. The divergency started there at the velo- Shell Bridges in Smooth Air Flow. Norwegian Insti-
city 16 m/sec. The displacements in the cross-wind tute of Technology, Tapir, Trondheim, 1978
direction at the low air velocities were larger than in [2] Tesar, A., Fillo, L.: Transfer Matrix Method,
the along-wind direction. KLUWER Academic Publishers, Dordrecht-Boston-
The significance of the along-wind displacements London, 1988
comes to the fore at high air speeds with swift initia- [3] Tesar, A. and Svolik, J,: Wave distribution in
tion of catastrophic oscillations. fibre members subjected to kinematic forcing. Int.
Journal for Communication in Num. Mech., 9, 1993
319
Penetration of snow into roof construction –

Wind tunnel testing of different eave cover designs
TK. Thiis a, P Barfoed c, P Delpech e, A Gustavsen b, V Hofseth d, S Uvsløkk f,
M Dufresne de Virel e
ABSTRACT: Ventilated roof is a common practice of building design in the Scandinavian countries. One
problem with this design is the penetration of blowing snow into the ventilated space in the roof. The rate of
snow penetration is largely dependent on the design of the eave. In Norway and Greenland, different design
solutions have been tried, based on experience and intuition. However, these solutions have, until now, never
been verified in controlled laboratory conditions.
The ability to prevent snow penetration and still allow ventilation of the ventilated roof or attic is tested for
several different eave constructions. The testing has been performed in a wind tunnel in an environment of
cold air and with production of artificial snow. The scale of the eave constructions was 1:1.
Most of the designs in the experiment are common in Scandinavian building practice. However, new
innovative solutions designed for extreme snowdrifting environment in Greenland were also tried. Also, the
effect of a deflector to deflect snow particles away from the ventilation openings was tested. Over 400 times
more snow accumulated in the construction allowing the most snow to enter the roof compared to the
construction designed for extreme environments.
solutions. However, a controlled comparable study

1 INTRODUCTION has never before been undertaken. In this paper
Ventilation of roof constructions has two purposes; different eave constructions ability to reduce snow
to keep the outer roof surface cold enough to avoid penetration into the roof are studied.
snow melting and to transport any moisture that has
already entered the roof out of the roof. Snow 2 METHOD
melting on the roof surface can cause pools of water To rate the performance of different eave covers, full
freezing near the eaves, and further mechanical scale tests have been performed in an environmental
degradation and leakage. In areas of drifting snow, wind tunnel. The different eave covers were
one problem with the ventilated roof design is the mounted on a building with a pitched roof. The
penetration of snow into the ventilated space. The
snow will melt, and can penetrate the building and
cause moisture damage. The roof design should
therefore assure the air flow in the air gap/ventilated
attic and at the same time minimize the penetration
of drifting snow into the air gap/attic.
One solution to avoid snow penetration into the
ventilated roof is to use a so-called eave cover.
Several local variants of the eave cover have evolved
in the Scandinavian countries. The solutions are
based on reducing the air velocity in certain
accumulation zones to make the snow particles settle
before reaching the roof. Also different positions of
the inlet have been tried, to avoid penetration of
snow in the first place. Much experience and thought Figure 1. Experimental building after snowdrifting
has been employed in the development of the local experiment.
a
Norwegian Building Research Institute, Oslo, NORWAY, tht@byggforsk.no
b
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, NORWAY
cTegnestuen Nuuk, Nuuk, GREENLAND
dAF-Gruppen as, Oslo, NORWAY
e
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Nantes, FRANCE
f
Norwegian Building Research Institute, Trondheim, NORWAY
320
T.K. Thiis, P. Barfoed, P. Delpech, A. Gustavsen, V. Hofseth, S. Uvsløkk, M. Dufresne de Virel
principle of ventilated, cold attic was applied in the In all the eave designs with a ratio above 1, the
experiments. This solution is not preferred in snow blowing snow concentration in the connecting
drifting areas in Norway nor in Greenland, but was channel is increasing above the concentration in the
chosen because of the easiness in collecting the snow environment, thus giving the eave construction a
which passed through the eave cover. The measures negative performance in removing blowing snow.
of the building was height = 279 cm, width = 300
cm, depth = 323 cm, and the angle of the roof was 24 Table 1. Experimental data from wind tunnel tests.*Exp. no 1
q. A picture of the experimental building is shown in was run only for 60 minutes
Figure 1. The roof ridge was closed in the exp Air Snow Snow Snow in Snow Snow
experiments, so no snow entered or escaped the attic no. speed in in connect. conc. in conc.
through the ridge. Each eave section has a width of [m/s] attic eave channel channel w.t./
75 cm. One of the sections was equipped with [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg/m3] Snow
transparent roofing for observation of the snow conc.
penetration during the experiment. channel
The Jules Verne climatic wind tunnel, with 1.* 8.7 41.5 0 - 8.8E-03 7.34
2. 3.5 3 0.8 - 7.9E-04 0.71
artificial snow making capabilities, allows for
3. 4.2 18.6 6.2 0.5 4.1E-03 3.53
reproducing various kinds of snowstorm events. 4. 4.3 16.1 4.9 0.5 3.5E-03 3.03
Wind velocity, ambient air temperature and air/water 5. 2 0.1 1.6 0.2 4.6E-05 0.04
ratio in the snow guns are fully controllable and 6. 2.6 0.2 1.8 0.7 7.1E-05 0.07
mainly determine the snow properties (dry or wet
snow). The large dimension of the test chamber, 25 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
m long, 10 m wide and 7 m high, enables simulation The experiments clearly show that the design of the
of wind induced snow accumulation mechanisms eave construction is important for the snow
around building models at moderately reduced scale. penetration into the roof. The design in experiment 5
gives the best result in avoiding snow penetration
3 RESULTS
into the roof. However, this solution also introduces
Table 1 shows the total amount of snow, which a flow resistance, which is higher than in experiment
entered the constructions, the air velocity in the 2. The result of the increased flow resistance might
channel between the eave and the attic and the snow be a reduced ability to remove moist air from the
concentration in the air flowing into the attic. The construction. Such design is therefore favourable in
snow concentration in the channel connecting the windy climate were the wind will produce an airflow
eave to the attic is defined as: in the channel for longer a period of the year. In
areas of more moderate wind and were the snow
§ Snow in attic · penetration problem also is smaller, the design in
¨ Test period¸
© ¹ experiment 2 might be sufficient to avoid snow
c [kg/m3] (1)
Area of channelu Air velocity penetration and still maintain adequate ventilation of
the roof.
c is regarded as a measure of the effectiveness of the The lack of consistence between pressure loss
whole construction to withstand snow penetration. and snow concentration in the connecting channel
The construction with the lowest snow concentration indicates that the flow pattern in and around the eave
in the inflowing air has the best ability to prohibit covers is more important in the removal of snow
snow penetration into the roof. To clarify this even than the pressure loss. It is clear that the position of
further, Table 1 shows the ratio of the snow the ventilation opening should not be close to the
concentration in the wind tunnel to the snow wall. This will increase the snow concentration in the
concentration in the channel connecting the eave to air in the channel connecting the eave to the cold attic
the attic. The ratio shows that the snow concentration more than 3.5 times compared to the environment. The
in the channel in the roof is 7.34 times the reason for this is probably that large parts of the snow
concentration in the wind tunnel during experiment particles impinging on the windward is transported
1. In experiment 5 the ratio is 0.04 i.e. the snow upwards along the wall, thus entering the ventilation
concentration in the channel is only 4% of the opening. A deflector will reduce this rate 3.0 which is
concentration in the wind tunnel. This indicates that still a very bad performance of an eave construction.
the position and design in the area surrounding the The eave cover design in exp. 2 and 5 will reduce the
ventilation opening is of paramount importance for snow concentration in the channel to 70% and 4 % of
the snow concentration in the air entering the attic. the environment.
321
Long-term measurements of structural response of a tall steel chimney

equipped with different damping devices
Pär Tranvik1, Göran Alpsten2
ABSTRACT: This report describes the results from long-term full-scale measurements of the structural
response of a 90 m high, very slender steel chimney with vibration problems due to vortex shedding. The
chimney was initially supplied with a mechanical pendulum-type damper at the top. Experience from
monitoring the chimney over a six-year period showed that the chimney with an adjusted pendulum damper
behaved well under normal conditions. However, cross-wind oscillations with unexpectedly large amplitudes
occurred at a few occasions, considered to be caused by more severe lock-in effects from vortex shedding than
expected from current load models. The chimney equipped with a cable damper has been monitored
continuously for one year. It has been found to be a more efficient damper than the original pendulum damper
at the chimney top. Data from measurements during this period are given in the report and compared with the
response of the chimney before the cable damper had been introduced.
This report describes the results from long-term Due to special circumstances the damper did not
full-scale measurements of the structural response work properly during the first few months of
of a 90 m high, very slender steel chimney with service. In the first winter months occasional large
vibration problems due to vortex shedding. The oscillations were observed with an estimated top
outer diameter of structural shell is 2.3 m, that is, deflection of about half the diameter of the
the ratio of chimney height over outer diameter is chimney. After about six months of service several
39. The chimney is located at the VEAB heat and fatigue cracks had developed at the base details the
power plant at the town of Växjö in southern chimney.
Sweden and was erected in December 1995. The After adjusting the damper and repairing the
chimney was initially supplied with a mechanical cracks an extensive program was started for
pendulum-type damper at the top, see Figure 1. continuously monitoring the structural behaviour of
the chimney, because doubts remained about the
reliability of the damper even after its adjustment.
The data recording system was designed with the
primary intention of monitoring the influence of
first-mode oscillations with respect to fatigue.
A detailed description of the VEAB chimney,
the data recording system, recorded dynamic
properties of the chimney with the original
pendulum damper, recordings of deflections and
strain-gauge measurements and assessment of
fatigue damage have been given in a separate
report and is summarised in this paper.
Figure 1 Original mechanical pendulum damper at the top of
the VEAB chimney (schematic). The damping is achieved by
From a compilation of continuous
a friction mass that slips on a bottom steel plate. measurements and experience over a six-year
period it was evident that the chimney with an
The VEAB chimney was initially designed by adjusted pendulum damper behaved well under
the supplier of the chimney. It did not meet the normal conditions. However, cross-wind
applicable Swedish code, where application of the oscillations with unexpectedly large amplitudes
model for equivalent loads at vortex shedding is occurred occasionally, apparently caused by more
limited to a slenderness ratio (height over diameter) severe lock-in effects from vortex shedding than
of approx. 30, based upon experience from very considered in the loading model. This caused some
slender chimneys with more severe lock-in effects concern about the long-term reliability of the
than normally accounted for in current loading chimney with respect to fatigue.
models for vortex shedding.
1
Mechanical Engineer, MSc, Licentiate in Engineering, Pär Tranvik, Alstom Power Sweden AB, e-mail
par.tranvik@power.alstom.com
2
Dr. Tech., Formerly Adjunct Prof., Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Göran Alpsten, Stålbyggnadskontroll AB, e-mail
goran.alpsten@stbk.se
322
P. Tranvik, G. Alpsten
A decision was taken to improve the damping of
the chimney by an external cable damping device
with a non-rigid friction connection. Two cables
were attached to the chimney at a flanged erection
splice, see Figure 2. The two cables enter the
adjacent boiler house just below its roof. Inside the
boiler house in a dry environment the cables are
resting on a curved friction device and are attached
to a 100 kg counter-weight. See Figure 3.
A simple theoretical model was developed to
predict the additional damping caused by the
friction cable damper.
The chimney equipped with both the initial
pendulum damper and the additional cable damper
has been monitored continuously for one year. The
cable damper has been found to be more efficient Figure 3 Schematic view of the friction-type cable damper
than the original pendulum damper at the chimney added to the VEAB steel chimney.
top.
Table 1 Logarithmic decrement G m for the VEAB steel
chimney.
Deflection range Logarithmic
Type of damper
(mm) decrement G m
No damper 0.248 0.04
Mechanical pendulum
0.220 0.07
damper
Mechanical pendulum
0.084 0.14
damper and cable damper
A cable damper is effective in a wide frequency

range and therefore not so sensitive to changes of
natural frequency caused by ice, snow and water
build-up on the chimney, as opposed to a
mechanical pendulum damper where such effects
may result in a mistuned damper with limited
damping action. Also, because the cable damper is
located inside the boiler building this arrangement
is less sensitive to weather and environment
Figure 2 Overview of the cable damper arrangement added to conditions.
the VEAB chimney, anchored at a flanged splice at the 55.2
m level of the 90 m high chimney.
Special attention should be paid to wear of the
cables at the friction device, which is easily
A description of the recorded dynamic accessible for inspection inside the boiler house.
properties of the chimney with the added external No noticeable wear has been observed during the
cable damper, recordings of deflections and strain- one year monitoring period. The mechanical
gauge measurements and assessment of fatigue pendulum damper at the top of the chimney is
damage is described in this paper. equally sensitive to wear of the friction surfaces,
In total, field recordings for the VEAB chimney and condensation in the damper house could cause
have been made continuously for more than seven the friction mass to freeze and get stuck in the
years, 1997 to 2004. Of this period, the pendulum damper house.
damper was in operation for the first six years, and For existing chimneys with vibration problems
both pendulum and cable dampers for one year. due to vortex shedding arranging a cable damper
Tests were performed to determine the could be a simple and cost efficient solution to
logarithmic decrement of the VEAB chimney. The reduce vortex shedding oscillations. Also in the
chimney was forced to deflect and the resulting design of new chimneys a cable damper could offer
free sway of the chimney was recorded. an inexpensive and reliable way of reducing the
Comparison tests were made for the chimney with action due to vortex shedding, to be considered
the pendulum damper in a locked position, for an besides helical strakes and various types of
active pendulum damper, and for both pendulum mechanical dampers.
and cable dampers active. The results are given in
Table 1.
323
Y. Uematsu1, T. Orimo2, S. Watanabe3, S. Kitamura4, M. Iwaya5
ABSTRACT: The authors have proposed a new type of greenhouse with a cross section similar to a wing.
Such a cross section reduces the wind loads significantly compared with conventional shapes and allows a
long-span structure. Simultaneous pressure measurements were made with a scale model in a simulated
turbulent boundary layer. Focus was on the external pressures. First, the effects of wind speed (Reynolds
number) and surface roughness of the model on the pressure distribution are investigated; several kinds of
commercial sand paper were used for roughening the surface. Then, the peak pressure coefficients for the
design of cladding are discussed. Finally, the design wind load for the main wind-force resisting systems is
discussed, using three kinds of evaluation methods, i.e. the time-history analysis, the LRC method and a gust
effect factor approach. The results indicate that the gust effect factor approach provides reasonable load
estimation for winds roughly normal to the ridgeline, while it results in a wind pressure distribution different
from those estimated by the other two methods for oblique winds. The LRC method generally provides
results similar to those of the time-history analysis. However, the pressure distribution depends on the load
effect under consideration. The peak factor is also dependent on the load effect; it is generally larger than
3.5. This feature is related to the non-normality of wind pressure fluctuations acting on the surface.
1 INTRODUCTION force resisting systems, based on a series of wind

In the agricultural and horticultural industries, it is tunnel experiments.
hoped that greenhouses with longer spans can be
developed, in which agricultural machines are 2 MODEL GREENHOUSE
deployable. Tus, the authors have proposed a new The proposed greenhouse is schematically illustrated
type of film plastic clad greenhouse with a cross in Figure 1. The width, length and height are 18 m,
section similar to a wing. It is expected that such a 60 m and 5.7 m, respectively. The structure
cross section will reduce the wind loads significantly consists of 16 planar frames constructed of H-section
and enable long-span structures without a significant steel members, which are arranged in parallel and
increase in construction costs. connected with one another by H-section steel beams.
The present paper discusses the wind pressure The connection of the members is either rigid or
coefficients for the design of cladding and main wind pin-jointed.
2,400
ǰ=180o
ǰ=90o
ǰ= 0o A B C D E F
4,000 ‫ޖ ޖ ޖ‬ ‫ޖ ޖ‬ ‫ ޖ‬4,000 ‫ޖ‬ ‫ޖ ޖ‬ ‫ ޖ ޖ ޖ‬4,000 5,700
Figure 1 Schematic illustration of the proposed greenhouse

1
Prof. Dr. Eng, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, e-mail yu@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
2
Group Leader, Sato Kogyo Co. Ltd., e-mail Orimo@satokogyo.co.jp
3
President, Yow Development & Technology Association, e-mail yow@mui.biglobe.ne.jp
4
President, Sanzen Kako Co. Ltd., e-mail kitamura1@sanzenkako.co.jp
5
Grad. Student, Dept. of Architecture and Building Science, Tohoku University, e-mail iwaya@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
324
Y. Uematsu, T. Orimo, S. Watanabe, S. Kitamura, M. Iwaya
3 WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENT
the mean pressure coefficient distributions along
Simultaneous pressure measurements were carried
Line A. The results are as follows:
out in a turbulent boundary layer, which simulated
natural wind over typical open-country exposure
T = 0o: CD = 0.19, CL = 0.65
with a geometric scale of approximately 1:200.
T = 180o: CD = 0.37, CL = 0.26
These values are smaller than those for greenhouses
The geometric scale of the test model is 1:200.
with conventional roof shapes.
Sixteen pressure taps of 0.8 mm diameter are drilled
Next, the wind pressure coefficients for the
on each of the six lines (frames) labeled ‘A’ to ‘F’
design of main wind force resisting systems were
(see Figure 1). To simulate high Reynolds number
investigated, using three kinds of evaluation methods,
flow around the model, commercial sand paper
i.e. the time-history analysis, the LRC method and a
(#100) was glued to the model. The Reynolds
gust effect factor approach. In the analysis, it is
number Re, defined in terms of the rooftop height H
assumed that the response of the greenhouse under
and the mean wind speed UH at H, was
approximately 2.4 u 104. The statistics of the wind loading is quasi-static. According to the
wind pressures and forces, such as the minimum results on the mean pressure distributions for various
peak pressure coefficients, are computed by applying wind directions, the following two cases are
an ensemble average to the results of six consecutive investigated from the practical point of view; that is,
runs. The time duration of each run is 10 min. Frame ‘A’ for T = 0o and Frame ‘F’ for T = 45o.
It is important for estimating the design wind loads
to select the load effects to be considered in an
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
appropriate manner. In the present study, focus is
4.1 Peak wind pressure coefficients for the design of on the members that are subjected to the maximum
cladding tension, compression and bending moment under the
Figure 2 shows the distributions of the most critical mean wind pressure, considering that the structural
positive and negative peak pressure coefficients response is quasi-static; this criterion is verified by
irrespective of wind direction. The maximum peak the results of time history analysis. The main
pressure coefficients, approximately 1.5, are induced findings may be summarized as follows:
near the edge of the sidewall; actually, such large (1) The LRC method generally provides appropriate
pressure coefficients occur when T = 30o - 45o. wind pressure coefficients. However, the wind
Very large negative pressure coefficients ranging pressure distribution is affected by the load effect
from -3.0 to -3.8 are induced along the rooftop and under consideration. The most important
gable edge. These values are smaller than those of problem is how to select the load effect under
gable and circular roofs. consideration in an appropriate manner.
It has been found that the distribution of the (2) Wind loads on the central frame for T = 0o can
minimum value of the mean pressure coefficient be evaluated by the gust effect factor approach,
irrespective of wind direction is quite similar to that because the wind loads are dominated by
of Figure 2(b). The ratio of the peak to the mean large-scale turbulence in the approach flow.
pressure coefficient is approximately 2.0 over the Regarding the edge frame in oblique winds, on
entire area. This feature indicates that the peak the other hand, the gust effect factor approach
pressure coefficients can be evaluated by the provides a pressure distribution different from
quasi-steady approach. the actual pressure distribution producing the
maximum load effect.
lower
eaves 0.5 -0.5 (3) The peak factors of the load effects are generally
-0.5
large, particularly for the edge frame in oblique
winds. This is due to the non-normality of
pressure fluctuations acting on the surface.
-1.5
-2.5
-3.0 -3.5
higher -2.5 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
0.5 -1.5
eaves 1.5
Wind loads on a new type of greenhouse have been
Line Line Line Line investigated based on a series of wind tunnel
A F A F
(a) Positive (b) Negative experiments. By changing the roof shape from
Figure 2 Distribution of the maximum and minimum peak conventional types (gable or arch) to a wing-like one
pressure coefficients irrespective of wind direction (proposed by the authors), both the overall forces
and the local pressures reduce significantly.
4.4 Wind pressure coefficients for the design of main In order to verify the wind tunnel methodology,
wind force resisting systems the authors are carrying out full-scale measurements
First, the mean drag and lift coefficients ( CD of wind pressures on a prototype 18 m wide, 20 m
and C L ) for T = 0o and 180o are computed from long and 5.7 m high under natural wind conditions.
325
Y. Uematsu1, E. Iizumi2, T. Stathopoulos3
ABSTRACT: Wind loads on free-standing canopy roofs have been studied experimentally. Three types of
roof geometries, i.e. gable, troughed and mono-sloped roofs were tested. Wind pressures were measured
simultaneously at many points both on the top and bottom surfaces of the roof model for various wind
directions. Based on the results for the most critical positive and negative peak pressure coefficients
irrespective of wind direction, the wind force coefficients for the design of cladding and its immediately
supporting structures are proposed. Correlation between the wind force and moment coefficients is
investigated, and appropriate wind force coefficients for the design of main wind force resisting systems are
proposed. Axial forces in the columns supporting the roof are regarded as the most important load effect.
Two loading patterns causing maximum tension and compression of columns are considered.
1 OBJECTIVE NW NL
C NW , C NL ,
The purpose of this study is to investigate the q H (b *l / 2) q H (b *l / 2)
characteristics of wind forces on free-standing
N L
canopy roofs in order to produce design wind force CN , CL
coefficients both for cladding and main wind force q H (b *l ) q H (bl )
resisting systems. Mx My Mz
C Mx , C My , C Mz
q H (bl 2 ) *2 q H (bl 2 )
2 WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS q H (b l )
Two series of wind tunnel experiments were carried

out in turbulent boundary layers, which simulated
natural winds over typical open country exposure
with a geometric scale of approximately 1:100.
In Series 1 experiments, simultaneous pressure
measurements for three types of roof geometries, i.e.
gable, troughed and mono-sloped, with relatively
low pitches (up to 15o) were made. Figure 1 shows
a wind tunnel model. The roof consists of two Figure 1: Wind tunnel model (gable roof, E =15o)
identical ‘basic’ models (mono-sloped roofs) 7.5 cm +NW +NL
wide, 15 cm long and 2 mm thick. Combining the
two basic models in different ways, three kinds of
roof geometries are tested. The mean roof height is T 0o +My
kept constant (H = 5 cm). In Series 2 experiments, +L b
the overall wind forces and moments were measured y
+My
b
for gable and troughed roofs with medium roof
(Duo-pitched roof) T 0o
pitches, 20o to 30o, using a force balance. +Mzz
l
+N
The notation and coordinate system used in the x
+Mx
present study are schematically illustrated in Figure
2. The pressure coefficient Cp is defined in terms T 0o
of the velocity pressure qH at z = H. The net +L +My
pressure (pressure difference) coefficient Cf, positive b
downward, is defined as Cf = CpU - CpL, with CpU and (Mono-sloped roof)
T 90 o
CpL being the pressure coefficients on the top and
bottom surfaces, respectively. The wind force and (a) Cross section (b) Plan view
moment coefficients are defined as follows: Figure 2: Notation and coordinate system
1
Prof. Dr. Eng, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, e-mail yu@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
2
Grad. Student, Dept. of Architecture and Building Science, Tohoku University, e-mail eiizumi@venus.str.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
3
Prof. Ph.D., Dept. of Building, Civil and Environmental Eng., Concordia University, e-mail statho@cbs-engr.concordia.ca
326
Y. Uematsu, E. Iizumi, T. Stathopoulos
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION where Gf represents a gust effect factor.
3.1 Wind force coefficients for the design of cladding
The most important problem for establishing the
design wind force coefficients is how to combine the
Based on the distributions of the most critical values of CL and CMy; the wind force coefficients
positive and negative peak Cf values irrespective of should be determined so that they produce the
wind direction, the peak wind force coefficients for maximum load effect. For mono-sloped roofs, the
the design of cladding are proposed; a tributary area maximum load effect is given by a combination of
of 1m2 is considered. The roof is divided into the two peak values, i.e. the maximum tension is
several zones and the most critical positive and given by ‘CLmax + CMymax’ and the maximum
negative peak values are provided for each zone as a compression by ‘CLmin + CMymin’ when T = 0 o. In
function of E . The proposed values are compared the gable and troughed roof cases, on the other hand,
with the previous experimental results and with the the CL-CMy correlation is relatively low and becomes
AS/NZ specifications (2002). lower as the roof pitch increases. The ‘peak +
peak’ combination does not always give the
3.2 Wind force coefficients for the design of main maximum load effect for these roofs. The envelope
wind force resisting systems of the CL-CMy trajectory is approximated by a
First, correlation between the wind force and hexagon, as shown in Figure 4. The critical
moment coefficients was investigated. The results condition that produces the maximum load effect
indicate that the correlation between CNW and CNL is may be given by one of the apexes.
rather low. Therefore, a combination of the peak The correction factor J is given by the ratio of
values of CNW and CNL, which is often used in code the actual maximum or minimum axial force, which
provisions, may overestimate the design wind loads is obtained from the time history analysis, to the
significantly. On the other hand, the CL-CMy predicted value from CNW0 and CNL0. Furthermore,
correlation is generally high when the wind direction the gust effect factor, defined as the ratio of the
is normal to the ridge, i.e. T | 0o or 180o, maximum or the minimum to the mean axial force
particularly for mono-sloped roofs. Furthermore, induced in the column, can be evaluated by Gf
the peak values of CL and CMy are generally large in | (1+gfIuH)2, with gf = 3.0 (peak factor of approach
magnitude, while the value of |CMx| is very small for flow), based on the quasi-steady approach. This is
such wind directions. These results suggest that the confirmed by the experimental results.
wind force coefficients can be provided by The estimated values of CNW* and CNL* for two
appropriate combinations of CL and CMy. load cases (A and B), producing maximum tension
Then, assuming that the roof is supported by four and compression in the columns, are proposed as a
corner columns, the axial forces induced in the function of roof pitch for each roof configuration.
columns are computed; the column axial force is The values of CNW* (windward) for load cases A and
regarded as the most important load effect for this B are consistent with the minimum and maximum
kind of structures. The results indicate that the normal force coefficients, respectively. The values
maximum tension and compression occur when the of CNL* (leeward) for the two loads cases are close to
wind direction is nearly normal to the ridge. each other and different from either of the maximum
Based on these findings, the design wind force or the minimum normal force coefficient.
coefficients are evaluated as follows: 0.1 CMy
Step 1: The basic values of the wind force
CMy
2 1
coefficients CNW and CNL, denoted as CNW0 and CNL0, CMymax
0.0
are determined from a combination of CL and CMy -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
that produces the maximum load effect for winds CL CMymean5
3
-0.1
normal to the ridge ( T = 0o or 180o). The values CL
of CNW0 and CNL0 are calculated as follows: CMymin
4 6
-0.2 CLmin CLmean CLmax
C NW 0 C L 4C My , C NL 0 C L 4C My (a) Gable ( E 10o, T 0o) (b) Model
Step 2: In order to consider the effects of CMx and Figure 4: CL and CMy trajectory and its model
wind direction on the axial forces in the columns, a
correction factor J , which is defined as the ratio of 4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
the actual peak force for T = 0 o - 45o to that Design wind force coefficients both for cladding and
computed from CNW0 and CNL0, is introduced. main wind force resisting systems are provided as a
Step 3: The design wind force coefficients CNW* and function of roof pitch and compared with the AS/NZ
CNL*, expressed as equivalent static wind force specifications. Regarding mono-sloped and
coefficients, are provided by troughed roofs, both values are consistent with each
* JC NW 0 * JC NL 0 other. However, a significant difference is seen for
C NW , C NL
Gf Gf gable roofs.
327
The Shysical Podelling of Jas Gispersion in Wopographically

FRmplicated Werrain
R. Ulman1, Z. Jaňour2, H. Šeděnková1,2, J. Drbohlav1
ABSTRACT: Air pollution has been known problem connected with human activities mainly in industrial
countries. Solution of this problem has been sought for decades. It has already been proven, that this process
takes place in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL).The physical modelling is based on principles of
analogy, especially on analogy of flow in ABL and flow in boundary layer modelled in special wind tunnel
that fits dynamical, thermical and geometrical similarity criteria.
Aim of the presentation is to present the method of physical modelling for simulation of dispersion of gas in
small scale (hundreds of metres) inside the urban area and describe results of measuring pollutions
concentration around specific accident situation in topographically complicated terrain – around the train
station.
1 INTRODUCTION the requirements cannot be satisfied simultaneously

Expansion of human society has a fatal impact on in existing facilities and a partial or approximate
the condition of the environment. Significant simulation for particular application has been
influence is visible in towns and surrounding worked out. E. g. :
countryside. The atmosphere is one of the most • Monin, Obukhov' s theory (Monin, 1953) is
endangered spheres. People in city agglomerations applied for micro-scale flows with horizontal
are threatened with air pollution form traffic, house dimension L0 ∼ (10-1- 10) m,
heating or industry. One of the most significant cases • Reynolds's number independence (Cermak,
of environment pollution is an accident with an 1976) is used for micro-scale flow of dimension L0 ∼
escape of harmful substances. The possible source of (10 - 2 102) m over rough surface, or over buildings
such escape is a device that contains bigger amount and street canyon,
of harmful gas or contains substance that can release • Laminar-turbulent similarity (Cermak, 1971) is
gas in appropriate conditions. used for stratified meso-scale flow of dimension L0 ∼
In case of accident, forces that should (2 102 - 2 106) m.
minimize the impact of accident on the health of
population are called. For successful situation 3 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES
management it is necessary to know the extent of the A few dozens of special wind tunnels for the
accident, respectively to have a tool that enables to simulation have been built all over the world. The
estimate the extent of the accident. boundary layer wind tunnel in Aeronautical
Research and Test Institute (ARTI) is designed as an
2 PHYSICAL MODELLING open-circuit facility that is operated as a fan driven
The basic physical model is a boundary layer one.
formed over the floor of a wind-tunnel working To verify the characteristics above the urban
section. The general requirements for geometric, buildings, the characteristics of flow at the entrance
dynamics and thermal similarity, obtained by into the test section were measured. Measurements
inspectional analysis are, e. g.: were conducted by hot wire anemometer. From
• undistorted scaling of geometry, measured values vertical profiles of mean velocity,
• equal Reynolds's number Re, profiles of turbulence intensity and profiles of
• equal Prandtl's number Pr, Reynolds’s stress were evaluated– see Fig 1.
• equal Richardson's number Ri, Model scale was deduced from the shape of
• equal Eckert's number Ec, autocorrelation curve (ACF) as integral length
• surface-boundary-conditions similarity, evaluated from area bellow centred ACF. Limits for
• similarity of the approach-flow characteristics integration in calculation of integral length are from
has to be fulfilled depending on accuracy of zero to first zero crossing. The in-flow corresponded
demanding information (Janour, 1999). However, with terrain of medium roughness zod=0.220 m
1
Aeronautical Research and Test Institute, Beranových 130, 199 05 Prague – Letňany, Czech Republic
2
Institute of Termomechanics AS CR, Dolejškova 5, 182 00 Prague 8, Czech Republic
328
R. Ulman, Z. Jaňour, H. Šeděnková, J. Drbohlav
(index d denotes the value in full scale) in conditions Figure 2 shows isoconcentration lines in plane of
of thermal and energetic equilibrium in evaluated collections evaluated from measured horizontal
scale 1:380. profiles.
-uw left
U left
-uw centr
U centr C ⋅ U ⋅ L2
-uw right
U right C∗ =
40 Q
Iu left
100 Iu centr 0
Iu right
5.0E-4
30
1.0E-3
0.0015
Z[m]
Z [m]
0.0020
20 0.0025
0.0030
0.0035
10
0.0040
10 0.0043
* 2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -uw/(u )
-40 0 40 80 120 160 200
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Iu [% ] Y[m]
-1
U [m s ]
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Fig 2.: Isoconcentration lines

Fig 1.: Properties of boundary layer
5 CONCLUSION
4 RESULTS
Problem of accident was studied. Method of
For physical modelling the method of physical modelling was applied on complicated
independence on Re is used. This method was used topological terrain. Measurement of diffusion was
for modelling of emission dispersion on train station performed and the influence of specific topology of
in Pardubice. environment on gas dispersion was shown.
It is an object with high fluctuation of people and Calculations that show possible application of
for various reasons given in introduction; sources of physical modelling in estimation of pollution as a
gas emissions can be located here. The model of the consequence of escape of harmful gas into the
train station and nearby buildings in scale 1:380 was atmosphere was performed.
manufactured. The diameter of model is 1,5m that
corresponds to a circle with a diameter of 570m in a 6 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
full scale. The work was supported by Ministry of
Experiment was performed with Re = 8.4 for Education, Youth and Physical Training of Czech
flow above the rough terrain (Jirsak, 2001). republic (project MSM 0001066901) and the Grant
Orientation of the model in BWLT was for wind Agency of the Czech Republic (GACR
direction from southwest to northeast. Source of 205/04/0311).
emissions was approximately at the entrance of train
station building. Outflow ethane (tracer) volume was 7 REFERENCES
0,2 slpm (standard litres per minute). Collection of
samples for measurement of concentrations was Cermak J. E.(1971). Laboratory Simulation of the
Atmospheric Boundary Layer. AIAA J., 9, p.1746.
performed in the plane perpendicular with BWLT
Cermak J. E.(1976) Aerodynamics of Buldings, Annual
axis, 600mm behind the emissions source. Review of Fluid mechanics, 8, p. 75.
Horizontally oriented comb probe that can guarantee Janour, Z., Dittert, F. Severa, M. et. al. (1999) Air-
collection from up to 10 collection places was used Pollution Wind Tunnel Modelling. International
for collection of samples. Conf. Problems in Fluid Mechanics and
Comparing the model topography and measured Hydrology, p. 490-497.
profiles, the influence on measurement results is
visible in Figure 2. It concerns stray of maximum of Jirsak, M.,& Ulman, R. (2001) Boundary layer
horizontal concentration profile in the direction of simulation and its lower velocity limit. Proc. 3rd
turn of long buildings that guide direction of wind. European&African Conf. On Wind Eng.,
Another influence of this topology is dividing of Eindhoven University.
concentration peak that is probably caused by Monin A. S., Obukhov A. S. (1953) Dimensionless
characteristics of turbulence in the atmospheric
presence of cubic object 100m in front of collection
surface layer, Doklady AN SSSR 93, p.223.
probe.
329

H.F. Wang1,3, Y. Zhou1, C.K. Chan2
ABSTRACT: Cross flow around a high-rise building may be modelled by flow around a finite-length square
prism. This paper presents a study on the wake structure of a finite square prism with aspect ratio (Height to
width) of 7, mounted on a horizontal flat plate. Form the experimental results, three types of vortices are
present in the near wake: namely free-end tip vortices, alternate spanwise vortices and base vortices. The
interactions of these vortices make the near wake highly three-dimensional and characterize the turbulent
near flow structure.
focuses on a wall mounted finite square prism, with

1 INTRODUCTION aspect ratio of 7, in a turbulent boundary layer. The
Flow around bluff bodies with finite length is near wake was experimentally investigated with
important and of practical significance in many measurements carried out using hot-wire and PIV.
branches of engineering, such as aerodynamic force PIV measurements are performed in three planes of
on cooling towers, pollutant transport and dispersion view, namely x-z, x-y and y-z, to study the three
around high-rise buildings. However, most of the dimensionality of near wake and the interaction
available literature focuses on nominally two- among different components. A topological sketch of
dimensional cylindrical wake and flow behind near wake structure can be summarized form the
obstacles of finite-length has received less attention. measurement results.
An extensive review of the vertical structures
2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
behind circular cylinder was provided by Williamson
(1996). The mechanism of laminar, transition and Figure1 shows a diagram of the experimental
turbulent regimes of cylinder wake were discussed. setup and the incoming flow conditions at where the
Intrinsic three-dimensionality first appears at Re § prism located.
180, and is present thereafter. Chyu & Rockwell
(1996) investigated the secondary vortical structures
behind a nominal infinitely long circular cylinder
wake.
While, for the extrinsic 3D motions, it is well
know that the flow is affected by, for example,
surface roughness and free-stream conditions. In
addition, the aspect ratio as well as the end
conditions may have large influence on the flow.
Etzold & Fielder (1976) and Kawamura et al. (1984)
Figure 1 Experimental conditions.
found that the aspect ratio has a great influence on
(a) experimental setup; (b) incoming flow conditions.
the flow structure. Ayoub & Karamcheti (1982)
observed the flow properties near the free end of a Experiments were conducted in a closed circuit
cantilevered circular cylinder with aspect ratio of wind tunnel with a 2.4m long working section (0.6m
about 12. Their results indicated that the flow near u 0.6m). The width, d, of the square prism was 20
free end region could be unstable and intermittent, mm, and the height to width ratio, H/d, was chosen
which was caused by the interaction between tip to be 7. The prism was mounted on a 10mm-thick
vortex and spanwise vortex. horizontal flat plate (0.5mu1.2m) at 300mm
In spite of these investigations, many aspects of downstream of the leading edge. The leading edge
the flow structure around a finite-length obstacle was rounded to avoid flow separation. The mean and
have yet to be better understood, such as the rms streamwise velocity profiles measured at the
configuration of the near wake structure and the location of the prism are shown in figure 1(b). All
interactions among its different components. The the measurements in the present experiments were
present paper aims to address these issues and conducted at a free-stream velocity U f of 7m/s,
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, e-mail mmyzhou@polyu.edu.hk
2
Department of Applied Mathematics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
3
The State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
330
H.F. Wang, Y. Zhou, C.K. Chan
corresponding to a Reynolds number Re, which is vortices and base vortices are symmetrical when the
based on U f and d, of 9,300. The blockage effect in spanwise shear flow is not strong, they will be
this experiment is negligible because the blockage suppressed by the strong spanwise shear flow and
ratio 0.022. only part of them present at the opposite side to the
spanwise shear flow.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Based on the above, a sketch of the vertical
structures is illustrated in figure 2.
Power spectra density of the streamwise velocity
component was measured at x/d = 5 and y/d = 2.5 for
different spanwise location from z/d = 1 to z/d = 7.
The dominant frequency f*, normalized by U f and d,
for all the spanwise locations have similar values of
about 0.13 except close to the ground (z/d = 1). This
is in line with the St number reported by Okajima
(1982) for infinite square prism. It can also be seen
that the periodicity of spanwise vortex is the
strongest near the mid-span, since the peak of the
power spectra is the most acute at z = 4d.
Instantaneous flow structures were measured by
PIV in three planes of view, namely x-z, x-y and y-z.
In the central plane, i.e. x-z plane, of the wake,
typically two kinds of flow structures can be
identified based on weather the spanwise shear flow
is present. The free end shear flow descends behind Figure 2 Sketch of flow structure behind the finite prism
the prism while moving downstream. An upwash
flow arise from the prism base is also detected. The 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
near wake is composed of three parts, i.e. free end
The authors wish to acknowledge the support
shear flow, ascending flow near the base and
given to them by the Central Research Grants of The
alternative spanwise shear flow, and characterised by
Hong Kong Polytechnic University through Grant G-
the interactions of three components.
YD69 and Research Grants Council of the HKSAR
PIV measurements in x-y at different height and
through grant B-Q862.
y-z planes present the detail of flow structure and the
interactions among all components, and the 6 REFERENCES
downstream evaluation of the tip vortices and base
vortices can be evaluated by the measurement results Ayoub, A. & Karamcheti, K. (1982) An experiment on the flow
past a finite circular cylinder at high subcritical and
in the cross section y-z planes at different supercritical Reynolds numbers. J. Fluid Mech. 118, pp. 1-
downstream locations (detail experimental results are 26.
presented in the full text version of this paper). Chyu, C. & Rcckwell, D. (1996) Evolution of patterns of
streamwise vorticity in the turbulent near wake of a circular
4 CONCLUSIONS cylinder. J. Fluid Mech. 320, pp. 117-137.
Etzold, F. & Fiedler, H. 1976 The wake-structure of a
Near wake flow structure of a finite square cantilevered cylinder in cross flow. Zeit. Flugwiss. 24, pp.
prism with aspect ratio of 7 is experimentally 77-82.
investigated. By means of Hot-wire and PIV, the Kawamura, T., Hiwada, M., Hibino, T., Mabuchi, I. & Kumada,
M. (1984) Flow around a finite circular cylinder on a flat
configuration of near wake structure and the plate. Bull. J.S.M.E. 27, pp. 2142-2151.
interactions among different vortices behind the Okajima A. (1982) Strouhal numbers of rectangular cylinders J.
prism are analysied. The near wake contains Fluid Mech. 123, pp. 379-398.
descending free end shear flow, spanwise shear flow Williamson, C.H.K. (1996) Vortex dynamics in the cylinder
and ascending flow from near the prism base, except wake. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 28, pp. 477-539.
the horseshoe vortex. The tip vortices and base
vortices are formed by the descending free end shear
flow and the ascending flow, respectively. Spanwise
shear flow is influenced by them near the free end
and prism base, and the periodicity is weakened,
particularly near the prism base. Although the tip
331
$FDVHGEDVHGGHVLJQZLQGORDGH[SHUWV\VWHPIRUWDOOEXLOGLQJV
J. Wang1, Y.Y. Lin2, C.M. Cheng3
ABSTRACT: This article describes the development of a case-based expert system that generates design wind
loads for tall buildings. A comprehensive case base was constructed first based on wind tunnel measurements
of various generic building shapes from high frequency base balance (HFBB) and aeroelastic model
experiments. Then, case-based reasoning methodology was used to set up the case index, rating and retrieval
mechanisms, and web-based programming techniques were used to implement the user interface on the web.
1 INTRODUCTION In addition, web-charting software is used to plot

wind spectra and loading distributions.
Case-based reasoning (CBR) is a problem-solving First version of the system has been published on
strategy that human use frequently. That is to say the WWW. Better case modification methodology is
people use previous and similar experiences to solve currently being studied. The following sections of
new problems. The same is true in engineering the paper will introduce the inference strategy, origin
designs. Previous designs usually serve as a starting of the cases, case representation and relevant case-
point of a new design. The objective of the research based reasoning techniques.
is to utilize case-based reasoning and extensive wind
tunnel experimental data to develop an expert system
for generating design wind loads of tall buildings. It 2 CASE-BASED REASONING
can be used at the preliminary design stage to get
reasonably accurate design wind loads without Traditional expert systems typically use rule-based
performing costly and time-consuming wind tunnel reasoning founded on production rules generalized
tests. from domain related heuristics to deduce solutions.
To build up the case base, tall building models Case-based reasoning uses earlier experience of
with various geometry shapes were tested in wind similar situations to help solve new problems. Case-
tunnel for their wind loads. The tested models can be based reasoning is called reasoning by analogy
categorized into two sets of wind tunnel studies. The (Riesbeck & Schank, 1989) sometimes. This section
first set was to study the wind load acting on in the full text briefly introduces the notion of case-
buildings with different cross-sectional shapes. The based reasoning.
second set emphasized on the effects of secondary
variations on building shape. The wind loads of
3 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
building models were measured by high frequency
force balance in the turbulent boundary layer flows.
The web-based expert system architecture was
Current Internet technology was used to
implemented with three servers, WWW, JSP and
implement the web-based expert system. The user
CBR. The user interfaces of the system are on
interface of the system was built on Internet
standard web browsers. The JSP server used is
browsers using mostly JSP (Java Server Page). The
RESIN, and it has been integrated with MS IIS on a
case base and inference engine are on an IIS server.
Windows 2000 server. CBR-Works (TecInno, 2005),
Similar cases can be retrieved, and design wind load
a CBR expert system shell, is the inference engine
modifications are performed using correction factors
and CBR server of the system. In the full text, the
calculated by numerical programs written in Fortran.
system’s four modules, user interface, CBR
1
Associate Prof., Jenmu Wang Ph.D., Department of Civil Engineering, Tamkang University, e-mail wang@mail.ce.tku.edu.tw
2
Prof., Yuh-Yi Lin Ph.D., Department of Civil Engineering, Tamkang University, e-mail yyl@mail.tku.edu.tw
3
Director, Chii-Ming Cheng Ph.D., Wind Engineering Research Center, Tamkang University, e-mail cmcheng@mail.tku.edu.tw
332
J. Wang, Y.Y. Lin, C.M. Cheng
inference engine, case adaptation and drawing design wind loads can be calculated based on the
component, are presented. building’s structural properties. However, if the
similarity rating is below the base similarity, some
modification procedures for both force coefficients
4 SYSTEM DESIGN AND KNOWLEDGE and wind load spectra were needed.
REPRESENTATION
This section presents the basis of the expert system’s 5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
case base, describes the contents of the cases and
explains the case retrieval details. This paper described the ongoing effort to develop a
case-based expert system for building design wind
4.1 Case Database load analysis. The overall objective is to develop a
The expert system is based on an aerodynamic cost effective way to generate preliminary design
database constructed from high frequency base wind loads that are reasonably accurate and better
balance measurements of wind tunnel experiments. than the current design wind codes. The system has
The building model tests were conducted in a gone through several cycles of modifications. It’s
boundary layer wind tunnel at Wind Engineering web-based, graphical user interface is finally settled.
Research Center of Tamkang University in Taiwan. The implementation details of information exchange
All the building models were tested in both open among the web clients, web server and CBR engine
terrain and city environment flow fields (Į=0.15, have been verified. The case-based approach and the
0.32), to obtain wind force coefficients and reduced performance of the expert system are satisfactory. It
force spectra in the alongwind, acrosswind and should be beneficial to structural engineers involved
tortional directions (Cheng et al., 2003). in tall building designs.
Up to this moment, wind loads of more than 30
4.2 Case Representation building geometry shapes in two types of boundary
layer flow fields were included in the case base.
The attributes of cases in a case base have to be More wind tunnel experiments are planned and their
representative. It is also very import that the case results should be able to enrich the case base.
base is properly structured and indexed for retrieving Currently, linear rating function is used for
and modification. In our case base, the most import individual similarity assessment. With more data on
concept is model. Thirteen attributes are defined to the way, systematic study will be performed to
describe a model that resulted from the analysis of discover more elaborate evaluation rules.
the aerodynamic database. Five of the attributes have The most challenging part of the project is the
sub-attributes to further store its properties. cross-feature similarity assessment and case
adaptation. The future research directions will be
4.3 Case Index and Similarity Rating
focused on these issues. Data from wind tunnel tests
Our system used a two-layered indexing and rating for a series of well designed building models can
schema. In the system every case is rated against provide an opportunity to further validate the current
three major indices, and each major index can be approach. On the other hand, data mining of the
further evaluated according to its sub-indices. The experimental results accumulated should be able to
three major indices used are Boundary Layer, provide insight into the problem.
Section and Ratio. Only Ratio has second level sub-
indices, including Aspect Ratio ( H A ), Side Ratio
(D/B), Chamfering Ratio ( a A ), Initial Recess 6 REFERENCES
Ratio (h/H) and Side Recess Ratio (d/D).
Cheng, C.M., Liu, C.T. & Lu, P.C. (2003) A wind tunnel
database for wind resistant design of tall buildings. System-
4.4 Case Adaptation
Based Vision for Strategic and Creative Design, Second
If the similarity rating of the retrieved case is greater International Structural Engineering and Construction
than the base similarity (currently set to 90%), it Conference, Rome, Italy.
Riesbeck, C.K. & Schank, R.C. (1989) Inside Case-Based
signifies that the target building has geometric Reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum.
properties closely similar to the retrieved case. The TecInno (2005) CBR-Works 4, URL: http://www.ai-
corresponding force coefficients and wind force cbr.org/tools/tecinno.html, accessed February, 2005.
spectra of the selected case can be retrieved, and the
333

K. Wang1, T. Stathopoulos2
ABSTRACT: Previous studies on the variation of wind mean speed profile with inhomogeneous terrain
usually assumed that wind speed profiles sense the roughness averaged in a large-scale terrain-grid, so
terrain roughness patches of different distance to the site are regarded of equal importance. Recent studies
have pointed out the significance of local, small-scale roughness changes in terrain grid of the order of 100
meters. The paper investigates the variation of wind speed profile above inhomogeneous terrain with small-
scale upstream roughness changes, especially those close to the site. Both wind tunnel experiments and
numerical simulations are carried out. The experimental findings are used to formulate an easy to use wind
speed model. The proposed model is compared with relevant ESDU model data; furthermore, it agrees well
with a limited set of full-scale results. This model may be helpful for the development of wind code and
standard load specifications by providing a better description of building exposure in terms of upstream
terrain conditions.
There is need for more appropriate modelling of the number of special issues have been found in this
terrain-wind relationship from the wind engineering standard.
perspective. It is well known that conventional The present study has carried out an extensive
building design wind pressure p can be expressed as series of wind tunnel experiments to investigate the
a product of the site’s reference wind speed pressure speed profile variation for cases of upstream fetch
q, the terrain mean speed modification (exposure) with roughness changes. Since previous modelling
factor Ce, building shape (pressure) coefficient Cp efforts on inhomogeneous terrain were mainly made
and the aerodynamic gust factor Cg. Unlike the by numerical simulation, this study also attempted a
situation that a number of wind engineering studies numerical simulation for the sake of ensuring that
have been made on codification of Cp, Cg or CpCg the wind tunnel findings could be better than, or at
for low-rise buildings, the Ce codification was least alternative to, the numerical results. Local,
primarily based on the findings of meteorological small-scale terrain effects were paid particular
studies, the primary interest of which was not in the attention in the investigations.
building design but in the prediction of upper level Based on the wind tunnel data, this study
boundary-layer winds. proposes a simple-formed model and compares its
Previous studies interested in high level boundary output with the other modelling results (e.g. ESDU
layer wind estimations usually do not differentiate 80206; Letchford et al 2001) as well as with a
far upwind roughness from that closer to the site, but limited amount of full-scale findings (Bradley 1968;
assess terrain roughness in a regional scale since Tamura et al 2001).
wind at higher elevation senses larger-scale terrain The proposed speed model has the form:
roughness conditions. A number of more recent Gradient height:
studies aiming at lower level boundary layer winds, g n ( x) = G (n = 0) (1)
appropriate for building heights, found that the IBL depth:
significance of small-scale roughness changes,
g n ( x) = 0.5 z o0,.(2n,n−1) xn0.8 (n = 1, 2, …, N) (2)
especially those close to the site.
Some of the previous research findings have been Speed profile segment:
αn
codified for design guidance, and a review has been  z 
made on the terrain-related provisions of the typical U ( z ) = U ( g n ( x) ) 
 zg 
wind standard ASCE 7-02, which mainly reflects the  n
research findings more appropriate for higher (gn+1<z≤ gn; n = 0, 1,…, N ; gN+1=0) (3)
boundary level wind estimation; in addition, a
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University, Canada. e-mail k_wang@alcor.concordia.ca
2
Professor & Assoc. Dean of School of Graduate Studies, Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University, Canada. e-mail
statho@cbs-engr.concordia.ca
334
K. Wang, T. Stathopoulos
where the subscript n denotes the patch number, i.e., American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE. (2003) Minimum
patch N is the patch of the site; go(x) denotes the design loads for buildings and other structures. SEI/ASCE
7-02. American Society of Civil Engineers.
gradient height; gn(x) denotes the depth of the nth Bradley, E.F. (1968) Micrometeorological study of velocity
IBL; xn is the distance from the nth roughness change profiles and surface drag in the region modified by a change
to the site; zo,n and αn are roughness characteristic in surface roughness. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 94, pp.
values of patch n; and zo,(n, n-1) = zo,n-1 or zo,n, 361-379.
Davenport, A.G., Grimmond, S., Oke T. & Wieringa, J. (2000)
whichever is larger. For homogeneous terrain of no
The revised Davenport roughness classification for cities
roughness change, N = 0, (2) is not applicable and (3) and sheltered country. Third Symposium on the Urban
reduces to the ordinary power law. Environment. Davis, California. Aug. 14-18, 2000. pp. 7-8.
The boundary conditions required by this model Engineering Sciences Data Unit, ESDU. (1993) Data Item
are formulated into a table after Davenport et al 82026. Strong winds in the atmospheric boundary layer.
Part 1: hourly-mean wind speeds. Engineering Sciences
(2000) and ASCE 7 (1999), with the pertinent fetch
Data Unit.
is determined as 4 km after Zhang and Zhang (2001), Letchford, C., Gardner, A., Howard, R. & Schroeder, J. (2001)
Tamura et al (2001) and AS/NZS 1170.2 (2002). A comparison of wind prediction models for transitional
Figure 1 illustrates the model and the calculation flow regimes using full-scale hurricane data. J. Wind Eng.
conditions with a typical fetch of 3 patches. Ind. Aerodyn, 89, pp. 925-945.
Standards Australia. (2002) AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 -
The proposed speed model is simple and easy to
Australian/New Zealand Standard, Structural design
apply for fetch with multiple roughness changes; actions, Part 2: Wind actions. Standards Australia.
validation has been carried out by the limited field Tamura, Y., Suda, K., Sasaki, A., Miyashita, K., Iwatani, Y.,
data available. The proposed model may be helpful Maruyama, T., Hibi, K. & Ishibashi, R. (2001)
for future code development. Simultaneous wind measurements over two sites using
Doppler sodars. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn, 89, pp. 1647-
1656.
REFERENCES Zhang, X. & Zhang, R.R. (2001) Actual ground-exposure
American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE. (1999) Wind determination and its influences in structural analysis and
tunnel studies of buildings and structures. ASCE Manuals design. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 89, pp. 973-985.
and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 67, Aerospace
Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
z
G
U(G)
g1
g1(x)
U(g1)
g2(x)
g2
(0) (1) U(g2) (2)
zo1,α1
zo0,α0 zo2,α2
1 2 x2 3 x
x1 Site
x0 up to 4 km
Figure 1 The schematic boundary layer with 2 IBL’s developing above a fetch with 2 roughness changes
335
Issues in estimating local damage by wind disaster

-A case study in Chiba prefecture, Japan
H.Watabe1, T.Okazaki2 T.Ishihara3
ABSTRACT: Okazaki et al. developed the typhoon simulation model that introduces Ishihara model for
evaluating the surface wind speed. In this study, the process of evaluating the insured loss from the wind speed
calculated was developed. The insured loss is evaluated from the relational expression with the wind speed,
and the relation is called a loss rate curve. Since the loss rate curve cannot be verified on physical theory, the
fragility curve was verified. The fragility curve means the probability of frequency that a house is damaged.
Next, the loss rate curve was verified, and it was confirmed that the uncertainty of the loss rate curve obtained
by improved model is decreased.
1 INTRODUCTION curve is not to verify the curve on physical theory.

th Kondo(2002) evaluated the probability of the
The typhoons that have landed in Japan rank 4 and
damage that can occurs in structures by typhoon
10th in the list of highest insured losses. Typhoon
Mireille, and this probability curve is called the
Mireille caused the domestic insurance companies to
fragility curve. Kondo has verified this curve based
disburse $7,598 million. A movement to evaluate the
on a physical theory. Therefore, we also verified the
typhoon risk by the typhoon simulation rose rapidly
fragility curve. Next, we evaluate the loss rate curve.
after Typhoon Mireille, and now insurance
companies currently use simulation data in 2 ANALYSIS OF TYPHOON HIGOS
examination.
The insured loss is evaluated from the velocity by 2.1 Characteristics of Typhoon Higos
the typhoon simulation. Therefore, an accurate
prediction of the velocity required so that insured Typhoon Higos passed the Miura peninsula in the
loss is accurately evaluated. In this regard, Okazaki Kanagawa prefecture at 20:00 JST on October 1,
et al.(2005) has developed a typhoon simulation 2002 and landed on Kawasaki at 21:00 JST.
model based on the Monte Carlo simulation. 2.2 The database of insured properties
In order to predict the total payment due for each
typhoon, it is necessary to decide the relationship The reason to select typhoon Higos is that the
between the surface wind speed and insured loss. number of damaged buildings is not enormous and
This relationship is referred to as the loss rate curve. all information about insured buildings enable to be
The loss rate is defined as the ratio of the insured collected. The investigation region was only Chiba
loss to the replacement value of a building. By prefecture, and the database was constructed for 205
investigating Typhoons Mireille and Bart, Mitsuda residential houses. The content of database are the
(1997) determined the relationship between the loss replacement value of insured property, insured loss,
rate and the peak gust wind speed (maximum location, and damage part of building.
instantaneous wind speed). However, the uncertainty 2.3 The parameter of typhoon Higos
in determining the loss rate and wind speed is very
large. It is important to reduce the level of Typhoon Higos simulates by the typhoon model
uncertainty and narrow the width of the estimation of developed by Okazaki et al.(2005), and the surface
the insured loss in accordance with the requirements wind speed was evaluated with 1km-mesh.
of insurance companies. In this study, the loss data
of Typhoon Higos in 2002 was collected, and the 2.4 The distribution of surface wind speed
loss rate curve was evaluated. The difference of the Okazaki introduced Ishihara model for evaluating
uncertainty of the surface wind speed by Ishihara the surface wind speed. Ishihara model has the
Model and that by Gradient Model(exclude a parameter of roughness element, and it can reflect
roughness effect) is evaluated from the comparison the influence of the attenuation of the surface wind
of the loss rate curve. The merit of a loss rate curve speed in plains or coasts, and the increase of the
is to evaluate all amount of damage for the insurance surface wind speed in cities or forests. The
product. On the other hand, the demerit of a loss rate roughness data was set by the land use data of
1
Manager, Tokio Marine & Nichido Risk Consulting Co., Ltd., e-mail h.watabe@tokiorisk.co.jp
2
MSc, Research Engineer, Tokio Marine & Nichido Risk Consulting Co., Ltd., e-mail t.okazaki@tokiorisk.co.jp
3
Associate Prof. Eng. Ph.D., University of Tokyo, e-mail ishihara@bridge.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
336
H. Watabe, T. Okazaki, T. Ishihara
Geographical Survey Institute. Figure 1 shows the 1km-mesh. This result is to select only the residential
distribution of peak gust wind speed(maximum houses damaged on Japanese tile. A lot of points
instantaneous wind speed) calculated using Ishihara have concentrated about 45m/s in case of Gradient
model. model. This result is not enough to analysis the
regression curve. On the other hand, the high peak
gust wind speed corresponds to the high loss rate in
case of Ishihara model. The coefficient of
determination of Ishihara model is 0.3 and that of
Gradient model is 0.21. Because the coefficient of
determination of Ishihara model is higher, the
typhoon model that enables to decrease the
uncertainty of risk evaluation.
100.00%
Gradient Model
Ishihara Model
Kondo
Ishihara Model(Regression Curve)
10.00%
Gradient Model(Regression Curve)
Damage rate (%)

1.00%
0.10%
Figure 1 The distribution of peak gust wind speed calculated
using Ishihara model with 1km-mesh
(The wind speed is above 50m/s in black region, and the wind 0.01%
speed is above 40m/s in grey region, the wind speed is under 10 100
Peak Gust Wind Speed (m/s)
40m/s in white region. The plots are location of the insured
houses.) Figure 2 Comparison of the fragility curve of Ishihara model
and that of Gradient model with 10km-mesh.
3. ANALYSIS OF DAMAGE
0.6%
3.1 Comparison of fragility curve Ishihara Model
0.5%
Gradient Model
A fragility means the rate divide the total number of Ishihara Model
Loss Rate [%]
0.4%
insured policy by total number of undertaken policy. Gradient Model
Figure 2 shows the comparison of the fragility curve 0.3%
of Ishihara model and that of Gradient model with
0.2%
10km-mesh. The regression curve is lognormal
distribution by maximum likelihood method, and the 0.1%
fragility curve that Kondo evaluated from the
0.0%
damaged house data of Typhoon Mireille is also 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
shown in Figure 2. It is understood that the Peak Gust Wind Speed [m/s]
inclination of fragility curve by Gradient model is Figure 3 Comparison of the loss rate curve of Ishihara model
comparatively same the fragility curve of Kondo. and that of Gradient model with 1km-mesh.
This reason is that the Kondo analysis the peak gust
wind speed of Mireille by Gradient model. The 4. CONCLUSIONS
inclination of the fragility curve evaluated by The wind speed that is evaluated by the typhoon
Ishihara model is smaller than that of Gradient simulation model agrees with the observation data in
Model. For the comparison of observed data and case of Typhoon Higos in 2002. The loss data of
simulation data, Ishihara model is more accurate Typhoon Higos was collected, and the fragility curve
than Gradient model. Therefore, the fragility curve and the loss rate curve were calculated.
by Ishihara model is thought to be more realistic The loss rate curve of Ishihara model was
curve. compared with that of Gradient model, and it is
3.2 Comparison of loss rate curve confirmed that the coefficient of determination of
Ishihara model is higher than that of Gradient model,
The definition of the loss rate is a ratio of the and the typhoon model that enables to decrease the
insured loss to a replacement value in the building. uncertainty of risk evaluation.
Figure 3 shows the comparison of the loss rate curve
of Ishihara model and that of Gradient model with
337
Design for wind comfort in The Netherlands: procedures, criteria and

open research issues
(Willemsen1, -$Wisse2
ABSTRACT: A code for assessment of wind comfort and wind danger in the built environment in The
Netherlands is presented. The code is not a legal building requirement, but a helping hand to incorporate
wind comfort in a building programme. It regulates technical procedures and quality control. A decision
scheme indicates which building plans need professional assessment by wind engineers and which not.
Choices of threshold values for hourly mean wind speed and for maximum exceedance probabilities of that
threshold value are discussed as function of the grade of wind comfort to be achieved. The exceedance
probability is calculated with a prescribed method to choose a meteorological station as function of wind
direction and to transform data from a meteorological station into a reference wind speed at the building
location at a height of 60m
1 INTRODUCTION at a distance smaller than 500m from water’s edge,

the air flow at roof height might be adapted to the
In response to a growing awareness of wind
water surface and not to the land. If the fetch over
in public space, a considerable increase in high rise
water is more than 1000m attention should be paid to
building and a confusing diversity of applied wind
wind comfort.
comfort criteria, The Netherlands Normalisation
Subways. If a building higher than 10m has an open
Institute took the initiative for a code on wind
comfort assessment. The code is based on 30 years subway a test is necessary.
of experience with a version of the criteria by
Lawson & Penwarden (1975), using heated Table 1 Some main decision points
thermistors as sensors in wind tunnel simulations. 10-15 15-20 20-30 > 30
CFD is still in the stage that it has to prove itself. It subway
is considered unpractical to exclude the newcomer. no ok c.e2) c.e test3)
Wind tunnel and CFD simulations are treated as yes test test test test
equals in the code. H >0,5h4)
no ok c.e. c.e. test
2 WIND COMFORT ANALYSIS, YES OR NO yes c.e. c.e. test test
water5)
A decision scheme is based on experience and
research from Beranek & Van Koten (1980) and no c.e c.e. c.e. test
Bottema, (1993). Table 1 presents some main yes c.e. test test test
decision elements. A test includes alternative 1) okay: no comfort assessment necessary
geometries or additional measures. Generally, 2) consulting engineer
remedial measures are decided in dialogue between 3) wind tunnel or CFD simulation
wind engineer and client. The scheme includes the 4) height building plan H extends 50% or more
following main criteria. over its local environment h
The height of the building. If a building is higher 5) less than 500m from water’s edge and a
than 30m a wind tunnel of CFD simulation is fetch over water more than 1000m
necessary. No assessment is necessary if the building
is lower than 15 m, except for some details in 3 METHODOLOGY
geometry. If a building extends 50% or more over Wind speed ratios CV of pedestrian level wind to a
the present height of its built environment, special relevant reference wind are determined as function
attention is called for. of the natural wind direction ß in a wind tunnel or
A nearby vast water surface. If a building is planned
1 Ir.E.Willemsen, German-Dutch Wind Tunnels (DNW), P.O. Box 175, 8300 AD Emmeloord, the Netherlands, willem@nlr.nl
2 Prof.Ir.Jacob A.Wisse, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Department of Building Physics FAGO, P.O. Box 513, 5600MB
Eindhoven, jawisse@worldonline.nl
338
E. Willemsen, J.A. Wisse
CFD simulation. In a perfect simulation CV(ß) values 5 CLIMATOLOGIC INPUT
are the same as in situ.
To calculate P(VPED>VTHR) from values of CV, WT (ß)
VPED,WT (ß) generated by a wind tunnel or CFD simulation, a
CV,WT (ß)=
VREF,WT (ß) climatology of VREF,IS is needed; see equation 2.
Statistic data of meteorological stations have to be
VPED,IS (ß) transformed into data at the building site. At present
CV,IS (ß)= (1) a rather wide range of methods is applied in The
VREF,IS (ß)
Netherlands. To normalize this procedure the code
In situ pedestrian level wind speeds can then be implemented a software application developed by
calculated: the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
VPED,IS (ß)=C V,WT (ß).VREF,IS (ß) (2) KNMI; see Verkaik and Smits (2001). Local
roughness lengths are derived from gustiness
Criteria for wind comfort consist of the combination analysis. Mesoscale roughness lengths are
of values of VTHR and an exceedance probability determined from high resolution satellite land use
P(VPED,IS>VTHR) that a local wind speed VPED,IS maps, with a resolution of 25 meter, using a footprint
exceeds the threshold value VTHR. If P(VPED,IS>VTHR) approximation. The code includes a CD/ROM. The
exceeds a threshold value PTHR it is assumed that the output of the CD/ROM is statistical wind data at the
public will experience discomfort. There is a fairly project location at a reference height of 60 meter.
good correlation between P(VPED>VTHR) and VTHR.
Willemsen & Wisse (2003) studied common wind 6 OPEN RESEARCH ISSUES
tunnel investigations and concluded that if VTHR
changes from 5 m/s with only 0.5 m/s (i.e. 10 %), the Application of wind engineering to problems in
P(VPED,IS>VTHR) value changes with 25 %. urban planning is born out of a definite need to
analyse and improve too windy places. Research has
4 CRITERIA been mainly conducted by wind engineers in order to
find a more firm basis for their consults. The main
The choice of VTHR and PTHR depends on the grade issue is to improve our contribution to urban
of wind comfort to be achieved. The choices made planning. Many questions about wind comfort can
are given in table 2, as discussed in Willemsen & only be answered in cooperation with urban planners
Wisse (2003). Too little is known about the relation and architects, preferably in collective research in
between PTHR and the perception of comfort and perception of urban space. The effect of very
danger by the public. The choice of a PTHR value is different parameters has to be quantified. Perhaps, at
based on feed-back by clients, especially by the end, we might get some information on the
developers of shopping-centers. Moreover, the limits maximum exceedance probability P(VPED>VTHR), if
of each interval of a comfort grade are tuned to the sociological, psychological, cultural, architectural
attainable accuracy; see Willemsen & Wisse (2002). features as well as patterns of use of urban space are
Criteria may be mathematically precise and compared to the impact of weather parameters in a
physically correct but will always also be used for scientific way.
ill-defined applications.
Table 2 Criteria for wind comfort and danger 7 REFERENCES
wind comfort Beranek, W.J. (1980) General rules for the determination of
activity area wind environment, in Proceedings 5th Int. Conf. on Wind
P(VIS>5 m/s)
grade sitting & Engineering, Fort Collins, Colorado, ed. Cermak J.E.
in %1) traversing lounging Bottema, M. (1993) Wind climate and urban geometry. PhD
standing
thesis Technical University Eindhoven.
< 2.5 A good good good
Lawson. T.V., A.D.Penwarden, 1975. The effects of wind on
2.5 –5.0 B good good moderate people in the vicinity of buildings. Proc. 4th Conf. on
5.0 –10 C good moderate poor Buildings and Structures. Heathrow. UK. p. 605-622
10 –20 D moderate poor poor Willemsen, E., Wisse, J.A. 2002, Accuracy of assessment of
> 20 E poor poor poor wind speed in the built environment. J. Wind Eng. Ind.
wind danger Aerodyn., 1183-1190
Willemsen, E and Wisse J.A., 2003, Standardisation of wind
limited risk 0.05-0.31)
P(VIS>15 m/s) comfort evaluation in the Netherlands, Proceedings eleventh
dangerous > 0.31) Int. Conference on wind engineering, Lubbock, Vol 2,
1) percent of the number of hours per year 2411-2419
339
H. Yamada1 H.Katsuchi2
ABSTRACT: A multiple-span suspension bridge is often proposed for strait crossings because of advantage of
reducing the number of huge intermediate anchorages. Its static characteristics such as deformation have
been studied in some cases, however a limited number of studies on that aerodynamics have been made so far.
In this study, flutter characteristics of a 4-span suspension bridge with main spans of 2,000 – 4,000m were
investigated numerically. Results obtained are (1) its flutter speed is lower than that of a 3-span with the same
center span length, (2) however, it has the advantage over the 3 span if the total bridge length is fixed and (3)
flutter speed is affected by side-span length in the case of the 4 span less than the 3 span case.
and 4,000m with the side-span ratio of 0.5. Flutter

1 INTRODUCTION
speed decreases as the main span length increases for
A 4-span or multiple-span suspension bridge is often both 3 and 4-span suspension bridges. In addition,
proposed for strait crossings because of advantage of flutter speeds for a 4-span suspension bridge are
reducing the number of huge intermediate lower than those of a 3-span suspension bridge in the
anchorages. However, multiple spans has case of the same main span length. This may be due
disadvantage of large deflection of the girder and to the fact that natural frequencies of symmetric
therefore countermeasure is proposed such as stiff modes in vertical and torsion of a 4-span suspension
intermediate towers and additional stiffening cables. bridge are lower than those of a 3-span suspension
On the other hand, a multiple-span suspension bridge bridge. It can be said that lower natural frequency of
is still favorable for long strait crossing such as the a 4-span suspension bridge shows large flexibility of
Gibraltar and Tsugaru Strait in Japan where there is this type of suspension bridge presented previously.
deep water between both ends. Therefore, there still Figure 2 (1) and (2) show flutter mode shapes of a
be room for studying a multiple-span suspension 3-span and 4-span suspension bridge, respectively. In
bridge. both cases, symmetric flutter mode in the main spans
Regarding previous studies on a multiple-span can be seen. In addition, flutter mode shapes show
suspension bridge, static characteristics such as that side-span contribution of the 4-span suspension
stiffness or deflection against traffic and wind loads bridge case to flutter is significant less than that of
have been studied mostly while a limited number of the 3 span case.
studies on that aerodynamics have been made so far. In this flutter analysis, airfoil flutter derivatives
Since the aerodynamics plays a key role on were used. Therefore, it should be noted that
realization of a long multiple-span suspension bridge, relatively low flutter speed in Figure 1 does not
this paper focuses on basic characteristics of its mean insufficient applicability of a 4-span
aerodynamics and presents numerical results for suspension bridge for 2,000m or longer main span
assumed multiple-span suspension bridges with length. In other word, not large difference from a
various parameters. 3-span suspension bridge suggests its possible
applicability if sufficient stiffness or
aerodynamically superior cross section is provided.
2 BASIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF 4-SPAN SUSPENSION BRIDGE
3 PARAMETER STUDY ON FLUTTER
Figure 1 shows flutter critical wind speed CHARACTERISTICS
analyzed by a modal analysis method where flutter
derivatives of airfoil were used. The 3-span and Since flutter critical wind speed of a 4-span
4-span bridge has the main span(s) of 2,000, 3,000 suspension bridge showed the trend of lower than
that of a 3 span due to the larger flexibility.
1.
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University, e-mail yamada@cvg.ynu.ac.jp
2.
Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University, e-mail katsuchi@cvg.ynu.ac.jp
340
H. Yamada, H. Katsuchi
configurations were tried. One is 1,000 + 2,000 +
70
Flutter speed (m/s) 1,000 + 500m (4,500m in total) and the other is
60
3-span 1,500 + 3,000 + 2,000 + 1,000m (7,500m in total).
50
Flutter speed decreases basically as the total
40 length increases. Therefore, it can be said that flutter
30 speed is governed by the longest main span length,
4-span
20 and different main span length combination does not
10 work well for flutter improvement.
0
2000 3000 4000 3.2 Increase of intermediate tower stiffness
Main-span length It was pointed out that intermediate tower stiffness
Figure 1 Changes of flutter critical wind speed vs. main span affects bridge stiffness and thus flutter critical wind
length of 3 and 4-span suspension bridge speed. In this study, effects of intermediate tower
stiffness on flutter speed were analyzed. In the case
of 2,000m main span case (1,000 + 2,000 + 2,000 +
1,000m), flutter analysis was repeatedly conducted
1
by factoring in-plane, out-of-plane and torsional
stiffness of the tower.
0.5
It is found that torsional stiffness much affects
flutter speed while in-plane and out-of-plane
0 stiffness less affect it. This shows that an A-shaped
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 intermediate tower, which was proposed as
-0.5 countermeasure to reduce static deflection of the
bridge, will also raise aerodynamic stability.
-1
(1) 3-span suspension bridge 4 CONCLUSIONS
1
This study focuses on basic characteristics of the
aerodynamics of a 4-span suspension bridge and
presents numerical results for flutter of assumed
0.5
bridge structures with various parameters.
Main results obtained are as follows:
0 (1) Flutter critical wind speed of a 4-span suspension
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 bridge is lower than that of a 3-span suspension
-0.5 bridge with the same main span length. However, a
4-span suspension bridge has the advantage over the
-1 3-span suspension bridge if the total bridge length is
fixed.
(2) 4-span suspension bridge
(2) Flutter critical wind speed is affected by the
side-span length in the case of the 4 span suspension
䂹: Ver.-real 䂓: Hor.-real 䂥: Tor-real
×: Ver-imag 䋪: Hor-imag 䂾: Tor-imag bridge less than the 3-span suspension bridge case.
Flutter mode shape also shows that side-span
contribution in the 4-span suspension bridge to
Figure 2 Flutter mode shape of 2,000m main span case flutter is significant less than that of the 3-span
suspension bridge.
(3) Different main span length combination does not
Here two methods were tried to increase the flutter improve flutter critical wind speed which seems to
speed; (1) use of different main span length be governed only by the total bridge length.
combination and (2) increase of intermediate tower (4) Increase of torsional stiffness of an intermediate
stiffness. tower is effective to raise flutter critical wind speed.
This can be achieved by, for instance, an A-shaped
3.1 Different main span length
tower which is also effective to improve the static
This idea came from mode-shape control. Making characteristics.
two main span length different will lead to change of
mode shapes thus mode coupling. In this study, two
341
Aerodynamic investigation on flutter instability of the first sea-crossing

Bridge in China - The East Sea Bridge
Y.X. Yang1, Y.J. Ge2, L. Zhao
ABSTRACT: The East Sea Bridge is the longest bridge at sea in China. The total length is 31.5km while
28.4km of the bridge is on the open sea. The main navigational bridge which has a main span of 420 m and
the Kezhushan Bridge which has a main span of 332m are both cable-stayed bridges. As the cable system
contributes a little to the torsional rigidity of the whole structure, the torsional fundamental frequency and the
flutter onset speed is low. While the bridge is at sea, the flutter verification speed at the bridge site is higher
than that in Shanghai city. In order to improve the flutter stability of the two bridges, several aerodynamic
controlling measures including installing central barrier and adjusting the location of inspection rails are
tested in section model and aeroelastic model tests. Finally appropriate measures are adopted in design to
insure the aerodynamic stability of the whole bridge.
verification speed. The testing results of full

1 INTRODUCTION aeroelastic model test are also listed in table 1 and
The East Sea Bridge is the longest and the first have good agreement with the section model test.
genuine sea-crossing bridge in China, which
Table 1 flutter critical speed of the original section㧔m/s㧕
stretches from Luchao Port of Shanghai to the
Yangshan International Deep Water Harbour with angle of attack 3q 0q +3q
the total length of 31km. Section model >176 145.0 81.4
The main navigational bridge which has a main Aeroelastic model >100 82.6
span of 420m and the Kezhushan Bridge which has a
main span of 332m are both cable-stayed bridges.
Although the spans of the two cable-stayed bridges 2.2 Investigation on the flutter instability of the
are not very long, in respect that the bridges are Kezhushan bridge
located in the highest wind speed area in China and The section model test is carried out in the TJ-1
the girder sections of the two bridges are not very BLWT. The flutter critical speed is below
aerodynamically streamlined, so flutter instability requirement. The testing results are listed in table 2.
turns to be the most important problem in bridge The testing result of aeroelastic model test is also
designing. shown in table 2 and has good agreement with the
section model test.
2 FLUTTER INSTABILITY
Since the East Sea Bridge is located in the highest Table 2 flutter critical speed of the original section㧔m/s㧕
wind speed area in China, the flutter verification angle of attack 3q 0q +3q
speed at the bridge site is higher than that in Section model 96.2 74.8 69.0
Shanghai city. The flutter verification speed for the aeroelastic model 72.5
main navigational bridge is 84.6 m/s, and that for the
Kezhushan bridge is 79.9 m/s. This makes the flutter
stability performance to be the most important 3 AERODYNAMIC CONTROL MEASURES
problem in bridge designing.
3.1 Flutter control of the main navigational bridge
2.1 Investigation on the flutter instability of the
main navigational bridge In order to improve the aerodynamic stability of the
main navigational bridge, central barrier is installed
The sectional model test to examine the flutter on the bridge deck. Three different heights of central
stability performance is carried out in the TJ-1 barrier are chosen to investigate the controlling
BLWT. The test results are shown in table 1. When effect of this aerodynamic measure. The testing
the angle of attack turns positive the flutter onset results indicate the flutter controlling effect of
speed decreases sharply and is below the flutter central barrier is excellent. For three types of central
1
Ph.D., Tongji University, e-mail Yang_y_x@mail.tongji.edu.cn
2
Prof., Tongji University, e-mail Yaojunge@mail.tongji.edu.cn
342
Y.X. Yang, Y.J. Ge, L. Zhao
barrier the flutter onset speeds are all exceed the 3.2 Flutter control of the Kezhushan bridge
wind speed requirement, and the section with 1.2 m The first flutter control measure taken into account is
high central barrier has the best aerodynamic the installation of fairings. The testing results are
performance which increases the flutter onset speed listed in table 5. For each angle of attack the flutter
by approximately 11%. onset speed is over the flutter verification speed 79.9
Table 3 flutter critical speed of sections with central barriers m/s, which means this is a very effective measure to
㧔m/s㧕 improve the aerodynamic stability for such two-
isolated-girder section.
Angle of attack 3q 0q +3q
Original section >176 145.0 81.4 Table 5 flutter critical speed of sections with fairings and
0.8m central barrier >176 151.8 85.8 central barrier㧔m/s㧕
1.0m central barrier >176 151.8 85.8 Angle of attack 3q 0q +3q
1.2m central barrier >176 154.0 90.2 Original section 72.5
Section with fairings 95.0 >100 95.0
As mentioned previously, when at positive angle Section with central
of attack the aerodynamic stability of the original 87.5 82.5 >100
barrier
girder section for the main navigational bridge is
rather low and different from those at negative and An alternative control measure which has a
zero angle of attack. It can be inferred that adjusting central barrier installed under the bridge deck and
aerodynamic configuration of the windward inclined with the same height as the girder section is
web and the bottom slab will affect the aerodynamic investigated in this research. Although the flutter
stability of the girder section dramatically. So controlling effectiveness of the central barrier on this
several measures concerning various positions of the type of girder section is not as remarkable as that of
inspection rails are investigated in wind tunnel test. the application of fairings, this measure does
The wind tunnel testing results for these sections improve the aerodynamic stability of the original
with inspection rails are listed in table 4. section to meet the design requirement.
Table 4 flutter critical speed of sections with inspection rails
㧔m/s㧕 4 CONCLUSIONS
The two original girder sections investigated in this
Angle of attack 3q 0q +3q
research work are widely used as the main girder
Original section >176 145.0 81.4 section of cable-stayed bridges in China and around
Section a >176 162.8 94.6 the world, especially when the bridge span is not
Section b >176 151.8 88.0 very large. But when they are adopted in high wind
Section c >176 121.0 79.2 speed areas, their aerodynamic stabilities are
Section d >176 154.0 90.2 challenged, and flutter control measures should be
Section e >176 154.0 90.2 taken.
For single box girder section the aerodynamic
From the testing results we can see that the stability under positive angle of attack is vital.
aerodynamic stabilities of sections with central Installing central barrier is effective. However,
barrier and inspection rails being appropriately flutter stabilization can also be realized by a slight
positioned have been improved remarkably except modification of the configuration at the windward
section c. Section a which has 1.2m central barrier inclined web, such as appropriately placed inspection
and inspection rails at the bottom of the inclined web rails.
has the best aerodynamic performance considering For two-isolated-girder section installing central
flutter instability. For section e which has inspection barrier under the bridge deck can improve the flutter
rails at the same position as section a and no central stability. And the best flutter measure is adding
barrier, the aerodynamic stability also has been fairings at the side of the girder deck.
improved by 11% and exceeds the flutter verification Further research work will be carried out to
speed. As section e also has economic advantage, theoretically investigate the controlling effects and
this flutter control measure is finally recommended mechanism of these flutter control measures.
to bridge designer.
343
S.C. Yaragal1, Y. Tamura2, M. Matsui3
ABSTRACT: Diverse geo-climatic conditions in different parts of the globe, result in different types of
natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, volcanoes, etc. Tropical
cyclones rank with earthquakes as the major geophysical causes of loss of life and property. India is
considered as the world’s most disaster prone country. This paper presents a brief outline on the subject of
cyclonic wind storms in India, focusing on losses, damage surveys, disaster mitigation efforts, scope for birth
of insurance companies etc. The paper also discuses the various considerations to be made while planning,
designing and constructing new settlements and upgrading existing settlements in disaster-prone areas.
1 INTRODUCTION two of them cross the Indian coast. The Indian

Meteorological Department (IMD) tracks the
Cyclones cause considerable havoc in different parts movement of cyclones by satellite when they are far
of the world resulting in loss of life and property. from the coast, and by Cyclone Detection Radar
Every year a large number of residential and (CDR) when they are near the coast.
industrial buildings are razed to ground by cyclones
associated with extreme wind speeds, particularly in 3 BASIC WIND SPEED MAP
the coastal regions of India. Several of the world’s
greatest human disasters have been associated with In India, IS:875 (Part-3)-1989 is followed for the
storm surges that are directly attributed to tropical assessment of wind load on buildings and structures.
cyclones . This paper presents the efforts being taken The code gives a basic wind speed map of India as
prior, during and post natural disaster occurrence. applicable to 10m above mean ground level for
While prevention, preparedness and protection are different zones of the country. “Basic wind speed”,
the keys to the pre-disaster action, the post disaster according to the code, is the peak gust velocity (i.e.,
actions cover the efforts for emergency operations maximum velocity) averaged over a short time
including search and rescue, relief and rapid damage interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds to 10m
assessment, post disaster planning, physical above mean ground level in an open terrain
reconstruction including efforts for social and (category 2), which have been worked out for a 50-
economic rehabilitation. Measures such as year return period.
afforestation, cyclone shelters, evacuation Studies on extreme wind speeds and wind zoning
mechanisms, and increasing people’s knowledge and in India were reported by Sharma (1985), based on
skills will help in doing so. data collected from IMD. In view of the much
higher wind velocity encountered due to cyclones in
2 CYCLONIC STORMS the coastal areas in India than specified in IS-875
(Part-3)-1989, it is essential to further investigate the
India has a coastline of about 8000 km, which is basic wind speed in design of structures.
prone to very severe cyclonic formations in the
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal. Usually more 4 DAMAGE SURVEYS AND DATA BASES
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal than in the
Arabian sea. Globally about eighty cyclones occur Careful documentation of wind damage after a storm
per year, of which the north-eastern hemisphere is and follow up analysis of the collected data reveals
the worst hit, experiencing almost 45% of them. In much information about the nature of the wind field
the Asia-Pacific region, the East coast is the most and the performance of various structures and
affected by cyclonic storms. On an average five to components. Useful information supplied from pre-
six cyclones form annually in sea areas, and one or and post-storm damage surveys can provide a good
1
Center of Excellence (COE) Researcher, Wind Engineering Research Center, Tokyo Polytechnic University, 1583, Iiyama,
Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0297, Japan. E-mail: subhashyaragal@yahoo.com, yaragal@nitk.ac.in
2
Professor
3
Associate Professor
344
S.C. Yaragal, Y. Tamura, M. Matsui
database. The performance history of specific classes 7 RECOMMENDATIONS BY GOVERNMENT
of buildings and structures and of specific materials, OF INDIA
construction techniques, building geometries and
architectural features are needed by insurance It is necessary to create mechanism for carrying out
underwriters, building officials, city planners and safety audit and facilitate adequate financial support
designers. The data bases should contain information for retrofitting and strengthening wherever
on type and extent of damage, storm severity, necessary. In addition to the techno-legal regime, a
property losses, and code provisions. techno-financing regime should also be brought in to
ensure that all public funded housing and buildings
5 TROPICAL CYCLONE DETECTION, and construction, be it for health, education,
TRACKING AND WARNING SYSTEM industry, community amenities etc. being only built
with disaster resistant construction features. Further,
Information on cyclone warnings are furnished on a public financing institutions for housing and
real-time basis to the control room set up in the infrastructure development are advised to extend
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. High- financial assistance to projects from states only when
power Cyclone Detection Radars (CDRs) installed disaster resistant construction features are introduced
along the coastal belt of India have proved to be very in the proposed housing and building construction
useful tools in the task of cyclone warning. These programs.
radars can locate and track approaching Tropical
Cyclones within a range of 400 km. Satellite 8 BUILDING MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY
imagery received from weather satellites is PROMOTION COUNCIL GUIDELINES
extensively used in detecting the development and These guidelines deal with the construction of
movement of Tropical Cyclones over oceanic wind/cyclone resistant buildings of both engineered
regions, particularly when they are beyond the range and non-engineered types. The issues or provisions
of the coastal radars. The existing mode of which are specifically useful and/or required for
dissemination of cyclone warnings to various cyclone affected regions are highlighted. To
government officials is through high priority improve the performance of wind/cyclone resistance
telegrams, telephones, telex and fax, recently by of existing buildings, some retrofitting measures
even E-mails and web site broadcasts. have also been proposed.
6 MITIGATIVE MEASURES 9 CONCLUSIONS
These include improvement of warning systems, Wind damage studies in the past have produced a
improvement of relief and rehabilitation large body of knowledge. Existing knowledge from
management, collection of data on housing, damage studies should be used in the future in
vulnerability assessment, preparation of technical construction of wind-resistant buildings. Space
guidelines, preparation of an Indian standard for technology has made a significant contribution to all
cyclone resistant construction, and establishment of the three phases, i.e. preparedness, prevention and
bodies like techno-legal, techno-financial and relief in disaster management. However, much less
techno-managerial, thus enhancing the scope for work has been done on enabling the communities
research on wind effect on low-rise buildings. A themselves to be more prepared and able to receive,
major effort made in the last few years has been the comprehend and respond to warnings.
preparation of a vulnerability atlas for India. Now
community buildings and schools are being built that 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
also serve as cyclone shelters in an emergency.
Awareness raising about cyclones and their nature The authors gratefully acknowledge and place on
and disaster preparedness, especially at community record the funding received by the Ministry of
and household level, should be taught in all schools Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
and children’s camps, especially in the pre-cyclone Japan, through the 21st Century Center of Excellence
months. Strict enforcement of the coastal zone Program, 2003-2007, towards this research work.
regulation act and re-establishment of forest and
mangroves in the coastal areas need to be 11 REFERENCES
considered. In developed countries, a substantial IS : 875 (PART3)-1989, Indian Standard Code of Practice for
role is now played by the insurance industry in Design Loads (other than Earthquake) for buildings and
disaster reduction related activity. However, it has structures, Part-3, Wind Loads, Bureau of Indian Standards,
made few inroads into this sector in India so far. New Delhi, 1989.
“Vulnerability Atlas of India,” Building Material Technology
and Promotion Council, Ministry of Urban Affairs and
Employment, Government of India, New Delhi, 1997.
345
Further studies on the statistical properties of the wind filed near

Taichung Harbour, Taiwan
J. Z. Yim1, Chung-Ren Chou2
ABSTRACT: Statistical properties of wind field near Taichung Harbour, Taiwan, are reanalyzed here in this
paper. Two sets of data were used for the purpose. It is shown that the wind speeds in both measuring stations
can be fitted with a number of extreme distribution models. Extrapolations to 50- and 100-year extreme wind
speeds show that wind speeds exceeding 40 m/sec can occur for this region.
1 INTRODUCTION town near the Harbour, and is maintained by the

Central Weather Bureau (CWB). Hourly wind
Knowledge of the characteristics of the wind climate
speeds and directions are recorded continuously
in a certain region is of interest for many reasons.
from November 1976 to the present day. Figure 1
The environmental engineers may want to know the
shows the localities of the measuring sites
most frequent wind direction and/or wind speeds so
schematically.
that emission from factory smokestacks may be
The data were first checked for possible outliers.
redirected or diluted. The civil engineers may want
Once a data point was identified as an outlier, its
to estimate the possible strongest winds in 50 or 100
possible value is replaced by estimate from the
years that her/his design works will probably have to
neighbouring data points. Consecutive missing
withstand. Decision makers may want to know the
values, as long as they were less than three in a roll,
possible rise of water level due to storm surges for
were also replaced by estimates. From the hourly
the next 100 years so that coastal protection policies
wind speeds and directions we then determined the
may be made. The list may be extended to include
daily, weekly, monthly and the yearly maxima. The
countless other examples.
data were then fitted with several models from
However, as pointed out by many researchers,
extreme statistics found in the literature.
there are two major problems associated with the
study of the possible extreme values of a nature
occurrence. The first difficulty is that there is just not
enough data available to make a reasonable
prediction. It is often necessary to extrapolate,
sometimes to the multiple times of the existing data
length, to make estimates. Even if one is fortunate
enough to have a long-time record, one then has to
face the second problem that, there is simply no
theoretical basis for the preference or discredit of
any empirical model.
The main objective of this paper is not to
propose yet another model for the wind climate. We
aim at presenting the characteristics of the long-term
wind field near the Taichung Harbour area.
2 THE MEASURING SITE

Figure 1. Winds rose diagram from hourly maximum wind
Two sets of data were used in this study. The first speeds in Wu-Chi.
one is measured at the Taichung Harbour, which is
located approximately in the middle of Taiwan, 3 THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
facing the Taiwan Strait. The data ranging from Figure 1 shows the wind rose diagram based on
January 1971 to March 1996, and is recorded on hourly maximum wind speeds measured in Wu-Chi.
hourly basis. The second set of data is measured at As can be seen from this figure, strong winds come
the meteorological station of Wu-Chi, which a small
1
Prof., Department of Harbour & River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Email: b0052@ind.ntou.edu.tw
2
Prof., Department of Harbour & River Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Email: a0033@ind.ntou.edu.tw
346
J.Z. Yim, Chung-Ren Chou
mainly from north- or northeast directions. This is reasonably. The predictions due to the Gumbel, and
due to the strong monsoon winds in wind seasons. the two-parameter lognormal distributions seem to
Winds in the summer seasons are relatively weak underestimate the trend.
and are mainly south-easterlies or -westerlies. The cumulative distribution of the weekly
Figure 2 shows the results of fitting the models maximum wind speeds of Wu-Chi is shown in
to the daily maximum wind speeds of Wu-Chi. It can Figure 3. Only shown in the Figure is the upper tail
be seen from the figure that the Weibull distribution of the distribution. As can be seen, the Weibull
failed to fit the peak of the empirical distribution, model overestimates most part of the data, while
while all other models have no difficulties following fitting the high tail closely. On the other hand, the
the trend. curves of the three-parameter lognormal, the gamma,
1.2
and the GEV model can follow the trend quite
Histogram reasonably. The predictions due to the Gumbel, and
Weibull
2-P lognormal
the two-parameter lognormal distributions seem to
Relative frequency f(U/Umean)
3-P lognormal underestimate the trend.

Gamma
0.8 Gumbel
GEV
36
32
U = 3.94 X + 17.80
0.4
28
U [m/sec] 24
0
0 1 2 3 4 20
Dimensionless wind speeds (U/Umean)
Figure 2. Distribution of daily maximum wind speeds from 16
1976~2004 for Wu-Chi.

12
1 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-ln{-ln[m/(N+1)]}
Cumulative frequency F(U/Umean)
Figure 4. The Gumbel plot of yearly maximum wind speeds of

0.995 Wu-Chi
Measured Finally, we present the so-called “Gumbel plot”

Weibull
0.99
2-P lognormal
for the data from Wu-Chi as Figures 4. The wind
3-P lognormal
Gamma
data are seen to be scattered around the straight line,
Gumbel indicating that the Gumbel model can be used to
GEV
0.985 describe the possible distribution of wind speeds
measured at this station.
0.98 4 CONCLUSIONS
1.6 2 2.4 2.8
Dimensional speeds (U/Umean) It is concluded that,
a) Statistical distributions of the wind speeds can be
Figure 3. Cumulative distribution of weekly maximum wind fitted with the Weibull, the two- and three-
speeds of Wu-Chi
parameter lognormal, the gamma, the Gumbel,
and the GEV models. However, none of the
The cumulative distribution of the weekly models can be considered as completely
maximum wind speeds of Wu-Chi is shown in satisfactory.
Figure 3. Only shown in the Figure is the upper tail b) Winds measured at Wu-Chi can be fitted with the
of the distribution. As can be seen, the Weibull “Gumbel plot”.
model overestimates most part of the data, while c) Based on estimates using the empirical formula
fitting the high tail closely. On the other hand, the of Simiu & Scanlan (1996) a tentative suggested
curves of the three-parameter lognormal, the gamma, wind speeds in 50 years would be 40 m/sec, to be
and the GEV model can follow the trend quite on the safe side.
347
Cooperative project for CFD prediction of pedestrian wind environment

in the Architectural Institute of Japan
R. Yoshie1, A. Mochida2, Y. Tominaga3, H. Kataoka4, K. Harimoto5, T. Nozu6, T. Shirasawa7
ABSTRACT: CFD is being increasingly applied to the prediction of wind environment around actual high-
rise buildings. Despite this increasing use, the prediction accuracy and many factors that might affect
simulation results are not yet thoroughly understood. In order to clarify ambiguities and make a guideline for
CFD prediction of the wind environment, a working group was organized by the Architectural Institute of
Japan. This group has carried out various comparative studies as follows.
• First stage: Flowfields around two types of single high-rise buildings.
• Second stage: Flowfield around a high-rise building located in a city.
• Last stage: Flowfields around two types of Building Complexes in actual urban areas.
This paper describes some of the results of the investigation by the working group, and discusses the
influences of various calculation conditions on CFD results, and also on the present status and the problems
in CFD prediction of the wind environment.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 GENARL FEATURES OF COMPARATIVE

CFD is being increasingly applied to the prediction AND PARAMETRIC STUDIES
of wind environment around actual high-rise Figures 1-6 show models for comparative and
buildings. Despite this increasing use, the prediction parametric studies as investigated by the working
accuracy and many factors that might affect group. In the studies discussed here, the standard k-İ
simulation results are not yet thoroughly understood. model or modified k-İ models were used, but LES
Thus, a working group named “Working Group for was not applied except for flowfields around two
CFD Prediction of the Wind Environment around a types of single prisms (Figs.1-2). It is desirable to
Building” has been organized by the Architectural use LES for highly accurate CFD. However, it is
Institute of Japan. The name of this working group very difficult to use because it requires a lot of time
has subsequently been changed to “Working Group for calculation in practical analysis. For the time
for Preparation of Wind Environment Evaluation being, we must be content with RANS type models.
Guideline based on CFD”. Since its inception, it has Therefore, the guidelines currently under
been making continuous efforts to prepare guidelines preparation in the working group are also based on
for proper use of CFD for calculation of the the assumption that the analysis is performed using
pedestrian wind environment. Comparative and standard k-İ model or modified k-İ models.
parametric studies have been carried out on several
building configurations to elucidate the problems on 3 FLOWFIELD AROUND HIGH RISE-
setting or selecting calculation conditions and BUILDING LOCATED IN CITY
turbulence models for CFD simulation of the Among various investigations (Figs. 1-6) by the
pedestrian wind environment. working group, this extended abstract introduces
The present article introduces some of the results some of the results on flowfield around a high-rise
achieved by the working group and discusses the building in a typical (regular) urban block. A high-
influences of various calculation conditions on CFD rise building (25m×25m×100m) is surrounded by the
results and also on the present status and problems in low-rise city blocks (40m×40m×10m) as shown in
CFD prediction of the pedestrian wind environment. Figures 7 and 8. Wind tunnel experiments (1/400
scale) in boundary layer using split-film probe were
1
Prof., Tokyo Polytechnic University, e-mail yoshie@arch.t-kougei-ac.jp
2
Assoc. Prof., Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, e-mail mochida@sabine.pln.archi.tohoku.ac.jp
3
Prof., Niigata Institute of Technology, e-mail tominaga@abe.niit.ac.jp
4
Chief Research Engineer, Technical Research Institute, Obayashi Corp., e-mail kataoka.hiroto@obayashi.co.jp
5
Research Engineer, Technology Center, Taisewi Corp., e-mail kazuyoshi.harimoto@sakura.taisei.co.jp
6
Research Engineer, Institute of Technology, Shimizu Corp., e-mail nozu@shimz.co.jp
7
Research Associate, The University of Tokushima, e-mail shirasawa@ce.tokushima-u.ac.jp
348
R. Yoshie, A. Mochida, Y. Tominaga, H. Kataoka, K. Harimoto, T. Nozu, T. Shirasawa
carried out by the present authors to obtain data for application if two or more were maintained in the
assessing the accuracy of CFD results. Figure 8 surroundings of the region to be evaluated.
shows the measuring points around the high-rise Figure 11 shows calculation results based on the
building. In the CFD simulations, influences of standard k- İ model and modified k-İ models of
calculation conditions such as boundary condition Launder-Kato (LK) and Re-Normalization Group
for ground surface, size of side and upper calculation (RNG). At measuring points 35, 38, where the wind
region, grid system, reproduction range of speed was highest, the wind speed of the modified k-
surrounding city blocks, and turbulence models were İ models was evaluated as higher than that of the
investigated. standard k-İ model, and the agreement with the
Fig. 9 shows the results of calculation with two experimental results was improved. However, at the
rows and three rows each deleted from the peripheral weak wind regions such as at measuring points 15–
region of the surrounding urban blocks, as shown in 25, where the wind speed was low, the matching
figure10. The difference from the standard case (no with the experimental results was poor.
delete) was very small except at measuring points 1, The influences of other calculation conditions on
2, 3 and 4 on the roads on the windward side. prediction accuracy and results of the investigations
Therefore, the reproduction range of the surrounding of other test cases (Figures1, 2, 5, 6) are discussed in
urban blocks would be satisfactory for practical detail in the full paper.
b
wind
4b
W in d H =2 b
4b
b
b
Figure 1: Single high-rise building (2:1:1) Figure 2: Single high-rise building (4:4:1) Figure 3: Simple city block
Figure 4: A high-rise building in city Figure 5: Building complexes in Figure 6: Building complexes in actual
actual Urban areas (Niigata) Urban areas (Shinjuku)
Wind direction
0° 20m road
30m road
22.5° 10m
45°
10m
(a) deleting 2 rows (b)
deleting
10m road
3rows
10m road
40m 20m 40m 30m 40m
Figure 7: General features of wind tunnel experiment Figure 8: Measuring points Figure 10: Reproduction range
of surrounding urban blocks
0.8
W ind Speed Ratio
0.8
W ind Speed Ratio
Standard Standard k-
0.6 Deleting 2 rows 0.6
LK
Deleting 3 rows RNG
Experim ent
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
M easuring PointNo. M easuring PointNo.
Figure 9: Influence of range of surrounding urban blocks Figure 11: Influences of modifications to turbulence modelling
349
Twisted Ilow Zind Wunnel Gesign for\acht Derodynamic Vtudies

A. Zasso1, F. Fossati2, I. Viola3
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the research activities carried out in developing a special wind tunnel
device (named Twisted Flow Device in the following) aimed at reproducing the variation in the onset wind
speed and direction with height as seen by yachts as they sail in the boundary layer above the sea. The
concept to produce sheared and twisted flow is to use a series of twisted vanes allowing good flow quality in
the model area. The paper shows both computational as well as experimental results measured in the
Politecnico di Milano Wind Tunnel.
There are two main reasons to test sails in a wind

1 INTRODUCTION tunnel: to provide data for velocity prediction
The motion of a yacht sailing in the boundary layer programs (VPPs) and to provide comparative data
above the sea produces an apparent wind velocity, between different sail designs. Based on a
resulting from the vector addiction of the wind and hydrodynamic model and an aerodynamic model,
yacht velocities. Since the wind speed increases with VPP calculates yacht performance calculating how
height due to the boundary layer phenomena and the long it will take to sail a racecourse under various
boat speed is constant, this means that the apparent conditions.
wind speed incident onto a yacht also increases with While the variation in wind speed with height can
height and, in addition, its direction changes, rotating be modelled in the wind tunnel using similar
away from the yacht’s heading with increased height procedures as for conventional wind engineering
(Figure 1). testing, the twisted flow is a more difficult task to
deal with for a stationary wind tunnel yacht model,
true wind speed because the true and apparent wind speeds are
coincident.
boat speed
Politecnico di Milano decided to design and build
a new large Wind Tunnel having a very wide
spectrum of applications and very high standards of
flow quality and testing facilities. The Wind Tunnel
is fully operative since September 2001. Figure 2
apparent wind speed shows an overview of the P.d.M. facility: it’s a
closed circuit facility in vertical arrangement having
two test sections, a 4x4 m high speed low turbulence
and a 14x4 m low speed boundary layer test section.
Figure 1 Twisted flow on sailing yacht

This is a very important topic in wind tunnel
testing on sailing yacht scale models, that has to be
carefully considered, because the forces developed
by the sail plain are due to the apparent wind speed
incident onto the sails and the sails shape and trim is
strongly related to the apparent wind profile.
Therefore, for a proper similitude modelling, the
apparent wind velocity shared and twisted profile has
to be reproduced in the wind tunnel for testing Figure 2: Politecnico di Milano Wind Tunnel
stationary models.
1
Prof., Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, e-mail alberto.zasso@polimi.it
2
Prof., Wind Tunnel Sailing Yacht Testing Coordinator, Politecnico di Milano, e-mail fabio.fossati@polimi.it
3
Eng, PhD Student, Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, e-mail sail.wt@mecc.polimi.it
350
A. Zasso
With reference to yacht sail aerodynamic studies, The persistency of the obtained twist angle is
the low speed section allows for testing large scale adequate to the large-scale model size and low
models (typically 1:10 -1:12 for IACC yacht model) turbulence intensity level can be achieved.
with low blockage effects. Concerning the low- The realized device permits an easy adjustment of
turbulence high-speed section, the large dimensions the vanes, has a light structural design allowing for
(4x4 m) and the quite high wind speed (55 m/s) an easy and quick installation and removing
enable to reach quite high Reynolds numbers. The procedure, leading to an economical advantage from
overall wind tunnel characteristics are summarised in both running and first installation costs.
Table 1, which shows the very low levels of
turbulence reached in this section, giving to the
facility a very wide spectrum of possible
applications. In particular, the high-speed wind
tunnel section allows to develop specific appendage
scale model tests typically on 1:2 scale model for
IACC class keel and rudder models.
Table 1 Politecnico di Milano Wind Tunnel
Tunnel Overall Dimensions: 50x15x15 [m]

Maximum Power (Fans only): 1.5 [MW]
Turb.
Size Max Speed ∆U U Int.
Test Section [m] [m/s] % Iu %
Boundary < ±2
4x4 16 <2
Layer Figure 3 Test with the Twisted Flow Device
in Politecnico di Milano Wind Tunnel
Low < ± 0.2
4x4 55 < 0.2
Turbulence
The usefulness of generating a twisted flow for

sailing yacht model testing in Politecnico di Milano
Wind Tunnel, emerged during testing activities
carried out by the Mechanical Engineering
Department of the P.d.M. with Prada syndicate
challenger for the America’s Cup 2003.
2 TWISTED FLOW DEVICE

In this paper the design process for a Twisted Flow
Device, allowing for sailing yacht testing in the
P.d.M. low speed section Wind Tunnel is described.
Twisted Flow Device based on the concept of a
twisted flat plate vanes array, simply placed in the
centre of the flow stream, revealed optimal Figure 4 CFD computed twist angle path lines
behaviour of the generated flow in a large volume of
the test section as required by the 1:10 yacht scaled 3 REFERENCES
model size (Figure 3). This has been achieved by F. Fossati, G. Diana – L’ottimizzazione delle Prestazioni
means of a successful design procedure, based on a Attraverso la Ricerca in Galleria del Vento – seminario La
CAD-CAE process linked to a CFD code (Figure 4). Ricerca nello Yacht Design - Milano 2003
The realized device allowed to obtain different R. G. J. Flay, P. S. Jackson - Flow Simulation for Wind-Tunnel
twist angle target profiles without need of large extra Studies of Sail Aerodynamics. - Journal of Wind
Engineering and industrial Aerodynamics, 41-44 (1992)
deflection of the vanes, which could lead to a critical 2703-2714 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam
aerodynamic working condition of the flat plate A. Zasso, F. Fossati, I. M. Viola, P. Catena - Analisi delle
profiles. caratteristiche del flusso per prove di imbarcazioni a vela in
Galleria del Vento su modelli in scala – 8° italian
conference on wind engineering IN-VENTO-2004, Reggio
Calabria
351

H Zhu1, DA. Smith2
ABSTRACT: One modular roof building of 29o roof pitch was tested to investigate wind pressure distribution
during thunderstorms. In order to get a comparison between thunderstorm induced and non-thunderstrom
induced pressured distribution over the building, wall pressures, roof and internal pressures under those two
different conditions was collected. The test structure was located along the west runway of Reese Technology
Center adjacent to the WISE field laboratory. In this study, the results of field site data collection of
thunderstorms and wind velocity spectra have been reported. The data collection was done in the summer of
2003. The longitudinal wind spectrum generally agrees well with the spectra of Tieleman. The lateral wind
spectrum kind of differs from the spectra of Tieleman. The occurrence of thunderstorm has huge impact on
the internal pressures and cavity pressures, which may determine the structural behaviour of building.
1 mile in all directions). The test structure used in
1 INTRODUCTION this research was 30 feet x 30 feet in plan. A picture
After the setup of the Wind Engineering Research of test structure is shown in Fig 1. Direct
Field Laboratory (WERFL) at Texas Tech measurements of wind speeds are made by
University (TTU) (Levitan et al. 1992), a lot of anemometers. Fig 2 shows a picture of RM Young
amount of high quality data on wind and building Modes 05106-MA wind monitor.
surface pressures has been collected, validated, and
made available to researchers in the early 1990s.
Since then, extensive wind tunnel simulations have
been carried out all over the world (Surry 1991,
Cochran and Cermak 1992, Okada and Ha 1992,
Tieleman 1996, Cheung et al. 1997, Ham 1998, Ham
and Bienkiewicz 1998, Bienkiewicz 1999, etc.).
These full-scale/model-scale comparison and
verification studies significantly improved our
understanding of wind turbulence effect and wind
tunnel simulation techniques. The measurements
from the full-scale tests on low-rise buildings show
that the wind pressures are highly fluctuating, and
the same as the load effect. The upwind turbulence
in velocity and the existence of local vortex shedding
may play an important part on this.
The modular home in this paper was set up for C- Figure 1 Modular Home
130 Testing in 2003. Because of weather, the test
had been delayed for a year until 2004. In the
summer of 2003, Wind Science and Engineering
Research Centre decided to use it to collect
thunderstorm data. About 200 runs of data had been
collected which spanned 2 months and each run is 15
minutes long. The test setup and results of processed
data will be shown in this paper.
2 EXPERIMENT SETUP
The test structure is located along the west runway of
Reese Technology Center adjacent to the WISE field
laboratory. The site is characterized as ASCE
exposure category C (the surrounding terrain is open
grasslands and agricultural fields for approximately Figure 2 Young Modes 05106-MA wind monitor
1
PhD Candidate of Civil Engineering Department of Texas Tech University, USA, e-mail hongchao.zhu@ttu.edu
2
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Department of Texas Tech University, USA, e-mail doug.smith@coe.ttu.edu
352
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith
3 DATA ANALYSIS 4 CONCLUSIONS
Tieleman’s Atmospheric Boundary Layer Blunt Internal pressures are strongly influenced by the
model for flat smooth uniform terrain has been used occurrence of thunderstorms. In most low-rise
in the power spectrum analysis of along-wind and buildings or structures, there is one single internal
across-wind data. Fig 3 and 4 show a comparison space, so internal pressures might determine the
between Tieleman’s model and measured data in one structural behaviour of building under strong wind.
run. For the U-component of most runs, they agree Thunderstorm will result in the decrease of internal
fairly well (Fig 3). However, for the V-component, a pressures and wall cavity pressures. The importance
big difference exists between them (Fig 4). of thunderstorms has to be pain more attention to
Differential pressures are a measure of the when we design the low-rise building.
difference in pressure between the location of the The mean pressure distribution does not show
measurement and the reference pressure pit. These much difference between thunderstorm data and
values are then made non-dimensional to produce a non-thunderstorm data. Because most severe
pressure coefficient time-history by applying the thunderstorms last only a few minutes, the mean
relationship: value (15 minutes in this paper) does not make much
sense. More efforts should be put into the analysis of
'p (t )
C p t (1) extreme Cp.
1 U V 2
2
5 REFERENCES
Where 'p (t) is the differential pressure, U is the Bienkiewicz, B., 1999. “A 1:50 Scale Wind Tunnel Case Study
mean air density, and V is the mean wind speed at of Wind Pressures on TTU Building.” Proceedings of the
eave height. Tenth International Conference on Wind Engineering: Wind
Engineering into the 21st Century, Copenhagen, Denmark,
10 pp. 1755-1762.
1
Cochran, L.S. & Cermak, J.E., 1992. “Full- and Model-scale
Cladding Pressures on the Texas Tech University
0.1 Experimental Building.” Journal of Wind Engineering and
nSuu/Variance
Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 41-44, pp. 1589-1600.

0.01 Cheung, J.C.K., Holms, J.D., Melbourne, W.H., Lakshmanan,
1 10
3 N. & Bowditch, P., 1997. “Pressures on a 1/10 Scale Model
of the Texas Tech Building.” Journal of Wind Engineering
4
1 10 and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 69-71, pp. 529-538.
5
Ham, H.J., 1998. Turbulence Effects on Wind-Induced
1 10 Building Pressure. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil
1 10
6 Engineering, Colorado State University.
1 10
4
1 10
3
0.01 0.1 1 10 Ham, H.J. & Bienkiewicz, B., 1998. “Wind Tunnel Simulation
Reduced Frequency, nz/U of TTU Flow and Building Roof Pressures.” Journal of
Tieleman Blunt Model
nSuu/Variance Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol.
77&78, pp. 119-133.
a) U- component at met tower #2
Figure 3 Spectral Density for U-components Levitan, M.L. & Mehta, K.C., 1992a. “Texas Tech Field
Experiments for Wind Loads Part I: Building and Pressure
100 Measuring System.” Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 41-44, pp. 1565-1576.
10 Levitan, M.L. & Mehta, K.C., 1992b. “Texas Tech Field
1 Experiments for Wind Loads Part II: Meteorological
Instrumentation and Terrain Parameters.” Journal of Wind
nSvv/Variance
0.1 Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 41-44, pp.

0.01 1577-1588.
3
Okada, H. & Ha, Y.C., 1992. “Comparison of Wind Tunnel and
1 10
Full-scale Pressure Measurement Tests on the Texas Tech
1 10
4 Building.” Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
5 Aerodynamics, Vol. 41-44, pp. 1601-1612.
1 10
Tieleman, H.W., 1996. “Model/Full Scale Comparison of
6 Pressures on the Roof of the TTU Experimental Building.”
1 10
4 3
1 10 1 10 0.01 0.1 1 10 Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
Reduced Frequency, nz/U
Tieleman Blunt Model Vol. 65, pp. 133-142.
nSvv/Variance
b) V- component at met tower #2
Figure 4 Spectral Density for V-components
353

H Zhu1, D A. Smith2
ABSTRACT: One gable roof building of 15.6o roof pitch was tested to investigate wind pressure distribution
over gable roof and walls. The effect of test configuration that whether the test structure was enclosed or
partially enclosed on wall pressures, roof and internal pressures was also tested. The test structure was
located along the west runway of Reese Technology Center adjacent to the WISE field laboratory. In this test,
a Hercules C-130 aircraft was used to generate simulated wind events. Test structure experienced C-130
generated flows and natural wind. The result in this full-scale test is compared with ASCE 7-02 using main
wind-force resisting system Cp’s and Component & cladding Cp’s. Also Marshall’s work (1977) in term of
mean pressure coefficients is compared with present experiments.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 EXPERIMENT SETUP
Over the last 20 years, considerable research about During this C-130 tests, two structures was tested, a
the wind-induced damage on low-rise structures has manufactured home with gable roof and a modular
been carried out around the world. In many field home with hip roof. In this work, only the
investigations, the structural behaviour and failure manufactured home with gable roof is discussed, and
pattern of low-rise buildings in different windstorms the test of modular home with hip roof will be
were found to have similarities. Minor and Mehta presented later. The test structure is located along the
(1979) stated that the high suction at wall corners, west runway of Reese Technology Center adjacent to
eaves, and roof corners results in failures in building the WISE field laboratory. The site is characterized
components. Whenever an opening, especially on the as ASCE exposure category C. The manufactured
windward wall, occurs, the internal pressures often home used in this research is 15 feet 5 inches x 60
play an important role in the building performance in feet 2 inches in plan with a roof pitch of 15.6o. A
damaging wind (Holmes, 2001). Mehta (1984) also picture of test structure is shown in Figure 1.
introduced the severity of damage caused by a
breach in the building enclosure. Roofs and roofing
systems have been found to be the most vulnerable
parts (McDonald and Smith 1990, Chiu et al. 1993,
Bienkiewicz et al. 1994). The FEMA (Federal
Emergency Management Agency) investigation of
Hurricane Andrew (1992) has also revealed that the
loss of roof cladding is the most pervasive type of
building wind damage. Roof corners and roof ridges
experience the highest outward-acting pressure. The
results of experiments, like high suction near roof
edges and roof corners, have been adopted in the
codification of wind loads.
Figure 1 Manufactures Home
In this test, a Hercules C-130 aircraft was used to During tests, C-130 generated flows were normal
generate simulated wind events. The first part of to the long wall of manufactured home. This
tests was done in 2001(Smith, D.A et al. 2001) and experiment also investigated the behavior of the
was finished in 2004. Test structure experienced C- structure under the test configurations in which the
130 generated flows and natural wind. It emphasizes structure was enclosed or partially enclosed. This
the magnitude and distribution of wind pressures was accomplished either by leaving the back door
over the gable roof. By comparing it with ASCE 7- open or closed. Table 1 shows the test configuration
02 and Marshall’s full-scale test results, it will help for all runs. Data was collected at a sampling rate of
us better understand the pressure distribution and 30 Hz and the sampling duration of each run was
flow pattern around structures with gable roof. around 3~5 minutes.
1
PhD Candidate of Civil Engineering Department of Texas Tech University, USA, e-mail hongchao.zhu@ttu.edu
2
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Department of Texas Tech University, USA, e-mail doug.smith@coe.ttu.edu
354
H. Zhu, D.A. Smith
Table 1: Test Run Configurations in 2004
Configuration
Enclosed/Partially Estimated
Run Enclosed Speed(mph)
1 Enclosed 20
2 Enclosed 45
3 Enclosed 60
4 Enclosed 20
5 Enclosed 45
6 Enclosed 60
7 Enclosed 80
8 Partially Enclosed 20
9 Partially Enclosed 45 Figure 2 Comparisons of C-130 & Marshall Report Pressure
10 Partially Enclosed 60 Distributions
11 Partially Enclosed 80
5 CONCLUSIONS
3 DATA ANALYSIS Wall pressure coefficient values from the C-130

For most the test runs, turbulence intensities are not testing are consistent with values from the Marshall
larger than 15%, so the C-130 generated flows are report. Roof pressures collected during the C-130
less turbulent than the natural wind. The influence of research are significantly lower than values from the
ambient wind were neglected since the ambient wind Marshall report due to variations in the geometry and
speed data collected in the Reese Mesonet Station flow conditions for the two test specimens.
were only about 6 mph, which is very small Similarly, comparison of the C-130 pressure
compared to the C-130 induced mean flow speed. coefficients with values obtained from ASCE 7-02
show good agreement. In most instances, the ASCE
4 RESULTS AND COMPARISON values bound the pressure distributions obtained
during the C-130 experiment.
4.1 ASCE 7-02 From the results of full-scale C-130 tests, under
The comparison shows that on the windward wall the same test configuration, the test runs with low
and windward roof, the mean pressure coefficients wind speed usually display relative higher pressure
are larger than ASCE7-2002. On the leeward wall coefficients, compared to runs with high wind speed.
and leeward roof, ASCE value tends to bound the It is possible that proximity of the wind speed
data with a few exceptions. monitor to the test specimen significantly influenced
the measured wind speed, which will lead to the
4.2 Marshall full-scale tests miscalculation of pressure coefficient. One more
The mean pressure coefficients on the windward and possibility is that low C-130 flows with significant
leeward walls are similar to values taken from the natural flows generate combined turbulence
Marshall report, but values for the roof pressure characteristics in the flows that can affect Cp value.
coefficients differ significantly (Fig 2). This
discrepancy arises principally from differences in 6 REFERENCES
specimen geometry and flow conditions. Marshall’s ASCE 7-02 Standard, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
manufactured home had a flat roof, whereas the and Other Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers,
manufactured home used in the C-130 experiment 2002.
Holmes, J.D., 2001 “Wind loading on structures.” SponPress,
had a pitched roof (approximately 3:12 roof pitch).
London, U.K.
In addition, the C-130 flow is distinctly different Mehta, K.C., 1984. “Wind Induced Damage Observations and
from atmospheric boundary layer winds, and as their Implications for Design Practice.” Journal of
discussed previously, the computed pressure Engineering Structure, ASCE, Vol. 6, pp. 242-247.
coefficients are influenced by the proximity of the Minor, J.E. & Mehta, K.C., 1979. “Wind Damage Observations
and Implications.” Journal of the Structural Division,
test structure to the reference pressure box and the
ASCE, ST11, 14980, November, 1979, pp. 2279-2291.
barometric pressure sensor as well as significant Smith, D.A., Chappell K, Mehta, K.C., Letchford, C.W, 2001.
ambient wind effects. “Report on C-130 Testing” thesis of Master Degree, Texas
Tech University.
355
Full bridge aeroelastic model test of Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze
River
L.D. Zhu1, D.L. Wang2, Z.S. Guo2, M. Wang2, F.C. Cao2
ABSTRACT: The flutter and buffeting performances of Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River in China,
were investigated through a wind tunnel test of full bridge aeroelastic model in both smooth and simulated
boundary layer wind fields with various combinations of wind yaw angle and inclination angle. The testing
results show that the bridge has enough aerodynamic stability for service and construction states, and the
most unfavorable buffeting responses often occur in yaw wind case with a yaw angle between 5° and 30°.
1 INTRODUCTION 1288
63 257 648 257 63
240 T1 T1
Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River, 180
located in Jiangsu Province of China, is a steel cable- 120 B10
60
B3 B7 46.451
stayed bridge with double inclined cable-planes and 3.000
0 B3 B7 B10
a main span of 648m (Fig.1). Its deck of closed -60
128 129 162 162
cross-section of single box with two wind-fairings is -120
1 2 3 4 5 6
3.2m high and 37.16m wide (Fig.2). Its two 220m
high towers are of frame-structure and each of them Figure 1 General layout of elevation (service state)
is compounded of a major part of steel over the
37160
bridge deck and a concrete part below the bridge 730 1500 730
1450 500 14750 14750 500 1450
deck. To ensure the safety of the bridge under strong 400 2% 50mm ethoxyline asphalt 400
1110
2%
12(14) 14
3200
winds, the flutter and buffeting performances of the
6 8
30
bridge were investigated via a full bridge aeroelastic
1762
rail for tool car 7200 2800
model test in both smooth and simulated boundary 2040 5740 3200 7600 10800 5740 2040
layer wind fields with various combinations of wind Figure 2 Deck cross section
yaw angle and inclination angle. The service state
and three key construction states were tested.
2 FULL BRIDGE AEROELASTIC MODEL

The test was carried out in the TJ-3 Boundary Layer
Wind Tunnel of SLDRCE at Tongji University,
China. Shown in Figure 3, the model was designed
and manufactured at a geometric scale of 1:120. The
frequency scale was thus 10.9545:1. To ensure the
accuracy of simulating the bridge dynamic properties,
Figure 3 Full bridge aeroelastic model in TJ-3 Wind Tunnel
the modal properties of the model were carefully
checked using an ambient vibration approach for
frequencies and mode shapes, and the conventional 3 MAJOR TEST RESULTS
approach of free decay vibration for modal damping.
The measured frequencies and mode shapes agreed The tests were carried out in both smooth wind field
well with those designed and the measured modal (‘smooth wind’ for short) and simulated wind field
damping ratios were close to the required value of of boundary layer mentioned above (‘turbulent wind’
0.5%. for short) for checking the aerodynamic stability and
buffeting performance of the bridge. In the turbulent-
1
Prof. Le-Dong Zhu Ph.D., State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering & Department of Bridge Engineering,
Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P.R. China, e-mail: Ledong@tongji.edu.cn
2
Da-Lei Wang, Zhen-Shan Guo, Miao Wang, Feng-Chan Cao, State Key Laboratory for Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering &
Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P.R. China
356
L.D. Zhu, D.L. Wang, Z.S. Guo, M. Wang, F.C. Cao
wind test, seven combinations of wind yaw angles (β) 0.16
Standard deviation
o
and inclination angles (θ), θ = 0° and β= 0°, 5°, 10°, 0.12
Vertical (m); Torsional ( ); Lateral (m)
15°, 20°, 30°, 45°, were considered for the service

0.08
state, the single-cantilever state and the double-
cantilever state B, and tow additional combinations 0.04
(nine in all), θ = 0° and β= 60°, 90°, were considered 0.00
for the double-cantilever state A. For the smooth- 0 10 20 30
o
40 50
wind test, two additional combinations, θ =3°, -3° Wind yaw angle β ( )
and β = 0°, were considered. (a) Mid-span of service state (U = 39.4m/s)
0.16
Standard deviation
o
3.1 Flutter performance Vertical (m); Torsional ( ); Lateral (m)
0.12
The aerodynamic instability phenomena didn’t 0.08
occur up to a wind speed of 77m/s for the service
state and all three key construction states under both 0.04
smooth wind and turbulent wind with various wind 0.00
directions concerned. Therefore, the flutter critical 0 10 20 30 40 50
o
Wind yaw angle β ( )
wind speeds of the service state and all the key
construction states are not lower than 77m/s and thus (b) Cantilever end of single-cantilever state (U = 32.8m/s)
are much higher than the flutter checking wind Figure 4 Variation of responses with yaw angle (θ =0°)
speeds (58.3m/s for service state and 49.0m/s for
construction states). The bridge is hence proven to be
stable enough in aerodynamics in both smooth wind
field and boundary layer wind field. Moreover, by (1) Third Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River
further increase of wind speed, it was found that the has enough aerodynamic stability for the service and
flutter critical wind speed of the service state at θ construction states in both smooth wind field and
=3° and β = 0° was about 116m/s close to that of turbulent wind field of boundary layer. And the
124m/s obtained by the previous sectional model test. flutter pattern shows strong coupling behavior
And, the results of both kinds of tests indicated that between vertical and torsional vibrations of the
flutter pattern of the bridge demonstrated the strong bridge deck because of its streamline cross-section of
coupling behavior of vertical bending and torsional single box. The flutter test results obtained in the full
vibrations. bridge model test agree well with those attained via a
sectional mode test.
3.2 Buffeting performance (2) The normal wind case may not be the most
By analyzing the test results, it was found that the unfavorable case for buffeting responses. In most
buffeting responses increased with wind speed at cases, the most unfavorable yaw angle of mean wind
conic curves approximately. Furthermore, It was is between 5° and 30°. Buffeting responses increase
demonstrated that the normal wind case (zero yaw approximately with wind speed at conic curves, and
angle) was not the most unfavorable case for normally, the fundamental modes provide the major
buffeting responses. For instance, Figure 4 shows the contributions.
variation of deck responses of the service and single-
cantilever states at the design wind speed with wind 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
yaw angle. The maximum vertical, torsional and
lateral responses occurred at yaw angles of 20°, 10° The work described in this paper is a part of a
and 30°, respectively, for the service state, and at project supported by the National Natural Science
yaw angles of 15°, 15° and 5°, respectively, for the Foundation of China (Project No. 50378068), and is
single- cantilever state. also financially supported by China Highway
Finally, by spectral analysis of responses, it was Planning and Design Institute, to which the writers
seen that the fundamental modes of deck vertical are most grateful. Sincerely thanks should also go to
bending, lateral bending and torsional vibrations the Construction Commanding Office of Third
provided the major contributions to the buffeting Nanjing Bridge over Yangtze River for supporting
responses in the corresponding directions, although kindly the wind-resistant research project of the
several higher modes also exerted a little effect on bridge. Any opinions and concluding remarks
the responses. presented in this paper are entirely those of the
writers.
357
Investigation of wind speed on the Vouthern coast of the Baltic Sea

J.A. ĩuraĔski1, S. KosiĔski2, W.E. MaciąĪek3, A. Piekarczuk4, M.K. Piekarski2, A. Pietrzykowska3,
W. Stepko2 I.Zwolska5
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with two kinds of actions aimed at the assessment of reference wind speeds on
the southern, Polish coast of the Baltic Sea for a code. It was an evaluation of the long-term wind data and
short-term parallel measurements of wind speed at sites exposed to open sea and at the neighboring
meteorological stations sheltered by woods and buildings. Correction factors received from these
measurements made it possible to recalculate the results of probabilistic analysis of data from meteorological
stations for standard terrain conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION At two meteorological stations anemometers were
One of the most important conditions that should be installed at the ends of breakwaters (piers). Third
fulfilled for reliable estimation of the design wind anemometer was installed in the vicinity of the
speed is the representativity of a meteorological meteorological station at Ustka, situated in the port.
station and location of an anemometer. It is evident It served for measuring wind speed at a level of 6.5
and commonly accepted that an anemometer should m. The station anemometer is situated at a level of
be installed in an open terrain. Unfortunately, many 20 m so wind profile at the station can be found and
meteorological stations initially situated outside of wind speed can be converted from the level of the
wooded or built up terrain, have been successively station anemometer to the reference height of 10 m.
surrounded by new buildings and trees. The installation of anemometers in Koáobrzeg is
Such a situation can be found even on the seaside, shown in Figure 1.
on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. There are 6
meteorological stations located on the shore but all
of them are at least partially sheltered by build up or
wooded terrain.
Investigation of wind speed have been then
undertaken commonly by the Building Research
Institute and the Maritime Division of the Institute
for Meteorology and Water Management in order to
define correction factors taking into account
sheltering effects of the terrain around
meteorological stations on their reading of wind
speed. The main objective of the work was to define
reference wind speeds on the southern, Polish coast
of the Baltic Sea for Polish code for wind actions on
buildings.
2 INSTALLATION OF ANEMOMETERS
Figure 1. Situation of the anemometers in Koáobrzeg: right – at
Three meteorological stations were chosen for the meteorological station, left – in the port
investigations. One of them, in Koáobrzeg, is
situated in a town and surrounded by buildings and a 3 RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS
park. Another one, at àeba, is situated in an excellent
open terrain, on the bank of a large lake but it is Parallel measurements of 10-minute mean wind
sheltered from sea storm winds by a dune covered speeds and directions by these anemometers and
with woods. The third station, at Ustka, was situated meteorological stations in the same towns were then
app 200 m from the shore but surrounded by carried out during several months. Evaluation of
buildings. Recently it has been moved closer to the these data for 12 main wind directions gives
shore. correction factors for different wind direction. These
1
Instytut Techniki Budowlanej, ul. Filtrowa 1; 00 – 611 Warszawa, Poland, e-mail jzuranski@pro.onet.pl
2 Instytut Meteorologii i Gospodarki Wodnej, Oddziaá Morski, ul. Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
3 Instytut Meteorologii i Gospodarki Wodnej, ul. PodleĞna 61, 01-673 Warszawa, Poland
4 Instytut Techniki Budowlanej, ul. Filtrowa 1; 00 – 611 Warszawa, Poland,
5 Formerly: Instytut Meteorologii i Gospodarki Wodnej, ul. PodleĞna 61, 01-673 Warszawa, Poland
358
J.A. Żurański, S. Kosiński, W.E. Macia̧żek, A. Piekarczuk, M.K. Piekarski, A. Pietrzykowska, W. Stepko, I. Zwolska
correction factors will be used to correct long-term measured correction factors. The reference values of
data from meteorological stations. the 10-minute mean wind speed from western
Results of measurements are presented in the direction are 26 m/s for the terrain category II and 33
form of a plot of wind speed measured in the port m/s for an open sea. Directional factors are also to be
versus wind speed measured by the meteorological calculated.
station. An example is presented in Figure 2. It must be noted that at some stations a decreasing
24 trend of the yearly maxima of the 10-minute wind
speeds is seen. An example is presented in Figure 3.
KOàOBRZEG Probably it may be attributed to the increasing
Sector 10
20 number of buildings during the last many years that
260-270-280
created additional terrain obstacles. Koáobrzeg was
much destroyed during the WW II. Next, from 1950
16
to 1990 its population has increased from 7,000 to
Port, U, m/s
45,000.
12 20
15
8
U, m/s
10
4 5
KOàOBRZEG
Y = 1.814 X Sector 9
0
0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Years
Meteorological station, U, m/s Figure 3. Yearly maxima of mean wind speed in the sector 9 at
Figure 2. The mean wind speed in the port versus mean wind the meteorological station in Koáobrzeg. Open circles show
speed at the meteorological station. Koáobrzeg, sector 10 wind speed with a trend, open squares after the subtraction of a
trend. Black circles show data from half a day measurements
The correction factors for wind directions over a
town have shown very good agreement with An attempt to take into account this decreasing
conversion factors calculated according to the trend of the yearly maxima of the mean wind speed
Eurocode (prEN 1991-1-4:2003). It can be shown as has also been undertaken.
an example that in Koáobrzeg, for sectors 2, 3, 9, 10 5 CONCLUSIONS
and 11 corrections factors are within 1.783 to 1.892
Two kinds of actions have been undertaken in order
while according to the Eurocode it is 1.835. This
to define reference wind speeds on the southern,
value has been received taking into account
Polish coast of the Baltic Sea for Polish code for
anemometers heights in the port (10 m) and at the
wind actions on buildings. The first was an
meteorological station (19 m) and roughness length
evaluation of long-term wind data using Gumbel
for open sea z0 = 0.003 m and for a town z0 = 1.0 m.
probability distribution. The second was a campaign
It is worth to mention that in these sectors fetch was
of the parallel short-term measurements of wind
within several hundred meters, from app 400 m in
speed at several sites exposed to the open sea near
the sector 2 to app 2 – 3 km in the sectors 9 and 10.
the meteorological stations in order to obtain
4 EVALUATION OF LONG TERM DATA correction factors. These correction factors served
for recalculation of 50-year MRI mean wind speeds
An estimation of the reference wind speed has been from the sites of meteorological stations to reference
done using long-term measured data. The Gumbel conditions.
probability distribution has been used for evaluation
of the annual maxima of 10-minute mean wind 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
speeds from 12 main compass directions as shown in The work was carried out thanks to the grant No 5
Figure 1. Probability distribution parameters have T07E 039 25 received from the State Committee of
been estimated using maximum likelihood method. Scientific Research. Permission of Maritime Offices
As a result of this analysis the values of 10- for installation of anemometers on their fittings in
minute mean wind speed were received for the 50 ports is appreciated.
years return period. Next, the results have been
recalculated for the standard reference condition that 7 REFERENCES
is for an open farmland, using roughness coefficients prEN 1991-1-4 Eurocode 1; Actions on structures. General
given in the Eurocode and for an open sea using Actions – Part 1-4 Wind Actions, Final draft, Dec. 2003
359
Author Index
Items are referred in the form: SECTION-SUBSECTION–page number, #paper number
Biagini, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-18,#K03
A FSI–DYN-34,#206
Bierbooms, W.A.A.M. . . . . WEN–ENV-194,#260
Abdellaoui, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-250,#203 Bigosiński, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-110,#137
AFR–WEA-26,#205
Biliszczuk, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-36,#200
Abitorabi, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-100,#294
Blackmore, P.A. . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-82,#217
Aghaei, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-126,#232 LOA–STA-124,#231
Al-amin, N.K.N. . . . . . . . . . . AFR–GEN-306,#103 Blanchard, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-292,#218
Aldea, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-214,#267 Bazik-Borowa, E. . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-268,#185
DSG–COD-216,#275
Blessmann, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LAR-38,#122
Allard, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-312,#216
Blocken, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–RAI-40,#110
Alonso, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-22,#196 URB–COM-42,#112
Alpsten, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-322,#134 EXP–TUN-236,#115
Bodéré, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-44,#212
Amoroso, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-24,#230
Borges, A.R.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-88,#127
Annabi, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-26,#205 FSI–CYL-90,#243
Aponte-Bermúdez, L.D. . . CLS–CYC-224,#129 Borghesi, M.V. . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–GEN-52,#277
Arima, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-240,#273 Borri, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-18,#K03
BRI–BUF-46,#279
Arion, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-214,#267
DSG–COD-216,#275 Bosak, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-110,#137
Artamonov, P.V. . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-252,#159 Bouma, P.W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-126,#232
Bouyer, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-48,#219
B Brasil, R.M.L.R.F . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-56,#165
Breeze, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LAR-50,#303
Baker, C.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-4,#K02 Bruni, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-86,#247
FSI–DEB-28,#124
Buist, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-264,#225
URB–PED-82,#217
LOA–THU-96,#254 Burlando, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–GEN-52,#277
TRA–VEH-302,#296 Butz, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-294,#131
TRA–VEH-92,#306
Baniotopoulos, C.C. . . . . . . DSG–REL-60,#257
CLS–GEN-158,#327 C
Barcik, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-36,#200
Barfoed, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179 Cai, C.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-70,#258
Bartoli, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-30,#209 Campbell, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-200,#319
Bȩc, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–MAS-32,#139 Cao, F.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-356,#143
BRI–CAS-122,#211
Behrens, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-260,#155
Carassale, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–GEN-52,#277
Belloli, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-84,#222 FSI–CYL-54,#291
Ben Ezzine, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-250,#203 Carmeliet, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–RAI-40,#110
URB–COM-42,#112
van Bentum, C. . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-124,#231 EXP–TUN-236,#115
Berbegall, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-212,#119 Carré, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-48,#219
Betti, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DYN-34,#206 Carril Jr, C.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-56,#165
Bezpalcová, K. . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-152,#136 Chan, C.K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-330,#314
360
Chára, Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-58,#236
Chatzinikos, K.T. . . . . . . . . . DSG–REL-60,#257
E
Chen, A.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-64,#173
Eimani-Kalehsar, H. . . . . . . HIG–DYN-98,#272
BRI–LOA-218,#174
HIG–LOA-100,#294
EXP–DAT-62,#175
Elokda, Y.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-102,#282
Chen, D.H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-66,#187
Elsayed, M.A.K. . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-102,#282
Chen, J.H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-66,#187
English, E.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DEB-104,#293
Chen, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-68,#298
Chen, S.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-70,#258
Chen, X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-72,#256
F
Chen, Yin-Chin . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-296,#133
Facchini, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DYN-34,#206
Chen, Yuan-Bin . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-298,#186 Fang, Fuh-Min . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-206,#146
Cheng, C.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-332,#132 FSI–CYL-208,#145
DSG–COD-74,#192 Ferreira, A.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-106,#316
Chmielewski, T. . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-76,#180
Fischer, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DYN-108,#118
Cho, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-78,#194 Flaga, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-110,#137
Chou, Chung-Ren . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-346,#227 SLE–MAS-32,#139
FSI–DYN-112,#140
Clobes, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-258,#154 Flamand, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TRA-114,#215
Connell, B.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-282,#313 Flori, J.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-284,#220
Corte, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEN–TUR-256,#149 Franchini, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-80,#152
Costa, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–BUF-46,#279 Frank, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-116,#138
Cuerva, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-80,#152 Franke, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-116,#138
Freda, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-54,#291
D Fritz, W.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-118,#281
Dı́az, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LAR-140,#250 G
Delpech, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179
URB–PED-82,#217 Gatey, D.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–COD-120,#221
URB–STA-48,#219
Ge, Y.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-122,#211
Demetriu, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-214,#267 BRI–CAS-342,#328
DSG–COD-216,#275
Georgakis, C.T. . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-184,#266
Deuchst, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-292,#218
Geurts, C.P.W. . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-124,#231
Diana, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-84,#222 LOA–STA-126,#232
BRI–DYN-86,#247 Ghallagher, A. . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285
Didier, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-88,#127 Goliger, A.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–COD-128,#128
FSI–CYL-90,#243 AFR–GEN-130,#325
Ding, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-92,#306 Górski, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-76,#180
Doudak, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285 de Grenet, E.T. . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-280,#207
Drbohlav, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-328,#189 Grillaud, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-44,#212
Dubuisson, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-284,#220 Gritli , Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-250,#203
Dufresne de Virel, M. . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179 Gromke, C.-B. . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-294,#131
Durañona, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-96,#254 Gunn, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DEB-210,#300
361
Guo, Z.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-356,#143 Iwaya, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-324,#101
Gurley, K.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-224,#129 Iwata, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-232,#309
CLS–CYC-262,#224
Gustavsen, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179
J
H Jaňour, Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-152,#136
URB–POL-328,#189
Haider, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-276,#322 Jirsák, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-154,#158
Hajj, M.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-102,#282 Johnson, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-156,#234
FSI–CYL-132,#284
Hamid, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-262,#224 Jordan, S.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–GEN-158,#327
Jurado, J.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-160,#108
Hanzlı́k, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–REL-134,#264 RFS–LAR-140,#250
Harimoto, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292 Jureczko, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEN–TUR-162,#126
Harte, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-136,#326
Hataya, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-232,#309 K
Hebert, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-24,#230
Heine, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-138,#125 Kareem, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-16,#K05
Hémon, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-150,#244 HIG–DYN-72,#256
FSI–INC-202,#276 Kasal, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285
Herb, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-138,#125 Kasperski, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–COD-164,#188
Hernández, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-160,#108 LOA–STA-166,#278
RFS–LAR-140,#250 Kataoka, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292
Higashi, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-192,#117 Kato, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-192,#117
Hildebrand, M. . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-36,#200 Katsuchi, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-340,#195
Hitchcock, P.A. . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-200,#319 Katsumura, A. . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-168,#252
Hofseth, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179 Kawecki, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-170,#183
Holmes, J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DEB-104,#293 Kijewski-Correa, T. . . . . . . HIG–DYN-178,#246
Hong, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-78,#194 Kim, Dae Young . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-174,#323
DSG–PRA-172,#324
Hoppmann, U. . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-138,#125
Kim, Han Young . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-174,#323
Hošek, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–BOU-142,#312 Kim, Ji Young . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-174,#323
Hoxey, R.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-282,#313 DSG–PRA-172,#324
LOA–STA-144,#315 Kim, Sang Dae . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-174,#323
Hračov, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-244,#235 DSG–PRA-172,#324
Hu, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-146,#150 Kim, Y.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-78,#194
Hu, J.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-148,#317 Kimura, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-192,#117
Huang, J.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-148,#317 Kinash, R.I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–RAI-176,#104
Hwang, K.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-78,#194 Kitamura, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-324,#101
Kochly, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-178,#246
I Kolahdoz-Mohammadi, A. HIG–LOA-100,#294
Kolář, V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-180,#239
Iizumi, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-326,#102 Kopylov, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–GRO-182,#269
Ishihara, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-336,#166 Kosiński, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184
CLS–CYC-246,#167 Koss, H.H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-82,#217
Isyumov, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-56,#165 URB–BUI-184,#266
362
Král, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-186,#147
HIG–LOA-188,#148 M
Krönke, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–GRO-190,#130
Kubo, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-192,#117 Ma, R.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-64,#173
BRI–LOA-218,#174
van Kuik, G.A.M. . . . . . . . . WEN–ENV-194,#260 Macdonald, J.H.G. . . . . . . . FSI–INC-220,#190
Kurabuchi, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-146,#150 Machelski, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-36,#200
Kurbatskaya, L.I. . . . . . . . . URB–POL-196,#113 Macia̧żek, W.E. . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184
Kurbatskiy, A.F. . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-196,#113 Mammarella, I. . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-222,#270
Kuroda, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-198,#169 Mann, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-276,#322
Kuznetsov, S.G. . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-252,#159 Mannini, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-30,#209
Kwok, K.C.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-200,#319 Marek, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–REL-134,#264
Masters, F.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-224,#129
L Matěcha, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-154,#158
Materazzi, A.L. . . . . . . . . . . SLE–MAS-226,#199
Lander, D.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-282,#313 Matsui, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-344,#105
Lang, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-276,#322 Matsumoto, M. . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-6,#K04

Mazumdar, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-230,#123
de Langre, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–INC-202,#276
McClure, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285
Lapilli, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-264,#225
McNamara, K.F. . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-228,#265
Larose, G.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–INC-220,#190
Meseguer, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-22,#196
Larsen, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–INC-274,#197
Mȩżyk, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEN–TUR-162,#126
Leclair, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TRA-114,#215 WEN–TUR-254,#182
Lee, Myung Ho . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-172,#324 Miller, C.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–COD-120,#221
Lemaitre, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–INC-202,#276 Mitra, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-230,#123

Mochida, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292
León, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-160,#108 URB–COM-232,#309
Letchford, C.W. . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-68,#298 URB–COM-234,#310
FSI–DEB-210,#300 Mohammad, M. . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285
Leung, H.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–DYN-200,#319
Moisselin, J.M. . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-284,#220
Levitan, M.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-24,#230
TRA–VEH-70,#258 Moonen, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-236,#115
Li, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-204,#228 Moreau, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-312,#216
Li, Yi-Chao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-208,#145
Morita, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-240,#273
BRI–STA-206,#146
Liang, Tsung-Chi . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-208,#145
BRI–STA-206,#146
Liaw, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-310,#241
N
Lin, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DEB-210,#300
Nagao, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-240,#273
Lin, Y.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-332,#132
Nakamura, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-168,#252
Lipecki, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–DYN-112,#140
Nakayama, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-238,#168
i Llorens, V.G. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-212,#119
Náprstek, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-244,#235
Loredo-Souza, A.M. . . . . . . EXP–TUN-248,#191 Němec, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–REL-134,#264
Lungu, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-214,#267
DSG–COD-216,#275 Noda, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-240,#273
363
Novotný, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-154,#158
Nowicki, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-268,#185
Q
Nozawa, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–BOU-242,#176
Qin, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-132,#284
Nozu, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292
Quinn, A.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–STA-144,#315
O R
Ohba, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-146,#150
Ragab, S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-102,#282
Okazaki, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-336,#166
CLS–CYC-246,#167 Ratto, C.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–GEN-52,#277
Okuda, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-238,#168 Reichl, Ch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-276,#322
Okuno, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–BOU-314,#170 Reinhold, T.A. . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-224,#129
Oliveira, M.G.K. . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-248,#191 Repetto, M.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–REL-278,#262
Onyewotu, L.O.Z. . . . . . . . . AFR–GEN-306,#103 Resta, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-84,#222
Orimo, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-324,#101 Retief, J.V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–GEN-130,#325
Ouelbani, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-250,#203 Ricciardelli, F. . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-280,#207
Owen, J.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-310,#241 Richards, P.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-282,#313
LOA–STA-144,#315
Owis, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-132,#284
Rocchi, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–LOA-84,#222
BRI–DYN-86,#247
P Roels, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-236,#115
Pańtak, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-110,#137
S
Pavlovskiy, R.N. . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-252,#159
Pawlak, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEN–TUR-254,#182 Sabre, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-284,#220
Peil, U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEN–TUR-256,#149 Sacré, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-284,#220
LOA–DYN-258,#154 Sadaghashvili, M. . . . . . . . . LOA–RAI-286,#106
LOA–DYN-260,#155 LOA–RAI-288,#107
Pérez-Grande, I. . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-22,#196 Sadowski, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-36,#200
Piccardo, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-54,#291 Salisbury, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-316,#157
Piekarczuk, A. . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184 Salvatori, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-290,#288
Piekarski, M.K. . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184 Sánchez, A.M. . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-212,#119
Pietrzykowska, A. . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184 Sanquer, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-292,#218
Pinelli, J.-P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-262,#224 Sanz-Andrés, A. . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DEV-80,#152
EXP–DEV-264,#225 URB–PED-82,#217
Pirner, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-266,#116 Sasaki, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-232,#309
URB–COM-234,#310
Podgórski, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-268,#185
Sato, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TRA-300,#268
Poirel, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-270,#280
Savory, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–GEN-180,#239
Popov, N.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-272,#295
Šeděnková, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-152,#136
Pospı́šil, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-244,#235 URB–POL-328,#189
Poulin, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–INC-274,#197 Sedlacek, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-294,#131
Shiau, Bao-Shi . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-296,#133
Prevezer, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-156,#234 CLS–WFI-298,#186
364
Shih, Shuh-Fang . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-208,#145 Thiis, T.K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179
Shimizu, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TRA-300,#268 Tielkes, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-138,#125
Shirasawa, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292 Toimil, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LAR-140,#250
Sigbjörnsson, R. . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-302,#296 Tominaga, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292
Simiu, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-118,#281 Tranvik, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-322,#134
Smith, D.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-352,#163 Travoush, V.I. . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-272,#295
RFS–LOW-354,#164 Tubino, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-304,#263
Smith, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285 CLS–GEN-52,#277
Smith, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LAR-50,#303
Snæbjörnsson, J.Th. . . . . . . TRA–VEH-302,#296 U
Sockel, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–GRO-190,#130
Solari, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-2,#K01 Uematsu, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-324,#101
DSG–REL-278,#262 RFS–LOW-326,#102
LOA–THU-304,#263 Ulman, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-328,#189
SLE–TOW-214,#267
Urushadze, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-266,#116
CLS–GEN-52,#277
Spinelli, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-290,#288 Utsunomiya, H. . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-240,#273
Stathopoulos, T. . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-326,#102 Uvsløkk, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-320,#179
URB–COM-42,#112
LOA–BOU-334,#193
URB–PED-82,#217 V
RFS–LOW-94,#285
Stepko, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184
Vacareanu, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–TOW-214,#267
Sterling, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-96,#254
TRA–VEH-92,#306 Venanzi, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–MAS-226,#199
CLS–GEN-158,#327 Verdú, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-212,#119
Stigter, C.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFR–GEN-306,#103
Vezza, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-316,#157
Studničková, M. . . . . . . . . . . SLE–GRO-308,#261
Vinet, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-48,#219
Subramanian, C.S. . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-262,#224
EXP–DEV-264,#225 Vinogradskiy, P.N. . . . . . . . . URB–BUI-252,#159
Sugio, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–BOU-314,#170
Sun, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-310,#241 W
Suzuki, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FSI–CYL-198,#169
Szucs, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–STA-312,#216 Wang, D.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-356,#143
Wang, H.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-330,#314
T Wang, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSG–PRA-332,#132
Wang, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–BOU-334,#193
Tammelin, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-222,#270 Wang, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-356,#143
Tamura, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-238,#168
Wang, X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-228,#265
FSI–CYL-198,#169
LOA–BOU-314,#170 Wang, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–DAT-62,#175
LOA–BOU-242,#176 Watabe, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-336,#166
Tamura, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-344,#105 CLS–CYC-246,#167
LOA–STA-168,#252 Watanabe, S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-324,#101
Tasaki, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-192,#117 Willemsen, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-82,#217
Taylor, I.J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-316,#157 URB–COM-338,#311
Wisse, J.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KEY-12,#K06
Tesár, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–DYN-318,#109 URB–COM-338,#311
365
de Wit, M.H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–DYN-204,#228 Yoshino, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-232,#309
Wojciechowski, J. . . . . . . . . SLE–GRO-182,#269 URB–COM-234,#310
Wolshon, B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-70,#258
Wright, N.G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-310,#241 Z
Wu, Meng-Xun . . . . . . . . . . URB–POL-296,#133
Zachoval, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXP–TUN-154,#158
X Zasso, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRA–VEH-350,#153
Zhao, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-342,#328
Xiang, H.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-122,#211 Zhou, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HIG–LOA-330,#314
FSI–CYL-148,#317
Zhou, Z.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-122,#211
Y Zhu, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOA–THU-352,#163
RFS–LOW-354,#164
Zhu, L.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-356,#143
Yamada, H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–STA-340,#195
Ziȩtara, P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-110,#137
Yang, Y.X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRI–CAS-342,#328
Van Zijl, G.P.A.G. . . . . . . . . AFR–WEA-136,#326
Yaragal, S.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–CYC-344,#105
Zisis, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RFS–LOW-94,#285
Yim, J.Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-346,#227
Żurański, J.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . SLE–CHI-170,#183
Yoshida, T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–COM-234,#310 CLS–WFI-358,#184
Yoshie, R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . URB–PED-348,#292 Zwolska, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLS–WFI-358,#184
366

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E ACW E 4

The Fourth European & African

Book of Extended Abstracts

International Association of Wind Engineering (IAWE)

x BOOK OF EXTENDED ABSTRACTS

Publisher: Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics

Printed by GLOS s.r.o., Semily, Czech Republic

Copyright © 2005 ITAM ASCR Prague

First edition, 2005

Professor Václav Paþes

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

Organisation ................................................................................................................. vii

Sponsors ........................................................................................................................ viii

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... xii

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... xx

Keynote Lectures ......................................................................................................... 2

Contributed Papers ...................................................................................................... 22

Author Index ............................................................................................................... 358

International Association for Wind Engineering (IAWE)

President of IAWE: Giovanni Solari (I)

EACWE 4 - Chairman: JiĜí Náprstek (CZ)

EACWE 4 – International Scientific Committee

EACWE 4 – Local Organising Committee

Czech Institution of Structural and Civil Engineers

Engineering Academy of the Czech Republic

Stavby silnic a železnic, Ltd.

SVS FEM Ltd.

TechSoft Engineering, s.r.o.

Galloping stability of triangular cross-sectional bodies: a systematic approach

Keynote lectures KEY

Wind engineering in Africa: general studies AFR–GEN

Wind engineering in Africa: wind energy in Africa AFR–WEA

Bridges: buffeting BRI–BUF

Bridges: case studies BRI–CAS

Bridges: deterministic/random excitation and response, vibration damping BRI–DYN

Bridges: aeroelastic stability, flutter, galloping BRI–STA

Wind climate and structure: cyclones, large area disasters CLS–CYC

Wind climate and structure: wind flow general studies CLS–GEN

Wind climate and structure: wind field in particular areas CLS–WFI

Design practice: standards and codes DSG–COD

Design practice: design practice with respect to wind effects DSG–PRA

Design practice: reliability, limit states, benchmarks DSG–REL

Experimental measurements: data acquisition and processing EXP–DAT

Experimental measurements: special devices and equipment EXP–DEV

Experimental measurements: wind tunnel equipment EXP–TUN

Flow and structure interaction: debris motion FSI–DEB

High-rise buildings: dynamic response due to wind effects HIG–DYN

High-rise buildings: special effects in wind loading of high-rise buildings HIG–LOA

Wind loading: atmospheric boundary layer, gradient LOA–BOU

Wind loading: combined wind/rain/snow effects LOA–RAI

Wind loading: static component or equivalent LOA–STA

Wind loading: thunderstorm structure and induced loading LOA–THU

Roofs and low-rise structures: special low-rise structures RFS–LOW

Slender structures: chimneys SLE–CHI

Slender structures: groups SLE–GRO

Slender structures: masts SLE–MAS

Slender structures: transmission lines SLE–TRA

Urban wind problems: urban wind comfort URB–COM

Urban wind problems: pedestrian wind environment URB–PED

International Association of Wind Engineering (IAWE)

0.0 -180 ScI(2I=1.0deg)=26895

GK sudden approach to GIҏby CEV

GK SBS analysis stop

GK SBS analysis stop

ZI re-appearance by SBS

2 SIMPLIFIED FLUTTER PROBLEM rD2 P g h g D A3* g h g D A2* rD2 H 1*